^  PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


Division 

Section  ,         ^  i-^ 


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A 

CATHOLIC  DICTIONAEY 


CATHOLIC  DICTIONARY 


COSTAIXING  SOME  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 

rOCTEINE,  DISCIPLINE,  KITES,  CEREMONIES, 
COUNCILS,  AND  EELIGIOUS  ORDERS  OF 
THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 

BY 

WILLIAM  E.  ADDIS 

BOirerroiE  fellow  of  the  rotal  ukiversitt  op  irelajjd 

AND 

THOMAS  AENOLD,  M.A. 

FKIXOW  OF  THE  SAME  UXn-ERSlTY 


h'EW  EDITION,  EE  VISED  AND  ENLARGED 

WITH  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  THE 

EEV.  T.  B.  SCANNELL,  B.D. 


AUTHORIZED  AMERICAN  EDITION. 


ou5e  viif 
Ovarh  (piffis  aveptnv 

irtKTtv,  ovSe  fi-fiv  irore  \a6a  KaraKomiati' 
lieyas  eV  tovtois  Beiis,  ovSe  ynpdo'Kei, 
Soph.  CEd.  Bex,  841 


New  York,  Cincinnati.  Chicago  : 
BKNZIGER  BROTHERS, 

PRINTERS  TO  THE  HOLY  Al'OSTOLIC  SEE 
1893- 


NiuiL  Obstat. 

FR.  DAVID,  Peovincialis  O.S.F, 
censor  deputatu3. 

Impbimatue. 

HERBERTUS, 

CARD.  AHCHIEP.  WESTMONAST, 

Die  1  Feb.,  1893. 

Imprimatur. 

MICHAEL  AUGUSTINUS, 

ARCHIEP.  NEO-EBORACENSIS. 

Die  11  Maji,  1893. 


{The  rif;hU  of  transUtion  and  of  rejfroduction  are  reserved) 


PREFACE 


TO 

THE    NEW  EDITION. 


In  the  present  edition  the  whole  work  has  been  revised ;  most 
of  the  articles  formerly  contained  in  the  Appendix  have  been 
inserted  in  their  proper  places  in  the  body  of  the  volume ;  a 
considerable  number  of  new  articles  and  headings  have  been 
added ;  and  the  statistics  and  other  information  have  been,  as 
far  as  possible,  brought  up  to  date.  The  services  of  one  of  the 
original  authors  being  no  longer  available,  his  place  has  been 
taken  by  the  Rev.  T.  B.  Scannell,  B.D.  The  American  editor, 
Mr.  T.  F.  Galwey,  and  the  llev.  Joseph  Wilhelm,  D.D., 
have  also  contributed  articles. 


PEEFACE 

TO 

THE    FIKST  EDITION. 


Tqe  work  here  snbmitteil  to  the  public  is  intended  to  meet  a  practical 
want  which  has  long  been  felt  among  English-speaking  Catholics — the 
want,  namely,  of  a  single  trustworthy  source  of  information  on  points 
of  Catholic  doctrine,  ritual,  and  discipline.  All  existing  English  works 
of  a  similar  character — such  as  Hook's  "  Church  Dictionary,"  Blunt's 
*'  Dictionary  of  Theology,"  Blunt's  "  Dictionary  of  Sects,"  &c. — were 
compiled  by  Protestants,  and  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  turn  over  ten 
pages  in  one  of  them  without  meeting  with  some  more  or  less  open 
attack  upon  Catholicism.  To  this  censure  the  "  Dictionary  of  Christian 
Antiquities,"  conducted  by  Dr.  Smith  and  Professor  Cheetham,  is  not 
open ;  but  the  large  scale  of  that  work,  and  the  fact  of  its  stopping 
short  at  the  age  of  Charlemagne,  are  sufficient  of  themselves  to  prevent 
it  from  meeting  the  need  above  indicated. 

Their  Eminences  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Westminster  and  Car- 
dinal Newman  have  been  pleased  to  express  their  approbation  of  the 
undertaking.  Cardinal  Manning  wrote  :  "  I  am  very  glad  to  hear  that 
it  is  proposed  to  publish  a  '  Dictionary  of  Catholic  Theology  and  His- 
tory.' It  will  supply  a  great  want  in  our  English  literature.  Such 
works  exist  in  French  and  German,  but  we  have  nothing  worthy  of  the 
•name."  Cardinal  Newman,  after  saying  that  such  a  work  had  been 
long  "  a  desideratum  in  our  literature,"  added  :  "  Our  doctrines,  rites, 
and  history  have  been  at  the  mercy  of  Protestant  manuals,  which, 
however  ably  written,  and  even  when  fair  in  intention,  are  not  such  as 
a  Catholic  can  approve  or  recommend.    So  much  have  I  felt  the  need 


viil 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


that  once,  many  years  ago,  I  began  such  a  work  myself,  though  1  wa» 
Boon  obliged  to  give  over  for  want  of  leioure." 

The  Rev.  W.  E.  Addis,  of  Lower  Sydenham,  and  Thomas  Arnold, 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  University  of  Ireland,  have  written  nearly  the  whole 
work.  They  are  indebted,  however,  to  American  contributors  for  a  cer- 
tain number  of  articles  ;  to  the  Very  Rev.  Father  Bridgett,  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer,  for  the  article  "  Redemptorists  "  ; 
and  to  the  Rev.  S.  H.  Sole,  Missionary  Rector  of  Chipping  Norton,  for 
the  article  "  Plain  Chant."  As  a  rule,  the  articles  on  dogma,  ritual, 
the  ancient  Church,  and  the  Oriental  rites,  are  by  Mr.  Addis  ;  those  on 
mediaeval  and  modern  history,  the  religious  orders,  and  canon  law,  by 
Mr.  Arnold.  Theological  subjects  have  been  regarded  chiefly  from  an 
historical  and  critical  point  of  view,  and  questions  of  School  theology 
avoided  as  far  as  possible.  In  almost  every  case  the  quotations  of 
Scripture  are  made  from  the  original  texts,  and  not  from  the  Latin 
Vulgate. 

In  conclusion,  the  Authors  offer  their  best  thanks  to  many  kind 
friends  who  have  helped  and  encouraged  them  in  their  labour.  Their 
gratitude  is  due  in  a  very  special  degree  to  the  Rev.  Father  Keogh,  of 
the  London  Oratory.  The  office  of  Censor  which  he  undertook  was  ia 
itself  a  tedious  one,  but  besides  this,  and  on  points  which  did  not  con- 
cern him  in  his  official  capacity,  he  furnished  the  writers  with  many 
valuable  suggestions  and  corrections.  At  the  same  time  it  is  right  to 
add  that  the  "  Nihil  obstat "  appended  by  him  certifies  indeed  that  the 
limits  of  Catholic  orthodoxy  have  been  observed,  but  by  no  means 
implies  the  Censor's  personal  agreement  or  sympathy  with  many  of 
the  opinions  expressed. 


November  3,  1883, 


A  CATEOLIO  DICTIONARY 


AEBilCOIWITES.  The  abbacmnites 
or  abbafes  militcs,  count  abbots  or  noble 
abbots,  were  lay  intruders,  to  whom 
courts  gave  abbacies  for  pecuniary  pro- 
fit. Thus  Bernard,  the  youngest  of 
Charles  MarJel's  six  sons,  was  lay  abbot 
of  Sithiu  or  St.  Quentin.  Sons,  daugh- 
ters, wives,  &c.,  were  thus  benefited 
before  the  time  of  Cbarlemague,  who, 
however,  eff'ected  a  reform  and  made 
monasteries  the  seats  of  schools  and 
literature.  In  latter  days  other  princes, 
claiming  the  right  of  investiture,  rein- 
troduced similar  abuses  ;  secular  priests 
were  often  made  coynmendatory  abbots. 

ABBESS,  from  Abbatissa.  The  su- 
perior of  a  community  of  nuns,  in  those 
orders  in  which  convents  of  monks  are 
governed  by  abbots.  The  dignity  of  an 
abbess  cannot  be  traced  back  so  far  as 
that  of  abbot ;  it  appears  to  have  been 
first  regulnrly  instituted  about  591,  in  the 
time  of  I'ope  Gregory  tlie  Great.  Regu- 
lations touching  their  election,  powers, 
and  rights  were  gradually  framed,  and  in- 
corporated in  the  canon  law.  The  elec- 
tors must,  as  a  general  rule,  be  professed 
nuns.  The  age  at  which  a  nun  can  be 
elected  abbess  has  been  variously  deter- 
mined at  different  times ;  finally  the 
Council  of  Trent'  fi.xedit  at  not  less  than 
forty  years,  of  which  eight  sliou'd  have 
been  passed  in  the  same  monastery.  The 
voting  is  secret;  generally  a  simple  ma- 
jority of  votes  is  sufficient  for  a  valid 
election,  but  in  the  convents  depending 
on  Monte  Cassino  a  majority  of  two- 
thirds  is  required.  In  the  case  of  a 
doubtful  election,  the  ordinary  intervenes, 
and  selects  the  nun  whom  he  may  think 
most  suitable  for  the  office.  The  bene- 
diction of  an  abbess,  a  rite  generally  but 
not  always  necessary-,  may  be  performed 
*  Sess.  XXV.  c.  7.  De  Ites.  et  Mon. 


by  the  bishop  on  any  day  of  the  week. 
When  elected,  the  abbess  has  a  right  to 
the  ring  and  staif,  as  in  the  case  of  abbots, 
and  to  have  the  abbatial  cross  borne  be- 
fore her.  In  certain  orders  where  there 
were  usually  double  monasteries,  one  for 
monks  the  other  for  nuns,  as  in  the  Bri- 
gittines  and  the  order  of  Fontevrault, 
the  monks  were  bound  to  obey  the  abbess 
of  the  related  nunnery.  An  abbess,  more- 
over, could,  and  often  did,  possess  and  ex- 
ercise large  ecclesiastical  patronage,  sub- 
ject to  the  approval  of  the  ordinary. 
.These  powers  are  included  within  that 
capacity  of  ruling  and  possessing  property 
which  every  truly  civilised  state  has  re- 
cognised in  woman  no  less  than  in  man  ; 
but  when  the  power  of  the  keys,  or  even 
any  e.vercise  of  authority  bordering  on 
that  power,  is  in  question,  the  abbess  is 
no  more  than  any  other  woman.  Thus 
she  cannot,  without  the  bishop's  sanction, 
choose  confessors  either  for  herself  or  for 
her  nuns ;  nor  can  she  dispense  a  nun  from 
the  obligations  of  the  rule  of  her  own 
authority,  nor  suspend  nor  dismiss  her. 

ABBEY.  A  monastery  governed  by 
an  abbot.    [See  Abbot.] 

ABBOT.  The  "  father  "  or  superior 
of  a  community  of  men  living  under  vows 
and  according  to  a  particular  rule.  The 
transference  of  the  idea  of  fatherhood  to 
the  relation  between  the  head  of  a  con- 
gregation or  a  religious  community  and  his 
subjects  is  so  natural  that  already  in  the 
apostolic  times  we  find  St.  Paul  reminding 
the  Corinthians '  that  they  had  not  many 
fathers  in  Christ  (  "  for  in  Christ  Jesus  I 
have  begotten  you," &c.),  notwithstanding 
the  apparent  prohibition  in  the  gospel  of 
St.  Matthew.*  But  it  was  customary  to 
call  bishops  by  the  Greek  word  for  father; 
hence  the  corresponding  designation  for 
•  1  Cor.  iv.  15.  -  xxiii.  9. 


2 


AEBOT 


ABBOT 


the  head  of  a  community  of  monks  was 
taken,  to  avoid  confusion,  from  the  Ohal- 
daic  form  {nbha,  abbas)  of  the  word  which 
means  "father"  in  the  Semitic  languages. 
In  a  paper  of  extraordinary  research,  but 
more  learned  than  lucid,  contributed  by 
the  late  Mr.  Iladdan  to  the  "  Dictionary  of 
Christian  Anti(juities,"  at  least  a  dozen 
transitory  uses  of  the  word  Abbot,  in 
ancient  times  alone,  are  enumerated.  But 
these  are  of  little  or  no  importance.  The 
true  Abbot,  being  a  natural  outgrowth  of 
the  Christian  doctrine  and  spirit,  comes 
into  sight  in  the  third  century,  and  still 
fulfils — though  under  a  variety  of  desig- 
nations— his  original  function  in  the 
nineteenth.  The  name  imports  the  rule 
of  others,  but  as  the  essential  foundation 
for  such  rule  it  implies  the  mastery  of 
self.  The  monk  was  before  the  abbot. 
Eusebius  has  no  mention  of  monks  as 
.such  in  his  "Ecclesiastical  History;"  but 
when  he  tells  us  of  persons,  male  or  female, 
living  austere  lives  and  aiming  at  perfec- 
tion, when  he  notes  that  Narcissus,  bishop 
of  Jerusalem  at  the  end  of  the  second  cen- 
turv',  retired  into  the  desert  on  account  of 
ditiiculties  arising  in  his  diocese,  and 
lived  there  for  many  years  as  a  solitary 
contemplative,  we  see  already  the  germs 
of  the  monastic  life.  St.  Antony  (250- 
?.o5)  is  usually  regarded  as  the  patriarch 
of  the  monks.  But  if  we  hear  much  in 
ills  later  years  of  the  numbers  and  the 
reverent  devotion  of  his  disciples,  we 
know  that  for  twenty  years  after  his  first 
quitting  the  world  he  lived  in  nearly  ab- 
solute solitude,  conversing  with  God  and 
taming  his  own  spirit.  The  clamours  of 
persons  desiring  to  see  him  and  ask  coun- 
.«el  of  him  forced  him  at  last  from  his  cell ; 
and  he,  who  in  conflict  with  his  own 
lower  nature  or  with  evil  spirits  had  at- 
tained an  unwonted  spiritual  strength  and 
a  vast  breadth  of  spiritual  ex])i'rience, 
consented  now  to  take  upon  liim  the 
direction  of  a  number  of  men  of  weaker 
will  and  less  regulated  mind.  If  he  was 
to  do  them  any  good,  they  must  place 
them.selves  in  his  hands,  and  do  exactly 
what  he  bade  them.  That  mastery  of 
the  passions,  and  subj  ugation  of  the  natural 
man  under  the  yoke  of  reason,  which  he, 
aided  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  had  worked  out 
for  himself,  they,  following  his  directions, 
must  win  through  him.  Hence  we  find  the 
principle  of  unquestioning  obedience — 
what  Gibbon  calls  the  "  slavish  "  spirit  of 
tlie  monks — -laid  down  from  the  first.  St. 
Pcemen,  a  famous  Egyptian  abbot  of  the 
fourth  century,  said  to  his  disciples, 


"Never  seek  to  do  yoiu*  own  will,  but 
rather  rejoice  to  overcome  it,  and  humble 
yourselves  by  doing  the  will  of  others." 
And,  "Nothing  gives  so  much  pleasure  to 
the  enemy  as  wiien  a  person  will  not  dis- 
cover his  temptations  to  his  superior  or 
director."  Induced  partly,  no  doubt,  by 
the  confusions  and  oppressions  of  the 
empire,  but  chiefly  by  the  haunting  thirst 
to  know  the  secret  of  the  perfect  life,  and 
solve  the  riddle  of  existence,  great  numbers 
of  men  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century  sought  the  deserts  that  hem  in 
the  valley  of  Egypt,  and  were  formed  into 
monastic  communities  under  abbots. 
Great  captains  of  the  spiritual  life  arose, 
sucli  as  Puchomlus,  Hllarion,  Pambo,  and 
Macarius.  Spealdng  of  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  Antony  in  Egypt  even  in  his 
lifetime,  St.  Athanasius  says:  "Among 
the  mountains  there  were  monasteries  as 
if  tabernacles  filled  with  divine  choirs, 
singing,  studying,  fasting,  praying,  exult- 
ing in  the  hope  of  things  to  come,  and 
working  for  almsdeeds,  having  love  and 
harmony  one  towards  another."  For  full 
information  on  these  "fathers  of  the 
desert,"  the  reader  should  consult  the 
celebrated  work  of  the  Jesuit  Rosweide, 
"  Vitse  Patrum." 

The  status  of  these  early  abbots,  as 
of  the  monks  whom  they  governed,  was  a 
lay  status.  In  the  great  monastic  colonies 
of  Palestine  and  Egypt,  each  containing 
several  hundreds  of  monks,  there  would 
be  but  one  or  two  priests,  admitted  in 
order  to  the  celebration  of  the  divine 
worship.  But  the  proportion  of  ordained 
monks  gradually  Increased,  the  bishops 
being  generally  glad  to  confer  orders  upon 
men,  most  of  whom  were  of  proved  virtue. 
For  abbots  ordination  before  long  became 
the  rule :  yet  even  in  the  ninth  century 
we  read  of  abbots  who  were  only  deacons, 
and  a  Council  of  Poitiers  in  1078  Is  still 
obliged  to  make  a  canon  enjoining  upon 
all  abbots,  on  pain  of  deprivation,  tht-  re- 
ception of  pru'sts'  orders.  Tlic  original 
lay  character  here  referivd  to  must  of 
course  not  be  confounded  with  llip  status 
of  those  profane  intruders  (lescvilitHl  by 
Beda  in  his  letter  to  Egliei  t.aidihi-liop  of 
York,  who  were  rich  la^  iin  ri  |in  triiiling 
to  found  nionastt'ries  for  the  salve  of  ob- 
taining till'  I'X.  injjtioii  from  civil  burdens 
which  monastic  hiiuls  enjoyed,  and  could 
only  be  caUed  pseudo-abbots. 

The  election  of  an  abbot  originally 
rested  with  the  monks,  according  to  the 
rule  "Fratres  eligant  sibl  abbatem."  We 
meet,  indeed,  with  many  cases  of  eplsco])al 


ABBOT 


ABBOT 


3 


intervention  in  elections,  but  the  right  of 
the  monks  is  solemnly  recognised  in  the 
body  of  the  cnnon  law.  In  the  West,  as 
the  endow  ments  of  monasteries  increased, 
temporal  princes  and  lords  usurped  tlie 
riglit  of  appointing  abbots  in  the  larger 
monasteries,  no  less  than  of  nominating- 
bishops  to  the  sees  ;  our  own  history  and 
that  of  Germany  is  full  of  stories  of  dis- 
putes thence  arising.  [See  Ixtestitttre.] 
At  the  Council  of  Worms  in  1122  Pope 
Calixtus  obtained  from  the  emperor  the 
renunciation  of  the  claim  to  invest  with 
ring  and  crosier  the  persons  nominated  to 
ecclesiastical  dignities.  The  tirst  article 
of  Magna  Charta  (1215)  provides  that 
the  English  Church  shall  be  free:  by 
which,  among  other  things,  the  right  of 
monks  to  choose  their  own  abbots  was 
understood  to  be  conceded.  Practically, 
the  patronage  of  the  larger  English  abbeys 
for  two  centuries  before  the  Reformation 
was  divided  by  a  kind  of  amicable  arrange- 
ment between  the  Pope  and  the  king. 

St.  Benedict  (480-545),  the  patriarcli 
of  Western  monachism,  allows  in  his 
rule  (which  from  its  greater  elasticity 
superseded  other  rules  which  were  for  a 
time  in  competition  with  it  [see  Bexe- 
DiCTiXES;  Rule,  RELiGiorsJ)  a  large 
discretion  to  the  abbots  of  his  convents, 
who  were  to  modify  many  things  in 
accordance  with  the  exigencies  of  cli- 
mate and  national  customs.  Such  modi- 
ticatious  led  of  course  in  time  to  relaxa- 
tion, the  reaction  against  which  led  to 
reforms.  A  curious  report  of  the  dis- 
cussion between  the  monks  of  Molesme 
and  their  abbot  Robert  (1075),  who  wished 
to  restore  among  them  the  full  observance 
of  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  may  be  read 
in  the  eighth  book  of  Ordericus  Vitalis. 
Not  prevailing,  St.  Robert,  with  twelve 
companions,  left  Molesme  and  founded 
Citeaux,  under  a  reformed  observance. 
[Cistercians.] 

The  privileges  of  abbots  grew  to  be 
very  extensive.  They  obtained  many 
episcopal  rights,  among  others  that  of  con- 
ferring minor  orders  on  their  monks.  A 
practice  whicli  had  arisen,  by  which  abbots 
exempt  from  episcopal  jurisdiction  [Ex- 
emption] claimed  to  confer  minor  orders 
even  on  seculars,  was  condemned  by  the 
Council  of  Trent. ^  The  use  of  mitre, 
crosier,  and  ring  was  accorded  to  the  ab- 
bots of  great  monasteries ;  these  mitred 
abbots  were  named  abbates  infulati.  In 
England  mitred  abbots  had  seats  in  Parlia- 
ment: twenty-eight,  with  two  Augustinian 
•  Sess.  xxiii.    De  Reform,  c.  10. 


priors,  are  said  to  have  sat  in  the  Par- 
liament immediately  preceding  the  disso- 
lution of  monasteries.  A  remarkable 
privilege  is  noticed  by  Beda,'  in  virtue  of 
which  the  abbots  of  lona  e.xercised  a 
quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction  in  the  west  of 
Scotland  and  the  Hebrides. 

The  name  of  abbe,  abate,  has  come  to 
be  assumed  by  a  class  of  unbeneficed  secu- 
lar clerks  in  France  and  Italy,  apparently 
in  the  following  manner.  The  practice 
by  which  laymen  held  abbeys  in  commen- 
dayn — commenced  in  troubled  times  in 
order  that  powerful  protectors  might  be 
found  for  the  monks,  and  might  have  in- 
ducements to  exercise  that  protection — 
grew  by  degrees  into  a  scandalous  abuse. 
Young  men  of  noble  families  were  nomi- 
nated to  abbeys,  and  could  enjoy  their 
revenues,  long  before  they  could  take 
priests'  orders ;  they  were  not  bound  to 
residence ;  and  under  Louis  XIV.  and 
Louis  XV.  many  of  these  abbes  cornmen- 
dataires  never  saw  the  abbeys  of  which 
they  were  the  titular  rulers.  The  possi- 
bility of  winning  such  prizes  drew  many 
cadets  of  noble  families,  who  had  only 
just  taken  the  tonsure,  to  Versailles ;  those 
who  had  succeeded  in  obtaining  nomina- 
tions still  fluttered  about  the  Court,  not 
being  bound  to  residence  ;  and  the  name 
Abbe,  which  was  really,  though  abusively, 
applicable  to  these,  came  to  be  applied  in 
social  parlance  to  the  aspirants  also, 
whom  no  external  signs  distinguished 
from  the  real  abb^s.  By  a  further  exten- 
sion, the  name  came  to  be  applied  as  a 
title  of  courtesy  to  unbeneficed  clerks 
generally  ;  just  as  in  England  the  title 
"  esquire,"  which  is  properly  applicable 
only  to  persons  entitled  to  bear  arms,  is 
extended  by  the  courtesy  of  society  to 
anyone  who,  as  far  as  outward  ma  k  go, 
seems  entitled  to  take  the  same  social  rank. 

Benedictine  abbeys,  following  the  gen- 
eral Oriental  rule,  have  always  been  inde- 
pendent of  each  other  in  government ; 
but  an  honorary  superiority  was  accorded 
in  the  middle  ages  to  the  abbot  of  the 
mother  house  at  Monte  Cassino  ;  he  was 
styled  abbas  abbatum.  In  other  orders 
various  names  have  replaced  that  of 
"  abbot ;  ■'  the  head  of  a  Franciscan  friary 
is  a  "  guardianus,"  that  of  a  Dominican 
,  convent  a  "  prior,"  that  of  a  Jesuit  house 
i  a  "  rector."  There  is  a  prior  also  in  Bene- 
I  dictine  convents  [Price],  but  his  normal 
,  position  is  that  of  lieutenant  to  the 
abbot ;  sometimes,  however,  he  was  al- 
,  most  practically  independent  as  the  head 
I  1  Hist.  EcclAW.i. 

B  2 


ABCREVIATOES 


ABRAXAS 


cf  a  priory,  a  cell  founded  by  monks 
migrrating  from  some  abbey. 

The  duties  of  an  abbot  in  early  times 
may  be  learned  from  Rosweide ;  some- 
\vbat  later,  and  in  the  West,  they  were 
defined  with  great  clearness  and  wisdom 
in  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict.  A  deeply 
interesting  sketch  of  the  manner  of  lite 
of  an  English  abbot  in  tlie  seventh  cen- 
tury is  preserved  for  us  in  Beda's  "  Lives 
of  the  Abbots  of  Wearmouth  and  Jarrow." 
Even  more  trying  was  his  work  in  the 
t\^■elfth  century,  as  we  know  from  the 
narratiou  by  jocelyn  de  Brakelonde  of 
the  government  of  the  abbot  Samson  at 
Bury  St.  Edmunds  ;  with  which  may  be 
read  the  striking,  and  on  the  whole  ap- 
preciative, commentary  of  Mr.  Carlyle.' 

The  name  corresponding  to  Abbot  in 
the  Greek  Church  is  Archimaudrita,  or 
Uegumenos. 

ABBREVZATORS.  The  name  giver 
to  a  class  of  notaries  or  secretaries  em- 
ployed in  the  Papal  Chancery.  Tliey 
are  first  met  with  about  the  beginning  of 
the  fourteenth  century  ;  were  abolished 
in  the  fifteenth,  but  afterwards  restored. 
They  are  generally  prelates,  and  the  office 
is  considered  one  of  great  dignity  and  im- 
portance. It  is  not  incompatible  with 
Church  preferment.  The  name  arose  from 
this,  that  the  ahhremator  made  a  short 
minute  of  the  decision  on  a  petition,  or 
reply  to  a  letter,  given  by  the  Pope,  and 
afterwards  expanded  the  minute  into  offi- 
cial form.  (Ferraris.) 

ABJURATIOM- or  HERESY.  This 

is  required  in  the  canon  law  as  a  prelimi- 
nary to  baptism,  or,  when  there  is  no 
question  of  that  (as  in  the  case  of  con- 
verts from  the  Eastern  Church),  before 
the  convert  makes  his  confession  of  faith. 
There  are  decrees  of  several  councils  to 
tliis  effect :  thus  the  Council  of  Laodicea 
(about  364)  ordains  that  Novatian  and 
Photinian  heretics,  "whether  they  be 
baptised  persons  or  catechumens,  shall 
not  be  received  before  they  have  anathe- 
matised all  heresies,  especially  that  in 
which  they  were  held."  A  celebrated 
instance  of  abjuration  is  that  of  Clovis 
(4i)G),  to  whom  St.  Remy  said  before 
baptising  him,  "  Meekly  bow  down  thy 
head,  Sicambrian;  adore  what  thou  hast 
burnt,  and  burn  what  thou  hast  adored." 
An  early  German  council  requires  the 
Saxon  converts  to  renounce  belief  in 
"  Thor  and  Woden  and  Saxon  Odin " 
before  being  received  into  the  Church. 
Ferraris  sums  up  the  canonical  re- 
'  Past  and  Present,  purt  ii. 


quirements  in  the  matter  of  abjuration  as 
follows: — that  it  should  be  done  without 
delay  ;  that  it  should  be  voluntary ;  that 
it  should  be  done  with  whatever  degree 
of  publicity  the  bishop  of  the  place  might 
think  necessary;  and  that  the  abjuring 
person  should  make  condign  satisfaction 

'  in  the  form  of  penance. 

1       The  modern  discipline  insists  mainly 

I  on  the  positive  part,  the  profession  of  the 
true  faith.  Thus  in  the  Ritual  of  Stra.s- 
burg  (1742)  the  abjuration  required  is 
merely  general :  "  Is  it  your  firm  purpose 
to  renounce  in  heart  and  mind  all  tlie 
errors  which  it  [the  Catholic  religion] 
condemns  ?  "  In  England  at  the  present 
timethe  abjnr!itioni?,sotospeak,  taken  for 
granted  in  ordinfiry  cases,  since  converts 
are  not  admitted  into  the  Church  except 
ai'ter  suitable  instruction,  and  the  Creed 
of  Pope  Pius  IV.,  whicli  everyone  desir- 
ing to  become  a  Catholic  must  read  and 
accept,  expressly  denounces  most  of  those 
errors  which  infect  the  religious  atmo- 

:  spliere  of  this  country. 

ABZiVTZOM'.  A  name  given,  in  the 
rubrics  of  tlie  Mass,  to  the  water  and  wine 
with  which  the  priest  who  celebrates 
Mass  washes  his  tliurab  and  index-finger 
after  communion.  When  he  has  con- 
sumed tlie  Precious  Blood,  the  priest 
purities  the  chalice;  he  then,  saying 
in  a  low  voice  a  short  prayer  prescribed 

j  by  tlie  Church,  holds  his  tluimb  and 
index-finger,  which  have  touclied  llie 
Blessed  Sacrament  and  may  have  some 
particle  of  it  adhering  to  them,  over  the 
chalice,  while  the  server  pours  wine  and 

j  water  upon  them.  He  then  drinks  the 
ablution  and  dries  his  lips  and  the  chalice 
with  the  mundatory.  This  ceremony  wit- 
nesses to  the  reverence  with  which  the 
Cluirch  regards  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,  and  to  her  anxiety  that  none  of 
that  heavenly  food  shoidd  be  lost.  It  is 
impossible  to  say  when  this  rite  was  in- 
troduced, but  we  are  told  of  the  pious 
Emperor  Henry  II.,  who  lived  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eleventh  century,  that  he 
used  when  hearing  Mass  to  beg  for  the 
ablution  and  to  receive  it  with  great  de- 
votion. This  ablution  is  mentioned  by 
St.  Thomas  and  Durandus.  The  former, 
however,  gives  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
it  was  consumed  by  the  priest,  and  the 
latter  expressly  says  that  the  ablution 
used  formerly  to  be  poured  into  a  clean 
place.  (Benedict  XIV.  "  De  Missa,"  III. 
xxi.  C.) 

ABRAHAinZTE.  [See  PAT7LICr.\NS.] 
ABRAXAS,   'AUpd^as  or  'Alipa<Ta$. 


ABSOLUTION 


ABSOLUTION 


5 


A  magical  word  used  by  the  Basilidians, 
a  Gnostic  sect.  They  believed  in  the 
existence  of  365  heavens,  over  which 
Abraxas  presided,  the  numeral  value  of 
the  Greek  letters  which  composed  the 
word  being  365.'  Many  gems  still  exist 
with  this  word  inscribed  on  them.  An 
account  of  them  and  of  the  immense 
literature  to  which  they  have  given  occa- 
eion,  will  be  found  in  Kraus'  "Archaeolo- 
gical Dictionary,"  under  Abraxas. 

ABSOX.VTZOSr.  Classical  authors 
use  the  Latin  word  absolut.io  (literally,  un- 
binding or  unloo.^ing)  to  signify  acquittal 
from  a  criminal  charge,  and  ecclesiastical 
writers  have  adopted  the  term,  employing 
it  to  denote  a  setting  free  from  crime  or 
penalty.  But,  as  crime  and  its  penalties 
are  regarded  even  by  the  Church  from 
very  different  points  of  view,  "  absolution  " 
in  its  ecclesiastical  use  bears  several 
senses,  which  it  is  important  to  distin- 
guish from  each  other, 

I.  Absolution  from  Sin  is  a  remission 
of  sin  which  the  priest,  by  authority  re- 
ceived from  Christ,  makes  in  the  Sacra- 
ment of  Penance.  It  is  not  a  mere 
announcement  of  the  gospel,  or  a  bare 
declaration  that  God  will  pardon  the  sins 
of  those  who  repent,  but  as  the  Council 
of  Trent  defines  (sess.  xiv.  can.  9),  it  is  a 
judicial  act  by  which  a  priest  as  judge 
passes  sentence  on  the  penitent. 

With  regard  to  absolution  thus  under- 
stood, it  is  to  be  observed,  first,  that  it 
can  be  given  by  none  but  priests,  since  to 
them  alone  has  Christ  committed  the 
necessary  power;  and,  secondly,  that 
since  absolution  is  a  judicial  sentence, 
the  priest  must  have  authority  or 
jurisdiction  over  the  person  absolved. 
I'he  need  of  jurisdiction,  iu  oider  that  the 
absolution  may  be  valid,  is  an  article  of 
faith  defined  at  Trent  (sess.  xiv.  cap.  7), 
and  it  follows  fioni  the  verynature  of  abso- 
lution as  defined  above,  since  the  rea.-on  of 
things  requires  that  a  judge  should  not 
pass  sentence  except  on  one  who  is  placed 
under  him,  as  the  subject  of  his  court. 
This  jurisdiction  may  be  ordinaiy — i.e.  it 
may  flow  from  the  office  which  the  con- 
fessor holds  ;  or  delegated — i.e.  it  may  be 
given  to  the  confessor  by  one  who  has 
ordinary  jurisdiction  with  power  to  con- 
fer it  on  others,  as  liis  delegates.  Thus  a 
bishop  has  ordinary  iurisdiction  over  secu- 
lars, or  religious  wlio  are  not  exempt,  in 
his  diocese,  and  within  its  limits  he  can 
delegate  jurisdiction  to  priests  secular  or 

'  Iren.  i,  24.  Mauv  other  Fathers  mentiiin 
the  word. 


regular.  Again,  the  prelates  of  religious 
orders  exempt  from  the  authority  of  the 
bishop,  have  jurisdiction,  more  or  less 
ample,  within  their  own  order,  and  they 
can  absolve,  or  delegate  power  to  absolve, 
the  members  of  the  order  who  are  subject 
to  them;  nor  is  it  possible,  ordinarily 
speaking,  for  the  bishop,  or  a  priest  who 
has  his  powers  from  the  bishop  only, 
to  absolve  such  religious.  Moreover,  a 
bishop  or  a  prelate  of  a  religious  order,  in 
conferring  power  to  absolve  his  subjects, 
may  reserve  the  absolution  of  certain  sins 
to  himself.  [See  under  Reserved  Cases.] 
The  Church,  however,  supplies  all  priests 
with  power  to  absolve  persons  in  danger 
of  death,  at  least  if  they  cannot  obtain  a 
priest  -with  the  usual  "  faculties "  or 
powers  to  absolve. 

Thirdly,  absolution  must  be  given 
in  words  which  express  the  efficacy 
of  absolution,  viz.  forgiveness  of  sin. 
The  Roman  Ritual  prescribes  the  form 
"I  absolve  thee  from  thy  sins,  in 
the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son, 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost."  Beyond  all 
doubt,  the  form  "  I  absolve  thee  from  thy 
sins  "  would  suflice  for  the  validity  of  the 
sacrament.  But  would  a  precatory  form 
avail — such  for  example  as,  "  May  Jesus 
Christ  absolve  thee  from  thy  sins  "  ?  The 
affirmative  has  been  maintained  by  the 
celebrated  critic  Morinus,  while  Tourneley 
and  many  others  have  followedhis  opinion. 
They  maintain  their  contention  chiefly  by 
two  arguments:  viz.  («)  that  the  Sacra- 
mentaries,  Pontificals,  and  Penitential  Ri- 
tuals u.«ed  in  the  Western  Church  during 
the  first  thousand  years  after  Christ  con- 
tain only  precato!-y  forms  of  absolution ;  (/3) 
that  such  forms  have  been  employed  from 
time  immemorial  by  the  Greeks.  On  the 
other  hand,  many  even  among  modern 
theologians  adhere  to  the  opinion  of  St. 
Thomas,  and  insist  on  the  strict  necessity 
of  an  absolute  form  ("I  absolve  thee,"  &c.). 
It  seems  possible  to  reconcile  the  two 
opinions.  A  piecatory  form  is  enough . 
if  It  is  used  iu  an  absolute  sense — if,  in 
other  words,  the  circumstances  in  which 
the  prayer  is  uttered  make  it  more  than  a 
mere  prayer.  So  that  the  ])riest,  when  he 
says,  "  Absolve,  0  God,  this  man  from  his 
sins,"  means  "  Al)=olve  this  man  through 
my  uiinistiy,"  and  intends  at  tl-.f  .-ame 
time  to  uttor  a  jira yer  which  must  n>>eds  be 
granted,  ])rovided  that  the  requisite  c.m- 
ditionshavc  been  fulfilled.  Still  it  must  bt^ 
remembered  that  in  any  case  it  is  unlawful 
to  use  such  a  form  even  in  the  East,  since 
Clement  VIII.  iu  his  instruction  on  the 


6 


ABSOLUTION 


ABSTINENCE 


rites  of  the  Greeks,  issued  1595,  required 
them  to  employ  the  form  prescribed  in  the 
Council  of  Florence — viz.  "I  absolve 
thee,"  &c. 

Lastly,  the  form  of  absolution  must 
be  uttered  by  the  priest  himself  in  the 
presence  of  the  person  absolved.  This 
folkiws  as  a  necessary  consequence  from  the 
nature  of  the  form  of  absolution  sanctioned 
by  the  perpetual  tradition  of  the  Church ; 
for  the  very  words,  "  I  absolve  thee" 
imply  the  presence  of  the  penitent; 
and  the  contrary  opinion  held  by  some 
Spanish  theologians,  who  considered  that 
absolution  could  be  validly  given  by  letter 
or  by  means  of  a  messenger,  was  expressly 
condemned  by  Clement  VIII.  in  the  year 
1603. 

[N.B.  For  full  information  on  the 
proofs  fi-om  Scripture  and  antiquity  for 
the  Catholic  doctrine  of  Confession  and 
Absolution,  see  Penance,  Sacrament  os.'] 

11.  Absolution  from  censures  is  widely 
difl'erent  from  absolution  from  sins,  be- 
cause whereas  the  latter  gives  grace, 
removes  guilt,  and  reconciles  the  sinner 
with  God,  the  former  merely  removes 
penalties  imposed  by  the  Church,  and  re- 
conciles the  oflender  with  her.  [See  under 
Censures.]  It  may  be  given,  either  in  the 
confessional,  or  apart  altogether  from  the 
Sacrament  of  Penance,  in  the  external 
forum — i.e.  in  the  courts  of  the  Church.  It 
may  proceed  from  any  cleric,  even  from 
one  who  has  received  the  tonsure  only, 
without  ordination, provided  he  is  invested 
with  the  requisite  jurisdiction.  This  juris- 
diction resides,  in  the  case  of  censures  im- 
posed by  an  individual  authority  through 
a  special  sentence,  in  the  ecclesiastic  who 
inflicted  the  censure,  in  his  superior,  in 
his  successors,  and  in  those  to  whom  com- 
petent authority  has  delegated  power  of 
absolution.  For  example,  if  a  bishop  has 
placed  a  subject  of  his  under  censure, 
absolution  may  be  obtained  (1)  from  the 
bishop  himself,  (2)  from  a  succeeding 
bishop,  (.3)  from  the  metropolitan,  in 
certain  cases  where  an  appeal  can  be 
made  to  him,  or  if  he  is  visiting  the  diocese 
of  his  suifragan  ex  officio,  (4)  from  any 
cleric  deputed  by  one  of  the  above.  With 
regard  to  censures  attached  to  certain 
crimes  by  the  general  law  of  the  Church, 
unless  they  are  specially  reserved  to  the 
Pope  or  the  bishop,  any  confessor  can 
absolve  from  them  ;  and  this  is  generally 
considered  to  hold  good  also  of  censures 
inflicted  by  the  general  (as  opposed  to  a 
particular)  sentence  of  a  superior.  Again, 
it  is  not  necessary  that  the  person  absolved 


from  censure  should  be  present,  or  contrite, 
or  even  that  he  should  be  living.  As  the 
effects  of  censures  may  continue,  so  they 
may  be  removed  after  death.  Excom- 
munication, for  instance,  deprives  the  ex- 
communicated person  of  Christian  burial. 
It  may  happen  that  he  desired  but  was 
unable  to  obtain  remission  of  the  penalty 
during  life,  and  in  this  case  he  may  be 
absolved  after  his  soul  has  left  the  body, 
and  so  receive  Catholic  burial  and  a  shave 
in  the  prayers  of  the  Church. 

III.  Absolution  for  the  dead  {pro 
defunctis).  A  short  i^orm,  imploring  eter- 
nal rest  and  so  indirectly  remission  of  the 
penalties  of  sin,  said  after  a  funeral  Mass 
over  the  body  of  the  dead  person,  before  it 
is  removed  from  the  church. 

IV.  Absolutions  in  tlie  Breviai-y.  Cer- 
tain short  prayers  said  before  the  lessons  in 
matins  and  before  the  chapter  at  the  end 
of  prime.  Some  of  these  prayers  ex- 
press or  imply  petition  for  forgiveness  of 
sin,  and  this  circumstance  probably  ex- 
plains the  origin  of  the  name  Absolution 
which  has  been  given  to  such  prayers  or 
blessings. 

ABSTmrETrCE,  in  its  restricted  and 
special  sense,  denotes  the  depriving  our- 
selves of  certain  kinds  of  food  and  drink 
in  a  rational  way  and  for  the  good  of  the 
soul.  On  a  fasting  day,  the  Church  re- 
quires us  to  limit  the  quantity,  as  well  as 
the  kind,  of  our  food  ;  on  an  abstinence- 
day,  the  limit  imposed  affects  only  the 
nature  of  the  food  we  take.  The  defiiu- 
tion  given  excludes  three  possible  miscon- 
ceptions of  the  Church's  law  on  this  point. 
First,  the  Church  does  not  forbid  certain 
kinds  of  food  on  the  gi-ound  that  they 
are  impure,  either  in  themselves  or  if 
taken  on  particular  days.  On  the  con- 
trary,she  holds  withSt.  jPaul'  that  "every 
creature  of  God  is  good,"  and  has  re- 
peatedly condemned'"'  the  Gnostic  and 
Manicliean  error,  which  counted  tit'shand 
wine  evil.  Next,  the  abstinence  required 
is  a  reasonable  one,  and  is  not,  therel'ore, 
exacted  I'mm  tliose  whom  it  would  injm-e 
in  health  or  incapacitate  for  their  ordinary 
duties.  Thirdly,  Catholic  al/stinence  is  a 
means,  not  an  end.  Abstinence,  says 
St.  Thomas,  pertains  to  the  kingdom  of 
God  only  so  far  "  as  it  proceeds  from  faith 
and  love  of  God."  ^ 

But  how  does  abstinence  from  flesh- 

»  1  Tim.  iv.  4. 

2  Canon.  Ap«st.  hi.  Concil.  Ancyr.  can.  14. 

5  2a  liie  140,  ].  See  also  the  prayer  of 
the  Church  in  the  Mass  for  the  third  Sunday  of 
Lent. 


ABSTINENCE 


ABYSSINLVN  CHURCH  7 


meat  promote  the  soul's  heulth  ?  The  I 
answer  is,  that  it  enables  us  to  subdue  our  [ 
flesh  and  so  to  imitate  St.  Paul's  example, 
who  "chastised  his  body  and  brought  it  1 
into  subjection."  '  The  perpetual  tra- 
dition of  the  Church  is  clear  beyond 
possibility  of  mistake  on  this  matter,  and  | 
from  the  earliest  times,  the  Christians  at 
certain  seasons  denied  themselves  flesh  and 
wine,  or  even  restricted  themselves  to 
bread  and  water.-  Moreover,  by  abstain- 
ing Irom  flesh,  we  give  up  what  is,  on  the 
whole,  the  most  pleasant  as  well  as  the 
most  nourishing  food,  and  so  make  satis- 
faction for  the  temporal  punishment  due  i 
to  sin  even  when  its  guilt  has  been  for- 
given. [See  also  Fast  and  Penance  (4).] 
The  abstinence  (as  distinct  from  fast- 
ing) days  to  be  observed  in  England  are, 
all  Fridays,  except  that  on  which  Christ- 
mas Day  may  fall,  and  the  Sundays  in 
Lent,  though  on  these  last  the  faithful 
now  receive  an  annual  dispensation  from 
the  abstinence.  Saturday  was  an  absti- 
nence-day in  England,  till  it  ceased  to  be 
so  in  virtue  of  a  Rescript  of  Pius  VIII., 
in  1830. 

It  may  be  of  some  interest,  in  conclu- 
sion, to  trace  the  history  in  the  Church  of  [ 
abstinence  as  distinct  from  fasting.  Ab- 
stinence-days were  observed  from  ancient 
times  by  the  monks.  Thus  Cassian  tells 
us  that  in  the  monasteries  of  Egypt, 
great  care  was  taken  that  no  one  should 
fast  between  Easter  and  Pentecost,  but  ' 
he  adds  that  the  ''  quality  of  lood '"  was 
unchanged.  In  other  words,  the  religious 
fasted  all  the  year,  except  on  Sundays  and 
the  days  between  Easter  and  Pentecost. 
These  they  observed  as  days  of  abstmence. 
Again,  it  is  certain  that  the  faithful  gene- 
rally did  not,  and,  indeed,  could  not,  fast 
on  Sundays  in  Lent,  for  the  early  Church 
strongly  discouraged  fasting  on  that  day; 
but  it  is  also  certain  that  they  did  ab- 
stain on  the  Sundays  in  Lent.  For, 
during  the  whole  of  that  season,  says  St. 
Basil,  "no  animal  has  to  eutter  death, 
no  blood  flows."  We  learn  incidentally 
from  Theophanes  and  Nicephorus,  that  no 
meat  was  exposed  during  Lent  in  the 
markets  of  Constantinople.  The  Sun- 
days, then,  in  Lent  were  kept  in  the 
ancient  Church  as  days  of  abstinence. 
With  regard  to  the  abstinence-days  of 
weekly  occurrence,  Thomassin  shows  tliat 
Wednesday  and  Friday  have  been  from 
ancient  times  observed  in  the  East,  not  only 
as  abstinence,  but  as  lasting-days.  Clement 

1  1  Cor.  ix.  -'7. 

*  Concil.  Laod.  can.  50. 


VIII.,  in  lof)5,  in  laying  down  rules  for 
Catholic  Greeks  under  Latin  bishops,  ex- 
cuses them  from  some  of  the  Latin  fasts, 
on  the  ground  that,  unlike  the  Latins, 
they  fasted  every  Wednesday  and  Friday. 
Thomassin  illustrates  the  custom  of  the 
West,  by  (juoting  a  nunaber  of  statutes, 
&c.,  prescribing  sometimes  abstinence 
from  tlesh,  sometimes  fasting  and  absti- 
nence, on  Fridav.  His  earliest  authority 
is  Nicolas  I.  \858-867),  and  he  con- 
cludes, "even  after  the  year  1400,  the 
Saturday  abstinence  was  rather  voluntary 
than  of  obligation  among  the  laity;  but 
the  Friday  a  bstinence  had  long  since  passed 
into  a  law.  I  say  abstinence,  for,  in  spite 
of  efforts  made,  the  fast  was  never  well  es- 
tablished.' (See  Thomassin,  "Traite  des 
Jeuues,"  from  which  the  foregoing  histo- 
rical sketch  is  taken.) 

ABSTSTTESi'TS.  A  name  given  to 
the  Encratites  {q.i:),  or  Manichees,  be- 
cause of  their  professed  abstinence  from 
wine,  marria;.'e,  &c. 

AS-rSSXTIII^TJ  or  ETHZOPXAir 
CHXTRCH.  Tradition  relates  that  the 
otlicer  of  Candace,  Queen  of  Ethiopia, 
whom  Philip  the  Deacon  met  and  con- 
verted near  Gaza,^  on  his  return  home 
spread  the  Christian  faith  among  the 
peoples  dwelling  on  the  Upper  Nile.  But 
if  this  were  so,  the  seed  then  planted 
must  have  withered  away,  for  in  the 
middle  of  the  fourth  century — when  the 
narrative  of  Rutinus,  in  his  "Ecclesiastical 
History,"  casts  a  strong  light  for  us  on 
Abyssinian  affairs — the  zeal  of  Athanasius 
appears  to  have  raised  up  n  church  in  an 
ahs  lutely  lieathen  land.  Frumentius  of 
Tyre,  the  aj)ostle  of  Abyssinia,  first  visited 
the  country,  when  a  mere  youth,  in  310  ; 
his  luicle,  with  whom  he  travelled,  was 
murdered  by  the  natives :  he  was  himself 
brought  up  as  a  slave  in  the  court  of 
A.xum;  but  his  virtue  and  intelligence  led 
to  his  being  enfranchised  ;  and  in  his  per- 
son Christianity,  to  which  he  had  strictly 
adhered,  appeared  attractive.  Repairing 
to  St.  Athanasius,  then  recently  raised  to 
the  patriarchal  chair  of  Alexandria,  Fru- 
mentius was  consecrated  by  him  the  first 
bishop  of  his  adopted  country.  "When  he 
leturned,  the  king  and  his  people  willingly 
received  baptism.  He  chose  Axiuu  for 
his  see;  and  this  place  remains  to  this 
day  the  ofhcial  centre  of  Abyssinian  Chris- 
tianity. As  the  work  of  conversion  pro- 
ceeded, this  see  became  the  residence  of 
a  Metropolitan  {ahinia,  father),  having 
under  biui  seven  suflragaiis.  The  nam© 
1  Acts  viii.  "27. 


8        ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH 


ACEPIIALI 


and  rauk  of  "  Abuna  "  are  still  retained, 
but  the  seven  sufl'rag-ausbave  disappeared. 

The  bright  promise  of  tliis  commence- 
ment was  soon  overclouded.  An  eft'ort, 
indeed,  of  Constantius  to  iutrodiice  AriuTi- 
ism  failed  ;  but  when,  in  the  fifth  century. 
Ale.xaudria,  along  with  the  m.ajority  of  the 
Eastern  churches,  rejected  the  decrees  of 
Chalcedon,  and  the  patriarchate  became 
Monophysite,  the  Abyssiniaiis  followed  in 
the  wake  of  their  mother  church,  and  they 
have  never  unanimously,  or  for  long  toge- 
ther, shaken  off  the  heresy  down  to  this 
day.  In  the  sixth  century  the  country 
was  the  object  of  a  reli^'ious  rivalry  be- 
tween Justinian  and  t  lie  I']ni]irfss  I'hi'o- 
dora,  the  former  wisliing  to  attach  it  to 
the  Roman  Church,  the  latter  to  preserve 
it  for  her  Moncijihysite  friends  at  Alexan- 
di-ia.'  The  eiujirt'ss,  aide<l  by  tlie  jvipular 
sympathies,  prevailed:  and  tlie  AIj\  s>inian 
church,  cut  olf  from  true  t'athniii-  emn- 
munion,  atid  severed  ihnn  tlw  chair  of 
Peter,  became  in  tlie  cnurSf  of  ages  the 
strange,  unpniL;i-i->i\ ,■,  .-.mii-jiagan  insti- 
tution which  111. hI.. Ill  travcU.Ts  liave  de- 
scribed. Thus,  alt  li(iii;^li  ni'\  cr  persecuted 
for  the  faith  like  the  Irish  and  the  Poles, 
the  Abyssiuians  allowed  its  lustre  to  be 
tarnished  and  its  moral  fruits  to  pint>  and 
wither,  through  casting  olf  that  vitalising 
communion  with  the  Holy  See  which  has 
kept  alive  the  Irish  and  Polish  nat  ionalities 
in  the  face  of  secular  persecution. 

In  the  seventeenth  century,  Abyssinia 
having  been  almost  an  uuKikiwii  land  to 
Em-ope  for  a  tliousaiul  y.'ars,  it  was  en- 
tered by  Portuguese  Jou'its,  whose  preach- 
ing was  attended  for  a  time  liy  marked 
success.  Two  emperors  in  succession  be- 
came Catholics;  a  J(>suit  was  nominated 
patriarch  of  yEthio]iia.  and  an  outward 
reconciliation  with  Ihnnr  was  elircted. 
But  the  masses  of  the  ]  i  cinaiin  li  un- 
influenced, and  their  ht'ails  still  ^•earlled 
towards  Egypt;  the  patriarch  .Meiulez  is 
said  to  have  acted  iinjinidriu  1\-  in  att<>iupt- 
ing  to  abolisli  the  rite  of  ein  uiiicision  ; - 
the  second  Catholic  enqicior  died,  and  his 
son  expelled  the  .IcMiit>,  and  re-tored  the 
connection  with  Alexandria,  .\fter  a  long 
interval  ol'rxcl  iisi,  ,n,  (  'at  Imlic  iiils.Monaries 
have  again  ■■iilcivd  Aliy>siiiia  in  our  days, 
and  Hoiiiishing  congregations  hine  been 
formed  in  the  northern  and  north-eastern 
districts,    near   Massowah.^     In  1875, 

'  Renaudot,  quoted  in  Gibbon's  Decline  and 
Fall,  c.  47. 

Practised  bj'  the  Abyssinians  for  sanitary, 
not  for  religious  reasons. 

'  Annals  af  the  Propagation  of  Faith,  1876. 


Monsignor  Touvier,  stationed  at  Keren, 
was  \'icar  Apostolic  of  the  whole  country. 
About  that  time  missioners  were  sent  into 
Amhara,  the  most  important  province, 
with  the  best  results.  "  The  sending  of 
missioners  into  Amhara,''wrote  M.  Uutios, 
in  .June  \  f<7o,  "so  often  criticised,  is  now 
justified  by  the  immense  results  which  it 
has  produced." 

The  Abuna,  or  head  of  the  Abyssinian 
church,  is  always  an  Egyptian  monk, 
nominated  by  the  Patriarcli  of  Egypt. 
The  cross  is  held  in  honour  l)y  the  Abys- 
sinians, but  the  use  of  the  criicitix  is  iin- 
known.  They  tolerate  jiaintings  in  their 
churches,  but  no  sculptured  figures.  Their 
priests  can  marry  once  only,  as  in  the 
Greek  church.  There  is  considerable  de- 
votion to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  liut,  along 
with  tliis  and  other  Christian  cliaiac- 
teristics,  various  superstitious  beliefs  and 
practices  are  rife  among  them,  to  the 
great  detriment  of  their  morals  and  in- 
tellectual advancement. 

ACCIDENT.  ^SeeEuCHAEIST,  I.(y).] 

ACCiAMATiON-.  The  elevation  to 

an  ecclesiastical  dignity  by  the  unanimous 
voice  of  the  electors,  without  voting. 
This  is  one  of  the  three  modes  in  which  a 
Po]ie  may  be  elected,  and  the  election  is 
said  to  liey<('c  iiisjiirn/ ioiiein, hccan^f  "all 
the  Cardinals,  with  a  sudden  and  har- 
monious consent,  as  though  breathed  on  by 
the  Divine  Spirit,  jiroclaim  some  jierson 
Pontiff  with  one  voice,  witliout  any  ])re- 
vious  canvassing  or  negotiation,  whence 
fraud  or  iii>eliMi|..  mi-j.-i  i,,ii  could  lie  sur- 
mised." (^'ecclll,ittl,  •■Inst.  Can."  ii.  10.) 
ACCOMMODATES  SENSE.  If  We 

quote  Scripture  to  prove  a  point  of  doctrine, 
we  must  of  course  try  to  ascertain  the  ])re- 
cise  meaning  of  the  sacred  writer,  and  then 
argue  from  the  i)rojier  sense  of  hi,-  ^\■ol■(l^. 
AVi'  may.  however,  take  the  words  of 
Scripture  and  mak'e  an  application  of  them 
which  was  not  originally  intended.  In 
other  words  we  may  acco/nmodnfe  the 
sense  to  the  needs  of  our  own  discourse 
or  the  subject  we  wish  to  illustrate.  Tluis 
when  Baroniiissaid  of  his  unaided  lalwur 
in  compiling  his  ecclesiastical  Annals,  "I 
have  trodden  the  wine-press  alone,"  he 
used  the  words  of  Isaias  in  an  accom- 
modated sense.  This  practice  is  innocent 
in  itself,  as  is  shown  by  the  example  of 
our  Lord  (Matt.  iv.  4),  and  of  St.  Paul 
(Acts  xxviii.  25-28),  and  is  frequently 
adopted  by  the  Church  in  the  Missal  and 
Breviary. 

ACEPHAI.Z.  In  the  year  482  the 
Greek  emperor  Zeno  issued  his  "  Henoti- 


ACCEMETI 

con,"  in  order  to  reunite  the  Monophysites 
with  the  Church.  The  lieretical  leaders — ■ 
e.g.  Peter  Mongus,  Patriarch  of  Alexan- 
dria— were  ready  to  accejit  the  emperor's 
terms,  but  many  of  the  heretics  were  more 
obstinate,  and  so  were  nicknamed  "  head- 
less "  {<lK(4n{k0L). 

ACCEMETI  (sleepless).  A  name 
given  to  Eastern  monks  who  maintained 
perpetual  prayer,  day  and  night.  Each 
monastery  was  divided  into  three  or  more 
choirs,  which  relieved  each  other.  This 
institute  is  said  to  have  been  introduced 
by  Abbot  Alexander,  in  a  monastery  on 
the  Euphrates,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century;  but  their  most  famous  house 
was  that  of  Studium,  in  Constantinople. 
It  was  founded  and  endowed  by  the  Roman 
Studiuj,  from  whom  it  took  its  name.  In 
533  the  AcQsmeti  attacked  a  formula  used 
by  other  monks — "One  of  the  Trinity 
suffered  in  the  flesh  " — and  tried  to  pro- 
cure its  condemnation  by  the  Holy  tiee. 
In  this  they  failed  ;  they  themselves  fell 
into  Nestorianism,  and  the  fornnda  was 
approved  by  Pope  John  II.,  and  under 
anathema  by  the  Fifth  General  Council.^ 

iiCOX.YTE,  from  aKoXovdeoi,  to  fol-  ; 
low;  and  here,  to  follow  as  a  server  or 
ministrant :  a  name  given  to  the  highest  of 
the  four  minor  orders.  It  is  the  duty  of 
the  acolyte  to  supply  wine  and  water  and 
to  carry" the  lights  at  the  Mass;  and  the 
bishop  ordains  him  for  these  functions 
by  putting  the  cruets  and  a  candle  into 
Lis  hand,  accompanying  the  action  with 
words  indicating  the  nature  of  the  office 
conferred.  The  order  of  Acolyte  is  men- 
tioned along  with  the  others  by  Pope 
Cornelius*  in  the  middle  of  the  third 
century.  Their  ordination  is  mentioned  in 
an  ancient  collection  of  canons  commonly, 
though  wrongly,  attributed  to  the  Fourth 
Council  of  Carthage.^  The  functions  of 
acolytes  are  now  freely  performed  by  lay- 
men, though  the  order  is  still  always  re- 
ceived by  those  who  aspire  to  the  priest- 
hood.^ 

ACTIOIT.  (1.)  A  word  used  for 
the  ('anon  of  the  Mass.  Thus  infra  ac- 
tionem, in  the  rubrics  of  the  Missal,  means 
"  within  the  Canon.'"  Probably,  the  literal 
sense  of  "  action  "  in  this  case  is  sacri- 
fice. 

(2.)  The  treatment  of  a  particular 

1  In  the  tenth  of  the  fourteen  anatheni.as  of 
this  Synod.   Hefele,  Conciliengeschichte,  ii.  897. 

2  Euseb.  Hist.  vi.  43. 

s  Hefele,  Concil.  ii.  70. 

*  But  see  Concil.  Tridentin.  .\xiii.  17. 


ACTS  OF  THE  MARTYRS  9 

j  subject  in  the  session  of  a  council.  (Kraus, 
]  "  Archaeol.  Diet."') 

'        ACTS     OF     THE  MARTYRS. 

"A.;*  a  "is  technically  used  in  Latin  (1)  for 
the  proceedings  in  a  court  of  justice,  and 
(2)  for  the  othcial  record  of  such  proceed- 
ings, including  the  prehminaries  of  the 
trial,  the  actions  and  speeches  of  the  con- 

I  tending  parties,  the  sentence  of  the  judge; 

I  which  last,  when  it  had  been  committed  to 
the  Acta,  was  proclaimed  aloud  by  the 
pubhc  crier.  "Acta  martyrum,"  then,  in 
its  strict  and  original  sense,  meant  the 
official  and  registered  account  of  a  mar- 

[  tyr's  trial  and  sentence.  Naturally  enough, 
the  early  Christians  were  anxious  to  pos- 
sess these  accurate  narratives  of  the  wit- 
ness which  their  brethren  made  to  the 
truth  of  the  Christian  religion.  In  some 
cases,  as  appears  from  the  Acta  of  St. 
Tarachus  in  Ruinart,  they  were  able  by 
means  of  a  bribe  to  get  a  copy  of  the  offi- 
cial document.  This,  however,  could  not 
always  be  done,  and  the  want  was  supplied 
sometimes  by  accounts  of  liis  trial  written 
by  the  martyr  himself  and  supplemented 
with  the  history  of  his  "  passion  "  or  suf- 
fering from  the  hands  of  those  who  had 
witnessed  it ;  sometimes  by  accounts  which 
proceeded  entirely  from  friends  of  the 
martyr ;  sometimes,  lastly  (as  in  the  Ro- 
man Church),  notaries  were  appointed  for 
the  special  purpose  of  setting  down  the 
incidents  of  the  martyrdom  in  documents 
meant  for  public  use  in  the  Church.  Thus 
the  expresj-ion  "  Acta  martyrum  "  came  to 
be  used  in  a  more  extended  sense  for  any 
account  of  a  martyr's  confession  and  death. 

A  vast  number  of  original  Acts  per- 
ished in  the  year  303,  when  Diocletian  by 
an  imperial  edict  required  Christians  to 
deliver  up  to  the  magistrates  their  sacred 
books  and  books  in  ecclesiastical  use.  After 
the  persecution  of  Diocletian  was  over, 
Eusebius  of  CtEsarea  made  two  collections 
of  the  Acts  of  Martyrs.  One  of  them,  en- 
titled Twv  ap)(aLuiv  fxapTupi(ov  (Tvvaycoyrj,  a 
general  Collection  of  the  Acts  of  Martyrs, 
has  perished  ;  the  other,  "On  the  Martyrs 
of  Palestine,"  still  survives  as  an  appendix 
to  the  eighth  book  of  his  Church  History. 
In  the  ninth  century  the  Church  of  Con- 
stantinople possessed  a  great  collection  of 
the  Acts  of  the  Martyrs  in  twelve  volumes, 
and  this  probably  formed  the  basis  of  the 
legends  of  saints  and  martyrs  compiled  by 
Simeon  Metaphrastes  (about  OOU).  lii 
the  West,  tlie  most  famous  collection  of 
the  Lives  of  saints  and  martyrs  was  the 
"Legenda  Aurea''  of  Jacobus  de  Voragine 
(died  1298). 


10 


ADAM 


ADAM 


It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the 
value  of  the  extant  Acts  of  the  Martyrs 
varies  very  much.  Some,  like  the  Acts  of 
the  Martyrdoms  of  St.  Ignatius  and  of  St. 
Polycarp,  rank  among  the  purest  sources 
of  ecclesiastical  history.  In  other  cases 
the  original  Acts  have  been  interpolated 
in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  hard  to  dis- 
tinguish the  basis  of  historical  fact  from 
the  structure  of  legend  and  fable  which 
has  been  raised  upon  it.  The  Acts  of  St. 
C'pecilia  furnish  a  striking  instance  of 
Acts  which  exhibit  this  mixed  character. 
Other  Acta  .igain,  like  many  of  those  com- 
piled by  Metaplirastes,  possess  little  orno 
historical  value.  After  the  Renaissance, 
criticism  set  itself  to  distinguish  what  was 
ancient  from  that  which  wascomparatively 
modern  in  the  current  Acts  of  the  Martyrs, 
and  in  l(i8U  the  learned  Kuinart,  a  Bene- 
dictine of  the  congregation  of  St.  Maur, 
published  in  a  folio  volume  the  "  Acta 
sincera  martyrum  "  ("Pure  Acts  of  the 
Martyrs"),  a  work  which  can  scarcely  be 
surpassed  in  honest  and  accurate  scholar- 
ship. In  1748,  Stephen  Assemani,  a 
Maronite,  issued  his  "Acta  SS.  martyrum 
orientalium  et  occidentalium,"  in  two 
volumes  folio.  It  includes  the  history 
of  the  martyrdoms  east  and  west  of  the 
Tigris.    [See  also  Bollandists.] 

ADAM,  the  first  man.  The  Hebrew 
word,  which  probably  means  earth-born,' 
is  used  ibr  man  in  general,  and  also,  as  a 
proper  name,  for  the  first  man.  It  is  in 
the  latter  of  these  two  senses  that  the 
word  is  taken  here.  Adam  was  formed 
from  "  the  slime  of  the  earth "'  by  God, 
who  "  breathed  into  his  face  the  breath  of 
life  and  made  him  to  his  own  image  and 
likeness."  From  him  all  mankind  are 
descended.'^  So  far  all  is  clear.  But 
there  are  great  differences,  with  regard  to 
the  state  in  which  Adam  was  created, 
between  the  teaching  of  Catholic  and 
Protestant  theologians,  and,  unless  the 
doctrine  of  the  Church  with  reference  to 
the  state  of  Adam  in  Paradise  is  clearly 
ajjprehended,  it  is  impossible  to  understand 
many  other  parts  of  the  Church's  dog- 
matic system.  We  must  begin  by  dis- 
tinguishing between  the  gifts  bestowed  on 
him  in  the  order  of  nature  and  in  that  of 
grace. 

In  the  order  of  nature,  Adam  received 
from  (jod  human  nature,  including  its 
constituent  principles  and  all  which  flows 
from  them  or  is  due  to  I  hem.  Thus,  as  a 
man,  he  possessed  reason  and  free  will; 
1  See  Gen.  ii.  7. 
8  Gen.  iii.  20. 


he  could  know  God  as  the  Author  of  the 
world,  if  he  chose  to  make  a  right  us(!  of 
his  reason,  and  love  Him  with  liis  will  as 
the giverof  natural  giHxl.  (ind  iiiighthave 
left  man  thus,  without  Cdnferring  any 
higher  gift,  for  it  would  not  have  been 
unjust  to  create  man  f'tir  a  state  of  "pure 
nature."  So  created,  he  would  have  been 
subject  to  disease,  suffering,  and  death,  to 
ignorance  and  to  the  rebellion  of  the  appe- 
tites. He  would  have  been  destitute  of 
grace,  and  could  never  have  hoped  for  the 
happiness  of  heaven.  But,  at  the  same  time,, 
he  would  have  had  the  ordinary  hel])  of 
God's  providence  to  assist  him  in  avoiding 
sin  and  doing  his  duty;  and  if  faithful  to 
the  natural  law,  he  would  have  had  his 
reward,  in  knowing  God  eternally,  so  far 
as  He  can  be  known  by  reason,  and  in 
union  with  Him  by  love. 

Such  a  state  was  possible.'  But  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  God  poured  into  the  soul 
of  A  dam,  while  he  was  in  Paradise,- a  lioon 
which  transcends  all  nature — that  of  sanc- 
tifying grace.  He  was  able  to  believe  in 
God  as  He  is  known  by  the  light  of  faith,, 
to  hope  that  he  would  see  Ilim  after  this 
life  face  to  face,  and  to  love  Him  with 
supernaturalcharity.  Further,  thisfuUness 
of  the  gifts  of  grace  affected  his  natural 
powers.  As  gi-ace  subjected  his  soul  to 
God,  so  the  body  in  its  turn  was  subject 
to  the  soul.  The  body  could  neither  suffer 
nor  die ;  the  lower  appetite  could  not  rebel 
against  the  reason.^  He  had,  moreover,, 
that  full  knowledge  of  things  human  and 
divine  which  beseemed  him,  as  the  head 
of  the  human  race. 

The  Scriptural  account  of  the  fall  is  in 
striking  harmony  with  the  Catholic  doc- 
trine on  original  j  ustice.  Our  temptations 
come  very  often  from  within ;  in  Adam 
and  Eve,  because  their  appetites  were  in 
perfect  subjection,  such  temptation  was 
impossible.  The  Serpent  tempted  Eve, 
and  Eve  Adam,  to  eat  of  the  tree  of  the- 
knowledge  of  good  and  evil,  that  they 
might  "  become  as  gods."  By  the  re- 
bellion, Adam  lost  that  sanctifying  grace 
which  made  him  the  fi'iend  of  God.  He 
also  forfeited  that  "integrity  of  nature," 

'  Tfiis  is  evidently  tlie  doctrine  of  tlie 
Church.  See  the  propo.sitions  of  Baius,  e.-ipe- 
cially  26,  5S,  condemuod  bv  tlie  Po]]0,s. 

It  is  not  certain,  (lioiii^h  genc>rallv  held, 
that  Adam  wa.s  crtaled  in  j^nice.  The  Council 
of  Trent  left  the  matter  (i]ieti. 

5  "Bv  MM,"  St,  Paid  sav.s,  "  [came]  death  " 
(Rom.  v.)".  Adam  .-md  K ve  li..f,,rc  the  fall,  althou-h 
naked,  "were  n>it  ashamed,''  which  indicates 
the  complete  subjection  of  the  lower  nature- 
(Gen.  ii.  26). 


ADAMITES 


ADOmOXISM  11 


as  theologians  call  it,  which  flowed  from 
original  justice,  and  thus  his  hody  passed 
under  the  yoke  of  suH'ering  and  death ; 
the  flesh  became  a  constant  incentive  to 
sin.  He  still  preserved  reason  and  free 
will,  was  still  capable  of  natural  virtue 
and  even  of  corresponding  to  the  grace  of 
repentance;  but  just  as  the  effects  of  the 
grace  in  which  he  had  been  constituted 
at  first  overflowed  on  his  natural  faculties, 
so  now  the  fall  from  grace  darkened  his 
intellect  and  weakened  his  will. 

Adam  was  the  representative  of  the 
human  race.  If  he  had  persevered  in 
obedience,  his  descendants  would  have 
inherited  from  him,  along  with  human 
nature,  original  justice  and  the  virtues 
annexed  to  it.  As  it  is,  men  come  into 
the  world  destitute  of  grace,  and  so  un- 
able to  attain  the  end  for  which  they 
were  created ;  while  their  very  nature  is 
wounded  and  impaired  through  the  fall 
of  their  first  parent.  It  is  heresy,  however, 
to  hold,  with  Calvin  and  the  other  Re- 
formers, that  even  fallen  man  is  wholly 
evil.  It  is  grace,  not  nature,  which  he  has 
lost,  and  in  his  degradation  he  still  keeps 
reason  and  free  will ;  he  is  still  capable  of 
natural  good.  [See  Co^tcfpiscexce  and 
Oeigixal  Six.' 

ADAMITES.  (1.)  An  obscure  Gnos- 
tic sect,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Prodicus,  son  of  Carpocrates,  in  the  second 
century.  They  are  alleged  to  have  met 
together  without  clothes  and  abandoned 
themselves  to  horrible  immorality. 

(2.)  A  fanatical  sect  of  the  middle 
ages.  Their  leader,  who  called  himself 
Adam,  was  a  Frenchman  whose  real  name 
was  Picard  (he  may  perhaps  have  come 
from  Picardy).  From  France  they  spread 
through  Holland  and  Germany,  but  had 
their  chief  settlement  in  Bohemia,  where 
they  flourished  at  the  time  of  the  Hussite 
troubles.  They  were  annihilated  with 
frightful  severity  by  Ziska  in  1421.  They 
recommended  their  followers  to  go  naked, 
and  gave  unrestrained  licence  to  sensuality. 

ADMITTZSTKATOR.  When  a 
bishop  is  lawfully  absent  from  his 
diocese  for  a  prolonged  period,  the  Pope 
sometimes  grants  him  an  "  apostolic 
administrator"  to  take  charge  of  the 
see.  So,  too,  when  a  prince  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  bishopric  before  he  was 
capable  of  governing  it. 

The  name  is  commonly  applied  to  a 
priest  in  ch;irge  of  a  parish,  but  who 
is  not  himself  the  rector  of  the  parish. 
Thus,  a  bishop's  parish  is  under  the  care 
of  an  administrator. 


ADOPTION.  The  Eoman  law  held 
that  by  adoption  a  civil  or  le<ral  kindred 
was  established  between  the  parties, 
which  in  many  respects  had  the  same 
effects  as  natural  kindred.  To  this  us  a 
general  principle  the  cam.ii  law  a^lh-ied. 
But  since,  in  proportion  tn  thf  ilr-i,  ,'  in 
which  the  adoptive  was  a-similaHMl  to 
the  real  relationship,  impediments  to 
marriage  were  multiplied,  it  Vjecame  ne- 
cessary in  the  interest  of  Christian  society 
to  re.«trict  the  t  flVcts  of  adoption  witliin 
reasonalile  limits.  So  intricate  a  subject 
cannot  be  fully  treated  here,  but  the  out- 
lines of  the  compromise  which  the  canon- 
ists ultimately  acquiesced  in  may  be  / 
briefly  stated. 

The  Koman  law  made  void  a  marriage 
between  (1)  the  adoptive  father  and  his 
adopted  dau-ihter ;  (2)the  adopted  children 
and  the  natural  children  of  the  same 
parent  ;  (3)  the  adoptive  father  and  the 
adopted  son  and  the  widows  of  these  two 
respectively.  In  the  first  two  cases  the 
impediment  to  marria^-e  was  legal  con- 
sanguinity: in  the  third,  legal  aftinity. 
The  canon  law  has  attirmed  the  im])edi- 
ment  in  the  first  and  in  the  third  case. 
A  Catholic  may  not  marry  bis  adopted 
daughter,  nor  the  widow  of  his  adoptive 
father.  In  the  second  case  the  impedi- 
ment only  exists  so  long  as  the  adopted 
child  and  the  child  by  blood,  or  either  of 
them,  remain  in  the  father's  power  ;  that 
power  being  withdrawn,  by  death  or 
otherwise,  the  impediment  ceases.  (See 
the  chapter  in  Yecchiotti,  "  Inst.  Can."  v. 
13,  De  cognatione  civili  sen  ler/ali.) 

Adoption  has  never  been  recognised 
as  a  legal  institution  in  England  or  Scot- 
land. In  the  United  States  it  is  ad- 
mitted, with  more  or  less  of  restriction 
according  to  the  ideas  of  jurisprudence 
prevailing  in  difierent  States.  In  Massa- 
chusetts, by  the  law  of  1876,  adoption 
is  an  impediment  to  marriage  between  the 
adopter  and  the  adopted,  but  to  no  other 
unions.  The  Code  Xapol6on  allows 
adoption,  but  under  rigorous  conditions. 
(See  Whitmore's  "  Law  of  Adoption  in 
the  U.S.") 

ASOPTiONZSni.  A  heresy  which 
arose  in  Spain  and  is  closely  allied  to 
Nestorianism.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
eighth  century,  Felix,  bishop  of  Urgel,  and 
Elipandus,  bishop  of  Toledo,  held  the 
opinion  that  Christ  as  man  is  only  the 
adopted  son  of  God.  They  supported  this 
error  by  passages  quoted  from  the  Fathers 
and  by  the  expression  "  h(»no  aclopf  ivus  " 
which  occurs  in  the  Mozarabic  Missal. 


12   ADORATION  OF  THE  CROSS 


ADULTERY 


Pope  Pladiian,  in  a  letter  to  the  Bisliops 
of  Spain,  condemned  this  error  as  Nesto- 
riau,and  a  hke  sentence  was  passed  against 
it  in  three  synods  convolved  by  Charle- 
magne, at  Ratisbonne  in  792,  at  Franciort 
in  794,  and  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  799. 
Alcuin,  Paulinas  of  Aquileia,  and  Agobard 
wrote  against  the  error.  Both  Felix  and 
Eiipaiidus  died  in  heresy,  but,  owing  to 
tlie  zeal  of  Leidrad  of  Lyons  and  Bene- 
dict of  Anapni,  who  made  repeated  visits 
to  Spain,  the  followers  of  the  heresiarchs 
were  converted  and  the  error  died  out. 

The  Cathohc  Doctors  in  their  contro- 
versy with  the  Adoptionists  rightly  urged 
that  adoption  implies  that  the  person 
adopted  was,  previous  to  his  adoption, 
alien  to  the  person  who  adopts  him. 
Now,  even  as  man,  Christ,  far  from  being 
alien  to  God,  was  the  natural  son  of  God. 
His  sacred  Humanity  was  united  from  the 
first  moment  of  its  existence  to  the  Per- 
son of  God  the  Word.  When  we  say 
"this  man,"  we  indicate  not  only  the 
possession  of  human  nature :  the  words 
signifv  a  person.  Hence  "  the  man  Christ " 
or  '"Christ  in  His  human  nature  "  is  equi- 
valent to  God  the  Son  subsisting  in  hu- 
man nature  ;  and  He  cannot  have  been 
adopted,  for  the  simple  reason  that  He 
was  son  by  nature.  So  St.  Paul  speaks  of 
Him  even  in  His  humanity  as  the  proper 
Son  of  God.  God,  he  says,  did  not  spare 
His  own  Son  (rov  Idlov  v'loii)  "  but  gave 
him  up  for  us  all:'"  where  the  reference 
clearly  is  to  Christ  as  man. 

The  Adoptionist  heresy  "  halts  be- 
tween two  opinions" — viz.  Catholic  doc- 
trine and  Nestorianism.  If  in  Christ 
there  had  been  two  persons,  one  human 
and  one  divine,  then  there  might  also 
have  been  two  sons,  one  by  adoption,  one 
by  nature.  (See  Petavius,  "  De  Incarnat." 
i.  22,  and  vii.  1  neq. ;  and  for  the  opinion 
of  Scot  us,  who  seems  to  have  used  the 
form  "(."hrist  ns  man  is  the  adopted  Son 
of  God,"  but  in  an  orthodox  sense,  see 
Billuart,  "  De  Inciirnat."  Diss,  xxi.) 

AXtORATZOir   OF  TH£  CROSS, 

6.  C,  [See  Lateia.  See  also  Peepetual 
Adokation.] 

ASTTXiTERT.  The  Catholic  Church 
holds  that  the  bond  of  marriage  is  not 
and  ought  not  to  be  dissolved  by  the 
adultery  of  either  paity;  see  the  decree 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  xxiv..  Can. 

7.  )  It  remains  to  consider  in  what  way 
the  act  atlects,  though  it  cannot  break, 
the  nu]itial  tit-.  The  canon  law  allows 
of  divorce  from  bi^d  and  board  (a  ioro  et 

1  Rom.  viii.  32. 


cohahUatione),  whether  permanent  or  tem- 
porary, for  various  causes.  Of  these 
causes  adultery  is  one  of  the  chief  The 
right  to  this  species  of  divorce,  or,  as  it 
is  called  in  England,  judicial  separation, 
accrues  to  either  party  in  consequence  of 
the  adultery  of  the  other,  provided  that 
the  guilt  be  certain  and  notorious,  whether 
in  fact  or  in  law.  It  was  formerly  held 
that  this  right,  though  it  undoubtedly 
belonged  to  the  husband  after  the  mis- 
conduct of  his  wife,  ought  not  to  be  simi- 
larly extended  to  a  wife  on  account  of  the 
adultery  of  the  husband.  This  opinion  is 
not  now  held,  and  it  is  agreed  that  the 
adultery  of  either  party  is  a  sutticient 
cause  entitling  the  innocent  person  to 
claim  a  judicial  separation  for  life. 

Several  questions,  however,  arise.  Is 
the  husband  whose  wife  has  committed 
adultery  bound  to  separate  himself  from 
her,  or  does  he  merely  enter  into  a  right 
which  he  may  either  e.xercise  or  not  as  he 
likes  ?  Arguments  of  great  weight  have 
been  adduced  by  canonists  on  either  side 
of  this  question.  But  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  wife,  in  the  parallel  case,  is  not 
so  bound,  and  that  for  reasons  such  as 
these:  (1)  that  her  husband's  guilt  im- 
plies no  acquiescence  on  her  part,  which 
could  hardly  be  the  case  were  the  wile  the 
offender ;  (2)  that  the  honour  of  the 
family  and  the  legitimacy  of  the  children 
are  not  stained  or  imperilled  in  the  one 
case  as  they  are  in  the  other;  (3)  that 
her  insisting  on  being  separated  from  him 
is  not  likely  to  lead  to  the  husband's  re- 
formation, but  rather  the  contrary. 

Another  question  arisL's,  as  to  the 
legal  effect  of  the  commission  of  adultery 
by  the  innocent  party  after  the  sentence 
of  divorce  (judicial  separation)  has  been 
pronounced.  On  this  point,  opinions  are 
greatly  divided,  some  holding  that  the 
divorce  is  a  res  judicata,  which  no  subse- 
quent misconduct  on  thepart  of  the  spouse 
innocent  at  the  date  of  the  sentence  can 
affect ;  others  maintaining  that  the  sen- 
tence itself  saddles  the  party  relieved  with 
an  implied  condition  qutnndiu  f>e>ie  se 
ffesserif,"  and  that  if  that  condition  is 
violated,  the  spouse  against  whom  the 
judgment  was  given  may  justly  claim  the 
restitution  of  conjugal  rights. 

Various  impediiuents  to  divorce  on 
account  of  adultery  are  allowed  by  the 
canon  law,  of  which  the  chief  are,  the 
proof  of  adultery  against  the  spouse  seek- 
ing a  divorce,  and  condonation. 

The  statute  law  of  England,  as  is  well 
known,  holds  the  adultery  of  the  wife  to 


,\DVEXT,  SEASON  OF 


.ADVENT,  SEASON  OF 


13 


bo  a  good  cause,  not  only  of  the  limited 
speciis  of  divorce  treated  above,  but  of 
the  absolute  severance  of  the  nuptial  bond, 
provided  always  that,  as  the  saying  is, 
the  husband  comes  into  court  with  clean 
hands.  But  the  proof  of  adultery  alone 
does  not  entitle  a  wife  to  obtain  a  divorce 
a  linciilo  against  the  husband ;  it  must,  to 
have  that  effect,  be  coupled  with  cruelty 
or  desertion.  [See  Maeeiage.] — Vec- 
chiotti,  V.  14,  §  123. 

ADVESTT,  SEASOSr  OF.  The 
period,  of  between  tliree  and  ftnir  weeks 
from  Advent  Sunday  (which  is  always 
the  Sunday  nearest  to  the  feast  of  St. 
.\ndrew)  to  Christma.s  eve,  is  named  by 
the  Chiu-ch  the  season  of  Advent.  Dur- 
ing it  she  desires  that  her  children  should 
practise  fasting,  works  of  penance,  medi- 
tation, and  prayer,  in  order  to  prepare 
themselves  for  celebrating  worthily  the 
coming  {advcntum)  of  the  Son  of  God  in 
the  flesh,  to  promote  His  spii'itual  advent 
within  their  own  souls,  and  to  school 
themselves  to  look  forward  with  hope  and 
joy  to  Ilis  second  advent,  when  He  shall 
come  again  to  judge  mankind. 

It  is  impossible  to  fix  the  precise  time 
when  the  season  of  Advent  began  to  be  ; 
observed.  A  canon  of  a  Council  at  j 
Saragossa,  in  380,  forbade  the  faithful  to 
absent  themselves  from  the  Church  ser- 
vices during  the  three  weeks  from  De- 
cember 17th  to  the  Epiphany;  this  is 
perhaps  the  earliest  trace  on  record  of 
the  observance  of  Advent.  The  singing 
of  the  "greater  antiphons"  at  vespers 
is  commenced,  according  to  the  Eoman  ^ 
ritual,  on  the  very  day  specified  by  the 
Council  of  Saragossa;  this  can  hardly  be 
a  mere  coincidence.  In  the  fifth  century 
Advent  seems  to  have  been  assimilated  to 
Lent,  and  kept  as  a  time  of  fasting  and  ! 
abstinence  for  forty  days,  or  even  longer 
— (.e.  i'rom  Martinmas  (Nov.  11)  to  Christ- 
mas eve.  In  the  Sacramentary  of 
Gregory  the  Great  there  are  Masses  for 
five  Sundays  in  Advent;  but  about  the 
ninth  century  these  were  reduced  to  four, 
and  so  they  have  ever  since  remained, 
"  "We  may  therefore  consider  the  present 
discipline  of  the  observance  of  Advent 
as  having  lasted  a  thousand  years,  at 
least  as  far  as  the  Church  of  Rome  is 
concerned."  ' 

With  regard  to  fasting  and  abstinence 
duriiii;-  Ailvrnt.  t!ir  prartii-f  has  always 
grt-atlv  Villi. m1.  and  >till  arir>,  in  different 
parts  of  the  ChurL-h.    Strictness  has  been 

'  Gue'rani;er's  Litnrgicul  Yenr,  translated 
by  Dom  Shepherd,  1867. 


observed,  after  which  came  a  period  of 
rela.xation,  followed  by  a  return  to  strict- 
ness. At  the  present  time,  the  Wednes- 
days and  Fridays  in  Advent  are  observed 
as  fast  days  by  English  and  Irish  Catho- 
lics ;  but  in  France  and  other  Continental 
countries  the  ancient  discipline  has  long 
ago  died  out,  except  among  religious 
commxmities. 

There  is  a  marvellous  beauty  in  the 
offices  and  rites  of  the  Church  during  this 
season.  The  lessons,  generally  taken  from 
the  prophecies  of  Isaias,  remind  us  how 
the  desire  and  expectation,  not  of  Israel 
only,  but  of  all  nations,  carried  forward 
the  thoughts  of  mankind,  before  the  time 
of  Jesus  Christ,  to  a  Redeemer  one  day  to 
be  revealed  ;  they  also  strike  the  note  of 
preparation,  watchfulness,  compunction, 
hope.  In  the  Gospels  we  hear  of  the 
terrors  of  the  last  judgment,  that  second 
advent  which  those  who  despise  the  first 
will  not  escape  ;  of  the  witness  borne  by 
John  tlie  Precursor,  and  of  the  "mighty 
works  "  by  which  the  Saviour's  life  sup- 
plied a  solid  foundation  and  justification 
for  that  witness.  At  vespers,  the  seven 
greater  antiphons,  or  anthems — beginning 
on  December  17th,  the  first  of  the  seven 
greater  Ferias  preceding  Christmas  eve — • 
are  a  noteworthy  feature  of  the  liturgical 
year.  They  are  called  the  O's  of  Advent, 
on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  they 
commence  ;  they  are  all  addressed  to 
Christ ;  atid  they  are  double — that  is,  they 
are  sung  entire  both  before  and  after  the 
Magnificat.  Of  the  first,  O  Snpientin,  quce 
ex  ore  Altissimi piodiisti,  &c.,a  trace  still 
remains  in  the  words  O  Sapientia  printed 
in  the  calendar  of  the  Anglican  Pra3-er 
Book  o])pnsite  December  16 — words  which 
prnbably  nut  one  person  in  ten  thousand 
using  tlie  Prayer  Book  understands.  The 
pur])le  hue  of  penance  is  the  only  colour 
used  in  the  sfr\  ices  of  Advent,  except  on 
the  l'fa>tMif  >aints.  In  many  other  points 
Advent  rrsemljles  Lent:  during  its  con- 
tinuance, in  Masses  de  Tempore,  the  Gloria 
in  e.vcehis  is  suppressed,  the  organ  is 
silent,  the  deacon  sings  Benedicamus  Do- 
mino at  the  end  of  Mass  i"ii>tead  of  [fe, 
i  Missa  est,  and  marriages  are  not  solemn- 
ised. On  the  other  hand,  the  Alleluia,  the 
word  of  gladiu'>s.  is  only  once  or  twice 
interrupted  during  Advent,  and  the  organ 
finds  its  voice  on  the  third  Sunday:  the 
Church,  by  these  vestiges  of  joy,  signify- 
ing that  the  a.^sured  expectation  of  a 
Redeemer  whose  birth  she  will  soon 
celebrate  fills  her  heart,  and  chequers 
,  the  gloom  of  her  mourning  with  these 


14 


ADVENT  OF  CHRIST 


AFFINITY 


gleams  of  briulitiiess.  (Fleury,  "Hist. 
Eccles."  xvii.  ")?  ;  CTUi^ranger's  "Liturgi- 
cal Year.") 

ASVEurT    or  chrzst.  [See 

MiLLENKirM.] 

ASVOCATVS  DEX.  .a.BVOCA- 

TXTS  SZABOX.!.    [See  Oanoxisation.] 

ASVOCATUS  ECCl.ESX.a:.  Fer- 
raris distinguishes  four  classes  nf  advocati 
ecclesiarum,  but  the  most  important  class, 
and  that  with  which  alone  we  shall  con- 
cern ourselves  here,  was  that  of  advocate- 
protectors,  princes  or  barons,  or  other 
powerful  laymen,  who,  for  a  considera- 
tion, undertook  to  protect  the  property  of 
a  church  or  monastery,  as  well  as  the  lives 
of  the  inmates.  In  the  turbulent  period 
between  the  ninth  and  the  thirteenth 
centuries  this  practice  was  largely  resorted 
to.  The  advocatus  sometimes  received  a 
kind  of  rent,  either  in  money  or  in  kind, 
but  moi-e  generally  he  was  put  in  posses- 
sion of  Church  lands,  which  he  might  use 
for  his  own  benefit  on  condition  of  protect- 
ing the  rest.  "  But  these  advocates  became 
too  often  themselves  the  spoilers,  and  op- 
pressed the  helpless  ecclesiastics  for  whose 
defence  they  had  been  engaged."  '  The 
Lateran  Council,  in  1215,  had  to  decree 
(chap.  45)  "  that  patrons  or  advocates,  or 
vidames,  should  not  in  future  encroach  on 
the  property  entrusted  to  tliem  ;  if  they 
presume  to  do  otherwise,  let  them  be 
restrained  by  all  the  severity  of  the  canon 
law."  As  law  and  order  became  stronger 
in  Europe,  the  practice  of  employing  advo- 
cnti  naturally  fell  into  disuse.  (Ferraris.) 

mom.  '[See  Gnosticism.] 

AETZVS  and  AETIATTS.  Aetius 
was  a  native  of  Antioch,  born  in  the  first 
half  of  the  fourth  century  He  was  a 
good  example  of  the  "Grfficnlus  esuriens" 
satirised  by  Juvenal ;  after  having  been 
successively  a  slave,  a  charcoal-burner,  a 
tinker,  and  a  quack  doctor,  he  applied 
himself  to  the  profession  of  pliilosophy, 
and  finally  to  that  of  theology.  He 
became  a  pupil  of  Leontius,  who,  on 
being  made  Patriarch  of  Antioch  in  350, 
ordained  Aetius  deacon.  The  Arian 
sentiments  to  ^\hich  he  could  not  help 
giving  e.xprcssidii,  led  to  his  expulsion 
from  Antioch;  hr  sought  refuge  at  Alex- 
andria, where  he  learnt  fnun  a  sn])hist 
the  Aristotelian  logic,  and  r()i!ti-i\  r<l  to 
ingratiate  himself  with  (iiMiif^f  the  Arian 
patriarch.  Aided  by  a  zr.ilmw  di-ciiile, 
Eunomius,  who  joined  liiiii  ,it  ilii>iimc, 
he  denied  not  on'ly  the  iloi  iniH  ol  Nice, 
which  the  great  A tlianasi us  was  engaged 

'  Hallam's  Mhldlv  Ayes,  c.  vii.  part  1. 


in  defending,  but  also  thatof  theHomoiou- 
sians  that  the  Sou  was  like  to  the  Father. 
The  laxity  and  recklessness  of  his  lan- 
guage were  such  that  the  people  called 
him  "  the  atheist."  In  358,  hearing  that 
Eudoxus,  an  inveterate  and  audacious 
Arian,  was  installed  at  Antioch,  Aetius 
went  thither,  and  soon  became  a  person 
of  some  importance.  But  Eudoxus  could 
not  prevail  upon  the  bishops  of  the 
neighbouring  sees  to  consent  to  his  re- 
instating Aetius  in  the  diaconate.  Basil 
of  Ancyra  complained  to  the  Emperor 
Constantine  of  the  licence  which  was 
allowed  to  heresy  at  Antioch ;  and  the 
Eni])eror  in  alarm  ordered  Eudoxus  and 
Aetius  to  come  to  Constantinople.  The 
authorship  of  an  exposition  of  faith  in 
which  the  unlikeness  of  the  Son  to  the 
Father  was  maintained  was  brought  home 
to  Aetius,  and  the  Emperor  banished  him 
to  Phrygia  (360).  His  place  of  exile 
was  changed  to  Mopsuestia,  and  after- 
wards to  an  unhealthy  town  in  Pisidia. 
Here  he  is  said  to  have  maintained  his 
heresy  yet  more  openly,  and  published  in 
support  of  it  a  syllabus  of  forty-seven 
articles,  which  St.  Epiphanius  has  pre- 
served and  refuted.  The  date  of  his  death 
is  not  recorded.  (Fleury,  "  Hist.  Eccl^s." 
xii.-xiv.) 

APrxwiTY,  in  the  proper  sense  of 
the  word,  is  the  connection  which  arises 
from  cohabitation  between  each  one  of 
the  two  parties  cohabiting,  and  the  blood- 
relations  of  the  other.  It  is  regarded  as 
an  impediment  to  marriage  in  the  Jewish, 
Roman,  and  canon  law. 

In  the  Jewish  law  a  man  is  forbidden, 
by  reason  of  aflinity,  to  marry  his  step- 
mother, step-daughter,  and  step-grand- 
daughter, his  mother-in-law  and  daughter- 
in-law,  the  widow  of  his  father's  brother 
(the  Vulgate  adds  the  widow  of  his 
mother's  brother),  the  widow  of  his 
brother,  if  he  has  left  children.^ 

In  the  Roman  law  marriage  was  for- 
bidden between  a  man  and  his  mother-in- 
law,  daughter-in-law,  step-mother,  step- 
daughter, the  wife  of  his  deceased  brother, 
the  sister  of  his  deceased  wife.  It  also 
forbade  a  step-father  to  marry  the  widow 
of  his  step-son,  and  a  step-mother  to 
marry  the  surviving  husband  of  her  step- 
daughter. 

The  canon  law,  starting  from  the 
])i  iiu  i]ilf  that  man  and  woman  who  have 
int.'i-oiirs.' wit h  each  other  become  one 
tlr>h,  eonsidered    the  marriage  of  one 

1  Levit  xviii.  8,  14-17;  x.x  11,  12.  14,  20, 
21  ;  Dent.  xxii.  30  ;  xxvii.  20,  23. 


AFFINITY 


AFRICAN  CHURCH  lo 


party  with  the  relations  of  the  other  as 
equivalent  to  a  marriag-e  with  his  or  her 
own  relation.  Affinity  was  computed  by 
degrees  just  as  consanguinity  was,  accord- 
ing to  the  legal  maxim,  "  The  degree  of 
a  person's  consanguinity  with  one  of  a 
married  pair  is  the  degree  of  his  affinity 
to  the  other.''  Thus  gradually  marriage 
was  forbidden  to  the  seventh  degree  of 
affinity.'  Further,  although  the  relations 
of  one  married  person  could  espouse  the 
relations  of  the  other,  on  the  principle 
that  "  affinity  does  not  produce  affinity," 
still  the  impediment  of  affinity  was  ex- 
tended to  the  children  a  woman  had  by 
her  second  marriage  and  the  relations  of 
her  first  husband.  Moreover,  two  other 
kinds  of  affinity  were  introduced,  viz.  of 
the  second  and  third  class  (xi'cundi et  tvrfii 
generis),  so  that  marriage  was  unlawful 
between  a  man  married  to  a  -w  idow  and 
those  who  had  affinity  to  his  wife's  former 
partner,  or,  again,  who  had  affinity  to 
those  who  were  in  affinity  to  the  former 
partner.  Finally,  all  these  degrees  of 
affinity  were  contracted  by  unlawfid  in- 
tercourse as  well  as  by  marriage 

In  121 5  the  fiftieth  canon  of  the  Fourth 
Lateran  Council  abolished  the  impedi- 
ment from  affinity  of  the  second  and  third 
class,  as  well  as  that  from  affinity  between 
the  children  a  woman  had  in  second  mar- 
riage and  the  relations  of  lier  first  hus- 
band, and  limited  the  impediment  of 
affinity  in  the  strict  sense  to  tlie  first  four 
degrees.  Lastly,  the  Council  of  Trent  - 
confined  the  impediment  of  aflinity  from 
unlawful  intercourse  to  the  first  two  de- 
grees, and  so  the  law  of  the  Church  con- 
tinues to  the  present  day.  Thus,  affinity 
arising  from  previous  marriage,  to  the 
foiu-th  degree,  and  from  unlawful  inter- 
course, to  the  second  degree  (both  inclu- 
sive), makes  marriage  null  and  void,  and,  if 
it  supervenes  after  marriap(>,  (lc]iri\-i's  tlie 
guilty  party  ofhisor  her  niai-riniiv  li-hts. 
However,  with  one  possiMr  rxcrjitioii, 
viz.  that  between  a  man  and  tlie  woman 
■whose  mother  or  daugliter  he  has 
married,  or,  vice  versa,  bet\\-ei;n  a  woman 
and  a  man  to  whosr  I'uilicr  or  son  she 
has  been  married,  atlinity  iiii]ii'des  mar- 
riage only  by  ecclesiastical,  nut  by  natural 
law,  so  that  the  Pope  can  grant  a  dispen- 
sation.^ 

Besides  the  various  classes  of  affinity 
properly  so  called,  there  are  further  two 

I  Concil.  Rom.  anno  721. 
-  Sess.  xxiv.  c.  4. 

5  Gurv.  Mnral.  Tlienl.  "  De  Matrimon." 
§  813,  with  Uallerini\s  note. 


species  of  quasi-affinity,  known  as  Ifli/al 
and  spiritual  affinity.  With  regard  to  the 
former,  the  Church  has  adopted  tln'  de- 
termination of  the  Roman  law,  acciirding 
to  which  marriage  cannot  be  contracted 
between  an  adopted  son  and  tlie  widow 
of  his  adoptive  father,  or  between  the 
adoptive  father  and  the  widow  of  the 
adopted  son.  [See  Adoption.]  Accord- 
ing to  the  canon  law,  spiritual  affinity 
nullified  marriage  between  the  widow  or 
widower  of  the  God-parent  in  baptism 
and  the  person  baptised  or  confirmed,  and 
between  the  widow  or  widower  of  the 
God-parent  and  either  parent  of  the  per- 
son confirmed  or  baptised.  Since,  how- 
ever, the  Council  of  Trent,  in  reforming 
the  older  law  on  spiritual  relationship 
(coynatio  spirituals),  makes  no  mention 
of  spiritual  affinity,  it  is  generally  sup- 
posed that  the  latter  is  no  longer  to  be 
recognised  as  an  impediment  to  marriage. 

AFBZCAXr  CBURCH  AITD  COITIT- 
CUS.  Among  the  witnesses  of  the 
Pentecostal  miracle '  were  Jews,  not  from 
Egypt  only,  but  also  from  "  the  parts  of 
Libya  about  Cyrene,"  and  by  some  of 
these  Christianity  must  have  been  ex- 
tended in  North  Africa  at  a  very  early 
period.  Eusebius  tells  us  that  St.  Mark 
went  into  Egypt,  and  founded  the  Church 
of  Alexandria,  of  which  he  was  the  first 
patriarch.  The  first  see  founded  further 
west  is  beHeved  to  have  been  Carthage, 
which,  at  the  time  when  we  first  hear  of 
it,  through  Tertullian,  one  of  its  presby- 
ters, writing  about  200,  was  already 
the  centre  of  a  flourishing  Afro-Roman 
Christian  province,  in  which  the  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  were  Christians.  Mona- 
chism  sprang  up  in  Egypt  [Abbot]  in 
the  third  century,  and  the  heresy  of 
Arius  appeared  at  Alexandria  near 
the  beginning  of  the  fourth.  A  flood 
of  light  is  thrown  upon  the  condition  of 
the  African  Church  in  the  fifth  century 
by  the  writings  of  its  greatest  son,  St. 
Augustine,  bishop  of  Hippo,  whose  vast 
and  disciplined  genius  has  never  ceased 
to  instruct  and  delight  the  Catholics  of 
every  later  age.  When  St.  Augustine 
died  (430),  his  episcopal  city  was  being 
besieged  by  the  Vandals  from  Spain,  who 
soon  after  made  themselves  masters  of 
the  whole  of  Roman  Africa.  They  were 
Arians,  and  cruelly  ])ersecuted  the  ortho- 
dox Church,  which  in  the  time  of  St. 
Augustine  could  count  its  four  hnndred 
sees.  The  Donatist  schism,  which  seduced 
great  numbers  into  a  state  of  alienation 
1  Acts  ii.  10. 


16          AFRICAN  CIIUllCH 


AGAPE 


from  Ciitluilic  communion,  had  already 
arisen  iihout  the  hctrinning  of  the  fifth 
centurv.  "Aei  ism  ;  DoUATiSTS.]  Be- 
lisarius  in  tlir  sixili  ct  iitury  defeated  the 
Vandals  and  veo'\ t  rcd  Africa  for  the 
Emperor  Justinian;  l)ut  Christianity  had 
not  had  time  to  recover  from  the  blows 
which  war  and  liere.-y  had  inflicted,  be- 
fore the  swords  of  the  Arabs,  fanatical 
jiropaoators  of  the  reliirion  of  Mohammed, 
liewed  down,  from  tile  Nile  to  the  Pillars 
of  Hercules,  all  authority  but  their  own. 
Under  their  liani'l'ul  sway,  which  in  the 
early  ages  of  Islam  was  wielded  with 
great  political  skill,  Cliristianity  became 
all  but  extinct  in  North  Afi-ica.  Only  in 
our  own  day,  through  the  conquest  of 
Algeria  by  tlie  Frencli,  the  Cross  has 
driven  back  the  Crescent  on  the  Barbary 
coast  ;  and  the  intrepid  Cardinal  Lavi- 
gerie,  Archbishop  of  Algiers,  seems  likely 
to  reillume  a  ray  of  the  ancient  glory  of 
the  African  Church. 

The  present  state  of  Christianity  in  | 
Africa  may  be  briefly  described  as  fol-  I 
lows  :  (1)  in  Egypt,  to  which  is  annexed 
Arabia,  there  are  two  vicariates,  one  for 
the  Latins,  the  other  of  the  Coptic  rite. 
Following  the  Mediterranean  coast,  we 
find  (2)  an  archbishop's  see  at  Carthage 
(Tunis),  and  (3)  an  archbishop's  see  at 
Algiers,  with  two  suffragan  sees,  Con- 
stautina  and  Oran.  4.  Ceuta,  a  Spanish 
pdsscssion  opposite  Gibraltar,  gives  part 
of  his  title  to  the  Bishop  of  Cadiz.  5.  In 
the  islands  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa 
are  four  bishoprics  :  the  Canaries,  under 
Seville  ;  Madeira,  St.  Thomas,  and  the 
Cape  de  Verd  Islands,  under  Lisbon. 
6.  The  vicariate  of  Senegambia.  7.  All 
the  coast  from  Sierra  Leone  to  the  Niger, 
including  the  vicariate  of  Benin,  has 
been  lately  committed  by  the  Holy  See 
to  the  charge  of  the  Society  of  African 
^Missions  at  Lyons.  8.  The  See  of  Angola 
(Portuguese).  9.  A  large  thinly  peopled 
district,  between  the  Portugtiese  posses- 
sions and  the  Orange  River,  has  been  re- 
centlj'  erected  into  a  prefecture  under  the 
title  of  Cimbebasia.  10.  At  the  Cape 
are  two  vicariates,  the  Eastern  and  the 
AVestern.  11.  The  vicariate  of  Natal. 
12.  The  see  of  Port  Louis,  Mauritius, 
is  immediately  dependent  on  the  Holy 
See.  13.  The  vicariate  of  Madagascar. 
14.  North  Zanzibar  is  under  a  vicar  apo- 
stolic ;  the  southern  portion  is  under  a 
prefect  apostolic.  15.  The  vicariate  of  the 
Gallas.  16.  The  Abyssinian  Christians 
[Abyssinian  CnrECH]  are  under  tlie 
jurisdiction  of  the  Latin  vicar  apostolic  of 


Egypt.  17.  The  vicariate  of  Central  Africa 
with  its  seat  at  El  Obeid  in  Cordofan. 

Thus  is  ."yrica  ringed  round  with 
Catholic  missions,  so  t  hat,  if  France  should 
ever  have  a  Christian  government,  or 
Portugucsi'  gnvernors  go  out  animated 
by  the  fervour  of  the  Albuquerques  of 
former  days,  u  great  and  sudden  spread  of 
Christianity  among  the  descendants  of 
Ham  is  far  from  improbable.  On  the 
other  hand  it  has  to  be  admitted  that  the 
Moravians,  the  Presbyterians,  the  Inde- 
pendents, the  Anglicans,  and  other  sects, 
liave  shown  much  activity  in  indoctrina- 
ting the  native  tribes  (especially  of  South 
Africa  and  Madagascar)  in  their  respec- 
tive systems,  and  met  with  considerable 
success. 

AFRXCAsr  covxircziiS.  These  were 
for  the  most  part  held  at  Carthage.  In 
the  first  four  centuries  the  African  Church, 
full  of  activity  and  fervour,  and  repre- 
sented by  men  of  the  highest  intellectual 
eminence,  among  whom  we  need  but 
name  St.  Cyprian  and  St.  Augustine, 
bore  its  part  to  the  full  in  those  memor- 
able conciliar  discussions  which  settled 
the  form  of  doctrine  and  discipline  that 
Christianity  was  to  bear  in  the  world. 
The  chief  subjects  discussed  at  the  Afri- 
can councils  which  preceded  the  Vandal 
invasion  were,  the  re-baptism  of  heretics 
returning  to  the  Church,  the  Donatist  con- 
troversy, the  heresy  of  Pelagius,  and  the 
adjustment  ofquestions  of  discipline  either 
internal  or  between  Africa  and  Rome. 
Fleury  enumerates  seventeen  Councils  of 
Carthage,  the  last  of  which,  held  in  535, 
busied  itself  with  repairing  the  havoc 
■which  the  raA  ages  of  the  Arian  heretics 
had  made.  "We  read  of  an  African  Coun- 
cil, the  last  of  the  entire  series,  held  in 
646,  which  condemned  the  £c//iesis  of 
Heraclius.  In  the  following  year  the 
Caliph  Othman  despatched  the  expedi- 
tion which,  with  others  that  followed  it, 
brought  utter  ruin  on  the  Roman  and 
Christian  civilisation  of  Africa. 

AGAPE  (from  ciyantj,  love).  A 
name  given  in  Jude  12  to  the  brotherly 
feasts  of  the  early  Christians,  which  are 
described  at  l.'ug'th  in  1  Cor.  xi.  They 
were  instituted  in  jiart  on  the  analogy  of 
the  common  meals  usual  among  the 
Greeks  {avn-atTia)  to  which  each  contri- 
buted his  share  ;  but  this  common  meal 
was  elevated  liv  the  spirit  of  Christian 
cliaritv  and  ilesii.nied  to  commemorate  the 
last  Mij.i.er  wliu  h  Christ  held  with  His 
disci]iles,  as  well  as  to  serve  for  tlie  relief 
of  the  poor.   Thus  it  received  a  liturgical 


AGE,  CANONICAL 


AGNOET^ 


17 


character,  so  that  the  Apostle  calls  it "  the 
Bupper  of  the  Lord.'' '  It  was  also  closely 
connected  with  the  sacred  mysteries,  and, 
more  probably,  preceded  them.  However, 
this  custom  of  taking  other  food  before 
the  communion  soon  died  out,  althoupli 
in  St.  Aug-ustine's  time  the  custom  still 
survived  of  permitting  communion  once 
a  year — viz.  on  Holy  Thursday — to 
those  who  had  just  partaken  of  the 
agape. 

The  Agape  thus  separated  from  the  Eu- 
charist survived  for  many  centuries  in  the 
Church,  although  it  was  evident  even  in 
St.  Paul's  day  how  liable  it  was  to  abuse, 
and  the  complaints  of  St.  Augustine  prove 
that  he  was  familiar  with  similar  scan- 
dals. The  Synod  of  Gangra,  about  the 
middle  of  the  fourth  century,  anathemati- 
ses those  who  despise  the  Agape,  although 
Van  Espen  is  of  opinion  that  in  this  place 
the  Agape  means  no  more  than  a  common 
meal  charitably  supplied  to  the  poor.'  Be 
that  as  it  may,  the  Agapai  still  continued 
to  be  celebrated  in  the  Church.  The 
Council  of  Laodicea,  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  fourth  century,  forbade  "  eating  in 
the  house  of  God,"  but  the  Synod  in 
Trullo,  centuries  after,  had  to  repeat  the 
prohibition,  which  was  placed  by  Gratian 
in  the  corpus  juris.* 

AGE,  CAitroDrzcAZ..  The  Church, 
like  the  State,  tixes  certain  ages  at  which 
her  subjects  become  capable  of  incurring 
special  obligations,  enjoying  special  pri- 
vileges, of  entering  on  special  states  of 
life,  or  of  holding  office  and  dignity.  The 
following  is  a  summary  of  the  principal 
determinations  regarding  age,  so  far  as 
they  affect  (1)  the  ordinary  life  of  a 
Christian,  (2)  the  ecclesiastical  and  re- 
ligious state.  It  must  be  observed  that 
the  canonical  age  is  reckoned  from  the 
day  of  birth,  not  from  that  of  baptism. 

1.  With  rrgni-d  to  ordinary  Cliristians. 
The  age  of  reason  is  generally  supposed 
to  begin  about  the  seventh  year,  though 
of  course  it  may  come  earlier  in  soTue  cases, 
later  in  others.  At  that  time  a  child  be- 
comes capable  of  morLal  sin,  and  so  of 
receiving  the  sacraments  of  penance  and 
extreme  unction,  which  are  the  remedies 
for  post-baptismal  sin.  The  Holy  lui- 
charist  and  Confirmation,  according  to  the 
discipline  of  the  West,  are  usually  given 


1  In  Est! us  nd  Inc.  conv 
given  for  distiniiuishinK  the  "  Supper  of  tlie 
Lor'i  "  from  thi'  Eucharist. 

2  See  Estius,  and  tlie  Council  of  Hippo, 
Hefele.  Conciliengeschlchte,  ii.  p.  58. 

3  Hefele,  li.  i.  7«4.         •»  lb.  i.  707. 


nfj  re.isons  are 


I  some  time  after  the  use  of  reason  has  been 
attained,  when  the  child  has  received  some 
instruction  in  Christian  doctrine,  and  is 
able  to  understand  the  nature  of  these 
sacraments,  further,  at  seven  years  of 
age,  a  child  becomes  subject  to  the  law 
of  the  Church  {e.ff.  with  regard  to  absti- 
nence, Sunday  Mass,  &c.),  and  can  con- 

,  tract  an  engagement  of  marriage.  [Set 

1  Espousal.] 

The  age  of  puberty  begins  in  the  case 

I  of  males  at  fourteen,  in  that  of  females  at 
twelve.  Marriage  contracted  by  persons 
under  these  ages  is  null  and  void  {nisi 

;  malitia  suppleat  cetatem).    Till  the  age  of 

■  puberty  is  reached,  no  one  can  be  required 
to  take  an  oath. 

At  twenty-one,  the  obligation  of  fast- 

!  ing  begins;  it  ceases,  according  to  the 
common  opinion,  at  sixty. 

'2.  With  regard  to  religious  and  eccle- 
siastics.— At  seven,  a  person  may  be  ton- 
sured. No  special  age  is  named  in  the 
canon  law  for  the  reception  of  minor 
orders.  A  subdeacon  must  have  com- 
pleted his  twenty-first,  a  deacon  his 
twent^'-second,  a  priest  his  twenty-fourth, 
and  a  bishop  his  thirtieth  year,    A  cleric 

j  cannot  hold  a  simple  benefice  before 
entering  on  his  fourteenth  year;  an  eccle- 
siastical dignity — e.g.  a  canonry  in  a 
cathedral  church — till  he  has  completed 
his  twenty-second  year;  a  benefice  with 
cure  of  souls  attached  to  it,  before  he 
has  begun  his  twenty-fifth  year ;  a  dio- 
cese, till  he  has  completed  "his  thirtieth 

I       A  religious  cannot  make  his  profession 
I  till  he  is  at  least  si.xteen  years  old,  and 
j  has  passed  a  year  in  the  noviciate.  He 
must  be  thirty  years  of  age  before  he  can 
[  hold   a  prelacy  which  involves  quasi- 
episcopal  jurisdiction.    A  gu-1  must  be 
j  over  twelve  years  of  age  before  she  assumes 
]  the  religious  habit.  A  woman  under  forty 
I  cannot  be  chosen  religious  superior  of  a 
i  convent,  unless  it  is  impossible  to  find  in 
I  the  order  a  religious  of  the  age  required, 
I  and  otherwise  suitable.    In  this  case,  a 
religious  thirty  years  old  may  be  chosen 
with  the  consent  of  the  bishop  or  other 
I  su])erior.    (See  Council  of  Trent,  Sess. 
xxiii.  xxiv.  xxv.    Ferraris,  "  Bibliotheca 
Prompta.") 

AGsrOETS.  A  sect  of  Monophy- 
sites  founded  by  the  Alexandrian  deacon 
Theniistius,  and  hence  also  called  Therais- 
tians.  Them  istius,  alt  hough,  being  a  Mono- 
physite,  he  held  only  one  nature  of  the 
Incarnate  Word,  maintained  that  this  na- 
ture was  subject  to  ignorance.  Timothy, 
0 


18 


AGNUS  DEI 


ALBIGENSES 


Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  and  his  suc- 
cessor Theodosius  (537-539)  opposed  this 
assertion,  which  led  logically  to  the  con- 
fession of  two  natures,  or  to  the  open 
denial  of  Christ's  divinity.  Thereupon, 
the  Agnoet£e  formed  themselves  into  a 
special  sect  which  lasted  till  the  eighth 
century.  (See  Petavius,  "  Ue  Incarnat." 
I.  xvi.  1 1 .  Hefele,  "  Conciliengeschichte," 
ii.  574.) 

ACNVS  DEI.  (1)  A  prayer  in  the 
Mass,  which  occurs  shortly  before  the 
communion — "  Lamb  of  God,  who  takest 
away  the  sins  of  the  world,  have  mercy 
on  lis.  Lamb  of  God,  who  takest  away 
the  sins  of  the  world,  have  mercy  on  us. 
Limib  of  God,  &c.,  give  us  peace."  It 
has  been  used  since  the  time  of  Pope  Ser- 
gius,  in  the  seventh  century.  Originally 
(according  to  some,  till  the  time  of  .lohn 
XXIL),  each  petition  ended  with  "  have 
mercy  on  us  "  ;  and  this  custom  still  con- 
tinues in  the  Lateran  basilica  (Gavant.). 
{2)  The  figure  of  a  lamb  stamped  on  the 
wax  which  remains  from  the  Paschal 
candles,  and  solemnly  blessed  by  the  Pope 
on  the  Thursday  after  Easter,  in  the  first 
and  seventh  years  of  his  Pontificate. 
Amalarius,  writing  early  in  the  ninth 
century,^  mentions  the  fact  that  in  his 
time  the  Agnus  Dei's  were  made  of  wax 
and  oil  by  the  Archdeacon  of  Rome, 
blessed  by  the  Pope,  and  distributed  to 
the  people  on  the  octave  of  Easter.  A  bull 
of  Gregory  XIII.  forbids  persons  to  paint 
or  gild  any  Agnus  Dei  blessed  by  the  Pope, 
under  pain  of  excommunication.^ 

AXiB.  A  vestment  of  white  linen, 
reaching  from  head  to  foot  and  with 
sleeves,  which  the  priest  puts  on  before 
saying  Mass,  with  the  prayer — "Make  me 
white,  O  Lord,  and  cleanse  me,"  &c.  It 
sprang  from  the  under-garment  (the  tunica, 
or  T7o?i))pris)  of  the  Romans  and  Greeks, 
which  was  usually  white,  although  a/bn 
docs  not  occur  as  a  technical  term  for  the 
wbite  tunic  till  nearly  the  end  of  the  third 
century.  The  Greek  under-garment  had 
sleeves,  and  it  was  this  which  the  Chris- 
tians adopted  for  ecclesiastical  use.  The 
alb  was  adopted  for  Church  use  from 
early  times.  Eusebius  speaks  of  bishops 
clothed  in  the  holy  no^rjfi^s.  A  cajion 
attributed  to  the  Fourth  Council  of  Car- 
thage, 398,  and  which  certainly  belongs 
to  that  ])eriod,  orders  deacons  to  use  the 
alb  "  only  at  the  time  of  the  oblation  or 
of  reading."  In  580,  the  Council  of  Nar- 
bonne  forbade  deacons,  subdeacons,  or 

>  Fleurv,  xlvii.  30. 

^  St.  Liguori,  Theol.  Moral,  vii.  n.  200. 


lectores  to  put  off  the  alb  before  the  end 
of  Mass.  At  the  same  time,  long  after 
this  date  the  alb  continued  to  be  worn,  at 
least  by  clerics,  in  daily  life.  Thus,  in 
889,  a  Bishop  of  Soissons  forbids  an  eccle- 
siastic to  use  at  Mass  the  same  alb  which 
he  is  accustomed  to  wear  at  home. 

The  shape  of  the  alb  has  remained 
much  as  it  was,  for  it  is  a  mistake  to  sup- 
pose that  it  ever  was  a  tight-fitting  gar- 
ment. As  a  rule,  too,  it  was  always  made 
of  linen,  whence  it  is  often  called  linea, 
but  it  was  sometimes  made  of  silk,  and 
adorned  with  gold  and  with  figures  It 
was  also  in  ancient  times  ornamented  with 
stripes  of  purple  or  gold.  Another  ancient 
ornament  of  the  alb  consisted  in  the  para- 
turn,  which  was  in  use  from  the  eleventh 
to  the  sixteenth  century.  This  paratura 
(from  parare,  to  adorn  :  French,  j)ariire) 
was  a  square  piece  of  coloured  embroidery 
from  half  a  foot  to  one  foot  in  length, 
sewed  on  at  four  places  in  the  alb. 

The  mystical  meaning  of  this  vestment 
is  plainly  indicated  by  the  prayer  given 
above.    (Ilefele,  "  Beitrage,"  &c.) 

AIiBZCBN'SES.  These  heretics  were 
so  named  from  the  town  of  A  Iby  in  Lan- 
guedoc,  where  a  Council  was  held  in  1 176 
which  condemned  their  doctrines.  They 
owed  their  Manichfean  tenets  to  the  Pauli- 
cian  sect,  which,  originally  formed  in  Ar- 
menia in  tlie  eighth  century,  was  exiled 
to  Bulgaria,  and,  becoming  very  powerful 
there,  gradually  extended  its  numbers  and 
influence  up  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  and 
passed  out  of  Swabia  into  the  south-east 
of  France.  Their  teachers  assumed  a 
great  simplicity  of  manners,  dress,  and 
mode  of  life  ;  they  inveighed  against  the 
vices  and  worldliness  of  the  clergy  ;  and 
there  was  sufficient  truth  in  these  censures 
to  dispose  their  hearers  to  believe  what 
they  advanced  and  reject  what  they  de- 
cried. They  taught  the  well-known  doc- 
trine of  the  ManichsBans,  tliat  there  are 
two  opposing  creative  princijiles,  one  good, 
the  other  evil:  the  invisible  world  pro- 
ceeding from  the  former,  the  body  and  all 
material  things  from  the  latter.'  They 
also  rejected  the  Old  Testament,  said  that 
infant  baptism  was  useless,  and  denied 
marriage  to  the  "perfect,"  as  they  called 
their  more  austere  members.  The  con- 
demnation of  their  tenets  by  the  Council 
of  Alby  produced  little  or  no  ettect;  they 
still  multiplied  and  spread;  and  Raymond 

'  Protestant  writers  liave  dciiietl  this,  but 
it  has  been  conclusively  established  by,  .among 
others,  Mr.  Hallani,  in  his  History  of  t/ie 
I  Midd.e  Ages,  ch.  ix.  part  2. 


ALEXANDRIA 


ALEXANDRIA  19 


VI.,  Count  of  Toulouse,  protected  them. 
Innocent  III.  sent  Peter  of  Castelnau  to 
Languedoc,  as  his  legate,  to  oppose  the 
spread  of  the  mischief.    In  120()  Diego, 
the  holy  Bishop  of  Osmain  Spain,  attended 
bv  Dominic  his  sub-prior,  engaged  in  a 
mission  in  the  south  of  France,  the  result 
of  which  vas  to  bring  back  great  numbers 
to  the  Catholic  faith.    The  legate  having  j 
been  murdered  in  1208  by  a  servant  of  the 
Count  of  Toulouse,  Innocent  proclaimed  a 
crusade  or  holy  war,  -with  indulgences, 
against  the  Albigensian  heretics,  and  re- 
quested Philip  II.,  the  King  of  France,  to 
puthimself  at  itshead.   The  king  refused, 
but  permitted  any  of  bis  vassals  to  join  it 
who  chose.    An  army  was  collected,  com-  i 
posed  largely  of  desperadoes,  mercenary 
soldiers,  and  adventurers  of  every  descrip- 
tion, whose  sole  object  was  plunder.  Ray-  1 
mend,  in  great  fear,  not  only  promised  all  ^ 
that  was  demanded  of  him,  but  assumed 
the  Cross  himself  against  his  proteges.  \ 
The  war  opened  in  1209  with  the  siege  of 
B^ziers  and  the  massacre  of  its  inhabi- 
tants.   Simon  de  Montfort,  the  father  of 
the  famous  Earl  of  Leicester,  was  made 
Count  of  the  territories  conquered.  The 
war  lasted  many  years  and  became  politi- 
cal; in  its  progress  great  atrocities  were  \ 
committed,  Languedoc  was  laid  desolate, 
and  the  Proven9al  civilisation  destroyed. 
Peace  was  made  in  1227,  and  the  tribunal 
of  the  Inquisition  established  soon  after.  | 
St.  Dominic,  who  preached  zealously  in  , 
Languedoc  while  the  war  was  proceeding, 
and   founded  his   celebrated  Order   in  ' 
1215,  is  thought  by  some  to  have  been  \ 
the  first  Inquisitor ;  but  this  seems  to  be 
a  mistake.    (Gibbon,  liv.;  Fleury,  Ixxii.)  , 

AXiEXATTDRZA  (Church  of).  The 
foundation  of  this  Church  by  Mark  the 
Evangelist,    the    epurjvevTrjs   Uerpov,  as 
he  is  called  by  Papias,  has  been  already 
noticed  [Afkic.\n  Church].    The  names 
of  eighteen  bishops  of  Alexandria  between  ! 
St.  Mark  and  St.  Athanasius  are  on  re- 
cord, but  little  is  known  about  most  of 
them.    Demetrius,  who  died  in  234,  is 
known  as  having  been  the  great  Origen's 
bishop,  who  first  favoured  and  afterwards  [ 
persecuted  that  extraordinary  man.    The  j 
eighteenth  in  succession  to  St.  Mark  was  j 
Alexander,  one  of  the  fathers  who  sat  at 
Nicsea.    Under  him  arose  the  Arian  con-  1 
troversy  [Arians,  Aeius].    Athanasius  j 
[see  that  article']  succeeded  Ale.xander  in  , 
326,  and  after  battling  with  Arianism  for  ' 
more  than  forty  years,  passed  the  close  of  > 
his  stormy  life  in  peace,  dying  in  373.  j 
Even  in  the  fourth  century,  a  large  pro-  | 


portion  of  the  people  of  Alexandria  were 
idolaters,  as  is  shown  by  the  story  of 
George  the  intrusive  Arian  bishop,  mur- 
dered in  a  popular  rising  because  he  was 
believed  to  have  insulted  some  of  the 
heathen  rites.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries  Monophysite  bishops  had  pos- 
session from  time  to  time  of  the  see  of 
Alexandria,  which  now  began  to  be  called 
a  patriarchate  [Patriarchate].  The 
people  of  Egypt  became  generally  at- 
tached, with  the  greater  part  of  their 
clerg\^,  to  the  doctrine  of  one  nature  in 
Christ,  and  rejected  the  decrees  of 
Chalcedon.  But  these  decrees,  after  a 
long  period  of  more  or  less  direct  opposi- 
tion, were  espoused  by  the  Byzantine 
emperors,  and  imposed  by  force  on  all  the 
countries  under  their  rule.  Hence  it 
happened  that  the  Coptic  Monophjsites, 
when  Amrou,  the  lieutenant  of  Omar, 
invaded  Egypt  in  638,  were  in  the  posi- 
tion of  an  oppressed  sect,  and  they 
eagerly  joined  their  forces  to  those  of  the 
Arabs  in  order  to  drive  out  the  Greek 
officials  and  the  orthodox  creed.  From 
that  time  the  patriarchate  of  Alexandria 
has  been  Monophysite,  and  severed  from 
Catholic  communion.  Alexandria  having 
again  become  a  place  of  considerable 
trade,  there  is  now  a  f^ir  sprinkling  of 
Catholics  in  the  popuhnion,  for  whom 
Gregory  XVI.  created  a  Vicariate.  On 
the  present  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  of 
the  Latin  rite,  see  Patriarch. 

AliEXANDRza.  (School  of).  Found- 
ed by  Alexander  the  Great  about  B.C. 
330,  Alexandria  rapidly  grew  in  popula- 
tion and  wealth,  and  numbered,  towards 
the  Christian  era,  more  than  six  hun- 
dred thousand  inhabitants.'  Under  the 
Ptolemies  Greek  literature  flourished  there 
with  extraordinary  brilliancy  in  every 
department  of  thought.  The  Jews,  who 
settled  there  in  great  numbers,  struck  by 
the  fecundity  of  the  Greek  mind,  strove 
to  turn  it  from  its  errors,  and  convert  it 
to  the  belief  in  the  unity  of  the  Godhead. 
The  Hebrew  Scriptures  were  under  this 
impulse  translated  into  Greek  [Septita- 
gint],  and  a  school  of  eminent  writers 
arose,  among  whom  the  most  distinguished 
were  Philo  and  Josephus.  In  a  place  so 
full  of  learning  and  intellectual  strife, 
Christianity  could  only  hold  its  ground, 
after  being  once  planted,  by  entering 
seriously  into  the  pliilnsopliicnl  debate, 
and  justifying,  by  argiinients  which  the 
learned  would  appreciate,  the  wisdom  of 
God  in  the  revelation  through  Christ. 
•  Gibbon,  ch.  x. 

c2 


20      ALLEGORICAL  SENSE 


ALMS 


Hence  arose  the  Christian  school  of  j 
Alexandria,  the  great  lights  of  which —  \ 
Pantajnus,  Origen,  and  Clement — lived 
in  the  third  century.  Among  the  numer-  j 
ous  worlis  of  Origen  the  most  celebrated  j 
are  his  commentaries  on  Scripture  (he 
was  the  founder  of  Biblical  criticism),  the  ; 
"  PriTicipia"  and  the  book  "Contra  Celsum."  | 
Clemi-nt  is  known  chiefly  as  the  author  of 
the  "  redagoous"  and  the  "  Stromata." 
The  latter  (the  name  means  "  hangings," 
"  tapestries  ")  is  a  multifarious  treatise,  in 
which  he  professes  to  fashion  a  web  of 
Christian  philosophy,  discussing  the  con- 
duct and  the  sentiments  which  shoidd 
belong  to  a  Christian  in  all  the  more 
important  relations  and  emergencies  of 
life.  The  rise  of  Arianism,  and  the  con- 
flicts to  which  it  led,  checked  the  pro- 
sperity of  the  School  of  Alexandria.  St. 
Athanasius  writes  rather  as  a  worker 
than  as  a  thinker,  and  after  him  no  great 
name  occurs  till  that  of  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria, who,  though  not  inactive  as  a 
writer,  employed  his  stern  will  and 
vigorous  intellect  chiefly  in  repressing  all 
dissent  from  the  creed  of  Ephesus  (430). 

AIiXiECORZCAI.  SENSE.  [See 
Mystical  Sense.] 

AitXiEIiTTXA.  From  two  Hebrew 
words  imited  by  a  hyphen,  meaning 
"  praise  Jah,"  or  "  praise  the  Lord."  It 
occurs  frequently  in  the  last  fifty  psalms, 
but  nowhere  else  in  the  Old  Testament, 
except  Tobias,  c.  13.  In  the  Apocalj-pse, 
St.  John  mentions  that  he  heard  the 
angels  singing  it  in  heaven.  The  early 
Christians  kept  the  word  in  its  original 
Hebri-'AV  form,  and  we  know  from  St. 
Jerome  tliut  children  were  taught  to  pro- 
nounc(_:  it  as  soon  as  they  could  speak, 
while  it  was  sung  during  his  time  by  the 
Christian  country-people  in  Palestine,  as 
they  drove  the  plough. 

According  to  Sozomen,  the  Roman 
Church  did  nob  use  it  in  her  public 
services,  except  on  Easter  Sunday.  At 
present,  it  constantly  occurs  in  the  Roman 
Mass  and  ottice  ;  indeed,  it  is  always  used 
in  the  Mass  between  the  Epistle  and 
Gospel  except  at  certain  times  when  the 
Church  omits  it  altogether,  as  a  sign  of 
mourning.  It  is  thus  omitted  from 
Septuagesima  to  Holy  Saturday ;  in  ferial 
Masses  during  Advent ;  on  the  feast  of  the 
Holy  Innocents,  unless  it  falls  on  a  Sunday ; 
on  all  vigils  which  are  fasting-days,  if  the 
Mass  of  the  vigil  be  said,  and  in  all 
Requiem  Masses.  It  is,  however,  used  in 
the  Mass  on  the  vigil  of  Easter  (Holy 
Satiu-day)  and  of  Pentecost,  because  the 


Masses  were  anciently  said  at  night,  and 
belonged  to  the  solemnity  of  the  respec- 
tive feasts.  (Benedict  XIV.  "  De  Miss." 
ii.  5.) 

AX.I.  SAZSTTS.  As  early  as  the 
fourth  century,  the  Greeks  kept  on  the 
first  Sunday  after  Pentecost  the  feast  of 
all  martyrs  and  saints,  and  we  still 
possess  a  sermon  of  St.  Chrysostom  de- 
livered on  that  day.  In  the  West, 
the  feast  was  introduced  by  Pope  Boni- 
face IV.  after  he  had  dedicated,  as  the 
Church  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  the 
Martyrs,  the  Pantheon,  which  had  been 
made  over  to  him  by  the  Emperor  Phocas. 
The  feast  of  the  dedication  was  kept  on 
the  thirteenth  of  May.  About  781  Gregory 
III.  consecrated  a  chapel  in  St.  Peter's 
Church  in  honour  of  all  the  saints,  from 
which  time  AU  Saints'  Day  has  been  kept 
in  Rome,  as  now,  on  the  first  of  Novem- 
ber. From  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth 
century,  the  feast  came  into  general  ol> 
servance  throughout  the  West.  It  ranks 
as  a  double  of  the  first  class  with  an 
octave. 

AX.I.  SOirx.S  3>AV.  A  solemn 
commemoration  of,  and  prayer  for,  all  the 
souls  in  Purgatory,  which  the  Church 
makes  on  the  second  of  November.  The 
Mass  said  on  that  day  is  always  the  Mass 
of  the  dead,  priests  and  others  who  are 
under  obligation  of  reciting  the  breviary 
are  required  to  say  the  matins  and  lauds 
fi-om  the  office  of  the  dead  in  addition  to 
the  office  which  is  said  on  that  day  ac- 
cording to  the  ordinary  course,  and  the 
vespers  of  the  dead  are  said  on  the  first  of 
November,  immediately  after  the  vespers 
of  All  Saints.  This  solemnity  owes  its 
origin  to  the  Abbot  Odilo  of  Clugny, 
who  instituted  it  for  all  the  mnuiistcri.vs  of 
his  congregation  in  the  y  ar  '.tits.  Some 
authors  think  there  are  tiaccs  :it  lo;[>t^  of 
a  local  celebration  of  this  day  lirfore 
Odilo's  time.  With  the  Greeks  Saturday 
was  a  day  of  special  prayer  for  the  dead, 
particularly  the  Saturday  before  Lent  and 
that  which  preceded  Pentecost.  (Thoma.s- 
sin,  "Traite  des  Festes,"  liv.  ii.  ch.  21.) 

AXiMS  (from  f\er]fio(Tvvrj),  originally 
a  work  of  mercy,  spiritual  or  temporal, 
and  then  used  to  denote  material  gifts 
bestowed  on  the  poor. 

Almsgiving  is  frequently  and  urgently 
enjoined  in  the  Old  Testament.'  So 
highly  did  the  Jews  think  of  this  duty, 
that  in  Chaldee  almsgiving  is  expressed 

1  E.g.  Levit.  xix.  9,  10 ;  xxiii.  22 ;  Deut 
XV.  11. 


ALMONER 


ALTAR 


21 


by  a  word  which  sijfnifies  justice   or  | 
rigliteousness,  and  in  the  LXX  the  word 
(ktrjfioaim)   or   "  aliiiseiN  in;:  "    is    iifteii  ] 
used  to  translate  thr  lli  lin  u  l-n- justice  , 
or rig;hteousness.    In  tlir  Ni  w  'ri-.-tameiit 
Christ  ninkes  almsdceds  in  those  wlmare 
able  to  perform  them  an  ahsi  )lnti'C(in(lil  ion 
of  salvation.'    St.  Paul  rxlmi-t^  tlif  faitli- 
fulto  lay  by  everj-wi'i'l;  s..niot  hnii;  for-  the 
needsof  the  poor  ;  and  tlir  nuniri-ou-.  ri-W- 
gious  orders  which  (h'\otc  thcin>rl\es 
chiefly  or  in  part  to  the  can'  of  the  poor, 
prove  that  the  >pirit  of  Cin-ist  and  His 
Apostles  still  animates  the  (Jliiircli. 

All  are  of  course  strictly  bound  to  re- 
lieve the  poor,  when  they  are  in  extreme 
necessity — i.e.  when  they  are  in  proximate 
danger  of  death,  or  grievous  sickness  | 
through  want.  I5esides  this,  St.  Liguori 
teaches  that  persons  are  l.iound,  out  of 
that  ]i;irt  of  tln  ii'  income  \vhi(di  remains 
over  when  thrv  haxe  made  suitahle  jiro- 
yision  lor  themsehes  and  tiieii-  families, 
to  relieve  the  ordinar}-  necessities  of  the 
poor.  The  sum  whicli  a  rich  man  is 
strictly  bound  to  eive  in  charity  must 
vary  in  varying  circiimst  ance^,  and  can 
never  be  fi.\ed  exactly  ;  hut.  \\\nw{  iVom 
strict  obligation,  the  blessing-  ]iromi>ed 
to  generous  alnw^^ixinn  for  the  love  of 
God  will  al\\;i\-  ]m  o\i-  a  strong  incentive 
with  the  C'liri-.tiaii  soul.  Ecclesiastics 
are  bound  to  spend  all  the  revenues  of 
their  benefices,  except  what  is  required  for 
their  own  maintenance,  in  pious  uses. 
The  poor  of  the  place,  if  they  are  in  i 
serious  need,  must  be  considered  tirst,-  and  i 
if  the  cure  of  souls  is  attached  to  the 
benefice,  the  cleric  who  holds  it  is  bound 
to  seek  out  the  poor  in  his  district.  (St. 
Liguor.  "  Theol."  lib.  iii.  31  seq.,  lib.  iv. 
497.) 

AXiMOBTER  {eleemosynarius).  An 
ecclesiastic  at  the  court  of  a  king  or 
prince,  or  in  a  nohle  mansion,  having 
the  charge  of  the  di>i  rihul  ion  of  alms. 
From  the  fourteentii  century  tlie  otlice  of 
Grand  Alnioner  in  Fi-anc-  lose  into  e\en 
greater  im])ortance,  hecaii>.'  tei>  olhcer 
had  the  charge  of  the  kine'>  i  ccle^ia.-i  ical 
patronage.  The  Revolution  swept  it 
away;  inider  the  Second  Em])iri>  it  re- 
appeared; but  it  has  not  sn7-\  i\fd  S:-dan. 
One  of  the  Anglican  bi-lio],.  has  the 
title  of  Lord  Ilitjh  Almone,',  and  di.s- 
penses  the  sovereign's  alms.  Cluqihiius 
of  anykindare  commonly  called  almoners 
in  France.  The  finmonicr  dc  l<i Jlntte  is  a 
functionary  of  considerable  importance, 

1  Matt.  XXV.  34  seq. 

'  So  at  least  some  ;;rave  authors  say. 


on  whose  nomination  chiiplains  are  ap- 
pointed to  ships,  and  also  to  hospitals. 

AXiOCZ.  A  name  'j-ix  en  l,v  I'.piiihaiuus 
to  heretics  who  denied  llie  dni  trine  of  the 
Word  (.\oyoy)  and  rejected  St.  ,John's 
writings  {i.e.  the  Ai)oealvi)se  as  well  as 
the  (iospel)  on  the  ground  that  they  did 
not  agree  with  the  rest  of  Scrijilure. 
Epiphanius  speaks  of  Theodotus  of  By- 
zantium as  an  oflshoot  of  this  sect.  This 
man,  known  as  Theodotus  the  tanner, 
held  that  Jesus  was  a  mere  man.  born, 
however,  miraculously  of  a  virgin  :  that 
Christ  was  united  to  him  at  his  baptism, 
descending  on  him  as  a  dove  and  confer- 
ring supernatural  powers.  Artemon 
taught  the  same  doctrine.  The  heretics 
claimed  to  have  the  early  Roman  Church 
on  their  side,  alleging  that  it  had  been 
corrupted  by  Zephyrinus,  an  assertion, 
as  a  contemporary  writer  quoted  by  Euse- 
bius  observes,  abundantly  confuted  by  the 
writings  of  the  first  ( 'Iwistians,  and  the 
hvmns  in  which  "from  the  beginninu" 
Christ  had  been  called  (lod,  Theodotus 
was  e.xcommunicated  by  Pope  Victor  at 
the  end  of  the  second  century.  Thi'od(  itus, 
the  money-changer,  taught  similar  doc- 
trine, with  the  acldition  of  certain  Gnostic 
extravagances.  He  made  Christ  an  a>on 
who  had  descended  on  Jesus,  Melchisedec 
an  awn  superior  to  Christ.' 

Eusebius,  with  other  ancient  autliori- 
ties,  .speaks  of  Paul  of  Samosata  as  renew- 
ing the  error  of  Artemon.  Paul,  bishoj)  of 
Antioch,  was  notorious  for  his  avarice, 
love  of  worldly  pomp,  and  irregular  life. 
He  conceived  of  the  Word  and  Holy 
Ghost  as  mere  attributes  of  God,  not 
divine  Persons.  Jesus  Avas  a  mere  man, 
born  ofa  virgin  and  enlightened  in  an  extra- 
ordinary degree  by  the  Word  or  Wisdom 
of  God.  After  twice  deceiving  the  bishojis 
assembled  in  council  at  Antioch  by  false 
statements  and  false  promises,  he  was 
deposed  at  a  third  Antiochene  council  in 
269.'^    [See  Antioch,  par.  7.] 

Similarly  Berylhis,  bishoji  of  Po>fra 
in  Arabia,  denied  the  pre-existence  and 
divinity  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  l)isho])s 
who  met  in  council  against  him  called  in 
Origen  to  their  lielji,  and  the  latter  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  back  Reryllus  to  the 
truth.' 

AX.TAR.  Th(>  Hebrew  word  n:irp 
which  is  usually  translated  "altar,"  means 
literally  "a  ]>lace  for  sacrifice:'"  and  in 
the  New  Testament    its    equivalent  is 

'  Kiisob.  v.  -JS  ;  Flnlo^ophnm.  vii.  .30. 

^  Ilefelc,  Concilitiigesihichtt,  1.  135  ieq. 

s  Euseb.  Hist.  vi.  33. 


22 


ALTAR 


ALTAE 


6v(na<TTrjpLov.  The  sacred  writers  avoid 
the  commou  Greek  word  for  altar,  3ti)/io'r,' 
"a  raised  place,"  adopting  the  unclassical 
word  Ovaiaa-Trifuop,  because  by  doing  so 
they  avoided  the  lieathen  associations  con-  I 
nected  with  the  common  Greek  term,  he- 
sides  expressing  much  more  distinctly  the 
purpose  of  sacrifice  for  which  an  altar  is 
built.  Whether  the  Christian  altar  is 
mentioned  by  name  in  the  Bible  is  doubt- 
ful. There  is  some  ground  for  supposing 
that  it  is  referred  to  in  Matt.  v.  23,  and 
in  Hebrews  xiii.  10.  It  has  been  argued 
that  when  our  Lord  imposes  a  precept  of 
forgiveness  before  the  gift  is  presented  at 
the  altar,  he  did  not  mean  to  give  the  Jews 
a  new  law  with  regard  to  their  sacrifices, 
which  were  soon  to  pass  away,  but  to 
establish  the  indissoluble  connection  be- 
tween the  Eucharist  Sacrifice  of  His 
Church  and  brotherlj'  love.  Similarly,  it 
is  urged  thatwheu  the  writer  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  asserts  "we  have  an  altar, 
of  which  they  have  no  right  to  eat  who 
serve  the  tabernacle,"  he  is  setting  altar 
against  altar,  and  declaring  the  impossi- 
bility of  partaking  in  the  Jewish  sacrificial 
feastings  and  joining  at  the  same  time  in 
the  sacrificial  banquet  of  the  new  law. 
It  is  certainly  difiicult  to  understand  the 
"altar"  as  the  altar  of  the  cross,  which 
is  never  once  called  an  altar  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  though,  of  course,  an  altar 
it  indisputably  is,  still  nobody  ate  of  the 
sacrifice  offered  on  it.  At  the  same  time, 
these  interpretations  are  by  no  means  held 
by  all  Catholic  commentators.^ 

However  it  may  stand  with  the  name, 
the  existence  of  the  thing  is  implied  in  the 
New  Testament  doctrine  of  sacrifice  [see 
Mass],  and  the  name  occurs  in  the  very 
earliest  Christian  writers.  "There  is  one 
flesb,"  says  St.  Ignatius  the  disciple  of  St. 
John,  "  one  flesh  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
and  one  chalice  for  union  with  His  blood, 
ove  altar  (Svaiao-Tripiov),  as  one  bishop."^ 
So  TertuUian  describes  Christians  as  stand- 
ing at  the  "altar  of  God;"*  and  the  same 
word  "altar"  is  used  in  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions and  in  the  ancient  liturgies. 
These  testimonies  are  in  no  way  weakened 
by  passages  in  Minucius  Felix  and  Arno- 
bius,  who  in  their  controversies  withPagans 
deny  the  existence  of  Christian  altars. 
Obviously,  they  deny  that  altars  such  as 
the  Pagan  ones  were  in  use  among  Chris- 

•  Ba3/j.6s  occurs  only  once  in  the  X.T.,  and 
then  of  a  heathen  altar  :  Acts  xvii.  23. 

'■^  Maldonatus  ignores  that  given  above,  of 
Matt.  V.  2.-).  Estius,  following:  St.  Thomas, 
(listinctlv  rejects  that  of  Heb.  xiii.  10. 

3  Phi  lad.  4.  *  De  Orat.  19. 


tians;  just  as  one  of  these  authors  allowg 
tliat  there  were  no  temples  among  Chris- 
tians, though  churches  are  distinctly  re- 
cognised in  the  edicts  ofthe  Diocletian  era, 
and  are  known  to  have  existed  at  a  stiU 
earlier  date.' 

In  early  times  the  altar  was  more 
usually  of  wood;  and  an  altar  of  this  kind 
is  still  preserved  in  the  church  of  St.  John 
Lateran  at  Rome,  on  which  St.  Peter  is 
said  to  have  celebrated  Mass.''  But  the 
tombs  of  martyrs  in  the  Catacombs  and 
elsewhere  were  also  used  for  the  Holy 
Sacrifice,  the  slab  of  marble  which  covered 
the  sepulchre  serving  as  an  altar-table; 
and  for  almost  fourteen  centuries,  that 
part  of  the  altar  on  which  the  Eucharist 
is  consecrated  has  always  been  of  stone  or 
marble.  After  the  time  of  Constantine, 
when  sumptuous  churches  were  erected, 
careful  arrangements  were  made  for  the 
position  of  the  altar.  It  did  not  lean,  as 
it  often  does  now,  against  the  sanctuary 
wall,  but  stood  out  with  a  space  round  it, 
so  that  the  bishop  when  celebrating  Mass 
looked  towards  the  people.  Thus  the 
altar  looked  in  the  same  direction  <is  the 
portals  of  the  church,  and  often  both 
were  turned  towards  the  oast.  This  an- 
cient arrangement  is  still  exemplified  by 
the  "Papal "  altars  in  the  Roman  basilicas, 
but  particularly  in  St.  Peter's,  where  the 
Pope  still  says  Mass  on  the  great  Festivals, 
looking  at  one  and  the  same  time  to  the 
people,  to  the  portals  of  the  church,  and 
to  the  east.'  The  altars  in  the  Catacombs 
were  still  employed,  but  even  new  altars 
were  sanctified  by  relics,  a  custom  to 
which  so  much  importance  was  attributed 
that  St.  Ambrose  would  not  consecrate  an 
altar  till  he  found  relics  to  place  in  it. 
Then,  as  now,  the  altar  was  covered  with 
linen  cloths,  which,  as  appears  from  a 
rubric  in  the  Sacramentary  of  St.  Gela- 
sius,  were  first  blessed  and  con.secrated. 
It  was  surmounted  by  a  canopy,  supported 
by  columns  between  which  veils  or  cur- 
tains were  often  hung,  and  on  great  festi- 
vals it  was  adorned  with  the  sacred  vessels 
placed  upon  it  in  rows,  and  with  flowers. 
The  cross  was  placed  over  the  canopy,  or 
else  rested  immediately  on  the  altar  itself. 
The  language  and  the  actions  of  the  early 
Christians  alike  bespeak  the  reverence  in 
wliich  the  altar  was  held.    It  was  called 

•  Cardinal  Newman's  Development,  27. 

2  It  is  enclosed  in  the  Papal  altar  of  this 
church,  except  a  portion  of  it,  which  is  pre- 
served in  the  church  of  St.  Pudonti.-ma :  so,  at 
least,  savs  the  writer  of  the  article  "  Altar  "  in 
Kraus'  Real  Encydnpiidie. 

3  Rock,  Hierurgia,  497  seq. 


ALTAR 


ALTAR,  STRIPriNG  OF  23. 


"the  holy,"  "the  divinp  tablo,"  "t1i<-  altnr 
of  Christ,"  "  the  tnblo  of  the  Lord."  The 
faithful  bowed  towards  it  as  they  entered 
the  church  ;  it  was  known  as  the  aa-vXos 
TpatTf^n,  or  "table  of  asylum,"  from 
which  not  even  crimiTials  could  be  forced 
away. '  Fina  1  ly,  before  the  altar  was  used, 
it  was  solcnuily  consecrated  by  the  bishop 
with  the  cliriMn.  The  date  at  which  this 
custom  was  introduci'd  cannot  be  accu- 
rately deteniiined  :  but  the  Council  of 
Agde,  or  Apatha,  in  Southern  Gaul,  held 
in  the  year  500,  si)eaks  of  this  custom  as 
familiar  to  everybody .'- 

The  rubrics  preiixi'd  to  the  Roman 
Missal  contain  the  present  law  of  the 
Church  with  regard  to  the  altar.  It  must 
consist  of  stone,  or  at  least  must  contain 
an  altar-stone  large  enough  to  hold  the 
Llost  and  the  creater  part  of  the  chalice; 
and  this  altar,  or  the  altar-stone,  must 
have  been  consecrated  by  a  bishop,  or  by 
an  abbot  who  has  received  the  requisite 
faculties  from  the  Holy  See.  [See  Con- 
secration OF  Altaks.']  The  altar  is  to 
be  covered  with  three  cloths,  also  blessed 
by  the  bishop,  or  by  a  priest  with  special 
faculties.  One  of  these  cloths  should  reach 
to  the  ground,  the  other  two  are  to  be 
shorter,  or  else  one  cloth  doubled  may 
replace  the  two  shorter  ones.  If  possible, 
there  is  to  be  a  "  pallium,"  or  frontal,  on 
the  altar,  varying  in  colour  according  to 
the  feast  or  season.  A  crucifix^  is  to 
be  set  on  the  altar,  between  two  candle- 
sticks: the  Missal  placed  on  a  cushion,  at 
the  right-hand  side  looking  towards  the 
altar:  under  the  crucifix  there  ought  to 
be  an  altar-card,''  with  certain  prayers 
which  the  priest  cannot  read  from  the 
Missal  without  inconvenience. 

With  regard  to  the  number  of  altars 
in  a  church,  Gavantus  says  that  originally, 
even  in  the  ^\'est,  one  church  contained 
only  one  altar.  On  this  altar,  however, 
tlie  same  author  continues,  several  Masses 
were  said  on  the  same  day,  in  proof  of 
which  he  appeals  to  the  Sacranientary  of 
Leo.  He  adds  that  even  in  tiie  fourth 
century  the  church  of  Milan  contained 
several  altars,  as  appears  from  a  letter  of 

1  Synod  of  Orange,  anno  441.  Hefele,  Con- 
ciliengeschiclite.  ii.  p.  293. 
I  Hcfe:e.  ;V»V/.  p.  653. 

3  The  rubric  says  only  a  cross,  but  a  cruci- 
fix is  prescribed  by  subsequent  decrees  of  the 
Congregation  of  Kites.  Liguor.  Theol.  Mor.  vi.  n. 
S93. 

*  Tahdla  secretarum,  in  use  since  the  six- 
teenth century.  The  rubric  mentions  one  under 
the  cross,  but  now  two  others  are  placed,  one 
at  each  end  of  the  altar. 


St.  Ambrose,  and  lie  quotes otheroxamples- 
from  the  French  Church  in  the  sixth 
century. 

AX.TAR-BREASS  are  round  wafers- 
made  of  tine  wheaten  flour,  specially  pre- 
pared lor  eiiuM'ci-atioii  in  tlie  Mass.  The 
altai-lnr.ids  according  to  the  Latin  use 
(followed  alM)  by  the  Maroiiites  and  Ar- 
menians) iiiiisl  1)0  unleavened.  They  are 
usually  stain]ied  with  a  figure  of  Christ 
crucili'ed,  or  with  the  I  H  S.  They  are- 
of  two  sizes  :  one  larger,  which  the  ])riest 
himself  consecrates  and  receives,  or  else- 
reserves  for  the  Benediction  with  the- 
Blessed  Sacrament;  the  other  smaller,, 
consecrated  for  the  communion  of  the 
faithful. 

The  practice  of  stamping  altar-breads 
with  the  cross  or  IH  S  seems  to  be  ancient, 
and  is  widely  diffused.  Merati  mentions 
the  fact  that  the  cross  is  stamped  on  the 
altar-breads  used  by  Greek,  Syrian,  and 
Alexandrian  (Coptic  F)  Christians. 

AXiTAR-CARBS.  As  mentioned 
under  Altae,  the  rubric  requires  that  an 
altar-card  be  placed  in  the  centre  under 
the  crucidx  ;  custom  has  introduced  two 
others,  one  on  each  side,  the  object  of 
all  three  being  to  aid  the  priest's  memory, 
should  it  fail  at  any  time  during  the 
celebration  of  Mass,  though  he  is  expected 
to  have  the  prayers  committed  to  memory. 
The  centre  card  contains  the  "  Gloria  in 
excelsis,"  the  "  Credo,"  the  Olfertory 
prayers,  the  "  Qui  pridie,"  or  beginning  of 
the  Canon,  the  form  of  consecration,  the 
prayer  before  Communion,  and  the 
"  Placeat,"  or  last  prayer.  That  at  the 
Epistle  side  contains  the  prayer  said  while 
putting  the  water  into  the  chalice,  and 
the  "  Lavabo,"  said  at  the  washing  of  the 
fingers.  That  at  the  Gospel  side  contains 
the  prologue  of  St.  John's  Gospel  (i.  1-14). 

AXiTAR-CXiOTHS.  The  rubrics  of 
the  Missal  require  three  fair  cloths  to  be 
placed  on  the  altar,  or  two  cloths  of  which 
one  is  doubled.  They  must  be  blessed  by 
the  bishop,  or  by  a  priest  with  special 
faculties.  In  the  fourth  century  St.  Opta- 
tus  speaks  of  the  linen  cloth  placed  on  the 
altar  as  usual  in  his  time,  and  Pope  Sil- 
vester is  said  to  have  made  it  a  law  that 
the  altar-cloth  should  be  of  linen.  Men- 
tion, however,  is  made  by  Paulus  Silen- 
tiarius  of  pui  ]>le  altar-cloths,  and,  in  fact, 
both  the  material  and  the  number  of  these 
cloths  seem  to  have  varied  in  early  times. 
(See  Rock,  "  Hierurgia,"  p.  503  ;  Kraus, 
"Archfeol.  Diet.,"  Altartiicher.) 

AX.TAR,  STRXPPZN-G  OF.  fSee- 
IIOLY  WilKK.] 


24 


AMBO 


ANAGNOSTES 


AMBO  (Qr.  ava^aiveiv,  to  ascend). 
A  raised  platform  in  the  nave  of  early 
Christian  churches,  surrounded  by  a  low 
wall ;  steps  led  up  to  it  from  the  east  and 
west  sides.  The  place  on  it  where  the 
Gospel  was  read  was  higher  than  that 
used  for  reading  the  Epistle.  All  church 
notices  were  read  from  it ;  here  edicts  and 
excommunications  were  given  out ;  hither 
came  heretics  to  make  their  recantation ; 
here  the  Scriptures  were  read,  and  sermons 
preached.  It  was  gradually  superseded  by 
the  modern  pulpit.  A  good  example  of 
the  "  ambo  "  may  be  seen  in  the  church  of 
San  Clemente  at  Rome.  (Ferraris.) 

aiffiBBOSZAM'  CHANT.  [See  Plain 
Chant.] 

AlvxBilosZAir  X.ZTVBCY.  An  an- 
cient Liturgy  still  used  in  the  church  of 
JNIilan  instead  of  the  Roman  Mass,  from 
which  it  differs  in  many  striking  points. 
[See  Liturgy.]  We  read  in  Walafrid 
Strabo,  an  author  of  the  ninth  century, 
that  St.  Ambrose  regulated  the  Mass  and 
Office  of  his  church  at  Milan,  but  some 
parts  of  this  rite  are  older  than  St.  Am- 
brose, while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Ambrosian Missal  contains  greatadditions 
which  date  from  St  Gregory  the  Great. 
According  to  the  Ambrosian  rite,  there  is 
no  Mass  for  the  Fridays  in  Lent ;  and  the 
oflfering  of  bread  and  wine  by  the  people 
for  the  sacrifice  is  still  retained  in  solemn 
Masses.  The  Ambrosian  rite  was  con- 
firmed by  Pope  Alexander  VI.  in  1497, 
and  is  still  retained.  (Oeillier,  "  Auteurs 
SacrSs,"  torn.  xiii.  c.  1.) 

AMBRT  (Lat.  armarium,  whence 
almarium;  Ft.  armoire).  A  closet  or 
cupboard,  place  for  tools,  chest.  "  In  the 
form  almery  corruptly  confused  with 
almonry,  as  if  a  place  for  a/m«  "  (Murray's 
Dictionary).  The  same  authority  explains 
an  ambry  in  a  church  as  "  a  cupboard, 
locker,  or  closed  recess  for  books,  sacra- 
mental vessels,  vestments,  &c."  In  its 
corrupt  use  the  word  was  applied,  Stow 
tells  us,  to  the  old  almonry  of  West- 
minster Abbey,  "  for  that  the  alms  of  the 
abbey  were  there  distributed  to  the  poor." 

AMEM'.  A  Hebrew  word  signifying 
"  truly,"  "  certainly."  It  is  preserved  in 
its  original  form  by  the  New  Testament 
writers,  and  by  the  Church  in  her  Liturgy. 
According  to  Benedict  XIV.,  it  indicates 
assent  to  a  truth,  or  it  is  the  expression  of 
a  desire,  and  equivalent  to  yivoiro,  "so 
be  it." ' 

'  De  Miss.  ii.  5.  He  adds  a  third  sense — 
viz.  consent  to  a  request — but  gives  no  clear 
instance  of  this  use. 


"Amen"  signifies  assent  when  used 
at  the  end  of  the  Creeds.  In  the  ancient 
Church  the  commuuicants  used  it  as  an 
expression  of  their  faith  in  the  Blessed 
Sacrament.  Thus  we  read  in  the  Apo- 
stolic Constitutions  ■ — *'  Let  the  bishop 
give  the  oblation,  saying,  '  The  Body  of 
Christ,' and  let  the  recipient  say,  'Amen.'" 
St.  Ambrose  explains  the  "  Amen  "  used 
thus  in  communicating  as  meaning  "  it  is 
true." 

At  the  end  of  prayers  "  Amen  "signi- 
fies our  desire  of  obtaining  what  we  ask. 
Thus  it  is  said  by  the  server,  after  the 
collects  in  the  Mass,  as  a  sign  that  the 
faithful  unite  their  petitions  to  those  of 
the  priest.  In  Justin's  time,  the  people 
themselves  answered  "  Amen  "  as  the  priest 
finished  the  prayers  and  thanksgiviugs  in 
the  Mass,  and  was  about  to  distribute  the 
Holy  Communion.* 

AMZCS  {Amictus.  Called  also  '*'  kn- 
merale,"  "  superhumerale,"  "  anaboladi- 
um,"  from  avaiiaXkeiv,  and,  in  a  con-upt 
form,  "  anabolagium  ").  A  piece  of  fine 
linen,  oblong  in  shape,  which  the  priest 
who  is  to  say  Mass  rests  for  a  moment  on 
his  head  and  then  spreads  on  his  shoulders, 
reciting  the  prayer — "  Place  on  my  head, 
O  Lord,  the  helmet  of  salvation,"  &c. 

For  many  centuries  priests  celebrated 
with  bare  neck,  as  may  be  seen  from 
many  figures  in  the  Roman  Catacombs, 
and  from  the  mosaic  at  San  Vitale  in 
Ravenna.  The  amice,  however,  is  fre- 
quently mentioned  after  the  opening  of  the 
ninth  century.^  Originally,  as  Innocent 
III.  expressly  testifies,  it  covered  the  head 
as  well  as  the  neck ;  and  to  this  day  Fran- 
ciscan and  Dominican  friars  wear  the 
amice  over  their  heads  till  they  reach  the 
altar.  It  also  was  not  at  first  concealed 
by  the  alb,  as  is  now  the  case,  and  it  was 
often  made  of  silk  and  ornamented  with 
figures.  At  present  it  is  made  of  linen, 
and  only  adorned  with  a  cross,  which 
the  priest  kisses  before  putting  on  the 
amice. 

Mediaeval  writers  have  given  very 
many  and  very  difi'erent  symbolical  mean- 
ings to  this  vestment.  The  prayer  already 
quoted  from  the  Roman  Missal  speaks  of 
it  as  figuring  the  "  helmet  of  salvation," 
and  a  similar  prayer  occurs  inmost  of  the 
ancient  Latin  Missals. 

AN-ACsrosTES.   [See  Lbotob.] 

>  viii.  12. 
»  Apol.  i.  67. 

*  "  It  was  introduced  in  the  eighth,"  sayt 
Dr.  Rock ;  but  see  Hefele.  Beitraqe  zur  Kirchem- 
geschichte,  &c.,  11. 


ANAGOGICAL 


ANGEL 


26 


AM-ACOGlCAli  (literally,  "leading 
up  ").  A  name  given  to  things  typical  of 
Christ  in  the  Old,  or  to  the  actions  of 
•Christ  in  the  New,  Testninent,  so  far  as 
they  signify  the  eternal  glory  which  awaits 
the  elect.  The  anagogical  is  a  subdivision 
•of  the  spiritual  or  mystical  senses.  {See 
St.  Thomas,  S.  i.  I,  10.) 

ANAPHORA.  Greek  word  for  Offer- 
tory, in  the  Mass. 

ANATHEIVIA.  A  thing  devoted  or 
given  over  to  evil,  so  that  "  anathema  sit " 
means,  "let  him  be  accursed."  St.  Paul 
at  the  end  of  1  Corinthians  pronounces 
this  anathema  on  all  who  do  nut  love  our 
blessed  Saviour.  The  Church  has  used 
the  phrase  "  anathema  sit  "  from  the  ear- 
liest times  with  reference  to  those  whom 
she  excludes  from  her  communion  either 
because  of  moral  oHences  or  because  they 
persist  in  heresy.  Thus  one  of  the 
earliest  councils — that  of  Elvira,  held  in 
306 — decrees  in  its  fifty-second  canon  that 
those  who  placed  libellous  writings  in  the 
church  should  be  anathematised  ;  aud  the 
First  General  Council  anathematised  those 
who  held  the  Arian  heresy.  General 
•coxmcils  since  then  have  usually  given 
solemnity  to  their  decrees  on  articles  of 
faith  by  appending  an  Anathema. 

Neither  St.  Paul  nor  the  Church  of 
God  ever  wished  a  soul  to  be  damned. 
In  pronouncing  anathema  against  wilful 
heretics,  the  Church  does  but  declare  that 
they  are  excluded  from  her  communion, 
and  that  they  must,  if  they  continue  obsti- 
nate, perish  eternally. 

ABTCHORXTE.   [See  Hermit.] 

ANCEXi.  The  word  (ayyfXos,  a 
translation  of  ^X^O)  means  messenger, 
and  is  applied  in  a  wide  sense  to  priests,' 
prophets,-  or  to  the  Messias  ^  as  sent  by 
God.  Specially,  however,  it  is  used  as  the 
name  of  spiritual  beings,  created  by  God 
but  superior  in  natuie  to  man.  The  ex- 
istence of  sucli  sujit  iliuman  intelligences 
was  conjectured  even  by  heathens  such  as 
Plato  ;  and  although  the  Sadducees  *  be- 
lieved "  neither  in  angel  or  spirit,"  angels 
are  mentioned  so  frequently  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testament  that  it  would  be  idle 
to  allege  Scriptural  jiroofs  on  the  matter. 
When  they  were  created,  Scripture  does 
not  distinctly  tell  us.  "  The  most  ancient 
Fathers,"  says  Petavius,  "  especially  the 
Greeks  and  such  Latins  as  are  used  to 
'  iMal.  ii.  7.  2  A'^ix,  j.  13. 

5  Is.  xlii.  19.  There  are  diflerent  views  held 
on  this  passage,  but  this  is  not  the  place  to 
'4i:icu8S  them. 

*  Acts  xxiii.  8. 


I  follow  the  Greeks,"  held  that  the  angels 
j  were  created  "  before  the  heavens  and  all 
j  material  things."  The  contrary'  opinion, 
that  the  heavens  were  first  created  and 
the  angels  in  the  heavens,  is  that  of  St. 
Thomas,  and  has  been  commonly  held  since 
his  time  among  the  Latins.  The  Fourth 
Lateran  Council  declares  that  God  created 
angels  and  material  1)eings  "at  the  same 
time  from  the  beginning."  Butthecoun- 
cil  had  no  intention  ol' deciding  this  ques- 
tion, which  stdl  remains  open,  as  has  been 
pointed  out  by  St.  Thomas  himself,  by 
Vasquez,  Petavius,  and  others. 

With  regard  to  the  nature  of  angels, 
numy  early  Fathers  believed  that  they 
w  ere  corporeal.  This  opinion  is  not  dith- 
cult  to  account  for  when  we  consider  such 
a  history  as  that  of  the  marriages  between 
the  "  sons  of  God  "  and  "  the  daughters 
of  men,"  given  in  the  sixth  chapter  of 
Genesis.'  At  the  Seventh  General  Coun- 
cil, the  Patriarch  Tarasius  argued  that 
angels  might  be  painted,  because  they 
were  "circumscribed  (eVeifii)  nepiypanTol 
da-iv)  and  had  appeared  to  many  in  the 
form  of  men ; "  nor  did  the  council  censure 
his  words,  limiting  itself  to  a  simple  de- 
cision that  it  was  lawful  to  represent 
angels  in  pictures.  However,  our  Lord's 
words ^  imply,  that  angels  are  incapable  of 
marriage,  and  so  exclude  the  interpreta- 
tion which  regards  the  "  sons  of  God  " 
in  Genesis  vi.  as  a  synonym  for  angels. 
INIany  of  the  Fathers  deny  that  angels  have 
bodies;  so  do  all  modern  theologians. 
The  Fourth  Lateran  Council  separates  an- 
gelic from  corporeal  natures,  and  Peta- 
vius rightly  characterises  th'e  contrary 
opinion  as  "proximate  to  heresy."  At 
the  same  time,  angels  are  capable  of  as- 
suming bodies ;  to  which  they  are  for  the 
time  intimately  united ;  which  they  move 
and  which  they  use  to  represent  either  their 
own  invisible  nature  or  the  attributes  of 
God.  Passages  of  Scripture,  which  imply 
this,  will  readily  occiu-  to  the  reader. 

The  angels,  then,  are  purely  spiritual 
intelligences  and,  for  that  very  reason, 
superior  to  man,  who  is  composed  of  body 
and  soul.  They  are  immortal,  since  death 
consists  iu  the  separation  ol'soul  and  body, 
nor  could  they  be  destroyed,  except  by  the 
omnipotence  of  God.  Their  knowledge, 
unlike  that  of  man,  which  is  slowly  ac- 

•  But  that  the  "  sons  of  God  "  may  nie;m 
pious  men  is  proved  by  Ps.  Ixxiii.  15  (Ixxii.  iu 
Vulg.),  Oseeii.  1,  &c. 

2  The  7a|ti€iv  of  Matt.  xxii.  30  exactly  cor- 
responds to  the  "  took  to  themselves  wives  "  in 
the  Hebrew  of  Genesis  vi.  2. 


26 


ANGEL 


ANGEL 


quired  by  means  of  the  senses,  depends 
upon  images  received  from  God  along 
with  the  nature  He  has  given  them.  They 
do  not  reason,  as  we  do,  for  the  keenness 
of  their  intellect  enables  them  to  see  by 
intuition  the  conclusions  which  are  in- 
volved in  principles.  Their  intelligence 
is  in  perpetual  exercise,  and  although  the 
future,  the  thoughts  of  the  human  soul, 
and  above  all  the  mysteries  of  grace,  are 
hidden  from  them,  except  so  far  as  God 
is  pleased  to  reveal  them,  still  they  can 
know  and  understand  many  things  which 
are  hidden  from  us.  They  can  move  from 
place  to  place  with  a  swiftness  impossible 
to  man.  Finally,  they  are  endowed  with 
free-will  and  are  able  to  communicate 
with  each  other.' 

To  a  nature  so  noble  God  added  sanc- 
tifying grace.  They  received  power  to 
know  God  as  revealed  by  faith,  to  hope 
in  Him,  to  love  Him,  and  afterwards,  if 
they  were  worthy,  see  Him  face  to  face. 
But,  during  the  time  of  their  probation, 
Lucifer  and  many  other  angels  fell.  It 
is  hard  to  determine  the  precise  nature  of 
their  sin,  but  we  may  quote  Petavius, 
who  places  it  in  "a  desire  of  absolute 
dominion  over  created  things,  and  in 
hatred  of  subjection."  The  rebel  angels 
were  at  once  deprived  of  all  supernatural 
gifts  and  thrust  into  hell  without  hope  of 
pardon;  the  angels  who  had  persevered 
were  at  once  rewarded  with  everlasting 
bliss.  The  very  greatness  and  perfection 
of  angelic  nature,  says  St.  Gregory  the 
Great,  made  their  sin  unpardonable. 

Holy  -^Tit  represents  the  number  of 
the  good  angels  as  exceedingly  great* 
They  are,  according  to  the  common  teach- 
ing of  theologians,  divided  into  three 
hierarchies,  each  of  which  includes  three 
orders.  The  first  triplet  consists  of  Sera- 
phim, Cherubim,  Thrones;  the  second  of 
Dominations,  Principalities,  Powers  ;  the 
third  of  Virtues,  Archangels,  Angels. 
This  enumeration  occurs  for  the  first  time 
in  Pseudo-Dionysius,  from  whom  it  was 
adopted  by  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  and 
so  became  current  in  the  Church.  But 
it  is  founded  on  the  mention  of  seraphim 
and  cherubim  in  Isaias  and  Ezechiel ;  of 
angels  and  of  archangels  throughout 
Scripture ;  and  of  the  other  orders  in  St. 
Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Ephesians  and  Oolos- 
Bians.    The  meaning  of  St.  Paul  is  much 

1  The  text  contains  a  summaiy  of  the  teach- 
ing of  theolofjians.  It  is  contained  in  Scripture 
or  deduced  from  it,  as  may  be  seen  by  consult- 
ing St.  Thomas,  pt.  i. 

2  Dan.  vii.  10. 


disputed.  But  we  may  remark  that  very 
early  writers  divide  the  angels  into  orders, 
and  count  thrones,  domi7iiitions,  &c., 
among  them,'  though  it  is  well  to  re- 
member that  the  existence  of  these  par- 
ticular classes  of  angels  is  no  article  of 
faith. 

As  to  the  employment  of  the  angefe, 
we  read  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
that  they  are  "  all  ministering  spirits." 
They  serve  God  continually  in  heaven, 
and  they  also  defend  countries,  cities, 
churches,  &c.,  besides  offering  to  God  the 
prayers  of  the  faithful,  particularly,  ac- 
cording to  the  Fathers  and  ancient  litur- 
gies, those  which  ascend  to  heaven  during 
the  Mass.  Further,  each  man  has  an 
angel  who  watches  over  him,  defends  him 
from  evil,  helps  him  in  prayer,  suggests 
good  thoughts,  and  at  last,  if  he  is  saved, 
presents  his  soul  to  God.'' 

The  Church,  on  her  part,  shows  to  the 
angels  that  veneration  or  inferior  honour 
which  is  their  due,  and,  knowing  from 
Christ's  words  ^  that  they  are  acquainted 
with  things  which  })ass  on  earth,  she 
begs  their  prayers  and  their  kind  offices. 
It  is  true  that  St.  Paul  condemns  the 
dprjo-Kela,  or  religion  of  angels,  in  writing 
to  the  Colossians  (i.  16),  but  every  scholar 
is  aware  that  he  is  warning  them  against 
the  Gnostic  error  which  regarded  angels 
as  the  creators  of  the  world ;  and  with 
equal  reason,  the  same  passage  might  be 
alleged  as  in  condemnation  of  humility. 
It  is  true  also  that,  when  St.  John  in  the 
Apocalypse  bowed  down  before  an  angel, 
the  latter  said,  "  See  thou  do  it  not,  for 
1  also  am  thy  fellow-servant.  .  .  .  Adore 
God.""*  But  if  Protestants  think  the 
veneration  of  angels  idolatrous,  or  at 
least  unlawful,  they  ought  not  to  sup- 
pose the  holy  Apostle  so  ignorant  as  to 
offer  it — not  to  speak  of  his  shortly  after 
repeating  the  crime.  Rather,  surely,  the 
angel  refused  the  homage  out  of  respect 
to  the  honour  which  human  nature  has 
received  from  the  Incarnation  and  to  the 
apostolic  dignity  ;  just  as  a  bishop  might 
out  of  humility  decline  the  homage  of 
one  whom,  although  inferior  to  himself 
in  ecclesiastical  rank,  he  venerated  for 
his  great  virtue.  The  Catholic  may 
answer  those  who  accuse  the  Church  of 
idolatrs^  for  her  cultus  of  angels,  as  St. 
Augustine  and  St.  Oyi'il  answered  long 

1  See  Bp.  Lightfoot's  note  on  Coloss.  i.  16. 

2  Gen.  xlviii.  16  ;  Matt,  xviii.  10. 

3  Luc.  XV.  10. 

Apoc.  xix.  10  ;  xxii.  8.  Another  inter- 
pretation is  also  given  by  Petavius. 


ANGEL 


ANGLICAN  OliDERS  27 


ago,  that  we  adore  God  alone  with  latria 
or  supreme  adoration,  and  that  to  Him 
alone  we  offer  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 

Ai«i-cx:x.s,  fivzx..   [See  Devil.] 

AM'CEX.S,  FEAST  OP.  Since  the 
fifth  century  churches  were  dedicated, 
both  in  the  East  and  West,  to  the  holy 
angels.  In  the  West,  there  was  a  famous 
apparition  of  St.  Michael  on  Mount  Gar- 
ganus,  an  event  which  Baronius  places 
in  the  year  4n.j  ;  and  this  apparition  gave 
occasion  to  the  feast  of  St.  Michael  which 
the  Roman  Church  keeps  on  September 
29,  and  which  is  mentioned  in  the  mar- 
tyrologies  of  Jerome,  Bede,  and  others, 
as  the  Dedication  of  St.  Michael.  There 
was  another  apparition  of  the  same  arch- 
angel in  France  during  706.  "  It  is  this 
apparition,"  says  Thomassin,  "on  Mount 
Michael,  or  In  Periculo  Maris,  which  was 
once  so  celebrated  in  France,  and  of  which 
the  commemoration  is  still  observed  in 
some  dioceses." 

In  the  East,  the  constitution  of  Manuel 
Comnenus  mentions  a  feast  of  the  ap- 
parition of  St.  Michael  on  September  6, 
and  a  feast  of  the  angels  in  general  on 
November  8. 

The  feast  of  Angel  Guardians  was  in- 
stituted under  Paul  V.,  at  the  request  of 
Ferdinand  of  Austria,  afterwards  emperor. 
(Thomassin,  "Traite  des  Festes.") 

AirCEX.  GVARSZAN'S.  [See  An- 
GEL.] 

AIirCEI.ZCAX.S.  An  order  of  nuns, 
following  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine, 
founded  by  Luigia  di  Torelli,  Countess  of 
GuastaUa,  about  15-SO.  She  had  been 
married  twice,  but  being  left  a  second 
time  a  widow  when  only  twenty-five 
years  of  age,  she  resolved  to  devote  the 
rest  of  her  life  and  her  large  fortune  to 
the  divine  service. 

She  founded  her  first  convent  at  Milan. 
Her  religious  took  the  name  of  Angelicals 
in  order  to  remind  themselves  whenever 
they  uttered  it  of  the  purity  of  the  an- 
gels. Every  nun  adopts  the  name  of 
"Angelica,"  prefixing  it  to  that  of  a 
patron  saint  and  her  family  name — e.g. 
"Angelica  Maria  Anna  di  Gonzaga." 
Their  constitutions  were  drawn  up  by  St. 
Charles  Borromeo,  Archbishop  of  Milan. 

ANCEliirs.  By  this  name  is  de- 
noted the  Catholic  practice  of  honouring 
God  at  morning,  noon,  and  evening,  by 
reciting  three  Hail  Mary's,  together  with 
sentences  and  a  collect,  to  express  the 
Christian's  rejoicing  trust  in  the  mystery 
of  the  Incarnation.  The  first  sentence 
begins    "Angelus    Domini  nuntiavit 


Marife  ; "  whence  the  name  of  the  devo- 
tion. A  bell,  called  the  Angelus  bell, 
rings  at  I  lie  several  hours.  Tlie  evening 
Angelus  was  introduced  by  Pope  .John 
XXII.  in  the  fourteenth  century;  that 
at  noon,  according  to  Mabillon,  arose  in 
France,  and  received  Papal  sanction  at 
the  beginning  oi  the  sixteenth  centurj'. 
In  Paschal  time  the  "Regiua  Coeli"  [q.V.] 
is  recited  instead  of  tlie  Angelus. 

ATrcx.iCAN'  ORDERS.  The  vali- 
dity of  Anglican  orders  is  a  subject  of 
controversy  or  not,  according  to  the  view 
taken  of  the  nature  and  effects  of  ordina- 
tion. The  late  Archbishop  Whately  (see 
his  treatise  on  the  "  Kingdom  of  Christ," 
passim)  held  (1)  that  the  Church  of 
Christ  consisted  of  many  separate  com- 
munions having  nothing  necessarily  in 
common  but  the  profession  of  belief  in 
Jesus  Christ  as  the  Redeemer  of  mankind; 
(2)  that  Christ's  kingdom  was  "not  of 
this  world,"  i.e.  not  intended  to  be  sus- 
tained by  temporal  coercion,  as  earthly 
kingdoms  are ;  (3)  that  every  Christian 
Church  or  sect,  while  repudiating  all 
coercive  means  either  for  or  against  itself, 
had  the  right  to  organise  itself  and 
manage  its  internal  aff'airs;  (4)  that  a 
necessary  part  of  such  organisation  was 
the  appointment  of  office-bearers  and 
ministers.  Considered  thus,  Anglican 
orders  are  undoubtedly  "  valid ; "  for  no 
one  doubts  that  the  Anglican  Church  has 
a  separate  corporate  existence,  and  laws 
and  a  government  of  its  own,  nor  that  its 
clergy  are  regularly  appointed  in  con- 
formity to  those  laws.  Nor  would  any 
one  holding  this  view  justly  object  to  the 
ordination  of  Anglican  clergymen  who 
have  submitted  to  the  Roman  Church 
and  desire  to  become  priests ;  for  he 
would  admit  that  his  view  of  ordination 
and  that  held  in  the  Catholic  Church 
were  totally  distinct  things,  so  that  to 
treat  an  Anglican  clergyman  as  if  he 
had  not  been  previously  ordained  would 
merely  imply  a  radical  difference  of  con- 
ception as  to  the  nature  of  ordination, 
and  convey  no  slur  on  the  rites  or 
formalities  by  which  his  admission  as  an 
office-bearer  in  the  Anglican  Church  had 
been  prefaced. 

But  it  is  well  known  that  there  is  a 
large  and  increasing  section  of  Anglicans, 
who  hold  much  the  same  theory  as  to  the 
nature  and  effects  of  ordination  that 
Catholics  do — viz.  that  in  virtue  of 
authority  derived  in  an  unbroken  chain 
[  from  the  Apostles  [Oeder,  Holy]  the 
j  bishop  who  ordains  a  priest  confers  on 


28        ANGLICAN  OEDEES 


ANGLO-SAXON  CHUECH 


him  the  right  and  the  duty  of  offering  the 
sacrifice  of  the  New  Law  by  celebrating 
the  Eucharist,  and  of  absolving-  penitents 
from  their  sins.  If  Anglican  ordina- 
tion really  conferred  these  powers,  the 
consideration  of  the  manner  in  which 
they  have  been  used  for  the  last  three 
hundred  years,  and  of  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  used  now,  would  be  one 
of  the  most  painful  and  perplexing  sub- 
jects of  thought  on  which  a  Catholic 
could  enter.  At  the  same  time,  the 
Anglican  party  referred  tohaVe  no  choice 
but  to  claim  for  their  ordinations  nothing 
less  than  the  potency  above  described, 
for  they  hold,  as  we  do,  that  a  priest  in 
the  Cathulic  Church  is  either  all  this,  or 
he  is — nothing.  Hence  an  earnest  and 
searching  conti-oversy  has  arisen  of  late 
years,  with  the  view  of  sifting  and  testing 
the  validity  of  those  orders  of  which  the 
consecration  of  Parker  by  Barlow  in  1559 
was  the  fountain-head. 

The  subject  is  encumbered  with  in- 
numerable details,  and  we  have  only 
space  for  a  few  important  propositions  in 
connection  with  it. 

1.  The  Eonuui  Church,  though  it  has 
never  pronounced  a  formal  decision  on 
the  validity  of  Anglican  orders,  has  in 
practice  treated  them  as  invalid,  since 
Anglican  clergy  men  have  to  go  through 
all  the  usual  stages  before  being  admitted 
to  the  priesthood,  as  though  they  were 
simple  laymen. 

2.  No  record  of  the  consecration  of 
Barlow  (who  consecrated  Parker)  is  in 
existence,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  he 
was  ever  consecrated  at  all. 

3.  The  ordinal  used  at  Parker's  con- 
secration— that  of  Edward  YI. — shows  a 
manifest  intention  of  rwt  making  a  Catho- 
lic bishop,  as  then  and  now  understood, 
but  of  appointing  a  sort  of  overseer,  who, 
deriving  his  power  from  the  sovereig-n, 
should  administer  discipline,  teach,  and 
preach. 

4.  Similarly,  the  Anglican  ordinal  for 
making  priests,  at  any  rate  down  to  the 
time  of  Charles  II.,  bore  on  its  face  the 
intention,  not  to  make  sacrificing  priests, 
but  "  a  Gospel  ministiy." 

0.  Even  if  their  orders  were  valid, 
Anglicans  would  not  any  the  more  belong 
to  the  true  Church.  "  Cathdlics  believe 
their  orders  are  valid,  because  they  are 
members  of  the  true  Church,  and  Angli- 
cans believe  they  belong  to  the  true 
Church,  because  their  orders  are  valid."  ' 

'  Cardiual  Newman's  A'.vsoys  Crit.  and  Hist. 
(1877),  vol.  ii.  1).  87. 


(Canon  Estcourt's  "Question  of  Anglican 
Ordinations  discussed,"  1873;  A.  Button's 
"  The  Anglican  Ministry,"  1879,  a  lumi- 
nous and  able  treatise.) 

Axrci.o-SAxoiir  church,  his- 
tory or.  [See  E^'GLISH  Chuech: 
ANGL0-S.iXoN  Period.] 

AirGi.o-SAXosr  church  (Faith 

AND  Discipline  of).  We  have  thought 
it  well  to  devote  a  separate  article  to  show 
how  truly  Roman,  and  how  identical  with 
the  Catholic  creed  and  worship  of  to-day, 
were  the  Anglo-Saxon  creed  and  worship. 
When  Aethelheard,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, demanded  of  the  bishops  assembled 
in  council  at  Cloveshoe  (803)  an  exposi- 
tion of  their  belief,  they  unanimously 
answered  :  "  Know  that  the  faith  which 
we  profess  is  the  same  as  was  taught  by 
the  Holy  and  Apostolic  See  when  Gregory 
the  Great  sent  missionaries  to  our  fathers." 
In  theory,  then,  the  Anglo-Saxon  faith  was 
identical  with  the  Roman.  We  proceed  to 
show  that  it  was  also  identical  in  practice. 

1.  Tfie  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass. — 
Everywhere,  both  in  the  East  and  in  the 
West,  we  meet  with  the  priest  who 
officiates  at  the  "  sacrifice  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ,"  the  altar  on  which 
the  victim  is  offered,  and  the  liturgy  or 
form  of  prayer  with  which  that  offering 
is  accompanied.  The  Britons,  before  the 
arrival  of  the  Saxons,  had  "  their  altars, 
the  seats  of  the  heavenly  sacrifice,'  and 
"  their  priests  who  stretched  out  their 
hands  over  the  most  holy  sacrifices  of 
Christ";  (Gildas,  pp.  37,  76,  ed.  Steven- 
son, 1838)  and  the  Scots,  in  the  remote 
isle  of  Icolmkille,  "  celebrated  the  sacred 
mysteries  of  tlie  holy  sacrifice,  and  con- 
secrated, according  to  custom,  the  body  of 
Christ."  (Cumiuian,  "Vita  S.  Columb." 
pp.  29,  32.)  With  some  accidental  varia- 
tions, especially  in  the  parts  preceding  the 
Canon,  the  form  of  the  service  was 
substantially  the  same  as  in  all  Churches, 
Eastern  and  Western,  each  carefully  pre- 
serving the  Trisagion  or  Tersanctus,  the 
invocation,  the  consecration  of  the  ele- 
ments, the  commemoration  of  the  living 
and  the  dead,  the  fraction  of  the  host,  and 
the  communion  of  the  faithful.  The 
several  improvements  which  the  Pontiffs 
of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  had  intro- 
duced in  the  preparatory  part  remained 
for  a  time  unknown  to  certain  ancient 
Churches  which  originally  had  received 
their  liturgy  from  Rome;  hence  the  variety 
of  rites.  Our  native  writers  describe  the 
Mass  as  the  "celestial  and  mysterious 
sacrifice,  the  offering  of  the  victim  of 


ANGLO-SAXON  CHURCH 


ANGLO-SAXON  CHURCH  20 


salvation,  tbe  sacrifice  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ "  ;  they  tell  us  that  at  the 
consecration  "  the  elements  of  the  bread 
and  wine  are,  through  the  ineflable 
hallowing  of  the  Spirit,  made  to  pass  into 
the  mystery  of  Christ's  flesh  and  blood  "  ; 
that  "  the  bread  and  wine  are  then  conse- 
crated into  the  substance  of  His  body  and 
blood  "  ;  "  that  the  holy  and  precious  Ixuly 
and  blood  of  the  Lamb,  by  whom  wt- 
have  been  redeemed,  are  again  immolated 
to  God  for  the  benefit  of  our  salvation." 
(Beda,  "  Hist.",  ii.  c.  5 ;  iii.  c.  2. ;  iv.  cc.  14, 
22,  28 ;  "  Hist.  Abb.  Gyrven.,"  inter  Redse 
opera  minora,  p.  331,  ed.  Giles,  1843; 
Thorpe,  "  Eccles.  Instit."  ii.  p.  22  iind  p. 
376,  quoted  by  Liiigard;  Bedii,  "Horn, 
in  Vig.  Pusch."  p.  31 ;  "  Horn,  in  Epiph." 
p.  272 ;  Alcuin  ad  Paulinum,  xxxvi.) 
Numerous  canons  and  rubrics  regulated 
the  celebration  of  Holy  Mass.  An  altar, 
a  paten  or  dish,  and  a  chalice,  all  three 
previously  consecrated  by  a  bishop,  were 
required ;  the  offlete,  or  bread  for  the 
consecration,  was  to  be  made  of  the  tinest 
flour,  without  the  admixture  of  any  kind 
of  leaven  :  the  wine  was  to  be  pure,  and 
to  be  mix(>d,  according  to  the  practice  of 
every  CInistian  Church,  with  a  small 
quantity  of  water.  On  solemn  festivals 
the  clergy  in  attendance  were  dressed  in 
their  richest  apparel;  the  altar,  with  its 
furniture,  presented  the  most  gorgeous 
appearance ;  the  sanctuary  was  illumi- 
nated with  a  profu.sion  of  lamps  and  wax 
lights ;  the  air  was  perfumed  with  clouds 
of  incense  ;  to  the  voices  of  the  choir  was 
added  the  harmony  of  the  organ  and  of 
musical  instruments.  The  Italian  mis- 
sionaries would,  of  course,  establish  the 
Roman  liturgy  in  the  new  Churcli,  but 
Augustine  and  his  companions  had  been 
instructed  by  St.  Gregory  not  to  confine 
themt^elves  e.xclusively  to  the  Roman 
ritual :  "  Whatever  practice  you  may  dis- 
cover, whicli  in  your  opinion  will  be  more 
acceptable  to  God,  establish  it  in  the 
new  Church  of  the  Angles,  witliout  con- 
sidering tlie  place  of  its  origin,  whether  it 
be  Roman,  or  Gallican,  or  anv  other 
Church."  (Bedii,  I.  c.  27.)  How  far  the 
missionaries  availed  thcnisflvc^  of  this 
permission  is  uncertain.  Neither  liavcwe 
means  of  judiring  how  far  tlic  sacrificial 
service  of  tlie  Scotti.^li  missionaries  varied 
from  that  of  tlie  Romans.  One  thing, 
however,  is  certain:  the  discrepancy  was 
of  no  importance,  for  it  never  became  a 
subject  of  controversy  between  the  two 
parties,  like  the  time  of  Easter  and  the 
form  of  the  tonsure. 


I  2.  The  "  order  or  cour.^e  of  daily 
prayer"  had  in  view  to  supply  matter  for 
prayer  at  the  canonical  hours,  and  was 
therefore  more  su.sce])tible  of  variety  of 
form  and  arrangement  than  the  Mass. 
Not  only  in  national  Churches,  but  in 
neiglibouring  Churches  of  the  same  nation, 
considerable  discrepancies  existed  in  the 
perforaiance  of  the  choral  .service.  In 
England,  however,  these  discrepancies 
never  led  to  controversy  among  the 
missionaries.  In  747,  tlie  Council  of 
Cloveshoe,  under  Archbisliop  Cuthbert, 
confirmed  the  ascendency  of  the  Roman, 
and  efl'ected  the  abolition  of  the  Scottish 
forms  by  the  following  decree  :  "  The  great 
solemnities  of  our  redemption  shall  be 
everywhere  celebrated  according  to  the 
written  ritual  which  we  liave  obtained 
from  Rome,  in  the  administration  of 
Baptism,  the  celebration  of  Mass,  and  in 
all  things  thereunto  pertaining  ;  moreover, 
the  feasts  of  the  saints  through  tlie  course 
of  the  year  shall  be  kept  on  the  days  fixed 
in  the  Roman  Martyrology,  with  the 
chant  and  psalmody  appointed  thereto ; 
and  nothing  sliall  be  permitted  to  be  read 
or  chanted  but  what  is  taken  from  the 
authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  and 
allowed  by  the  custom  of  the  Roman 
Church."  After  this  Council  we  hear 
nothing  more  of  the  Scottish  forms  iu  the 
Southern  province,  but  in  the  North  they 
appear  to  have  kept  their  ground  till  a 
much  later  period.  Exact  uniformity 
was  never  obtained.  Discrepancies  existed 
in  breviaries  of  the  Churches  of  Sarum, 
York,  and  Hereford  until  the  Reformation  ; 
and  even  at  the  present  day  the  English 
Benedictine  monks  make  use  of  the 
monastic  breviary  approved  by  Paul  V., 
while  the  English  Catholic  clergy  use  the 
breviary  of  the  Churcli  of  Rome. 

3.  Public  IVarsMp. — Among  the  An- 
glo-Saxons, both  at  tlie  celebration  of  the 
s.acrifice  and  during  the  canonical  hours, 
tbe  whole  service,  with  the  exception  of 
certain  prayers  during  the  Mass,  was 
chanted  by  the  choir.  For  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  people,  the  Epistle  and  the 
Gospel  were  read,  and  the  sermon  was 
deliveied  in  their  native  tongue,  but  God 
was  publicly  addressed  by  the  minister  of 
religion  iu  the  language  of  Rome  (see  art. 
Language  of  the  Church).  On  Sun- 
days and  festivals  the  church  service  was 
performed  with  full  solemnity.  All  servile 
works — hunting  and  hawking,  travelling, 
trading,  the  prosecution  of  family  feuds, 
litigation,  the  execution  of  criminals — 
were    prohibited.     Transgressors  were 


30     ANGLO-SAXOX  CHURCH 


ANGLO-SAXON  CHUECH 


liable  to  the  punishments  prescribed  in 
the  doombook.  The  clerp:v  were  ordered 
by  the  Council  of  ('love-ihoe  to  devote 
Sunday  to  the  worship  of  God  exclusively 
and  employ  themselves  in  teaching  their 
dependents  the  rules  of  a  holy  life.  The 
duties  expected  from  the  laity  may  be 
gathered  from  the  following-  injunction : 
"  It  is  most  right  and  proper  that  every 
Christian  man,  who  has  it  in  his  power  to 
do  so,  should  come  on  Saturday  to  the 
church  [the  Sunday  was  reckoned  from 
sunset  on  Saturday  to  sunset  on  the 
following  day]  and  bring  a  light  with 
him,  and  there  hear  the  vesper  soug,  and 
after  midnight  the  uht-song  (matins)  and 
come  with  his  oil'ering  in  the  morning 
to  the  solemn  Mass  .  .  .  and  after  the 
holy  service  let  him  return  home  and 
regale  himself  with  his  friends,  and  neigh- 
bours, and  strangers,  but,  at  the  same 
time,  be  careful  that  they  commit  no  ex- 
cess either  iu  eating  or  drinking."  They 
were  expected  not  to  break  their  fast  or 
to  take  any  meat  before  the  service  of 
High  Mass  was  ended  (Thorpe,  ii.  440-2). 

4,  Private  Prayer. — The  practice  of 
jtjrivate  prayer  is  thus  taught  to  the  Saxon 
laity :  "  It  is  also  to  be  made  known  to 
Christian  laymen  that  every  one  pray,  at 
least,  twice  in  the  day — that  is,  in  the 
morning  and  in  the  evening.  In  thiswise 
■shall  you  teach  them  to  pray  :  First  they 
shall  sing  (  =  recite)  the  Creed,  for  it  is 
most  likely  to  open  to  them  the  foundation 
ef  their  true  faith  ;  and  after  he  shall 
have  sung  the  Creed  let  him  say  thrice, 
*0  God  that  madest  me,  have  mercy 
•upon  me,'  and  thrice,  '0  God,  have  mercy 
upon  me,  a  sinner.'  And  this  being  done, 
and  his  Creator  alone  being  worshipped, 
let  him  call  upon  God's  saints,  that  they 
intercede  for  him  with  God ;  first  on  St. 
Mary,  and  then  on  all  God's  saints.  And 
then  let  him  arm  his  forehead  with  the 
sign  of  the  holy  rood — that  is,  let  him 
sign  bimpelf,  and  then,  with  upraised 
hands  and  eyes,  let  hiiu  in  his  heart  thank 
God  for  all  He  has  given  him,  pleasant  or 
unpleasant.'  (Tliorjx',  "Eccles.  Instit." 
ii.  418,  4l'0,  4l'4;  xxii.,  xxlii.,  xxix.) 

5.  Baptii^m. — The  regular  manner  of 
administering  this  sacrament  was  by 
immersion ;  the  time,  the  two  eves  of 
Easter  and  Pentecost;  the  place,  the 
baptistery,  a  small  building  contiguous 
to  the  church,  in  which  had  been  con- 
Btructed  a  convenient  bath  called  a  font. 
All  the  preparatory  ceremonies  prescribed 
by  tiie  Roman  Ritual  at  this  day  were  in 
wfie  in  England.    In  the  course  of  time, 


convenience  or  necessity  led  to  several 
changes  iu  the  regulations  concerning  the 
administration  of  Baptism.  The  mis- 
sionaries baptised  their  converts  in  i  i\  tT8. 
As  single  baptisms  continued  to  increase, 
a  font  was  placed  iu  the  church  ;  the  time 
fi.xed  for  the  rite  was,  in  Northumbria, 
nine  days  after  birth,  in  the  South  thirty- 
seven  days  after  birth. 

6.  Confirmation  was  administered  to 
the  children  at  a  very  early  age.  \'ene- 
rable  Bede  tells  howcliildren  were  brought 
to  St.  Cuthbert  for  confirmation  on  his 
episcopal  visitations,  and  how  he  minis- 
tered to  those  who  had  been  recently  born 
again  in  Christ  the  grace  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  by  the  imposition  of  hands,"  placing 
his  hand  on  the  head  of  each,  and  anoint- 
ing them  with  the  chrism  which  he  had 
blessed."  (Inter  Bedse  opera  minora,  p. 
277 ;  "  Vita  S.  Cuthb."  p.  100.)  This  and 
similar  passages  prove  both  the  grace 
attributed  to  this  sacrament  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  was  conferred  tiefore 
700,  and  are  in  perfect  accordance  with 
the  form  described  in  the  Pontifical  of 
Archbishop  Egbert  of  York  (beginning  of 
8th  century). 

7.  The'  Holy  Eucharkt. — From  the 
arrival  of  Augustine  till  the  Reformation, 
the  English  name  for  the  Eucharist  was 
the  housel.  To  administer  the  Eucharist 
was  to  housel ;  to  rec<'ive  it  was  to  go  to 
the  housel  or  to  be  hanselled.  We  find 
the  word  housel  under  the  form  of  hunsle 
in  the  Moeso-Gothic  version  of  the 
Gospels  made  by  I'lphilas  about  the  year 
370,  twice  as  translation  of  dvaia,  a  sacri- 
fice or  victim,  and  once  as  rendering  of 
\aTpela,  worship  of  God  iu  general.' 
With  Beda  the  Eucharist  is  the  saving 
victim  of  the  Lord's  body  and  blood — the 
victim  without  au  equal — the  victim  of 
His  blood,  the  body  that  was  slain  and 
the  blood  that  was  shed  by  the  hands  of 
unbelievers.  Similar  language  was  used 
in  the  Scottish  Church.  The  faiti^fnl 
partook  of  the  housel  during  Mass,  im- 
mediately after  the  communion  of  the 
celebrant.  The  Roman  niis.sionaries  most 
probably  introduced  the  cust(un  of  weekly 
communion  among  their  converts;  but  in 
the  North,  the  Scottish  missionaries  had 
appointed  the  feasts  of  Christmas,  Epi- 
phany, and  Easter  for  general  communion. 
This  arrangement,  by  directing  the  devo- 
tion of  the  pniple  to  those  jiarticular 
seasons,  had  led  almost  to  the  extinction 
of  frequent  communion.    The  conditions 

1  "The  original  sense  [of  Housel]  is  sacri- 
fice."   (Skeat,  Etym.  Diet.,  suO  voc.) 


ANGLO-SAXON  CHURCH 


ANGLO-S.IXON  CHURCH  31 


required  of  the  communicaut  were  that 
he  should  come  fasting,  and  that,  if  he 
had  fallen  into  sin,  he  should  have  con- 
fessed it,  have  submitted  to  the  penance 
•enjoined,  and  have  received  the  permis- 
sion of  his  confessor.  (Thorpe,  ii.  A'iS, 
440.) 

8.  Tfte  Sacrament  of  Penance. — "  Xo 
man  can  be  baptised  twice  ;  but  if  a  man 
«rr  after  his  baptism,  we  believe  that  he 
may  be  saved  if  he  sorrow  [behreowsiath] 
for  his  sins  with  tears,  and  do  penance  for 
them  as  his  teacher  shall  instruct  him."  [ 
(iElf.  "Hom."  i.  p.  ;292,  "De  Fide  Ca-  j 
tholica.")  Penance  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
theology  comprised  four  things :  sorrow  \ 
for  sin,  confession  of  sin,  penitential  works, 
and  reconcilement  or  absolnti'Mi.  SmTow 
(behreowsung  =  a  rueing  or  lamenting) 
was  a  real  sorrow  of  heart.  Of  confe>siiMi 
the  Saxon  homilist  says:  "  We  cannot  be 
saved  unless  we  confess  sorrowfully  what 
through  our  negligence  we  have  done 
unrighteously.  All  hope  of  forgiveness 
is  in  confession.  Confession  with  true 
pemmce  [doedbote]  is  the  angelic  remedy  | 
of  our  sins."'  ..."  No  man  will  obtain  i 
forgiveness  of  his  sins  from  God,  unless 
he  confess  to  some  of  the  ministers  of 
God,  and  do  penance  according  to  his 
judgment.  .  .  .  Without  confession  there 
IS  no  pardon."  (Thorpe,  ii.  p.  2.'50.)  "By 
confession  the  venom  has  been  extracted: 
it  now  remains  for  the  leech  to  prescribe 
the  manner  of  cure"'  (Alcuin,  "De  Usu 
Psalmorum,"  tom.  ii.  p.  '27S),  which  he 
did  by  apportioning  the  measure  of  punish- 
ment to  the  degree  of  guilt  of  the  penitent. 
The  penitential,  or  doom-book,  guided  the 
confessor  in  the  imposition  of  penitential 
works.  There  still  remained  the  prayer 
of  reconciliation  or  absolution.  Inlighter 
and  secret  cases,  it  was  generally  given 
after  confession  :  but  where  the  otFence 
was  more  heinous,  or  called  for  public 
example,  the  absolution  was  deferred  for 
a  considerable  time,  until  a  great  part  or 
the  whole  of  the  penance  had  been  per- 
formed. (See  Shrovetide,  Penance, 
Penitential  Books.) 

9.  The  Sacraments  of  Order,  Matri- 
mony, and  Extreme  Unction  were  all 
administered  according  to  the  Roman 
custom  as  laid  down  in  the  Sacramentaries 
of  Gelasins  ami  St.  ( iregnry,  whence  they 
were  Iranscribrd  into  tli--  rituals  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Church.  The  benediction 
of  virgins  who  entered  the  cloister,  the 
coronation  of  kings,  the  consecration  of 
churches,  are  all  alike  drawn  from  the 
same  source.    These  rites  are  in  substance 


and  almost  in  every  detail  identical  with 
the  form  prescribed  in  the  "  Rituale 
Romaimm"  still  used  throughout  the 
Catholic  Church. 

10.  Prayer for  the  Dead. — The  .\nglo- 
Saxons  had  inherited  from  their  teachers 
the  practice  of  praying  for  the  dead — a 
practice  common  to  every  Christian 
church  before  the  Reformation.  They 
believed  that  "  some  souls  proceed  to  rest 
after  their  departure — some  go  to  punish- 
ment for  that  which  they  have  done,  and 
are  often  released  by  alms-deeds,  but 
chiefly  through  the  Mass  if  it  be  offered 
for  tiiem — others  are  condemned  with 
the  devil  to  hell."  ("  Sermo  ad  Pop.  in 
Oct.  Pent."  apud  Whelock,  p.  386.)  Pray- 
ing for  the  relief  of  the  souls  in  Purgatory 
was  a  favourite  form  of  devotion  with  our 
ancestors.  But  they  did  not  only  pray 
for  others,  they  were  careful  to  secure 
for  themselves  after  their  departure  the 
prayers  of  their  friends.  This  they  fre- 
quently solicited  as  a  favour  or  a  recom- 
pense, and  for  this  they  entered  into 
mutual  compacts  by  which  the  survivor 
was  bound  to  perform  certain  works  of 
piety  or  charity  for  the  deceased.  Such 
covenants  were  not  confined  to  the  clergj- 
or  to  persons  in  the  higher  ranks  of 
life.  The  numerous  gilds,  whatever  may 
have  been  their  immediate  object,  all 
imposed  one  common  obligation,  that  of 
accompanying  the  bodies  of  the  deceased 
members  to  the  grave,  of  paying  the  soul- 
scot  for  them  at  their  interment,  and  of 
distributing  alms  for  the  repose  of  their 
souls.  The  clerical  and  monastic  bodies 
ottered  gildships  of  a  superior  description. 
They  admitted  honorary  associates  with 
a  right  to  the  same  spiritual  benefits  after 
death  to  which  the  professed  members 
were  entitled.  To  some  the  favour  was 
conceded  on  account  of  their  piety  or 
learning ;  to  others  it  was  due  on  account 
of  their  benefactions.  It  belonged  of 
right  to  the  founders  of  churches,  to  those 
who  had  made  to  them  valuable  benefac- 
tions, or  had  rendered  to  them  important 
services  or  had  bequeathed  to  them  a 
yearly  rent-charge  for  that  purpose.  Of 
all  these  individuals  an  exact  catalogue 
was  kept,  the  days  of  their  decease  were 
carefully  noted,  and  on  their  anniversaries 
a  solemn  service  of  Ma.sses  and  psalmody 
was  yearly  performed.  For  the  benefit  of 
the  dead  money  was  distributed  among 
the  poor,  and  slaves  were  set  free.  The 
devotions  in  behalf  of  the  dead  consisted 
in  the  frequent  repetitiim  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  technically  called  a  belt  of  Pater- 


32     ANGLO-SAXON  CHURCH 


ANIMALS,  LOWER 


nosters  (containing  probably  50)  which 
was  in  use  with  individuals  ignorant  of 
the  Latin  tongue  ;  the  chanting  of  certain 
psalms  followed  by  the  Collect  still  in  use 
in  the  Catholic  Church  :  in  the  sacrifice 
of  the  Mass,  which  was  offered  as  soon  as 
might  be  after  death,  again  on  the  third  i 
day,  and  afterwards  as  often  as  was  re-  ! 
quired  by  the  friends  of  the  deceased.  : 

11.  Veneration  and  Invocation  of  the 
Saints. — This  practice  the  Anglo-Saxons 
^ad  received  with  the  rudiments  of  the 
Christian  religion.    It  formed  an  integral 
part  of  their  public  and  private  worship. 
In  public  they  were  frequently  called  upon 
to  celebrate  the  anniversaries  of  individual  : 
saints,  and  yearly  to  keep  the  festival  of  ' 
All-hallows  as  a  solemnity  of  the  first 
rank  and  importance.    In  private,  at  their 
morning   and   evening   devotions,  they 
were  instructed  to  worship  God,  and  then 
"  to  pray,  first  to  St.  Mary  and  the  holy 
.\p'>stles,  and  the  holy  martyrs,  and  all 
God's  saints,  that  they  would  intercede 
tor  them  to  God."    (Thorpe,  ii.  p.  426.)  ! 
A  high  pre-eminence  was  allotted  to  the 
"  most  blessed  Mother  of  God,  the  per- 
petual Virgin  St.  Mary."    (Beda,  "  Horn.  | 
in  Purif."  p.  173.)    Next  in  rank  was 
St.  Peter,  to  whom  Christ  had  given  the 
keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  "  with  the  ! 
chief  exercise  of  judicial  power  in  the 
Church,  to  the  end  that  all  the  faithful 
throughout  the  world  might  know  that  1 
whosoever  should  separate  himself  from 
the  unity  of  Peter's  faith  or  of  Peter's 
fellowship,  that  man  could  never  obtain  ^ 
absolution  from  the  bonds  of  sin,  nor  ad- 
mis^on  through  the  gates  of  the  heavenly 
kingdom."  (Beda,  "Horn."  p.  199.)  Both 
laity  and  clergy  were  solicitous  to  secure 
his  patronage.     They  crowded  to  the 
churches  and   altars  dedicated   to   his  \ 
memory,  pilgrimages  were  made  to  his 
tomb,  and  presents  were  annually  sent  to  I 
the  church  in  which  were  deposited  his  1 
remains,  and  to  the  bishop  who  sate  in  his  ' 
chair.  Among  the  other  saints,  particular  i 
honours  were  paid  to  Pope  Gregory  and 
to  Archbishop  Augustine  as  the  friends 
and  patrons  of  the  nation.    (This  sketch 
is  taken   almost  word  for  word  from 
"  The  History  and  Antiquities  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Church,  containing  an  ac- 
count of  its   origin,  goverument,  doc- 
trines, worship,  revenves,  and  clerical  and 
monastic  institutions,"  by  John  Lingard, 
U.D.     In  this  learned  and  most  con- 
scientious work  the  reader  will  find  ample 
confirmations  and  further  developments  of 
the  facts  here  stated,) 


AirxMAXiS,  XiOWER.    The  doc> 

trine  of  St.  Thomii.-  on  the  nature  of  the 
brutes  stands  midway  between  the  ex- 
treme doctrine,  held  in  ancient  and  re- 
vived in  modern  times,  that  the  brutes 
have  rational  souls,  and  the  equally 
extreme  doctrine  of  Descartes,  that  they 
are  mere  machines.  St.  Thomas  admits 
that  the  brutes  have  souls,  by  which  they 
live  and  feel,  and  know  and  desire  the 
particular  objects  which  are  presented  to 
them.  They  can  store  up  past  impres- 
sions in  their  memory;  they  can  recall 
absent  images  hy  imagination.  Further 
they  cannot  go.  They  are  incapable  of 
forming  abstract  ideus,  and  they  have  no 
free  will.  "  In  the  works  of  brutes," 
St.  Thomas  says,  "  we  see  certain  in- 
stances of  sagacity,  inasmuch  as  the 
brutes  have  a  natural  inclination  to  pro- 
ceed with  the  most  perfect  order,  and, 
indeed,  their  actions  are  ordered  with 
supreme  skill."  He  explains  that  this 
skill  comes  from  God,  the  supreme  arti- 
ficer, and  he  continues,  "On  this  account 
certain  animals  are  called  prudent  and 
sagacious,  although  they  themselves  have 
no  reason  or  free  will,  as  is  clear  from  the 
fact,  that  all  animals  of  one  species  go  to- 
work  in  the  same  way."  ^ 

From  this  it  follows,  as  will  be  plain 
to  anyone  who  has  learned  the  elements 
of  the  Thorn ist  Philosophy,  that  all  the 
operations  of  the  brute  soul  are  performed 
through  the  bodily  organs.  The  imagina- 
tion and  the  memory  are  sensitive  powers, 
no  less  than  sight  and  hearing  :  it  is  only 
the  intellect  and  the  will  which  deal  with 
immaterial  ideas,  and  which  act  without 
material  organs  ;  and  intellect  and  will 
are  wanting  in  brutes.  From  the  opera- 
tions of  the  soul  in  brutes  St.  Thomas 
infers  its  nature,  in  accordance  with  the 
philosophic  maxim,  "  essence  and  opera- 
tion correspond  to  each  other."  ^  As  their 
souls  operate  through  matter,  so  they 
spring  from  matter  and  perish  with  it. 
They  are  not  created  by  God,  but  are 
derived  with  their  bodies  from  their 
parents  by  natural  generation.^  With- 
out matter,  they  are  utterly  incapable  of 
operation,  and  therefore  of  existence,  for 
nothing  can  exist  unless  it  acts  in  some 
way  or  other.  Hence,  their  soul  is  ex- 
tinguished with  the  dissolution  of  the 
body.' 

These  philosophical  principles  deter- 
mine the  morality  which  regulates  the 
conduct  of  man  to  the  brutes.    As  the 


Sum.  i.  2,  1.3,  2. 
ll,„l.  i.  118,  1. 


2  Ihid.  i.  Ih,  3. 
•*  Ibid.  i.  75,  3. 


-\:sNATES 


AJsXUXCIATION 


03 


lower  animals  have  no  duties,  since  they 
ai-e  destitute  of  free  will,  without  which 
the  performance  of  duty  is  imjios^ible,  so 
they  have  no  rights,  for  right  and  duty 
are  con-elative  terms.  The  brutes  are 
made  for  man,  who  has  the  same  right 
over  them  whicli  he  has  over  plants  or 
stones.  lit"  may,  according  to  the  e.xpress 
permission  of  God,  given  to  Xoe,  kill 
them  for  his  food,  and  if  it  is  lawful  to 
destroy  them  for  food,  and  this  without 
strict  nece^^sity,  it  must  also  be  lawful  to 
put  them  to  death  or  to  inflict  pain  on 
them,  for  any  good  or  reasonable  end, 
such  as  the  promotion  of  man's  know- 
ledge, health,  &c.,  or  even  for  the  pur- 
poses of  recreation.  But  a  limitation 
must  he  introduced  here.  It  is  never 
lawful  fur  a  man  to  take  pleasure  directly 
in  the  pain  given  to  brutes,  because,  in 
doing  so,  man  degrades  aiul  brutalises 
his  own  nature.  Hence  the  touching 
rules  in  the  Old  Testament  which  pre- 
scribe mercy  on  man's  part  to  the  beasts. 
Moreover,  we  are  bound  for  our  own 
sakes  not  to  inflict  long  and  keen  suffering 
on  the  brutes,  except  some  considerable 
good  results.  If  we  accustom  ourselves 
to  .see  animals  tortured,  we  are  apt  to 
become  callous  even  to  human  sufferings, 
and  we  do  wrong  in  exposing  ourselves  to 
such  a  danger,  unless  on  the  weighty 
grounds  of  a  higher  benevolence.  "  A 
man,"  says  Billuart,  "  who  puts  brutes  to 
death  in  a  cruel  manner,  and  delights  in 
their  torments,  sins  venially,  by  abusing 
his  power  as  master  and  lord.  For  by 
such  cruelty  a  man  accustoms  himself  to 
be  cruel  to  his  fellow-men ;  whence  we 
read  in  Prov.  xii.  '  tlie  ju^t  man  knoweth 

Ei.e.  considers  and  regards]  the  souls  of 
lis  beasts,  but  the  heart  of  the  wicked  is 
cruel.' "  ' 

ANlffATES  {Annatee)  or  FIRST 

FXtVXTS.  According  to  the  definition 
of  FeiTaris,  "Annates  are  a  certain  por- 
tion of  the  revenues  of  vacant  benefices 
which  ought,  according  to  the  canons 
and  special  agreements,  to  be  paid  to  the 
Roman  Pontiff  and  the  Curia."  The  por- 
tion due  in  the  case  of  inferior  benefices 
seems  to  have  been,  before  the  Council  of 
Constance,  onehalf  of  the  gross  revenues  of 

1  Billuart,  De  Justil.  Diss.  x.  a.  1.  For  the 
spirit  i)f  the  O.T.  on  this  matter,  see  Exod.  xx. 
10.  xxiii.  12.  where  the  beasts,  like  men,  have  a 
day  of  rest  provided  for  them  ;  Ueut.  xxv.  4. 
■'thou  shalt  not  muzzle  the  ox  that  treadetli 
out  thy  corn  ;  "  xxii.  6,  where  the  Jews  are  for- 
bidden to  take  the  bird  with  the  brood  on 
which  she  is  sittiiii;. 


the  first  year,  and  in  the  case  of  bishoprics 
and  abbeys,  a  sum  regulated  according  to 
"the  ancient  taxation."   At  that  council 
a  decree  was  passed  after  much  disciis.*ir>n. 
of  which  the  general  efl'ect  was  to  allow 
to  the  Roman  Pontiff"  the  first  year's  in- 
come of  all  dignities  and  benefices  in  his 
gift.  The  Council  of  Basle  complained  of 
1  the  burden  of  the  "  annat'^s."  yet  when  it 
j  was  a  question  of  niaiutainluu-  the  anti- 
j  pope  Felix,  whom  they  had  -4  uj),  they 
.  imposed  a  still  heavier  burden,  in  the 
shape  of  "  first  fruits,"  on  the  nations 
adhering  to  them. 

In  England  the  annates  were  finally 
transferred  t'rnm  tlip  Vnjif  to  the  KiiiL;'  liy 
a  statute  passrd  in  15-'U.    Tln'v  are  still 
payable  to  the  sovereign  in  the  case  of 
I  Anglican  bishoprics  and  Crown  livings. 
[  ingto  the  revolutions  which  within 

j  the  last  ninety  years  have  so  completely 
I  altered  the  face  of  1jii-->]"  .  annates  form. 
[  at  the  present  day,  a  scarci  K  apjireciable 
portion  of  the  revenues  of  the  Holy  See. 
\  Their  place  is  supplied  more  or  less  im- 
1  perfectly  by  the  voluntary  contributions 
I  usually  called  "  Peter's  Pence  "  [see  that 
1  article]. 

Zahlwein  remarks : — "  Annates  (1)  are 
paid  for  the  support  of  thf  Pope,  the 
Cardinals,  and  other  otiicinU.  (I'l  They 
are  applied  to  defi-ay  the  cv]H-nsev  ,if  the 
legates  and  apostolic  luuu  ii.s.  whom  the 
Popes  find  it  necessary  to  -end  \ti  various, 
nations  and  the  Courts  ol'  ]irinces.  (.o  j!y 
means  of  these  annates,  aiil  is  extended  ro 
bishops  who  have  been  ex])elle(l  from  their 
sees,  and  to  princes  unjustly  (lislii<lged 
^  from  their  thrones."  It  was  probably  by 
means  of  this  fund  that  the  Po])es  were 
enabled  to  extend  a  generous  hospitality 
for  many  years  to  the  son  and  grandson 
of  our  James  II. 

ANITZVERSART.    An  "anniver- 
sary "  is  defined  as  "  that  which  is  done 
for  a  deceased  person  on  the  expiration 
of  a  year  from  the  day  of  death,"  and  is 
especiallv  understood  of  tin-  celebration 
j  of  Massforthel,,  n.  ni  ..fhis  >,,ul.  When 
a  testator  diieci,-  that  such  an  auniver- 
i  sary  shall  be  celehrated,  without  S])ecify- 
]  ing  "  hethiT  once  or  oftener,  the  canon 
j  law  interprets  his  intention  as  being  that 
the  foundation  shall  be  ///  prrpi^tinnn.  If 
I  the  anniversary  falls  on  a  eieater  <liiuble, 
j  the  -Mass  of  Requiem  nia\   he  sung;  if 
on  a  double  of  the  second  class,  it  must 
be  antici]>ated  or  postponed.  (Ferraris, 
Amiirermriinn.) 

ANiVtrTffCIATION'  OP  THE 
BX.£SSZ:i>     VZaCIN-       {Annimtiati'  . 


U  ANNUlsCIATION 


ANTHONY,  ST.,  ORDER  OF 


fvuyyf\ia-n6s,  '^^^  word 

signifies  "  declaration,"  or  "  announce- 
ment"— i.e.  of  the  fact  that  God  the  Son 
was  to  be  born  of  Mai-y — but  at  the  very 
moment  in  which  the  fact  was  announced, 
<t  sexually  took  place ;  so  that,  in  com- 
memorating the  "  Annunciation,"  we 
really  commemorate  the  Incarnation  of 
Ciod  the  AVord. 

St.  Luke  tells  us,  that  the  Angel 
Gabriel  was  sent  by  God  to  Nazareth, 
where  he  saluted  Mary  with  the  words, 
"  Hail,  full  of  grace."  The  Evangelist 
speaks  of  Mary  as  "espoused"  to  Joseph, 
and  Calmet,  on  this  ground,  thinks  that 
.she  was  still  unmarried.  But  the  great 
majority  of  Catholic  writers  believe  that 
the  word  "  espoused  "  must  not  be  pressed ; 
that  Mary,  when  the  angel  came,  was 
already  St.  Joseph's  wife,  and  was  living 
in  his  house.  St.  Ambrose,  in  his  com-« 
mentary  on  Luke,  lib.  ii.,  remarks  that 
the  salutation,  "  Hail,  full  of  grace,"  was 
unknown  before.  "  It  was  reserved  for 
Maiy  alone.  For  rightly  is  she  called 
full  of  grace,  who  alone  obtained  a  gi'ace 
meritcil  liv  none,  save  only  her,  that  she 
should  \ir  iiUed  with  the  Aiithorof  Grace." 
At  iirst,  Mary  was  disturbed  by  the  .■<alu- 
tation,  and  even  when  told  that  slie  was 
to  be  the  Mother  of  our  Lord,  she  replied, 
"  How  shall  this  lie,  sinee  I  know  not 
man?"  Catholic  divines  point  out  that 
slie  did  not,  like  Zaeliarias,  show  want  of 
faith.  She  accepted  the  fact,  and  only 
inqvured  about  the  manner  of  its  accom- 
pli.shment.  According  to  the  common 
explanation,  she  had  made  a  vow  of 
A  irgluity,  wliich  she  was  anxious  to  keep, 
though,  as  St.  llrru.-ird  says,  she  was 
willing  to  surrender  it  at  God's  bidding. 
The  angel  told  her  the  child  was  to  be 
conceived  by  the  operation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  Mary  herself  was  to  supply  all 
which  an  ordinaiT  mother  supjilies  for 
tlie  formation  of  her  child's  bodv,  so  that 
.Mary  is  truly  the  Jlother  of  God.  The 
rest  was  diiiie  by  the  operation  of  the 
Trinity,  llioiinh  it  is  attributed  specially 
to  the  Holy  (i host,  because  it  was  a  work 
of  grace  and  love — grace  and  love  being 
particularly  appropriated  to  the  Holy 
Ghost.  This  mystery  was  accomplished 
when  the  Jllessed  Virgin  said,  "Behold 
lhr  li;iiiilin;ii(l  of  the  Lord;  be  it  done  unto 
nic  acniidiii^  to  thy  word."  Then  God 
till'  .Son  was  hypostatically  united  to 
human  nature. 

The  Annunciation,  as  a  feast,  belongs 
both  to  Christ  and  to  His  Blessed  Mother; 
but  Suarez  says,  that  as  the  gift  of  Christ 


to  man  was  not  perfectly  accomplished 
till  the  moment  of  His  birth,  therefore 
the  feast  of  the  Annunciation  is  to  be 
regarded  chiefly  as  a  feast  of  Mary,  that 
of  Christmas  as  a  feast  of  Christ.  The 
feast  of  the  Annunciation  is  celebrated  on 
March  25.  Some  authors — e  g.  Thoniassin 
and  Tillemont — think  that  this  date  was 
chosen  simply  because  it  is  nine  months 
before  Christmas  ;  nine  months  being  the 
usual  period  which  elapses  between  con- 
ception and  birth.  Benedict  XIY.,  on  the 
other  hand,  contends  that  the  i'-")th  ot 
March  was  known  by  ancient  tradition 
to  have  been  the  actual  day.  Certainly, 
St.  Augustine,  in  the  fourth  book  of  his 
work  on  the  Trinity,  cap.  v.,  speaks  of  an 
ancient  tradition  to  that  effect,  while  the 
same  day  is  marktxl  for  the  Annunciation 
in  the  Greek  Menologies  and  Men«a,  in 
the  Calendars  and  Martyrologies  of  the 
Copts,  Syrians,  Chaldeans,  as  well  as  in 
the  Sacramentary  of  St.  Gregory,  and 
generally  in  the  Missals,  &c.,  of  the  West. 
It  is  true  that  a  Council  of  Toledo,  in  the 
seventh  century,  ordered  the  feast  to  be 
kept  on  January  18,  but  the  object  of  the 
council  was,  not  to  fix  the  true  date,  but 
to  provide  against  the  inconvenience  of 
celebrating  the  Annunciation  in  Lent. 
'  We  do  not  find  any  certain  and  express 
[  mention  of  the  feast  in  early  writers, 
though  Martene  rightly  infers  from  St. 
Augustine's  words,  already  alluded  to, 
that  the  custom  of  celebrating  it  is  very 
ancient.  We  find  it  mentioned  by  the 
Council  in  TruUo  (692),  in  an  ancient 
Martyrology  falsely  attributed  to  St. 
Jerome,  and  in  homilies  which  pass  under 
the  name  of  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  and 
which  may  belong  to  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century.  The  Bollandists  even  argue 
from  the  general  diflusion  of  the  feast, 
that  it  may  have  been  of  Apostolic  insti- 
tution. 

ATTonKEAir.  [See  Aeianism.] 
AWTEPEnrsiiTSX.  As  mentioned 
under  Alt.\r,  a  "pallium,"  or  frontal, 
varying  in  colour  according  to  (lir  si  ason, 
is  to  be  placed  on  the  altar.  Tlie  rubric 
especially  requires  this  when  the  altar 
is  not  entirely  of  stone.  It  is  commonly 
called  the  antependium,  from  ante,  before, 
and  pendcri',  to  hang. 

AiTTifEni.  [See  Antiphon.] 
ANTHOWV,  ST.,  ORDER  OP.  Pro- 
perly speaking,  there  is  no  such  Order. 
For  although,  as  we  have  seen  [AiiBOr], 
Anthony  was  the  patriarch  of  the  mon- 
astic family,  still  he  composed  no  rule ; 
and   if  certain  schismatic  convents  of 


AXTITROPOMORPIIITES 


AIs^TICHRIST  35 


Armenians  and  Copts  boast  that  they 
possess  such^a  rule,  it  is  always  found  on 
examination  that  it  is  the  rule  of  St. 
Basil,  or  some  modification  of  it. 

The  Antonines,  an  order  of  monks  to 
serve  ;he  sick,  were  founded  by  Gaston, 
a  gentleman  of  Dauphine,  towards  the 
end  of  the  eleventh  century,  when  the 
terrible  and  mysterious  disease  called  St. 
Anthony's  fire  was  causing  great  mor- 
tality in  the  valley  of  the  Rhone.  In  1040 
Jocelyn,  a  pilgrim,  had  brought  relics 
of  St.  Anthony  to  the  Church  of  St. 
Didier  la  Mothe,  near  Yienne.  Praying 
before  these  relics  in  1095,  Gaston,  his 
son  being  then  dangerously  ill,  vowed  to 
give  his  goods  to  found  a  hospital  if  his 
son  got  well.  The  son  recovered,  and 
eagerly  joined  his  father  in  the  fulfilment 
of  his  vow.  They  took  the  monastic 
habit,  and  established  a  hospital  for  the 
reception  of  persons  ill  of  St.  Anthony's 
fire.  The  order  flourished  greatly.  Bene- 
dict Till,  in  1297  ordained  "that  the 
Antonines  should  live  as  canons-regular 
under  the  rule  of  St.  Austin.  The  order 
subsisted  till  the  Revolution,  at  which 
time  there  were  sixty-si.\  Antonines  in 
France  :  of  this  number  only  three  be- 
came asserntentes  ;  the  rest  preferred  per- 
.-ecution,  exile,  and  death. 

AXTTBROPOMORPHZTSS.  An 
insignificant  sect  of  the  fourth  century, 
called  also  Audians,  after  their  founder 
Audius,  a  native  of  Mesopotamia.  Ground- 
ing their  heresy  on  many  passages  in  Scrip- 
ture, especially  in  the  Old  Testament,  they 
maintained  that  God  had  a  human  shape. 
They  died  out  before  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century.  When  Cassian,  towards  the  year 
400,  travelled  among  the  monks  of  Egypt, 
he  found  that  anthropomorphism,  though 
with  a  complete  absence  of  heretical  in- 
tention or  perversity,  was  rife  among 
them ;  but  whether  they  inherited  the 
tenet  from  the  Audians,  or  derived  it  from 
some  other  source,  is  uncertain. 

ASTTZCHRXST.  A  word  which,  so 
far  as  the  New  Testament  is  concerned, 
only  occurs  in  St.  John's  Epistles.  In  itself 
it  might  mean — "  like  Christ,"  or  "  instead 
of  Christ,"  as  dvrideos  signifies  Godlike, 
or  dvOvnaros  pro-consul,  but  the  Anti- 
christ of  St.  John  is  Christ's  adversary.  "Ye 
have  heard,"  he  says,  "that  Antichrist '  is 
coming,  and  now  there  have  been  many 
Antichrists.  .  .  .  This  is  the  Antichrist 

1  1  Ep.  ii.  18.  The  readin::  i dv.,  "that  the 
Antichrist  comes,"  is  that  of  the  received  te.xt, 
but  Lachtnann,  Tischendorf,  and  Tregelles  omit 
the  article. 


who  denies  the  Father  and  the  Son."  In 
the  fourth  chapter  he  makes  the  charac- 
teristic of  Antichrist  (ro  rov  avrtxpiarov) 
consist  in  not  confessing  Jesus; '  and  more 
fully  in  the  seventh  verse  of  the  Second 
Epistle,  he  places  the  guilt  of  Antichrist 
in  his  denial  that  Christ  has  "  come  in  the 
flesh."  Thus  St.  John  identities  the  Anti- 
christian  spirit  with  the  Docetic  heresy, 
though  he  seems  also  to  allude  to  a  single 
person  who  is  to  come  in  the  last  days. 
St.  Paul,  in  the  Second  Epistle  to  the 
Thessalonians  is  more  explicit.  He  does 
not,  indeed,  use  the  word  "Antichrist," 
but  he  speaks  of  a  person  whom  he  de- 
scribes as  the  "man  of  sin,"  "the  son  of 
perdition  who  opposeth  and  raiseth  him- 
self over  all  that  is  called  God,  or  is  an 
object  of  awe,  so  as  to  sit  in  the  temple  of 
God,  exhibiting  himself  as  God."  At  pre- 
sent, there  is  a  power  which  hinders  his 
manifestation.  The  Thessalonians  looked 
on  the  "  day  of  the  Lord "  as  already 
imminent.  Xot  so,  St.  Paul  replies :  three 
things  must  hajipen  first — an  apostasy  or 
defection  must  occur;  the  hindrance  to 
the  manifestation  of  Antichrist  must  be 
removed,  and  then  Antichrist  hunself  re- 
vealed. This  "  man  of  sin  "  is  usually 
called  "  Antichrist,"  and  to  this  termino- 
log\-  we  shall  conform  during  the  rest  of 
the  article. 

As  to  this  Antichrist,  we  must  dis- 
tinguish between  what  is  certain  and  what 
is  doubtful. 

It  is  the  constant  belief  of  the  whole 
Church,  witnessed  by  Father  after  Father 
from  Irenseus  downwards,  that  before  our 
Lord  comes  again,  a  great  power  will 
arise  which  will  persecute  the  Church, 
and  lead  many  into  apostasy.  All  that 
is  "lawless,"  all  that  oppose  "lawful  au- 
thority "  in  Church  or  State,  partake  so 
far  of  his  spirit,  who  is  called,  in  the 
words  of  the  Apostle,  the  "  lawless  one  " 
by  pre-eminence.  But  this  must  not  lead 
us  to  treat  Antichrist  as  a  mere  personifi- 
cation of  evil,  or  to  forget  the  universal 
belief  of  Fathers  and  theologians  that  he 
is  a  real  and  individual  being  who  is  to 
appear  before  the  end  of  the  world. 

So  much  for  what  is  certain.  When 
we  come  to  details,  the  Fathers,  Bossuet 
says,  "do  but  grope  in  the  dark,  a  sure 
mark  that  tradition  had  left  nothing  de- 
cisive on  the  subject."  All,  or  nearly  all, 
are  agreed  in  considering  that  the  "mys- 

1  "  Every  .spirit  wliich  does  not  c()tites.<» 
Jesus."  So  the  Greek,  .according  to  the  editions 
just  quoted.  The  Vulgate  has  "every  spirit 
which  dissolves  Jesus." 

d2 


56 


AI^TICHEIST 


ANTIOCH 


tery  of  iniquity  already  worked  "  in  Nero, 
that  the  power  which  hindered  the  ap- 
pearance of  Antichrist  was  the  Roman 
Empire,  and  that  he  was  to  appear  as  the 
Messias  of  the  Jews,  and  to  possess  himself 
of  their  temple.  Further,  from  very  early 
times,  St.  Paul's  "man  of  sin"  was  iden- 
tified with  one  of  the  two  Apocalyptic 
beasts,  in  Apoc.  xiii.,  and  with  the 
little  horn,  in  Daniel  vii.,  which  roots  out 
the  other  ten  horns,  or  kings,  speaks 
blasphemies  and  destroys  the  saints.  A 
time  was  expected  when  the  Roman  power 
would  be  divided  into  tenkingdoms.  Anti- 
christ was  to  destroy  three  of  these,  to 
subdue  the  rest,  till,  after  a  reign  of  three 
and  a  lialf  years,  he,  in  turn,  was  de- 
stroyi'il  liy  ( 'jirist .  It  was  also  commonly 
helfi  iliat  Am  iilirist  was  to  be  a  Jew,  of 
the  tiilie  of  Dan,  liecause  that  tribe  is 
described  as  a  serpent  by  the  dying  Jacob,' 
and  is  omitted  from  the  list  of  tribes  in 
the  Apocalypse.  '  Many  other  features  in 
the  picture  might  be  given.  Some  re- 
garded Antichi-ist  as  generated bj'  Satan; 
others,  as  actually  Satan  incarnate.  The 
Arian  persecution  in  Africa,  the  domina- 
tion of  Islam,  were  looked  upon  as  likely 
to  usher  in  the  reign  of  Antichrist.  Among 
other  curious  beliefs  we  may  mention  that 
of  some  among  the  B^guines,  who  sup- 
posed tliat  as  Lucifer  had  come  from  the 
higliest  ordi'!-  of  angels,  so  Antichrist 
Would  spriiii;  I'rom  the  most  perfect  Order, 
viz.  the  Franciscan.  In  contrast  with 
these  al)errations  of  fancy,  St.  Augustine 
in  the  West,  and  St.  John  Damascene  in 
the  East,  preserve  a  marked  moderation 
of  tone  in  discussing  this  subject. 

At  the  I*rotestant  Reformation,  an  en- 
tirely new  view  appeared  on  the  field. 
Even  heretics  had  not  ventured  to  assert 
that  St.  Paul,  in  the  "man  of  sin,"  meant 
to  describe  the  Pope.  Wyclif,  indeed, 
had  called  the  Pope  "  Antichrist,"  while 
the  name  was  applied  to  Pope  Silvester 
by  the  Waldensians,  to  John  XXII.  by 
the  B^guines ;  but  the  word  was  used  in 
that  vague  sense  in  which  everyone  who 
does  or  teaches  evil  is  an  Antichrist. 
Indeed,  till  Luther's  time  it  was  generally 
agreed  that  Antichrist  was  to  be  an  indi- 
■\  idual,  and  this  fact,  which  the  plain  sense 
of  St.  Paul's  words  implies,  is  enough  of 
itself  to  refute  the  absurd  opiiuon  that 
Antichrist  means  the  line  of  Popes.  All 
Protestant  writers  of  respectalde  attain- 
ments have  now  rejected  this  monstrous 
interpretation.  Yet  it  is  well  not  to  for- 
get that  it  was  once  almost  an  article  of 

1  Gen.  xlix.  17.  *  Apoc.  vii.  6. 


Protestant  faith,  and  it  was  actually  made 
a  charge  against  Archbishop  Laud  on  his 
trial  that  he  refused  to  recognise  Anti- 
christ in  the  Bishop  of  Rome. 

(Chiefly  taken  from  Dijllinger's"  First 
Age  of  the  Church,"  Appendix  I.) 

ANTZSXCOniA.RZA.M'ZT&S  (lit- 
erally "  opponents  of  Mary  ").  A  sect  of 
heretics  in  Arabia,  to  whom  St.  Epipha- 
nius  directed  an  epistle  and  of  whom  he 
gives  an  account  in  his  work  on  heresies. 
They  held,  that,  after  Christ's  birth,  Mary 
had  other  children  by  St.  Joseph.  They 
are  said  to  have  derived  this  error  from 
disciples  of  Apollinaris.  The  Collyridians, 
a  sect  of  the  same  time  and  country, 
also  mentioned  by  Epiphanius,  went  to 
another  extreme.  Women  of  this  sect 
offered  cakes  or  rolls  (xoXXv/j/Sfj)  in 
Mary's  honour  and  afterwards  partook  of 
them.  This  superstition  first  arose  in 
Thrace  and  Scythia.  Against  these  here- 
sies St.  Epiphanius  lays  down  the  Catholic 
principle,  that  Mary  is  to  be  honoured, 
but  God  only  to  be  adored.  (See  Fleury, 
xvii.  26.    Hefele  in  Wetzer  and  Welte.) 

ATTTXOCH.  The  city  in  which  the 
disciples  of  our  Lord  were  first  called 
Christians.  It  was  the  chief  centre  of  the 
Gentile  Church  and  here  the  chie  f  apostles, 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  and  other  apostolic 
men,  such  as  St.  Barnabas,  laboured. 
Besides  this,  Antioch  had  a  title  to 
special  pre-eminence  in  the  fact  that  it 
was  for  a  time  the  act  ual  see  of  St.  Peter, 
who  founded  the  Church  and  held  it,  ac- 
cording to  St.  Jerome,  for  seven  years. 
He  was  succeeded  by  St.  Evodius  and  St. 
Ignatius.  Moreover,  the  civil  greatness 
of  the  city  combined  with  its  traditional 
glory,  as  St.  Peter's  see,  to  give  it  a  high 
rank  among  the  Churches  of  the  world. 
It  is  no  wonder,  then,  that  Antioch  should 
have  been  regarded  in  early  times  as  the 
third  among  the  episcopal  cities  of  the 
Catholic  world.  The  diilicnlt  y  rather  lies 
in  the  fact  that  the  third,  instead  of  the 
second,  place  was  assigned  to  it,  and  that 
it  ranked  after  Alexandria,  the  see  of  St. 
Mark.  This  apparent  anomaly  may  be 
explained  by  the  civil  superiority  of  Alex- 
andria, and  this  is  the  solution  actually 
given  by  Bai'onius;  or,  again,  it  may  be 
said  that  St.  Peter  only  fixed  his  see  at 
Antioch  for  a  time,  wliereas  he  placed 
his  representative  St.  Mark  as  the  per- 
manent l)ishop  of  Alexandria. 

However,  the  bisliops  of  Antioch  did 
not  even  maintain  their  I'ank  as  third 
among  Christian  bishops,  though  it  was 
theirs  by  ancient  privilege.     At  the 


AIS'TIOCH 


AXTIOCH  37 


Second  and  Fourtli  Councils,  they  per- 
mitted the  bishop  of  Const  untinople  to 
assume  the  next  place  after  the  Roman 
bishop,  so  that  Antiocli  became  the  fourth 
amonp-  the  patriarchates.  Shortly  after 
the  Fourth  General  Council,  Antioch  fell 
lower  still.  Anatolius,  bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople in  St.  Leo's  time,  ordained  a 
patriarchof  Antioch,and  thisinfrincrement 
of  the  independence  which  belonged  to 
Antioch  as  a  patriarchate  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  settled  custom. 

The  patriarchate  of  Antioch  em- 
braced the  following  provinces:  Phoe- 
nicia prima  et  secunda,  Cilicia,  Arabia, 
Mesopotamia,  Osroene,  Euphratesia,  Syria 
secunda,  Isauria  and  Palestine  It  is 
doubtful  whether  Persia  was  subject  to 
it.  Antioch  claimed  jurisdiction  over 
Cyprus,  but  the  latter  asserted  its  inde- 
pendence at  the  Council  of  Eph^stis,  and 
at  a  later  date  Anthimus,  metropolitan  of 
Cyprus,  resisted  Peter  the  Fuller,  who 
claimed  authority  as  patriarch  of  Antioch. 
Autliimu?  professed  to  have  found  the 
body  of  St.  Barnabas  in  the  island  and  so 
to  have  proved  the  apostolic  foundation 
of  his  Church.  The  territory  of  Antioch 
was  abridged  further  by  the  rise  of  the 
patriarchate  of  Jerusalem.  At  Cliulcedon, 
Juvenal  of  Jerusalem  secured  the  three 
Pale-tines  as  his  own  patriarchate.  This 
he  did  by  an  agreement  with  Maximus  of 
Antioch,  which  was  ratified  by  the  coun- 
cil and  th?  Papal  legates. 

The  bishop  of  Tyre  held  the  first 
place  among  the  metropolitans  subject  to 
Antioch ;  he  was  called  npcoToOpovos,  and 
he  had  the  right  of  consecrating  the  new 

Satriarch,  though  in  the  middle  of  the 
fth  century,  as  we  have  seen,  this  privi- 
lege wasusuqied  by  Constantinople.  The 
patriarch  consecrated  the  metropolitans ; 
they  consecrated  the  bishops,  though 
Pope  Leo  wished  that  even  bishops  should 
not  be  consecrated  without  the  patriarch's 
approval. 

Under  the  Emperors  Zeno  and  Ana- 
stasius  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  century, 
Monophysite  patriarchs  were  placed  at 
Antioch,  and  this  Monophysite  patriarch- 
ate la.sts  to  the  present  day,  though  the 
patriarch's  residence  was  removed  to  Tag- 
rit  and  later  to  Diarbekir.  There  was  a 
Greek  orthodox  patriarch,  who  generally 
resided  at  Constantinople,  but  he  too  fell 
away  in  the  general  defection  of  the 
Greeks  from  Catholic  unity.  This  schis- 
matic patriarchate  of  the  orthodox  Greeks 
still  continues.  At  the  end  of  the 
•eleventh  century,  the  conquests  of  the 


crusaders  led  to  the  establishment  of  a 
Latin  patriarchate. 

Atpresent,  besidesthe  Syro-Monophy- 
site  or  Jacobite,  and  the  Greek  schi.smatic 
patriarch,  there  are — the  Latin  Catholic 
patriarch,  who,  at  present,  does  not  really 
govern  any  Church  in  the  East ;  the  Greek 
Melchite  patriarch,  for  the  united  Greeks ; 
the  Syrian  patriarch,  for  those  of  the 
Syrian  rite  who  returned  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  from  Monophysite  error  to 
the  Church ;  the  Maronite  patriarch,  who 
has  authority  over  all  Maronite  settle- 
ments. (From  Le  Quien,  "  Oriens  Chris- 
tianus,"  torn.  ii.  De  PatriarchntH  Antio- 
cheno  ;  except  the  last  paragraph,  which 
is  from  Moroni,  "  Dizionario, "  sub  voc.) 

Among  the  many  councils  assembled 
at  Antioch,  special  importance  belongs  (1) 
to  three  councils  held  between  264  and 
269  against  Paul  of  Samosata.  At  the 
third  council,  in  260,  Paul  was  deposed 
and  his  formula  that  the  Smi  was  of  one 
substance  (ofjioovaios)  with  the  Father 
condemned,  probably  because  Paul  meant 
by  it,  that  the  Son  pre-existed  only  as  an 
attribute  of  the  Father,  not  as  a  distinct 
Person,  just  as  reason  in  man  is  a  mere 
faculty,  not  a  distinct  person.  The 
fathers  of  the  council  addressed  an  en- 
cyclical letter  to  Diouysius  of  Rome, 
Maximus  of  Alexandria,  and  to  the  other 
bishops.  Dionysius  died  that  same  year, 
but  his  successor,  Felix  I.,  pulilished  a 
decisive  statement  of  the  (  'atlmlic  faith 
against  the  errors  of  theheresiarch.  Paul, 
however,  maintained  posse.<sion  of  the 
episcopal  house;  whereupon  the  orthodox 
applied  to  the  emperor  Aui-elian,  who  de- 
creed that  thebishop's  house  was  to  belong 
to  him  "  with  whom  the  Italian  bishops 
and  the  Roman  see  were  in  communion." 

(2)  To  the  Synod  in  enca-niis,  held  in 
341.  It  consisted  of  97  bishops,  met  to 
consecrate  the  "Golden  Church"  begun 
by  Constantine  the  Great ;  whence  the 
name  eV  iyKaiviois.  The  luajority  of 
the  fathers  held  the  Catholic  faith,  and 
had  no  thought  of  betraying  it;  and  hence 
their  25  canons  relating  to  mattei-s  of 
discipline  attained  to  great  authority 
throughout  the  Church.  Rut  they  were 
deceived  by  the  Eusebian  party  [see 
Aeianism],  renewed  the  sentence  of  de- 
position against  Athanasius,  and  put  firth 
four  Creeds,  which  though  they  approach 
the  Nicene  confession,  still  fall  short  of  it 
by  omitting  the  decisive  word  "  consub- 
stantial." 

Apart  from  its  influence  as  a  patri- 
archate and  as  the  meeting-place  of  coun- 


38 


A^"TIPHON 


ANTIPOPES 


oils,  Antioch  also  wielded  great  powers 
over  the  Cliurcli  as  a  school  of  theology 
and  of  Scrijitiiral  e.ie(/esi.s.  Tliis  school 
already  existed  in  the  fourth  century, 
^vhen  Dorotbeus  and  Lucian — who  died, 
as  a  martyr,  in  311 — were  its  chief  orna- 
ments. The  Antiochenes  were  learned 
and  logical,  the  enemies  of  allegorical  in- 
pretation  and  of  mysticism,  but  their 
love  of  reasoning-  and  their  common  sense 
degenerated  at  times  into  a  rationalistic 
tendency,  so  much  so  that  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia  has  ever  been  regarded  as 
the  forerunner  of  Nestorius.  But  un- 
doubtedly, Antioch  rendered  great  ser- 
vices in  the  literal  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture. Unlike  the  Alexandrians,  the 
great  scholars  of  Antioch  turned  aside 
from  allegorical  interpretations,  and  were 
distinguished  for  their  critical  spirit  and 
grammatical  precision.  Among  their 
foremost  commentators  were — Diodorus, 
bishop  of  Tarsus  (  +  about  3!I4),  for- 
merly priest  of  Antioch,  whose  writings, 
though  vehemently  denounced  for  their 
Nestorian  tendency,  and  no  longer  extant, 
once  enjoyed  a  vast  reputation;  John 
Chrysostom,  the  greatest  of  all  literal 
expositors  ;  Theodore  of  Mo])suestia  (  + 
429),  like  Diodorus,  inclining  to  Nes- 
torianism,  but  gifted  with  talents  which 
can  still  be  discovered  even  in  the  frag- 
ments and  I^atin  translations  of  his  com- 
mentaries which  survive,  and  known 
among  the  Nestoriaus  as  "  the  commen- 
tator" par  excellence;  Theodoret  (  + 
about  458),  whose  commentaries  on  St. 
Paul  are  "perhaps  unsurpassed"  for 
"appreciation,  terseness  of  expression  and 
good  sense." ' 

ATTTZPHOiir.  The  word  signifies 
"alteniatc  utt-'rance."  St.  Ignatius,  one  of 
the  Apostolic  Fathers,  is  believed  to  have 
first  instituted  the  method  of  alternate 
chanting  by  two  choirs,  at  Antioch.  In 
the  time  of  Constaiitiiu-,  according  to 
Sozomen,  the  monks  Flavian  and  Dio- 
dorus introduced  it  among  the  Greeks. 
In  the  Lat  in  Church  it  was  first  employed 
by  St.  Aiulirose  at  Milan  in  the  fourth 
century,  and  soon  became  general.  But 
in  process  of  time  the  word  came  to  have 
a  more  restricted  sense ;  according  to 
which  it  signifies  a  selection  of  words  or 
verses  jirefixed  to  and  following  n  jisalra 
or  psalms,  to  express  in  brief  the  mystery 
which  the  Church  is  contemplating  in 
that  part  of  her  otHce. 

In  the  Mass,  the  Introit  (introduced 
by  Pope  Celestiue  I.  in  the  fifth  centiiry), 
I  Lightfoot  on  Galatians,  p.  230. 


the  Offertory,  and  the  Communion,  are 
regarded  as  Antiphons.  But  it  is  in  the 
canonical  hours  that  the  use  of  the  Anti- 
phon  receives  its  greatest  extension.  At 
vespers,  matins,  and  lauds,  when  the 
office  is  a  double  [see  Feasts],  the  Anti- 
phons are  doubled — that  is,  the  whole 
Antiphon  is  said  both  before  and  after  the 
psalm  or  canticle.  On  minor  feasts,  the 
Antiphons  are  not  doubled;  then  the 
first  words  only  are  said  before  the 
psiihn,  and  the  whole  at  the  end  of  it. 
Liturgical  writers  say  that  the  Antiphon 
means  charity ;  and  that  when  it  is  not 
doubled,  the  meaning  is  that  charity,  be- 
gun in  this  life,  is  perfected  in  the  life  to 
come ;  when  it  is  doubled,  it  is  because 
on  the  greater  feasts  we  desire  to  show 
a  more  ardent  charity.  Except  the  Alle- 
luias, few  Antiphons  are  sung  in  Paschal 
time,  for  the  joy  of  the  season  inflames 
of  itself,  and  without  extraneous  sugges- 
tion, the  charity  of  the  clergy.  On  most 
Sundays  the  Antiphons  at  vespers  are 
taken  from  both  Testaments,  but  in 
Paschal  time  only  from  the  New.  On 
the  greater  Antiphons,  see  the  article 
Advent. 

The  Antiphons  of  the  B.  V.  M. 
formed  no  part  of  the  original  Church 
office ;  they  came  into  the  breviary  later. 
They  are  four  in  number,  one  for  each 
season  of  the  year.  The  first,  "  Alma 
Redemptoris,"  sung  from  Advent  to 
Candlemas,  was  written  by  Ilermannus 
Contractus,  who  died  in  1054  Chaucer's 
beautiful  use  of  this  in  the  Prioresses  Tale 
shows  how  popular  a  canticle  it  must 
have  been  with  our  forefathers.  The 
second,  "  Ave  Pegina,"  sang  from  Candle- 
mas to  Maundy  Thursday,  was  written 
about  the  same  time,  but  the  autlioi-  is 
unknown.  The  third,  ''llrMim  Culi, 
hetare,"is  used  in  Paschal  time  ;  uml  the 
fourtli,  "  Salve  Regina  "  (to  w  hich,  as  is 
well  known,  St.  Bernard  added  the  words 
"  O  clemens,"  &c.),  written  either  by 
Pedro  of  Compostella  or  Hermannus 
Contractus,  is  sung  from  Trinity  to 
Advent. 

AM-TIPHOWARY.  The  book  in 
which  the  antiphons  of  the  breviary, 
with  the  musical  notes  belonging  to  them, 
are  contained. 

AITTIPOPES.  In  the  first  twelve 
cenluriesof  her  existence  the  Church  was 
disturbed  some  tw  eiiiy-five  times  by  rival 
claimants  cif  t  In  I'ii  |  iaV\ .  The  Strife  thus 
originated  \\as  always  an  occasion  of 
scandal,  sometimes  of  \  iolence  and  blood- 
shed, but  in  most  cases  it  was  easy  for 


A^■Tl^o^ES 


.\^•TI^OPES  39 


uipn  of  honest  will  to  distinguish  between 
the  true  Pope  and  the  Antipope  or  false 
claimant.  It  was  very  ditierent  in  the 
great  schism  of  the  fourteenth  century'. 
For  forty  years  two  and  even  three  pre- 
tenders to  the  Papacy  claimed  the  allegi- 
ance of  Catholics :  whole  countries, 
learned  men  and  canonised  saints,  ranged 
themselves  on  ditl'erent  sides,  and  even 
now  it  is  not  perhaps  absolutely  certain 
•who  was  Pope  and  who  Antipope. 

It  is  usually  said  that  Xovatian,  who 
became  the  leader  of  a  schiMiiati(  al  ]iarty 
at  Rome  in  '2iA,  was  the  tirst  Autip  >])f, 
but  Dollinger  ("  Hippolytus  and  Oallis- 
tus,"  Engl.  Tr.  p.  1)1  seg.)  argues  with 
weighty  reasons  that  he  was  anticipated 
thirty  years  before  by  Hippolytus,  the  sup- 
posed author  of  the  "  Philosophumena." 
In  the  election  of  Felix  II.  (a.d.  355-0) 
a  new  element  appears  which  was  often 
to  manifest  itself  again — viz.  the  influence 
of  the  Court.  The  Arian  Emperor  Cou- 
stantius,  after  removing  Pope  Liherius 
from  Rome,  compelled  three  disreputable 
bishops  ()car(i(r/to7rovf  •  ov  yhf)  av  riy  f'tnoi 
iwia-KOTrovs)  "  to  establish  as  bishop  in  the 
palace  a  certain  Felix,  who  was  worthy 
of  them."  So  Athanasius  writes  ("  Ad 
Monach.  et  Hist.  Arian."  75)  only  three 
years  after  the  event,  and  we  can  scarcely 
doubt  that  his  account  is  accurate  in  the 
main.  It  is  accepted,  e.(/.,  by  Natalis 
Alexander  (Diss,  xxxii.  a.  3  in  Sffic.  iv.), 
Hefele  ("  Concil."  i.  p.  661),  and  many 
other  Catholic  authorities.  But  Felix  is 
commemorated  as  a  saint  in  the  Latin 
Church  on  July  29,  and  Pagi  ("  In  Annal. 
Baron."  ad  ann.  357,  n.  3,  ad  357,  n.  16 
seg.)  tries  to  show  that  he  was  no  Arian 
intruder,  but  succeeded  Liherius  upon  his 
resignation.  After  Felix,  we  meet  with 
no  more  heretical  Antipopes,  although 
Laurentius  (498)  w^as  supported  by  the 
Byzantine  Court  in  the  belief  that  he 
would  approve  the  Henoticon  of  the 
Emperor  Zeno. 

Indeed,  for  many  centuries  Anti- 
popes  were  upheld  simply  by  factions 
among  the  clergy  and  people,  who  had 
the  power  of  election.  Thus  Eulalius 
(418-19)  was  supported  by  a  minority  of 
clergy  and  people,  and  by  the  Prefect 
Symmachus ;  he  was  finally  expelled  by 
the  Emperor  Honorius  (Fleury,  "  H.  E." 
xxiv.  7  seq.).  Laurentius  (498)  had  a 
party  of  the  people  and  Festus  the  pa- 
trician on  his  side ;  the  case  was  decided 
against  him  by  the  Arian  king  Theodoric 
(lb.  XXX.  48).  Dioscorus  (530)  was  raised 
by  popular  faction  and  died  a  mouth  j 


afterwards  (ib.  xxxii.  21).  Pascal  (687- 
692)  gained  a  party  among  the  people  and 
the  favour  of  John,  Exarch  of  Ravenna, 
by  bribery  {ib.  xl.  39).  The  tumultuous 
mob  which  chose  John  (844)  abandoned 
him  almost  immediately  {ib.  xlviii.  15). 
The  deputies  of  the  Emperor  Lothair  and 
the  arms  of  the  Frankish  soldiers  enabled 
the  usurper  Anastasius  to  defy  the  true 
Pope  Benedict  III.  for  a  brief  space  in 
855 '  {ih.  xlix.  26).  A  new  complication 
occurred  in  964.  Benedict  V.  does  not 
<leserve  to  be  called  Antipope.  He  was 
duly  elected  by  the  Roman  people.  But 
the  Romans  had  sworn  in  the  previous 
year  that  they  would  not  proceed  to  elect 
a  Pope  except  with  the  Emperor's  con- 
sent and  according  to  his  wishes.  Benedict 
was  degraded  and  humbly  confessed  hi» 
sin  (Hefele,  "  Concil."  p.  619  seq.)  In  the 
;  two  following  centuries  we  find  a  number 
of  Antipopes  raised  to  this  bad  eminence 
by  the  violence  of  popular  and  baronial 
factions  in  the  darkest  age  of  the  Church's 
history.  Such  were  Franco,  a  deacon  of 
the  Roman  Church,  who  took  the  title  of 
Boniface  YII.  and  usurped  the  Roman 
bishopric  in  975  and  again  in  984  (Fleury, 
Ivi.  3H,  Ivii.  12) ;  John  XVI.  (Philo- 
gathus),  who  won  his  place  by  bribery  in 
997  {ib.  Ivii.  49) ;  a  certain  Gregory  who 
headed  a  party  after  a  contested  election 
in  101 2  {ib.  Iviii.  35).  It  was  believed  till 
quite  lately  that  the  Church  in  the  middle 
of  the  eleventh  century  w^as  distracted 
for  the  first  time  by  the  claims  of  three 
rival  Popes.  The  recent  investigations 
of  Steindorfl'  have  shown  this  supposition 
to  be  inaccurate,  and  his  conclusions  are 
accepted  by  Hefele  in  his  second  edition. 
The  following  seem  to  be  the  facts  of  the 
case.  In  1033  the  Count  of  Tusculum 
raised  his  son,  a  boy  of  twelve,  to  the 
Papal  throne.    He  called  himself  Bene- 

1  At  this  time  the  fabulous  Pope  .loan  is 
said  to  have  reigned.  The  story  tirst  appeared 
in  a  book  bv  the  French  Dominican  Stephen  de 
Bourbon  (d".  1261)  ;  then  in  early  MSS.  of  the 
history  of  Martinus  Polonus,  also  a  Dominican 
(d.  1279).  The  work  of  Polonus  was  the  popu- 
lar history  of  the  middle  ages,  and  obtained 
universal  1  elief  for  the  legend.  It  found  a 
place  in  the  Mirabilia  Urbis  Romce,  a  sort  of 
handbook  for  strangers  visiting  Rome.  N'ay, 
acquiescence  in  the  fable  induced  John  XX.  to 
style  himself  "  John  XXI."  It  was  not  till  the 
fifteenth  century  that  doubts  arose,  and  the 
Calvinist  Blondel  {Joanna  Papissa,  Amstelo- 
dam.  1657)  lirst  demonstrated  the  unhistorical 
char.acter  of  tlie  legend.  He  was  followed  by 
Leibnitz  {FIoiks  Sparsi  in  tumidum  Papissee, 
Goetting.  17.58),  and  by  nearly  all  historians- 
since.    (Dollinger,  Papstfabeln,  1  stq.) 


40  AIS'TirOPES 


ANTIPOPES 


diet  IX.  In  104-4  this  "devil  on  the 
chair  of  Peter "  was  overthrown  in  a 
popular  iijirnar,  and  i-!ilvester  111.,  not 
witliDut  >im()ny.  Micceeded  to  liis  place. 
He  in  turn,  after  the  lapse  of  a  year, 
resigned  in  favour  of  Gregory  VI.,  an 
excellent  man,  though  apparently  he 
bribed  Benedict  to  resign.  Althougli 
therefore  there  were  not  three  rival 
Popes,  still  there  were  three  parties  in 
the  Roman  Church  and  some  reason  to 
fear  that  a  triple  schism  might  arise.  It 
was  this  fear  which  induced  the  German  i 
King  Plenry  III.  to  interfere.  A  council 
of  Sutri  deposed  Gregory  and  Silvester, 
Benedict  was  deposed  the  same  yi'ar  in  a 
synod  of  Rome,  and  Suidger  of  ISaniherg, 
at  the  recoumiendation  of  tlie  king,  was 
canonically  elected.  He  took  the  title  of 
Clement  II.  (Ilefele,  "  Concil."  iv.  p. 
706  seq.) 

The  election  of  the  Anti]>ope  Cada- 
laus  (the  name  is  spelt  in  many  ways), 
known  as  Ibnioriu..  II.,  has  greater  and 
wider  interest,  connected  as  it  is  with 
the  general  history  of  the  Churcli.  Tlie 
party  of  rei'orm  chose  Alexander  11. 
Beatrice  of  Canossa  was  zealous  in  his 
cause,  and  he  was  acknowledged  as  true 
Pope  in  1002  at  a  synod  of  Augsburg. 
But  many  feared  the  strong  measures  a 
good  Pope  might  take  against  the  simony 
and  concubinage  prevalent  among  the 
clergy.  The  Lombard  liisliops  were  de- 
termined to  lun  e  a  l'o]ie  who  came  from 
the  Paradise  of  Italy  Lomhardy),  and 
who  would  have  ]i,it  lenci.'  ^\  ith  human 
weakness.  A  ])o\\ei-lul  party  at  Rome 
was  at  one  with  them,  at  least  on  the 
latter  point.  Thus  it  came  to  pass  that 
Cadalaus,  bishop  of  Parma,  a  man  of 
licentious  life,  was  chosen  Pope  at  a 
council  of  Basle  by  the  Lombard  prelates 
and  Roman  dejiuties  in  lOtjl,  took  the 
title  of  Ilonorins  IL,  and  was  invested 
by  the  young  King  Henry  1"\'.  with  the 
insignia  of  the  Papacv  pist  twentv-eight 
davs  after  the  eanHnal'l.i>l,Mii- had  ;.lerte<l 
Alexander  11.  The  sclii^in  was  a  ior- 
midalile  one.  The  <  in  inaii  Coiii-t  ahan- 
doneil  the  (Miise  of  Cadalaus  at  the  synod 
of  AiiLi-hiiie.  hut  he  found  favour  even 
after  that  tlie  Ihiijiress  Agiies  and 

with  the  kinu,  and  he  had  money  and 
amis  at  his  conmiand.  He  died  in  107 1'. 
(Ilefele,  "  Coiu-il."  IV.  J).  870  s<'(j.) 

^'e\t  eonie>  a  s.Ties  of  Aiitipoiies  in 
the  Ion-  str.le  ]„■}^^r,■n  llie  f;,,,|„re  and 
the  rapaey.  t.iuliert  of  l;a\eiina,  the 
fa\ourite  of  Henry  IV.,  was  recognised 
by  the  Ghibelliiie  party  as  Clement  III. ; 


he  was  followed  by  the  Antipopes  Theo- 
doric  and  Albert.  In  like  manner  Biir- 
dinus  of  Braga,  under  the  Emperor  Henry 
v.,  became  the  Antipope  Gregory  VIII. 
(Hergenrother,  "  Kirchengeschichte,"  i.  p. 
707).  Anacletus  II. ,  a  son  of  Peter  Leone 
and  of  Jewish  family,  was  chosen  by  a 
party  among  the  cardinals  in  l\'-'>0.  but  by 
means  of  simony.  His  opponent,  Innocent 
II.,  won  the  allegiance  of  the  Catholic 
world  as  a  whole,  but  Anacletus  was 
upheld  by  the  Normans  in  Calabria,  by 
the  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  and  others.  After 
his  death  in  1138,  his  party  transferred 
their  homage  to  another  Antipope,  Victor 
ly.  {i/>.  771-3).  Once  more  under 
Frederic  I.,  the  war  between  the  Imperial 
and  I'apal  parties  called  new  Antipo])e3 
into  existence.  The  hrst  of  these,  also 
called  A'ictor  IV.,  had  won  the  votes  of 
the  Ghibelline  majority  among  the  car- 
dinals. He  was  acknowledged  by  a  synod 
of  Pavia  in  1160,  and  the  true  Pope, 
Alexander  III.,  took  refuge  in  France. 
Another  Antipope,  Paschal  III.  {Guido 
('lii)icnf),  followed  in  1164,  and  another 
Calixtus  III.  (John  de  Struma),  in  1168. 
Frederic  ceased  to  maintain  the  schism 
after  the  peace  of  Venice  in  1177.  and 
the  Anti])ope  himself  submitted  to  Alex- 
ander III.  Some  of  the  Barons  tried  to 
continue  the  schism  by  declaring  Lando 
Siterio  Pope,  but  the  attempt  failed 
utterly  and  at  once,  and  I'ope  Alex- 
ander, who  died  in  1181,  had  seen  the  fall 
of  no  less  than  four  pretenders  to  the 
Papacy. 

For  about  two  centuries  no  Antipope 
disturbed  the  Church's  peace,  but  in  1378 
the  election  of  Urban  VI.  occasioned  a 
schism  rightly  called  the  great,  since  it 
was  the  most  grievous  ever  known. 
Gregory  XL  had  just  brought  the  "  Baby- 
lonish cai)tivity  "  of  Avignon  to  an  end. 
It  is  said  that,  as  he  received  the  sacra- 
ments of  the  dying,  he  warned  others 
against  certain  persons  who  advanced 
ideas  of  their  own  as  divine  ins]iirations, 
Lnin  iil  I'd  t  lie  step  they  had  induced  him 
to  tal»e,  and  expressed  his  dread  of  the 
consequences  to  the  Church.  There  were 
sixteen  cardinals  present  at  Rome,  of 
whom  eleven  were  Frenchmen,  four 
Italians,  and  one,  Peter  de  Luna,  a 
Spaniard.  Gregory,  a  few  days  before 
his  death,  had  empowered  them  to  hold  a 
conclave  at  any  place  and  without  waiting 
for  their  colleagues  (Ravnald.  ad.  ami. 
1378,  n.  2).  On  April' 7,  1378,  they 
assembled  in  the  Vatican.  Their  task 
was  far  from  easy.    It  would  have  been 


ANTIPOrES 


ANTIPOPES  41 


natural  for  them  to  elect  a  Frenchman, 
but  on  the  other  hand,  the  Romans  ear- 
nestly demanded  a  Roman  or  at  least  an 
Italian  Pope.  An  April  8,  Bartholomew 
of  Prignano,  archbishop  of  Bari,  was 
•elected,  and  he  was  crowned  on  Easter 
Sunday  under  the  title  of  Urban  VI. 
French  contemporary  writers  with  scarcely 
an  exception  represent  the  cardmals  as 
constrained  by  violence.  They  were  told 
by  the  populace  that  they  must  elect  an 
Italian  or  die;  nor  were  signs  wanting 
that  the  Roman  mob  meant  to  keep  their 
word.  There  are,  however,  very  strong 
reasons  for  refusing  belief  to  these  French 
accounts.  Dietrich  of  Niem,  a  German 
and  an  official  in  the  Papal  Court  at  the 
time,  assures  us  that  the  election  was  pei- 
fectly  free,  that  the  people  did  indeed  beg 
the  cardinals  to  promote  an  Italian,  but 
used  no  force  or  threats,  and  that  the 
tumult  did  not  occur  till  the  election  was 
over.  Dietrich  must  have  known  the 
truth,  and  there  is  everj-  ground  to  think 
he  told  it,  for  he  was  by  no  means  an 
enthusiastic  admirer  of  Pope  Urban.  The 
testimony  of  St.  Catherine  of  Sweden, 
^iven  at  length  by  Ravualdus  (ad  ann. 
1379,  n.  20)  is  to  the  same  effect.  She 
was  present  in  Rome  at  the  time,  and 
talked  over  the  matter  with  many  of  the 
cardinals.  15ut  the  most  conclusive 
document  is  the  letter  also  given  in  full 
by  Raynaldus  (ad  ann.  1378,  n.  19), 
which  the  sixteen  electors  addressed  on 
April  19  to  their  brother-cardinals  at 
Avignon.  They  declare  that  they  had 
■chosen  Urban  freely  and  unanimously, 
and  we  know  that  they  acknowledged 
him  for  several  months  without  a  pro- 
test. 

However,  Urban's  harshness  and  im- 
prudence alienated  the  Sacred  College, 
and  in  August  of  that  same  year  the 
French  cardinalsdeclared  that  the  elect  i.  >n 
had  been  constrained,  and  renouncril  all 
allegiance  to  Urban,  whom  they  called 
"an  apo.'^tate"  and  "an  accursed  Anti- 
christ "  (Raynald.  ad  ann.  1-37&,  n.  48 
seq.)  They  persuaded  three  out  of  the 
f(uir  Italian  cardinals  to  join  them  at 
Fondi,  where,  on  September  20,  the  Car-  | 
dinal  of  Geneva  was  elected,  and  became 
Clement  VII.  Urban  found  himself 
•deserted  by  every  cardinal,  for  the  fourth 
Italian  member  of  the  college  (Tebal- 
deschi)  was  dead.  All  the  cardinals  at 
Avignon  accepted  Clement,  who  soon  after 
established  himself,  and  was  acknow- 
ledged Pope  in  France,  Lorraine,  Savoy, 
"Scotland,  Naples,  and  Spam.    The  rest 


I  of  the  Catholic  world  belonged  to  the  obe- 
!  dience  of  Urban.    St.  Catherine  of  Siena 
I  was  eager  in  the  cause  of  Urban ;  St. 
i  Vincent  Ferrar  equally  so  for  the  Pope.* 
I  of  the  other  line.    Urban  was  followed 
by  Boniface  IX.  (1389-1404);  Innocent 
Vn.  (1404-6) ;   Gregory  XII.  1407-9. 
j  On  Clement's  death  in  1394,  he  was  re- 
placed bv  the  famous  Peter  de  Luna, 
Benedict 'Xin. 

The  Council  of  Pisa  in  1409  tried  to 
remove  the  scandal  of  a  double  line  of 
Popes  anathematising  each   other  and 
dividing  the  allegiance  of  Christendom. 
I  In  Session  XV.  both  Popes  were  deposed, 
I  and  in  the  nineteenth.  Alexander  V.  was 
I  elected.    For  a  time  this  made  matters 
worse,  for  neither  Gregory  nor  Benedict 
ailmitt'-d  the  validity  of  the  sentence,  so 
that  tliire  were  now  three  claimants  of 
the  Papacy — viz.  Gregory  XII.,  Benedict 
XIII.  and  Alexander  Y.    Still,  Alex- 
ander's successor,  John  XXIII.  was  ac- 
cepted  by  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  and  by 
I  the  greater  part  of  the  Church. 
I       Another  attempt  at  peace  was  made 
I  by  the  Council  of  Constance.   It  annulled 
j  the  pretensions  of  all  three  Popes.  Of 
these,  Grec'orv  resigned  wiUinalv.  John 
was  dep.jsed  "in  .-r.Mon  xii..  'May  141.5, 
and  Benedict  XIII.  in  sc-^lou  xxvii., 
two  years  later.    Martin  A',  was  then 
chosen  Pope  by  the  twenty-three  cardinals 
and  six  deputies  from  each  of  the  four 
nations    into   which  the   council  was 
divided. 

Here  the  schism  virtually  ended,  and 
Martin  Y.  ruled  over  all  Catholics. 
Nevertheless,  Benedict  XIII.  held  out  at 
the  Castle  of  Peniscola,  on  the  Catalonian 
coast.  He  had  received  the  deputies  who 
brought  him  the  sentence  of  deposition 
with  solemn  protest;  he  maintained  to 
the  last  that  the  little  church  of  his 
obedience  was  the  nrk  of  salvation,  and 
that  he  hini.-elf  was  the  centre  of  unity. 
A\'ith  his  last  breath  in  1423  he  bade  his 
cardinals  provide  for  the  election  of  a  suc- 
cessor, which  they  did  by  promoting  the 
Canon  Muhoz '  as  Clement  VII.  He, 
however,  resigTied  the  tiara  in  1420,  and 
allowed  his  cardinals  to  elect  "  Otto 
Colonna,  known  in  his  obedience  as 
Martin  Y."  Munoz  became  Bishop  of  the 
Balearic  Isles. 

Amadeus,  Cotint  and  afterwards  first 

1  There  were  only  four  "cardinals  "  in 
Benedict's  obedience.  Three  chose  Muiioz;  a 
fourth  elected  himself,  and  took  the  title 
"  Benedict  XIV."  He  was  defended  by  the 
Count  of  Armagnac. 


42 


ARTISTES 


APOCRYPHA 


Duke  of  Savoy  and  Count  of  Geneva,  was 
the  last  of  the  Antipopes.  He  was 
chosen  by  the  Council  of  Basle,  then 
schismatical,  in  1439,  and  crowned  at 
Basle  in  the  following  year.  He  sub- 
mitted in  1440  to  Pope  Nicolas  V.,  who 
madf  him  cardinal  and  pei-petual  vicar  of 
the  Hilly  See  in  the  territories  of  Savoy, 
Basle,  Stnisburg,  &c.  He  died  at  Ripaille 
in  14.-,1. 

AirTXSTES.  A  title  frequently  ap- 
plied in  ecclesiastical  history,  and  in  the 
prayers  of  the  Church,  to  a  prelate  or 
bishop. 

APOCRXSZARIVS  {dirOKp'ivecrdai, 
to  answer).  Ecclesiastical,  but  chiefly 
Papal,  emissaries  to  the  Court  of  the 
Emperor  were  designated  by  this  name 
from  the  fourth  to  the  ninth  century.  So 
long  as  the  civil  power  persecuted  the 
Church,  there  was  no  place  for  such  offi- 
cials ;  but  after  the  conversion  of  Con- 
stantine,  the  recognition  by  the  Roman 
emperors  of  the  divinity  of  Christianity 
and  the  claims  of  the  hierarchy  gave  rise 
to  numberless  questions,  within  the  bor- 
derland of  the  civil  and  the  ecclesiastical 
jtu-isdiction,  which  it  was  important  for 
the  Popes  to  press  on  the  notice  of  the  em- 
perors, and  obtain  definite  anstvers  upon, 
so  that  a  practical  adjustment  might  be- 
come possible.  The  Apocrisiarius,  there- 
fore, corresponded  to  the  Nuncio  or 
Legate  a  latere  of  later  times,  and  was 
usually  a  deacon  of  the  Roman  Church. 
Gregory  the  Great  resided  in  this  charac- 
ter for  three  years  at  Constantinople  in 
the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Mauricius. 
After  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century 
we  hear  no  more  of  such  an  emissary, 
because  the  adoption  of  the  extravagances 
of  the  Iconoclasts  by  the  imperial  Court 
led  to  a  breach  with  Rome.  But  when 
Charlemagne  revived  the  Empire  of  the 
West,  similar  diplomatic  relations  arose 
between  him  and  the  Holy  See,  which 
again  reqtiired  the  appointment  of  Apocri- 
siarii.  It  appears  that  under  the  first 
Frankish  emperors  the  imperial  arch- 
chaplain  was  at  the  same  time  Papal 
Apocrisiariu.-.  Sulj^^ei^uently  the  name 
was  given  to  nlliciul-  ut  Court  nomination, 
who  held  im  comniis.-iun  from  Rome  ;  and 
in  this  way  the  title  in  its  old  sense  came 
to  be  disused,  and  was  replaced  by  Legatus 
[q.  v.]  or  Nuntius. 

APOCRYPHA  (from  dn-o/cpiK^oy,  hid- 
den).  It  corn'>])onds  to  the  Jewish  word 

wliich  the  .Jews  applied  to  books  with- 
drawn from  public  use  in  the  synagogue, 
on  account  of  their  unfitness  for  public 


I  reading.'  But  the  later  Jews  had  also 
the  notion  that  some  books  should  be 
withdrawn  from  general  circulation  be- 
cause of  the  mysterious  truths  they  con- 
tained.'^ 

I  The  early  Fathers  used  "  apocrj'phal " 
j  to  denote  the  forged  books  of  heretics, 
borrowing,  perhaps,  the  name  from  the 
heretics  themselves,  who  vaunted  the 
"  apocryphal "  '  or  "  hidden  "  wisdom  of 
these  writings.  Later — e.ff.  in  the  "  Pro- 
logus  galeatus  "  of  Jerome — apocrj-phal  is 
used  in  a  milder  sense  to  mark  simply 
that  a  book  is  not  in  the  recognised  canon 
of  Scripture  ;  and  Pope  Gelasius,''  in  a  de- 
cree of  494,  uses  the  term  apocryphal  in 
j  a  very  wide  manner,  (1)  of  heretical  for- 
geries ;  (2)  of  books  like  the  "  Shepherd 
of  Hermas,"  revered  by  the  ancients,  but 
not  a  part  of  Scripture;  (3)  works  by 
early  Christian  writers  (Arnobius,  Cas- 
sian,  &c.)  who  had  erred  on  some  points 
of  doctrine.  We  need  scarcely  add  that 
the  Protestant  custom  of  calling  Wis- 
dom, Machabees,  &c.,  "  Apocrypha,"  is 
contrary  to  the  faith  and  tradition  of  the 
Church.  [See  Canon  of  the  Sckiptuke.] 
The  name  is  now  usually  reserved  by 
Catholics  for  books,  laying  claim  to  an 
origin  which  might  entitle  them  to  a 
place  in  the  canon,  or  which  have  been 
supposed  to  be  Scripture,  but  which  have 
been  finally  rejected  by  the  Church.  In 
the  Old  Testament  the  most  important 
apocryphal  books  are — 3  and  4  Esdras, 
both  of  which  are  cited  by  early  writers 
as  Scripture,  the  latter  being  also  used  in 
the  Missal  and  Breviary ;  3  and  4  Jlacha- 
bees ;  the  prayer  of  Manasses,  which  is 
found  in  Greek  MSS.  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  is  often  printed,  in  a  Latin 
version,  in  the  appendix  to  the  Vulgate ; 
the  book  of  Enoch  (cf.  Jude  14),  which 
Tertullian  regarded  as  authentic  (it  only 
e.xists  at  present  in  an  Ethiopic  version) ; 
a  I51st  Psalm  attributed  to  David,  which 
is  found  in  Greek  MSS.,  and  in  the 
Syriac,  Ethiopic,  and  Arabic  versions  of 
the  Psalms;  eighteen  psalms  attribtited 
to  Solomon,  written  originally,  according 
to  some  scholars,  in  Hebrew,  according  to 
others,  in  Greek. ^ 

There  is  a  great  mass  of  New  Testa- 
ment apocryphal  literature.  Some  books, 
such  as  the  "Epistle  of  Barnabas,"  the 

1  Buxtorf.  Lev.  Cliald.  et  Rabbin,  sub  voc. 

2  4  Esdr.  xiv.  4G. 

5  Tertull.  De  An.  2.  Clem.  Alex.  Strnm. 
iii.  4.  29  ;  Euseb.  Hist.  iv.  22. 

*  Fleury,  Hist.  xxx.  35  ;  but  see  also  Hefele^ 
Conciliengeschickte,  ii.  G18. 

5  See  Reusch,  hinkit.  in  das  A.  T.  p.  176. 


AroCRYPIlA 


APOLLIXARIAMSM  43 


two  "Epistles  of  Clement,"  the  "Shep- 
herd of  Hermas,"  may  in  a  certain  sense 
be  called  ajxicryphal,  because,  thou<rh  not 
really  belonginfr  to  Scripture,  they  were 
guoted  as  such  by  ancient  writers,  or  were 
inserted  in  MSS.  of  the  Xew  Testament. 
Some  other  books  mentioned  by  Eusebius 
— ^viz.  the  "  Acts  of  Paul,"  the  "  Apo- 
calypse of  Peter,"  the  "  Teachings  of  the 
Apostles  "  {liiSaxai  T(bv  'ATToa-ToXcov),  seem 
to  have  belonged  to  this  better  class  of 
apocrvphal  literature.  Besides  these, 
Eusebius  mentions  apocryphal  books  in 
circulation  among  heretics — viz.  the 
"  Gospels  "  of  Peter,  Thomas,  Matthias  ; 
the  "  Acts  "  of  Andrew,  John,  and  the 
rest  of  the  Apostles.^  Fragments  remain 
of  the  ancient  Gospels  "  according  to  the 
Hebrews,"  "  of  the  Nazarenes,"  "  accord- 
ing to  the  Egyptians,"  of  the  preaching 
and  Apocah-pse  of  Peter,  &c.,  and  have 
been  repeatedly  edited.^ 

Later  times  were  no  less  fruitful  in 
apocryphal  literature,  and  we  still  possess 
a  great  number  of  these  later  forgeries, 
entire  and  complete.  They  have  been 
edited  by  Fabricius  in  the  work  already 
named;  by  Thilo,  "Codex  Apocrypbus 
Novi  Testament!,"  1831,  of  which  work 
only  the  first  volume,  containing  the 
apocryphal  Gospels,  appeared;  by  Tis- 
chendorf  ("  Evangelia  Apocrypha,"  1876, 
second  edition  enlarged  ;  "  Acta  Aposto- 
lorum  Apocrypha,"  1851 ;  "  Apocryphal 
Apocalypses,"  1866),  and  by  other  scho- 
lars. This  is  not  the  place  to  attempt  an 
enumeration  of  these  apocryphal  books, 
but  we  may  mention  some  which  enjoyed 
a  special  popularity  in  the  Church,  and 
exercised  a  marked  influence  on  Catholic 
literature.  A  number  of  apocryphal 
Gospels  treat  of  the  infancy  and  youth  of 
our  Lord,  and  of  the  history  of  his 
blessed  Mother  and  foster-father.  Among 
these  the  " Protevangelium  of  James" 
holds  the  first  place.  It  describes  the  early 
history  of  Mary,  our  Lord's  birth  at 
Bethlehem,  and  the  history  of  the  wise 
men  from  the  East.  This  gospel  was 
much  used  by  the  Greek  Fathers  ;  portions 
of  it  were  read  publicly  in  the  Ea.-;teni 
Churcli,  and  it  was  translated  into  Arabic 
and  Coptic.  It  was  prohibited  for  a 
time  among  the  Latins,  but  even  in  the 
West  it  was  much  used  during  the  middle 
ages.    Other  Gospels,  such  as  the  Arabic 

I  Euseb.  H.  E.  in.  2r>. 

«  By  Fabricius,  Cwlex  Apocryphus  N.  T. 
170o-i9) ;  Grabe.  Spicilegium  Patrum,  Oxoniae 
nOO) ;  Hiliienfeld,  N.  T.  extra  Canonem.  re- 
ceptum  (18t)5). 


"Evangelium  Infantim  Salvatoris,"  con- 
tain legendary  miracles  of  our  Lord's 
infancy.  We  have  a  second  class  of 
apocryphal  Gospels  which  treat  of  the 
Passion  and  Resurrection  of  Christ.  Of 
this  class  is  the  "  Gospel  of  Nicodemus." 
It  is  probably  of  very  late  origin,  but  it 
was  a  favourite  book  in  the  middle  ages. 
The  Greek  text  still  exists,  but  it  was  also 
circulated,  before  the  invention  of  print- 
ing, in  Latin,  Anglo-Saxon,  German,  and 
French.  Closely  connected  with  this 
Gospel  are  a  number  of  documents  which 
ha\-e  sprung  from  very  ancient  but  spuri- 
ous "  Acts  of  Pilate."  These  ancient 
Acts  which  were  known  to  Justin  and 
Tertullian,  have  perished,  but  they  called 
forth  several  imitationswhich  still  survive. 
The  one  which  is  best  known  is  a  letter 
of  Lentulus  to  the  Roman  senate  describ- 
ing the  personal  appearance  of  our  Lord. 
It  is  a  forgery  of  the  middle  ages. 

Further,  apocrj'phal  literature  is  rich 
in  "  Acts  of  the  Apostles,"  and  here,  as 
in  the  apocryphal  Gospels,  we  find  early 
but  spurious  Acts,  revised  and  enlarged, 
and  so  originating  fresh  forgeries.  Thus 
the  "  Acts  of  Paul  and  Thecla,"  in  their 
existing  form,  are  the  recension  of  a  veiy 
early  work — forged  as  early  at  least  as 
TertuUian's  time.  The  fullest  of  all  these 
"Acts"  is  the  "Historia  Certaminis 
Apostolorum."  It  can  scarcely  be  older 
than  the  ninth  century,  but  it  is  of  con- 
siderable value,  because  the  author  has 
made  diligent  use  of  earlier  Acts,  some  of 
which  have  perished. 

Of  apocryphal  Epistles  we  have,  among 
others,  a  letter  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Laodi- 
ceans  (only  existing  in  Latin),  which, 
though  rejected  by  Jerome,  was  accepted 
as  canonical  by  many  great  Latin  theolo- 
gians of  a  later  day,  won  a  place  in  many 
copies  of  the  Latin  Bible,  and  for  more 
than  nine  centuries  "  hovered  about  the 
doors  of  the  sacred  canon."  '  We  may 
also  mention  a  letter  of  St.  Paul  to  the 
Corinthians,  and  another  of  the  Corinthi- 
ans to  St.  Paul  (both  only  in  Armenian) ; 
letters  supposed  to  have  passed  Ijetween 
St.  Paul  and  Seneca  (known  to  Jerome 
and  Augustine);  spurious  letters  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  to  St.  Ignatius,  to  the  in- 
habitants of  Messina,  &c.  &c. 

Lastly,  we  have  apocryphal  Apo- 
calypses of  Paul  (called  also  avaiiariKov  ; 
see'  2  Cor.  xii.  1),  Thomas,  Stephen — 
nay,  even  of  St.  John  himself. 

"  APOX.X.XM'A.RZA.M'ZSnX.  Apollin- 
aris  was  the  son  of  a  grammarian,  also 
1  Lightfoot,  Ep.  to  Colos.  p.  305. 


44  APOLLIXAEIANISM 


APOSTASY 


called  Apollinaris,  -who  migrated  from 
Alexandria  to  Laodicea,  where  the 
younger  Apollinaris  was  born,  and  of 
which  city  he  afterwards  became  bishop. 
He  was  distinguished,  not  only  for  his 
great  literary  knowledge  and  skill,  but 
also  for  his  austerity  of  life.  He  was  a 
voluminous  author.  He  wrote  in  defence 
of  theChristian  religion  against  Porphyry, 
and  showed  like  zeal  against  the  Arians, 
who  in  revenge  inflicted  a  cruel  wrong 
upon  him.  He  was  dear  in  his  youth  to 
St.  Athanasius,  and  he  was  in  friendly 
relations  with  SS.  Kpiphanius,  Basil, 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus.  Hence,  for  a  long 
time  the  Catholics  were  unwilling  to 
believe  that  the  errors  attributed  to  him 
were  really  his.  Athanasius  wrote  against 
his  heresy  without  mentioning  his  name, 
and  at  the  Alexandrian  Council  of  3G2, 
the  Apollinarians  seem  either  to  have 
retracted  their  errors  for  the  moment,  or 
else  to  have  deceived  the  Catholic  bishops. ' 
But  "  towards  375  or  376,"  says  Fleury, 
"their  errors  manifested  themselves  so 
plainly  as  to  make  further  toleration 
impossiljle.  The  Egyptian  bishops  exiled 
in  Palestine  for  tlie  laith  opposed  [Apol- 
linaris] vigoniiisly,'"-  and  St.  Basil  wrote 
against  the  heresiarch.  Apollinaris  was 
condemned  in  a  PiOniuu  synod  under  Pope 
Damasus  in  374.  Two  years  later,  the 
same  Po])c,  in  anndnT  lloman  synod, 
anathematised  the  litresy  and  deposed 
Apollinariswith  his  tA^o  disciples  Timothy 
and  Vitalis,  Apolliiiarist  bishops  at  Alex- 
andria and  Antioch.^  They  were  con- 
demned again  in  the  first  cinion  of  the 
Second  rieneral  Council  and  their  assem- 
blies wcir  l'oi  l)i(lden  by  Theodosius. 

A])(illiii,i)  is  was  not  always  consistent 
with  himself,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish his  doctrine  from  later  accretions, 
which  it  may  have  received  through  his 
followers.  A  full  account  of  his  doctrine 
so  far  as  it  can  be  ascertained  will  be 
found  in  Petavius,'  from  whom  we  have 
taken  the  lollowing  summarv  : — 

First,  Apollinaris,  like  "llie  .Brians, 
denied  that  our  Lord  bad  a  human  intelli- 
gence. He  admitted  tlial  Christ  had  a 
soul  by  which  He  liv.d  and  l"elt,  but  he 
said  that  the  placf  ot  the  intellect  and 
spirit  were  supplied  by  the  eternal  Word. 
A  human  intelligence,  he  argued,  would 
have  been  useless  to  our  Lord,  and  incon- 
sistent with  His  sinlessness,  because  a 

'  Hefele,  Concillengeschichte,  i.  729. 
'  Hist.  xvii.  25. 

'  Hefele,  ConcUiengeschichle,  i.  740,  742. 

*  De  Incarnat.  i.  6.  | 


created  intelligence  must  needs  be  pecca- 
ble. Here  -Apollinaris  virtually  denied 
that  Christ  is  perfect  man,  and  destroyed 
all  real  belief  in  the  Incarnation. 

Next,  he,  or  at  least  his  followers,  held 
that  our  Lord's  flesh  Avas  of  one  substance 
with  His  divinity,  so  that  the  divinity 
actually  suft'ered  and  died.  They  denied 
that  He  took  flesh  from  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  asserting  that  Christ  brought  His 
body  with  Him  from  heaven,  and  that 
this  body  existed  "  before  the  ages."  On 
this  point,  the  Apollinarians  repeated  an 
old  Gnostic  error,  and  were  the  fore- 
runners of  the  Monophysites.  They  ob- 
jected to  the  Catholic  doctrine,  according 
to  which  Christ  is  true  man,  because  they 
thought  it  introduced  a  fourth  person 
over  and  above  the  three  Persons  of  the 
Trinity.  As  Apollinaris  denied  the  hu- 
manity of  Christ  by  depriving  Ilim  of  an 
intelligent  soul,  so  he  did  in  reality  deny 
His  divinity,  for  a  Godhead  which  can  die 
or  suffer  is  no  Godhead  at  all.  (See  Petav. 
loc.  cit. ;  Fleury  :  Newman,  "  Tracts  The- 
ological and  Ecclesiastical,"  257  seq.) 

APOXiOCZST.  The  word  is  used 
genei-ally  to  denote  %vriters  who  defend 
Christianity  and  the  Church  from  attack. 
It  is  also  applied  in  a  special  sense  to 
those  Christian  writers  of  the  first  four 
centuries,  who  vindicated  the  faith  and 
discipline  of  Christ  from  the  torrent  of 
obloquy  to  which  they  were  exposed  in 
Pagan  society.  Such  were  J  ustin  Martyr, 
Minucius  Felix,  Tertsllian,  Theophilus, 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Lactantius,  &c., 
besides  others,  such  as  Quadratus,  Ari- 
stides,  and  Melito,  whose  works  have  not 
come  down  to  us. 

APOSTASY.  It  is  of  three  kinds  : 
that  from  the  Christian  faith  ;  that  from 
ecclesiastical  obedience  ;  and  that  from  a 
religious  profession,  or  from  holy  orders. 
An  apostate  from  the  faith  is  one  who 
wholly  abandons  the  faith  of  Christ,  and 
joins  himself  to  some  other  law,  such  as 
Judaism,  Islam,  Paganism,  &c.  It  is  a 
mistake,  therefore,  to  brand  as  apostasy 
any  kind  of  heresy  or  schism,  however 
criminal  or  absurd,  which  still  assumes  to 
itself  the  Christian  name.  While  the 
Turks  were  in  the  heyday  of  their  power, 
and  had  great  command  over  the  Medi- 
terranean, the  captivity  of  Christians 
among  them,  and  apostasy  resulting  Irom 
such  captivity,  were  matters  of  everyday 
occurrence ;  hence  a  great  number  of 
decisions  and  opinions  respecting  the 
treatment  of  apostates,  on  their  wishing 
to  return  to  Christianity,  may  be  found 


AroSTLE 


APOSTLE 


45 


in  the  writings  of  canonists.  The  second 
kind  of  apostasy,  that  from  ecclesiastical 
obedience,  is  when  a  Catholic  wllfiilly 
and  contumaciously  sets  at  nought  the 
autliority  of  the  Church.  Such  apostasy, 
it  persisted  in,  becomes  Schism  [^.i'.]. 
The  third  kind  is  that  of  those  who 
abandon  without  permission  the  rolioious 
order  in  which  they  are  professed  :  as  when 
Luther  abandoned  his  profession  as  an 
Augu5tiuian,aud  married  Catherine  Bora. 
He  is  also  an  apostate  who,  after  having 
received  majororders,  renounces  his  cleri- 
cal profession,  and  returns  to  the  dress 
and  customs  of  the  world,  "  an  act  which 
entails  ecclesiastical  infamy,  and,  if  there 
is  marriage,  excommunication."  (Ferraris, 
Apostasia  :  Mack's  article  in  Wetzer  and 
Wehe.) 

iiPOSTXiE  (from  dn-ooToXor,  one 
who  is  sent).  The  word  is  not  much  used 
in  classical  Greek  except  to  denote  "  a 
naval  expedition."  In  the  LXX  it  occurs 
only  once,  3  Kings  xiv.  6,  where  Ahias 
says  to  the  wife  of  Jeroboam,  "I  am  a 
hard  messenger  (uTrdoroXoy)  to  thee." 
It  was,  however,  in  common  use  among 
the  later  .Tews,  who  applied  it  to  the 
emissaries  sent  by  the  rulers  of  the  race 
on  any  foreign  mission.  These  "  apostles  " 
formed  a  council  round  the  Jewish 
patriarch,  and  executed  his  orders  abroad. 
Probably  our  Lord  adopted  the  word 
from  the  current  language  of  his  time.' 

The  name  is  given  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment first  of  all  to  the  twelve  whom  our 
Lord  chose.  "  The  names  of  the  twelve 
apostles,"  St.  Matthew  says,  "are  these: 
the  first,  Simon,"  &c.  But  it  is  by  no 
means  restricted  to  them :  Mntthias  and 
Paul  were  of  course  Apostles,  though  not 
of  the  twelve  ;  so  was  13arnabas.'-  More- 
over, St.  Paul  seems  to  bestow  the  name 
on  the  seventy  disciples  and  also  upon 
Andronicus  and  Juiiias.^  Certainly,  in 
the  writings  of  the  Fathers  and  in  the 
ofiice  of  the  Church  the  word  is  used  of 
persons  like  Silas,  Timothy,  Luke,  and 
others  wlin  were  associated  with  Paul  in 
his  work.''  Finally,  the  word  .\postle  in 
the  New  Testament  still  retains  its  wide 
and  original  meaning  of  messenger.-'' 

It  is  plain,  however,  from  Sci'ipture 
and  tradition,  and  from  the  very  fact  that 
the  Church  was  an  organised  body,  that 
the  office   of  Apostle   was  something 

1  LighttViot  on  G.il.nt.  p-2  xcq. 

Acts  xiii.  -'^  n  :  (;.ilat.  ii.  9  ;  1  Cor.  i.x.  5. 
*  1  Ciir.  .\v.  ,  :  R..m.  xvi.  7. 

See  Lightfoot. /()c.  cit.,  and  Estius  on  Rom.  1. 
5  Philipp.  ii.  25. 


I  definite  and  distinct.   It  has  been  argued 
that  an  Apostle,  in  the  strict  sense,  had 
to  be  taken  from  those  who  had  seen  our 
Lord,  and  that  the  ofiice  of  the  Apostolate 
I  was  always  accompanied  with  the  power 
of  working  miracles.    Neither  of  these 
points  can  be  proved.    No  doubt,  it  was 
providentially  arranged  that  the  twelve 
■■should  be  able  to  give  personal  witness  to 
the  resurrection,  and  St.  Paul  himself 
appeals  to  his  having  seen  our  Lord  as 
proof  of  his  equality  with  the  older 
Apostles.  No  doubt,  God  did  confirm  the 
teaching  of  the  Apostles  by  giving  extra- 
ordinary efficacy  to   their  words,  and 
setting  his  seal  to  it  by  miracles.  But 
this  is  no  proof  that  the  essential  charac- 
ter of  the  Apostolate  depended  either  on 
the  gift  of  miracles  or  on  having  seen 
our  Lord.     There  are,  however,  three 
marks  of  the   Apostolic   office  which 
necessarily  belong  to  it,  and  which,  taken 
together,  separate  it  from  all  other  eccle- 
siastical dignities.    First,  the  Apostles 
j  were  bishops,  and  so  had  the  sacrament 
I  of  order  in  all  its  fullness ;  they  were 
able  to  consecrate  and  ordain,  to  con- 
firm, S:c.  Next,  either  mediately,  through 
the  ministry  of  man,  or  immediately  from 
God  Himself,  they  had  received  a  com- 
mission to  preach  the  Gospel  throughout 
the  world.    They  were  to  be  witnesses  to 
Christ  "even  to  the  end  of  the  earth." 
I  Thirdly,  they  received  full  and  perfect 
i  power  of  binding  and  loosing,  of  founding 
Churches,  of  ordaining  bishops  and  other 
ecclesiastics,  throughout  the  world.  This 
universal  jurisdiction,  however,  they  were 
I  obliged  to  exercise  in  union  with  St.  Peter, 
who  was  the  centre  of  unity  and  head  of 
the  Church,  and  in  subordination  to  huu. 
Further,  this  universal  jurisdiction  was 
I  peculiar  to  themselves :  they  could  not — 
except  in  a  certain  modified  sense,  which 
j  will  be  explained  presently — transmit  it  to 
j  their  successors.    It  is  Peter  only,  who 
had   any    individual   successor   in  his 
primacy  and  his  universal  jurisdiction. 
Accordingly,  if  we  are  asked  how  far  the 
Apostolic  office  continues  in  the  Church, 
we  may  answer  briefiy  as  follows  : — In 
episcopal  order  and  in  universal  jurisdic- 
tion {i.e.  in  two  out  of  the  three  notes  of 
an  Apostle)  the  bishops  of  Rome  are  the 
successors  of  .St.  Peter,    (^ther  bishops 
succeed  the  A])ostles  in  order  only,  not  in 
^  universal  juriMliction.  But  the  episcopate 
i  conjointly  have  universal  jurisdiction,  and 
j  so  together  represent  the  .\postoliccollege. 
i  This  jurisdiction  they  exercise  in  sub- 
ordination to  the  Pope,  as  the  Apostles 


46         ArOSTLES'  CREED 


APOSTOLIC  CANONS 


exercised  theirs  in  subjection  to  St. 
Peter.  (See  Petav.  "  De  llit'rarcli."  i.  5 
and  6.) 

APOSTLES'  CREED.  [Ser  Creed.] 
il.POSTX.ES,  FEASTS  OF.  liefure 
the  fifth  centiuy  the  Iloman  calendar 
contained  no  festivals  proper  to  any  of 
the  Apostles  except  that  of  SS.  Peter  and 
Paul,  on  June  29.  Low  Sunday — the 
Gospel  of  which  recalls  the  grant  of 
spiritual  powers  by  the  risen  Christ  to 
the  assembled  Apostles — was  often  called 
in  antiquity  "the  Sunday  of  the  Apos- 
tles " ;  it  was  one  of  the  chief  feasts  in  the 
Ethiopian  calendar.  In  the  Sacramentary 
of  Pope  Leo  all  the  Apostles  are  com- 
memorated on  June  29 ;  for  in  the  Mass 
for  that  day  there  is  a  collect  which  runs, 
"  Omnipotens  sempiterne  Deus,  qui  nos 
omnium  apostolorum  merita  sub  una 
tribuisti  celebrltate  venerari."  Hence 
the  "  Festival  of  the  Twelve  Apostles," 
(Svi/a^ir  Tcov  bdiBeKa  ' ATToaruXoyv)  came 
to  be,  and  is  stiU,  observed  in  the  Greek 
Church  on  June  30.  St.  Jerome  gives  as 
a  reason  for  having  but  one  festival  for 
the  Apostles,  "ut  dies  varii  non  videantur 
dividere  quos  una  diguitas  apostolica  in 
ccelesti  gloria  fecit  esse  sublimes."  The 
feast  of  the  "  Division  of  the  Apostles," 
referring  to  their  final  dispersion  from 
Jerusalem  thirteen  years  after  the  Ascen- 
sion, occurs  in  the  Iloman  calendar  on 
the  15th  of  July.  The  feast  of  SS. 
Philip  and  James  was  fixed  on  the  1st  of 
May,  after  the  translation  of  their  relics 
into  the  "Basilica omnium  Apostolorum" 
at  Rome  in  the  sixth  century;  November 
30th  was  fixed  as  the  feast  of  St.  Andrew 
by  a  bull  of  Boniface  VIII.  in  12ii5. 

APOSTOI.XC  CAVOHS.  A  tradi- 
tion (accepted  because  unexamined)  long 
prevailed  that  these  Canons  were  dictated 
by  the  Apostles  themselves  to  St.  Cle- 
ment of  Rome,  who  committed  them  to 
writing.  Accurate  research  has  dispelled 
this  notion.  Yet  although  all  are  agi-eed 
that  they  do  not  come  to  us  with  the 
weight  of  A])nstolic  sanction,  their  real 
value  and  the  antiquity  that  should  be 
assigned  to  them  are  still  nuich  disputed, 
and  they  have  been,  and  still  are,  appealed 
to  as  an  important  witn(>ss  in  many 
modern  coni r(i\ I'l-sies.  Daillc  the  Cal- 
vinist,  asldiiii.Ird  ;ii  important,  or 
rather,  I'.-vriii  ],h\rr  which  they  assign 
to  ))i,^lin|)s  in  till'  (Christian  economy, 
strove  to  i)rove  thai  ilicy  were  a  ^^•ork  of 
no  earlier  date  than  tlic  tilth  rcntuiy. 
The  AngUcan  divines  Heverldge  and  j 
Pearson,  especially  the  former,  having  | 


as  they  conceived  a  deep  interest  in  prov- 
ing the  acceptance  by  the  primitive  Church 
of  high  views  of  episcopal  power,  examined 
with  great  learning  aud  power  the  ques- 
tion of  the  origin  of  these  Canons,  and 
endeavoured  to  prove  that  they  must 
have  been  compiled  not  later  than  the 
end  of  the  second  or  beginning  of  the 
third  century.  The  latest  German  re- 
searches (see  Kraus'  "Real  Encykl.")  tend 
to  the  conclusion  that,  as  collections,  that 
of  the  first  fifty  Canons  [see  below]  cannot 
be  dated  earlier  than  the  middle  of  the 
fourth,  while  the  remainder  must  be 
assigned  to  the  sixth  century.  Bunsen, 
in  his  work  on  "Hippolytus  and  his  Age," 
printed  a  translation  of  the  Canons  and 
also  of  several  versions  of  the  Constitu- 
tions, with  a  voluminous  commentary, 
the  intent  of  which  is  to  show  that  these 
ancient  documents  "  know  of  no  sacrifice 
of  the  Mass,  acknowledge  no  definltlou  of 
the  Catholic  Church,"  and,  generally,  are 
in  "flagrant  contradiction"  with  the  later 
canon  law.  That  one  of  the  authors  of 
that  strange  hybrid  the  "Evangelical 
Church  of  Prussia  "  could  have  persuaded 
himself  that  the  spirit  which  breathes 
from  the  Canons  resembles  in  any  way 
that  which  dictated  the  ecclesiastical 
legislation  of  the  Prussian  Government, 
is  surely  a  singular  instance  of  self-decep- 
tion !  The  temperate  statement  of  Soglia 
seems  to  come  much  nearer  the  truth. 
From  these  Canons,  he  says,  it  may  be 
clearly  seen  aud  pmvfd,  "that  the  ordin- 
ations of  bishops,  ii  i>.  and  other 
clerics  are  no  growtli  of  a  hitor  discipline, 
that  the  dogma  of  the  oblation  and  sacri- 
fice of  the  Mass  is  not  new,  nor  the  dis- 
tinction between  clergy  and  laity,  nor  the 
power  of  a  bishop  over  his  clergj',  nor 
excommunication,  nor  many  other  similar 
institutes,  which  have  been  assailed  by 
heretics  on  the  score  of  novelty." 

After  briefly  describing  what  the 
Canons  are,  we  shall  reproduce  the 
judgment  wliich  competent  theologians 
have  formed  of  their  contents. 

The  Apostolic  Canons  are  usually  found 
in  MSS.  appended  to  the  last  or  eighth  book 
of  the  Apostolical  Constitutions.  In  some 
copies  they  are  but  fifty  in  number,  in 
others  eighty-five.  The  collection  of  fifty 
exists  in  a  Latin  form,  having  been  trans- 
lated by  Dionysius  Exiguus  from  the 
original  Greek  towards  the  end  of  the 
iiftli  century.  These  fifty  were  always 
regarded  in  the  West  as  autlioiitative  iu 
a  sense  in  which  the  remainlngCanons  were 
not ;  in  the  East  no  such  distinction  was 


APOSTOLIC  CANONS 


APOSTOLIC  FATHERS  47 


made  between  them  and  the  other  thirty- 
five.  From  the  analysis  made  by  Drey 
("  Neue  Untersuchungen,"  &c.)  it  would 
appear  that  twenty-two  out  of  the  whole 
number  substantially  embody  injunctions 
and  rules  contained  in  the  extant  apostolic 
epistles ;  ten  are  closely  connected,  both 
in  time  and  import,  with  these ;  twenty 
date  from  the  age  of  the  great  persecu- 
tions ;  and  the  remainder  are  assignable 
to  the  Nicene  and  post-Nicene  periods. 
With  regard  to  their  contents,  "the 
greater  number,  76  out  of  85,  relate  to 
the  clergy,  their  ordination,  the  conditions 
of  consecration,  their  official  ministrations, 
orthodoxy,  morality,  and  subordination, 
also  to  their  temporalities,  and  to  the 
relation  of  the  diocese  to  the  province;  so 
that  it  is  clear  that  the  regulation  of  the 
discipline  aflecting  ecclesiastical  persons 
was  the  main  object  of  the  ci)llection." 

With  regard  to  the  authority  that 
should  be  assigned  to  them,  while  on  the 
one  hand  the  Emperors  Constantine, 
Theodosius,  and  Justinian,  the  Council 
of  Ephesus,  and  especially  St.  John 
Damascene,  who  ranks  them  with  the 
Canon  of  the  New  Testament,  are  all  in 
their  favour,  the  consensus  of  opinion 
against  them,  since  the  sixteenth  century, 
when  they  were  first  critically  examined, 
is  very  strong.  It  is  urged  that  Eusebius 
and  St.  Jerome  are  silent,  though  if  such 
a  collection  of  Canons  had  come  down 
from  the  Apostles,  they  must  have  known 
of  them;  also  that  in  the  controversy 
(third  century)  between  Pope  Victor  and 
St.  Cyprian,  rteither  party  appealed  to 
them,  though,  had  they  been  generally 
known,  and  believed  to  be  genuine,  they 
would  at  once  have  decided  the  point  in 
dispute.  Again,  it  is  plain  that  many 
things  mentioned  in  them — e.<j.  metro- 
politans, division  of  dioceses,  distinction 
of  Church  from  episcopal  property,  &c. — 
are  of  post- Apostolic  age.  Thirdly,  they 
teach  in  many  places  a  doctrine  which  it 
is  impossible  to  ascribe  to  the  Apo.stles, 
as  when  (No.  17)  they  forbid  only  that  a 
man  who  has  been  twice  married  after  his 
baptism  should  be  admitted  into  the  ranks 
of  the  clergy,  whereas  the  letter  of  Inno- 
cent I.  (404)  to  Victricius,  bishop  of 
Rouen,  proves  that  a  second  marriage  dis- 

Sualified  from  ordination,  even  when  the 
rst  had  been  contiactcd  liefore  baptism; 
or  (No.  G6)  when  tlioy  lay  down  an  un- 
wise rule  on  fasting:  or  (Nos.  46,  47) 
enjoin  as  to  the  re-baptism  of  heretics  the 
contrary  of  that  which  Victor,  following 
the  true  apostolic  tradition,  maintained  in 


the  dispute  with  Cyprian.  Either  there- 
fore it  must  be  said  that  the  Church 
teaches  a  doctrine  and  discipline  repug- 
nant to  what  the  Apostles  taught — an 
assertion  which  would  be  impious — or  it 
must  be  allowed  that  these  Canons,  in 
their  entirety  at  least,  cannot  be  ascribed 
to  the  Apostles. 

That  Bunsen  should  have  thought 
that  these  Canons  bi-eathed  a  spirit  alien 
from  that  of  the  Roman  Church  is  extra- 
ordinary. In  them  we  view  the  Catholic 
Church  as  one  body,  attaching  great 
importance  to  unity,  knowing  its  own 
mind,  imposing  a  strict  discipline  on  all 
its  members  lay  and  clerical,  just  as  we 
see  the  Chm-ch  in  communion  with  Rome 
doing  at  this  day.  The  thirty-fifth  Canon, 
enjoining  on  bishops  obedience  to  their 
metropolitans  in  the  interest  of  that 
"  unanimity  "  by  which  God  is  glorified, 
foreshadows — one  might  almost  say, 
suggests — the  language  of  the  Leos 
and  the  Gregories  concerning  the  chair 
of  Peter,  for  what  could  prevent  dissen- 
sion among  the  metropolitans,  unless 
they,  too,  had  some  one  to  look  up  to 
and  obey  F 

APOSTOI.IC  F.&TBERS.  A  name 
given  to  Christian  authors  who  wrote  in 
the  age  succeeding  that  of  the  Apostles. 
Hefele's  edition  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers 
(4th  ed.  Tubingen,  185.5)  contains: — 
(1)  An  epistle,  falsely  ascribed  to  St. 
Barnabas.  Ilefele  places  it  between 
107-120.  (2)  Two  letters  (so-called)  of 
Clement,  Bishop  of  Rome.  The  former 
of  the  two  (genuine),  is  assigned  to  the 
close  of  the  first  century.  The  second 
(spurious),  is  not  a  letter,  but  a  homily  of 
uncertain  date.  (3)  The  letters  of  St. 
Ignatius,  Bishop  of  Antioch.  Seven 
letters  in  the  shorter  Greek  recension 
are  genuine ;  they  belong  to  the  early 
part  of  the  second  century.  (4)  A  letter 
of  Polycarp,  Bishop  of  Smyrna,  and 
disciple  of  St.  John.  (5)  An  anonymous 
epistle  to  Diognetus.  Hefele  and  many 
others  suppose,  that  the  author  lived 
shortly  after  the  Apostles.  (6)  The 
"Shepherd  of  Hermas,"  an  apocalyptic 
book,  dating  probably  from  the  middle  of 
the  second  centui-y.  (7)  An  account  of 
the  martyrdom  of  St.  Polycai-p,  given  by 
the  contemporary  Church  of  Smyrna. 
(8)  Early  Acts  of  the  Martyrdom  of  St. 
Ignatius.  The  great  edition  of  Cotelerius, 
appeared  at  Paris,  U5(!2.  It  does  not 
give  the  epistle  to  Diognetus,  and  on  the 
other  hand  contains  the  Pseudo-Clemen- 
tine writings,  with  the  Apostolic  Canons 


4S        APOSTOLIC  FATHERS 


APPEAL 


and  Constitutions.  An  elaborate  account 
of  the  -whole  literature  of  the  subject  will 
be  found  in  the  new  edition  bv  Gebhardt, 
Harnack  and  Zahn  (Leipsic,  1876  serj). 

AFOSTOXiZCAX.  COirSTXTTT- 
TZ07TS  {^luTd^ets  or   diarayai).  Eight 

books,  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  eccle- 
siastical affairs.  They  profess  to  contain 
the  words  of  the  .\postles  written  down 
by  St.  Clement  of  Rome.  The  first  Greek 
printed  text  was  edited  by  Turrianus,  and 
published  in  1663. 

The  spurious  character  of  the  book 
was  soon  evident  to  Catholic  scholars, 
such  as  Baronius,  Bellarmine,and  Peta  vius, 
who  were  at  one,  at  least  on  the  main 
point,  with  Protestants  like  Dailli?  and 
Blondel.  But  it  is  more  diflicult  to  say 
when  the  foundation  of  the  book  was 
laid,  and  when  it  took  its  present  form. 
Eusebius  mentions  the  "  so-called  teach- 
ings of  the  Apostles  ''  {tS>v  anoaroXoiV  a'l 
Xeyd/ifi/ni  6iSa;^<)t),  and  similarly  Atha- 
nasius  speaks  of  the  "  teaching  of  the 
Apostles,"  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  they 
refer  to  some  work  of  which  the  present 
•'Constitutions"  are  a  later  recension. 
Epiphanius  quotes  the  "  Constitution  of  the 
Apostles"  {hmTn^is),  but  his  quotations 
never  exactly  correspond  to,  while  one  of 
them  difters  widely  from,  our  present  text. 

Pearson  assigns  the  work,  as  it  stands. 
In  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century. 
Lagarde,  one  of  the  leading  modern 
authorities  on  the  subject,  says  it  is  now 
the  general  opinion  of  the  learned,  that 
the  book  "grew  up  secretly"  in  the  third 
century,  and  that,  the  last  two  books, 
(7th  and  8th)  were  added  afterwards. 
Their  is  an  excellent  edition  by  De 
Laganl-,  18,;l>. 

APOSTOXiXCX.  A  sect  of  Gnostics 
described  by  St.  Epiphanius  in  his  work  on 
heresies;  they  called  themselves  by  this 
name  because  they  pretended  to  imitate 
the  Apostles  in  absolutely  renouncing  the 
world.  They  held  matter  to  be  altogether 
corrupt  and  im])ure,  and  consequently 
rejected  marriage,  though  they  appear 
not  to  have  been  averse  to  irregular 
connections.  They  were  at  no  time 
numerous,  and  were  dying  out  when 
Epiphanius  wrote.  In  the  twelfth  century 
a  sect  appeared  in  Rhineland,  and  also  in 
France,  which  took  the  same  name,  and 
held  to  a  gi-eat  extent  the  same  doctrines; 
but  these  Apostolics  allowed  of  marriage. 
St.  Bernard  preached  two  sermons  against 
them.  They  were  always  reviling  the 
hierarchy,  the  corruption  of  which  they 
declared  to  be  so  great  as  to  have  vitiated 


all  the  sacraments  of  the  Church  except 
that  of  Baptism.  A  similar  sect,  calling 
themselves  "  Apostolic  Brethren,"  ap- 
peared in  North  Italy  towards  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  century ;  their  leaders, 
Segarelli  and  Dulcino,  both  suffered  at 
the  stake.  For  an  account  of  their  wild 
fanatical  tenets,  see  Milman's  "  Latin 
Christianity,"  vii.  360. 

APOSTOX.XCVS.     The  word  was 
applied  to  bishojis  generally  in  the  ancient 
Church,  rather,  however,  as  an  epithet 
than  as  a  title.    Then  it  was  restricted 
to  metropolitans  or  primates ;  thus  Pope 
Siricius   writes   (about  a.d.  300),  "  ut 
extra  conscientiam  sedis  apostolicae,  id 
est,   primatis,  nemo    audeat  ordinare." 
Even  Alcuin,  writing  at  the  beginning  of 
I  the  ninth  century,  uses  the  word  in  this 
I  sense.    Yet  long  before  this  the  use  of 
the  term  "  sedes  apostolica  "  kut  i^oxj)v, 
for  the  see  of  Rome  (comp.  Beda's  "Hist. 
'  Eccl."^as.«?»i),  had  laid  a  foundation  for 
the  restriction  of  the  tenn  Apostolicus  to 
j  the  Roman  Pontiff.    From  the  ninth  cen- 
,  tury  onwards  we  find  it  applied  only  to 
the  Popes,  and  in  course  of  time  it  came  to 
be  used  of  them  as  a  title  and  official 
designation.     The   Council    of  Rheima 
(104'.l)  recognised  the  right  of  the  Pope 
to  this  title,  "([uod  solus  Romanae  sedis 
pontilex  universalis  ecclesife  primas  esset 
I  et  Apostolicus,"  and  excommunicated  an 
!  arcliljishop  of  Compostella  for  assuming 
j  to  himself  "  culmen  Apostolici  nomini.?,"' 
!  the  eminence  of  the  Apostolic  name.  In 
the  middle  ages,  Apostolicus  (in  Norman 
French  apostoile)   became  the  current 
name  for  the  reigning  Pope.  (Kraus' 
"Real  Encykl.;"  Smitli  and  Cheetham.) 

APPEAIi.  He  who  appeals  has  re- 
course to  the  justice  of  a  superior  judge 
from  what  he  conceives  to  be  the  unjust 
sentence  of  an  inferior  judge. 

Appeals  may  be  either  judicial  or 
extra-judicial.  A  judicial  appeal  is  from 
the  sentence  of  a  judge  acting  as  a  judge. 
!  An  extra-judicial  appeal  is  from  the  in- 
I  jurious  action  of  any  superior,  whereby 
the  appellant  thinks  his  rights  are  in- 
fringed— e.g.  in  a  case  of  disputed  patron- 
age, or  abusive  exercise  of  power.  In 
these  eases,  as  the  extra-judicial  appeal  is 
not  in  the  cause,  but  hrr/ins  or  lays  the 
foundation  for  the  cause,  it  is  not,  pro- 
perly speaking,  an  appeal  at  all.  But 
there  is  one  kind  of  extra-judicial  appeal 
which  is  really  such ;  it  is  when  the 
appeal  is  made  from  a  judge  who  has  not 
decided  judicially— p.//.  who  has  given 
sentence  without  hearing  the  arguments 


APPEAL 


APPELLANTS  49 


of  counsel  or  the  evidence  of  witnesses 
■when  tliese  were  required  or  allowed  by 
thp  law.  In  this  case  the  appeal  is  extra- 
judicial (for  it  is  made  against  an  arbi- 
trary act,  rather  than  a  motived  judg- 
ment), yet  it  is  a  true  a]ipeal,  for  it  is 
made  from  a  judge  to  a  judge. 

The  oliject  of  appeals  is  the  redress  of 
injustice,  whether  knowingly  or  ignorantly 
committed.  An  appeal  need  not  imply 
that  the  original  sentence  was  unjust,  for 
the  production  of  new  evidence  in  the 
superior  court  uniy  change  the  aspect  of 
a  case,  and  cause  a  decision  which  was 
just  on  the  assumption  of  one  set  of  facts 
to  be  justly  set  aside  on  the  discovery  of 
further  facts. 

Appeal  can  he  made  from  any  judge 
recognising  a  superior ;  thus  no  appeal  is 
possible,  in  secular  matters,  from  the 
decision  of  the  sovereign  power,  or  the 
highest  secular  tribunal,  in  any  country, 
for  these,  in  such  matters,  recognise  no 
superior.  Again,  there  can  be  no  appeal 
from  the  Pope ;  "  for  he,  as  the  vicar  of 
Christ,  recog-nises  no  superior  on  earth, 
and  it  is  of  the  essence  of  an  appeal  that 
it  be  made  from  a  lower  to  a  higher 
judge,  by  whom  the  sentence  of  the  first 
may  be  corrected."  '  Those  who  appeal 
from  the  judgment  of  the  Pope  to  a  future 
general  council,  of  whatever  rank  or 
condition  they  may  be,  are  formally  ex- 
commimicated  in  the  bull  "In  Crena 
Domini."  Nor  can  appeal  be  made  from 
a  general  council  legitimately  convened 
and  approved,  "because  it,  being  in  union 
with  the  Roman  Pontiff  who  approved 
it,  represents  the  whole  Church,  from 
the  sentence  of  which  there  can  be  no 
appeal."^ 

As  a  rule,  appeals  should  proceed 
regularly,  through  all  the  intermediate 
jurisdictions,  to  the  supreme  tribunal; 
but  canon  law  admits  of  many  exceptions 
to  this.  "  In  the  first  place,  all  persons  are 
at  libei-ty  to  appeal  to  the  Pope  imme- 
diately, passing  over  all  intermediate 
judges,  in  ecclesiastical  and  spiritual 
causes ;  and  those  subject  to  his  tem- 
poral rule  can  do  so  in  temporal  causes 
also."  ^  The  reason  is,  that  the  Pope  is 
"the  ordinary  judge  of  all  Christians, 
having  concurrent  power  with  all  ordi- 
narie>."  ^Mauy  other  ca>i>-  arc  spiM  ltifd 
in  the  canon  law,  in  which  ajipcUants  are 
authorised  to  appeal  to  a  higher  court  at 
once,  passing  over  the  intermediate  j  uris- 
dictions. 

1  Ferraris,  Apptllatin.  art.  iii. 

2  Ibid.  3  Ibid.  §  10. 


At  the  same  time  there  are  numerous 
causes  in  which  no  appeal  is  permitted ; 
these  are  summed  up  in  the  following 
lines,  which  are  a  sort  of  memoria 
tvchnica :  — 

Subliiiiis  judex,  scelus,  exseoutio,  pactum, 
Contenipttis,  et  res  mininiiE,  dilatio  nulla, 
Clausula  quae  reniovet,  res  qua?  niitoria  constat, 
Et  textus  juris  clarus,  possessio,  latum. 

There  can  be  no  appeal  from  a  "  sublimis 
judex,"  such  as  the  Pope,  or  the  sovereign 
authority  in  a  state.  "  Scelus :  "  that  is, 
those  convicted  of  criminal  otiences  and 
who  have  confessed  their  guilt  have  no 
appeal.  "Exsecutio:  "  that  is,  when  the 
cause  has  become  a  "res  judicata,"  the 
execution  of  the  sentence  cannot  be 
stayed  by  appeal;  this  seems  to  be  a 
particular  case  of  "  fatum."  "  Pactum : " 
if  the  parties  have  consented  to  a  com- 
promise during  the  progress  of  the  suit, 
there  can  be  no  appeal.  Contempt  of 
court  by  a  contumacious  refusal  to  appear 
to  the  judge's  citation  is  another  cause 
which  deprives  a  litigant  of  the  right  to 
appeal;  as  is  (in  civil  causes)  the  utterly 
insignificant  nature  of  the  point  raised, 
according  to  the  maxim,  de  mhiimis  non 
curat  led-.  "  Dilatio  nulla  :  "  that  is,  in 
things  which  do  not  admit  of  delay,  there 
can  be  no  ajipeal — at  any  rate,  no  such 
appeal  as  would  have  the  efiect  of  sus- 
pending the  execution  of  the  sentence; 
as  in  a  case  about  0])ening  a  will,  or 
is.^uiug  supplies  of  food  to  soldiers,  and 
the  like.  "  Clausula  qure  removet :"  that 
is,  when  the  original  suit  was  conducted 
by  delegation  from  the  supreme  tribunal 
under  the  clause  "  appellatione  remota," 
the  ordinary  right  of  appeal  is  annulled. 
The  next  two  cases  explain  themselves ; 
by  "  possessio  "  is  meant  that  brief  enjoy- 
ment of  the  subject  of  litigation  which 
does  not  prejudice  in  an  appreciable 
degree  the  right  of  the  other  party ;  and 
by  "  fatum  "  those  prescribed  terms  and 
dates  which  are  otherwise  named  "  fata- 
lia,"  and  the  exact  observance  of  which  is 
necessary  in  order  that  an  appeal  may 
proceed.  For  instance,  unless  an  appeal 
against  a  sentence  be  lodged  within  ten 
davs  from  its  deliverv,  it  cannot  be  made 
at  all. 

Finally,  no  appeal  having  suspensive 
efiect  lies  from  a  sentence  of  excommuni- 
cation, nor  from  legitimate  disciplinary 
correction  of  a  superior  J)aternally  ad- 
ministered without  legal  process.  (Fer- 
raris, Appellatio.) 

A.PPEXiXtA.lO'TS.  This  was  the  name 
given  to  the  party  among  the  French 


-60  ArmOBATION 


ARCHBISHOP 


clerg)',  Leaded  by  the  Cardinal  de 
Noailles,  archbishop  of  Paris,  and  four 
bishops,  who  appealed  to  a  future  general 
•council  against  the  constitution  IJmyenitm 
(1733),  by  which  the  Holy  See  had  con- 
demned a  hundred  and  one  propositions 
of  a  more  or  less  Jansenistic  character, 
extracted  from  the  writings  of  the  Pere 
Quesnel.  [Jansenism.] 

APPROBATZOxr.  The  formal  judg- 
ment of  a  prelate,  that  a  priest  is  fit  to 
hear  confessions.  It  does  not  involve 
jurisdiction — i.e.  a  bishop  does  not  neces- 
sarily give  a  priest  power  to  hear  con- 
fessions in  his  diocese,  because  he  pro- 
nounces him  fit  to  do  so,  though  in  fact  a 
bishop  always  or  almost  always  gives  a 
secular  priest  jurisdiction  at  the  time  he 
approves  him.  This  approbation  by  the 
bishop,  or  one  who  has  quasi-episcopal 
jiu-isdiction,  is  needed  for  the  validity  of 
"absolution  given  by  a  secular  priest,  un- 
less the  said  priest  has  a  parochial  bene- 
fice.' The  bishop  who  approves  must  be 
the  bishop  of  the  place  in  which  the  con- 
fession is  heard  and  this  approbation  may 
be  limited  as  to  time,  place,  and  circum- 
stances. 

Regulars,  in  order  to  confess  members 
of  their  own  order,  require  the  approval 
of  their  superiors;  to  confess  seculars, 
that  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese. 

APSE  (Greek,  h^'n,  a  wheel  or 
arch).  Nothing  is  known  of  the  shape  of 
the  Christian  churches  which  were  built 
before  the  time  of  Constantine.  As- 
suming, therefore,  that  ecclesiastical 
architecture  dates  from  the  fourth  century, 
the  apse  may  be  considered  as  one  of  its 
primitive  features,  for  it  already  existed 
in  many  of  the  basilicas  or  halls  of  jus- 
tice or  commerce,  which,  when  Christi- 
anity rose  into  the  ascendant,  were  freely 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  bishops  by 
the  civil  power.  It  was  the  semicircular 
termination  of  the  basilica,  in  which  sat 
the  judges;  the  same  construction  may 
often  l)e  seen  in  French  courts  of  justice 
at  ihis  day.  "When  utilised  for  Christian 
worsliip,  its  extreme  end  was  occupied  by 
the  ))islio])'s  chair;  the  seats  of  the  clergy, 
following  the  semicircle,  were  on  his 
right  and  left ;  the  altar  was  in  the  middle 
of  the  apse,  or  just  in  front  of  it;  and 
beyond  the  altar  was  the  choir.  In  the 
By/ant ine  style,  which  arose  in  the  East 
after  Constantine  had  transferred  the  seat 
of  em])ire  to  his  new  city  on  the  Bos- 
phorus,  the  apse  was  retained;  a  notable 
instance  of  this  may  be  seen  in  the  church 
'  Concil.  Trident,  xxiii.  15, 


of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  built  in 
the  sixth  century.  It  appears  also  in  the 
old  Byzantine  churches  at  Ravenna,  and 
also  in  several  churches  on  the  Rhine,  of 
later  date  but  in  the  same  style.  In  France 
and  England  the  Byzantine  architecture 
received  that  splendid  development  which 
is  called  Norman;  but  the  apse,  in  all  large 
churches  at  least,  still  held  its  ground, 
though  it  occasionally  took  a  triangular 
or  a  polygonal  form.  Norwich  Cathedral 
is  perhaps  the  finest  example  of  the 
round  apse  that  we  have  in  England. 
The  cathedral  of  Durham,  of  which  the 
nave  and  choir  were  finished,  much  as 
we  now  see  them,  about  the  beginning 
of  the  twelfth  century,  had  originally  an 
apse,  but  on  account  of  a  failure  in  the 
masonry,  this  was  taken  down  and  the 
present  magnificent  chapel  of  the  Nine 
Altars  substituted  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. In  the  later  styles  which  followed 
the  Norman,  the  French  builders  as  a 
rule  retained  the  apse,  while  the  English 
generally  abandoned  it  for  the  rectangu- 
lar form.  (Oudin,  "  Manuel  d'Arch^olo- 
gie.") 

AQVARZX.  [See  Enceatit^.I 
ARCBAN-CEi..   [See  Angel.] 

ARCHBISHOP  (Gr.  apxifnlcTKmros). 
The  word  first  occurs  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury; St.  Athanasius  speaks  of  himself 
and  also  of  Alexander,  his  predecessor  in 
the  see  of  Alexandria,  under  this  name. 
In  earlier  times  those  bishops  who  had 
suffragan  bishops  depending  on  them, 
and  exercised  spirit  ual  jurisdiction  within 
a  certain  geographical  area  which  was 
their ^roymce,  were  called  metropolitans. 
As  Christianity  extended  itself,  the 
bishops  of  the  more  important  cities  under 
the  metropolitans  came  themselves  to 
have  suffragan  bishops  under  them,  to 
whom  t?iei/  were  metropolitans.  It  be- 
came necessary,  therefore,  to  find  some 
new  title  for  the  old  metropolitans,  and 
the  terms  priniate,  e.varch  [see  those 
articles]  and  archbishop  came  into  use. 
In  the  West  the  name  "archbishop"  was 
scarcely  heard  before  the  ninth  century. 
For  a  time  the  words  patriarch  and 
archbishop  appear  to  have  been  used  in- 
terchangeably. At  present  the  terms 
"archbishop"  and  "metropolitan"  have 
the  same  meaning,  except  that  the  latter 
implies  the  existence  of  suffragans,  where- 
as there  may  be  archbishops  without  suf- 
fragans, as  in  the  case  of  Glasgow. 

In  the  middle  ages  the  archbishops 
possessed  an  ample  jurisdiction:  they  had 
the  right  of  summoning  provincial  coun- 


ARCHBISHOP 


ARCHDEACON  51 


cils;  thev  could  j iidge  their  suffragans  aa 
a  tribunal  of  first  instance,  and  hear  on 
appeal  causes  referred  to  them  from  the 
episcopal  courts  within  the  province. 
The  jurisdiction  of  a  metropolitan  over 
his  suffragans  in  criminal  causes  was  trans- 
ferred by  the  Council  of  Trent  (sess.  xiii. 
De  Ref  c.  8)  to  the  Holy  See;  in  civil 
cavses  it  remains  intact.  Provincial  coun- 
cils, owing  to  the  difficulties  of  the  times, 
have  been  less  frequent  in  recent  times 
than  formerly ;  but,  by  the  Council  of 
Trent  (sess.  xxiv.  2,  De  Ref),  metropoli- 
tans are  bound  to  convene  them  every 
three  years.  An  archbishop  can  receive  j 
appeals  from  his  suffragans  in  marriage 
cases,  and  (with  the  authority  of  the  pro-  j 
vincial  council)  visit  any  suffragan's 
diocese.  The  right  also  devolves  upon  [ 
him  of  appointing  a  vicar  capitular  on  i 
the  decease  of  a  suffragan  bishop,  if  the 
chapter  fail  to  appoint  one  within  eight 
days.  Two  venerable  insignia  still  mark 
his  superior  dignity — the  pallium  with 
which  he  is  invested  by  the  Holy  See,  and 
the  double  cross  borne  on  his  "  stemma  "over 
his  ai-ms.  An  archbishop  has  the  right 
of  carrying  his  cross  throughout  his  pro- 
vince, except  in  the  presence  of  the  Pope 
or  a  Cardinal  Legate.  Until  the  arch- 
bishop has  received  the  paUium  he  can 
only  style  himself /i.e^ec^Ms;  and,  although 
confirmed  and  consecrated,  he  cannot  con- 
voke a  council,  consecrate  chrism,  or  exer- 
cise any  other  acts  of  higher  jurisdiction 
and  order. 

Gregory  the  Great,  while  giving  to 
St.  Augustine  personally  jurisdiction  over 
all  English  and  British  sees,  designed  to 
make  London  and  York  metropolitan  sees, 
with  twelve  suffragans  under  each  (Bed. 
"  Hist.  Eccl."  i.  29).  But  the  priority  of 
Kent  in  receiving  the  Gospel  led  to  the 
primatial  see  being  fixed  at  Canterbury, 
not  at  London;  and  the  troubled  state  of 
the  North  long  deferred  the  arrangement 
proposed  for  York,  and  never  even  in  the 
end  suffered  it  to  attain  the  dimensions 
contemplated  by  Pope  Gregory.  For  a 
short  time  in  the  eiglith  century,  while 
Mercia  was  a  powerful  kingdom,  Lich- 
field was  raised  by  the  Holy  See  to  metro- 
politan rank.  Similarly  the  see  of  St. 
David's  in  Wales  received  the  pall  for  a 
brief  period  in  the  twelfth  century.  At 
that  time  there  were  two  archbishops,  at 
Canterbuiy  and  York,  with  thirteen  and  ' 
two  suffragans  respectively.  (Henr.  Hunt.  ! 
"  Hist.  Ang."  i.  5.)  After  the  change  of  , 
religion  the  archiepiscopal  dignity  re- 
mained in  abeyance  in  England,  till  re-  | 


vived  in  our  days  in  the  person  of  Nicholas 
Wiseman,  who  was  created  the  first 
archbishop  of  Westminster,  in  1850. 

ARCBBEACOIf  (Gr.  apy^i^iaKOVOi), 
At  a  very  early  period  it  was  the  prac- 
tice for  a  bishop  to  select  one  of  the 
deacons  of  his  church  to  assist  him  both 
in  the  divine  worship  and  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  diocese.  As  was 
natural,  his  choice  fell,  not  necessarily 
upon  the  senior  deacon,  but  upon  him  in 
whose  ability  and  firmness  he  could  most 
confide.  Thus  we  read  of  Eleutherus  as 
the  deacon  of  Pope  Anicetus,  in  the  second 
century ;  of  St.  Lawrence  the  deacon  of 
Sextus  II.  in  the  third ;  and  of  St.  Atha- 
nasius,  who  as  the  deacon  of  Alexander, 
the  bishop  of  Alexandria,  attended  him  at 
the  Council  of  Nicsea.  The  name  "Arch- 
deacon" first  occurs  in  the  writings  of  St. 
Optatus  of  Milevis  (about  370).  The  im- 
portance of  the  office  continually  grew,  and 
we  learn  from  St.  Jerome  that  in  his  time  it 
was  considered  a  degradation  for  an  arch- 
deacon to  be  ordained  priest.  It  was  the 
duty  of  the  archdeacon,  under  the  bishop's 
direction,  to  manage  the  Chm-cli  property ; 
provide  for  the  support  of  the  clergy,  the 
poor,  widows,  orphans,  pilgrims,  and 
prisoners ;  to  keep  the  list  of  the  clergy, 
&c.  An  able  archdeacon,  as  was  to  be 
expected,  often  succeeded  to  the  see  on 
the  death  of  the  bishop  who  had  ap- 
pointed him.  At  first  there  was  but  one 
archdeacon,  but  in  the  immense  dioceses 
which  the  conversion  of  the  We-stem 
nations  caused  to  arise,  the  episcopal 
duties  could  not  be  effectually  performed — 
so  far  as  the  temporal  side  of  them  was 
concerned — without  the  appointment  of 
several  archdeacons  as  the  bishop's  dele- 
gates. That  they  should  gradually  be 
invested  with  the  jurisdiction  possessed  by 
the  bishop,  and  ultimately  even  receive 
independent  powers,  was  a  natural  conr 
sequence  of  this  state  of  things.  In  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  their 
power  rose  to  its  height.  About  1100 
Eemigius,  upon  transferring  his  episcopal 
throne  from  Dorchester  to  Lincoln,  di- 
vided his  vast  diocese  into  seven  arch- 
deaconries, in  each  of  which  the  arch- 
deacon resided  in  the  chief  town  of  his 
province  with  quasi-episcopal  state,  and 
exercised  a  jurisdiction  which  was  often 
formidable  even  to  laymen.  Armed  with 
such  high  privileges,  the  archdeacons  be- 
gan to  encroach  on  ilir  authority  of  the 
bisliops,  and  this  led  to  their  downfall. 
Long  before  this  the  Church  had  ordered 
that  archdeacons  on  their  appointment 


52       ARCHES,  COURT  OF 


ARIUS  AND  ARIANISM 


must  receive  priestly  consecration ;  now  a 
series  of  councils  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries  occupied  themselves 
with  limiting  their  powers  and  bringing 
them  back  into  a  due  subordination  to 
the  liishops;  finally,  the  Council  of  Trent 
continiied  and  extended  these  restrictions, 
takii)<;-  from  the  archdeacons  and  giving 
back  to  the  bishops  that  jurisdiction  in 
matrimonial  and  criminal  causes  which 
Iiad  been  the  chief  source  of  their  in- 
fluence. Amongst  ourselves  the  ofKce  of 
archdeacon  was  not  revived  on  the  re- 
storation of  the  hierarchy  in  1850;  tlie 
functionary  who  now  most  nearly  corre- 
sponds to  the  archdeacon  of  the  primitive 
Church  is  tlie  bishop's  vicar-general  [see 
that  article]. 

ARCHES,  COURT  OT.  An  ancient 
court,  in  which  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  is  still  exer- 
cised by  a  judge  known  as  the  Dean  of 
Arches.  It  received  its  name  from  Bow 
Church  in  Cheapside  (S.  Maria  de  Arcu- 
bus),  in  which  its  sittings  were  wont  to 
be  hold.  (See  Hook's  "  Church  Diction- 
ary.") By  a  clause  in  the  Public  Wor- 
ship Act  (1877)  the  office  of  Dean  of 
Arches  is  merged  in  that  of  the  judge 
appointed  under  that  Act.  Tliere  is  an 
appeal  from  the  sentence  of  this  court  to 
the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy 
Council,  which  now  represents  the  old 
Court  of  Delegates,  and  practically,  as 
representing  the  Crown,  upholds  the  doc- 
trine of  the  royal  supremacy  by  deciding 
without  ap])eal  all  spiritual  causes  that 
may  be  brought  before  it. 

ARCHXivxAirDRiTE.  [See  Abbot.] 
ARCHIVES,  ARCHIVIST  (Greek 
apx^iti).  The  utility  of  the  preservation 
of  public  records  was  fully  understood  by 
the  ancients  ;  the  record  office  at  Rome, 
which  Virgil  alludes  to  ("  populi  tabu- 
laria  vidit "),  was  an  enormous  building. 
Episcopal  archives  have  probably  been 
kept  from  the  very  beginning  of  the 
Church.  The  archivist  or  Proto-scrini- 
arius  of  Rome  was  an  important  per- 
sonage :  besides  having  cliarge  of  a  large 
portion  of  the  records,  he  was  the  head  of 
all  the  secretaries  and  notaries  of  the 
Roman  Court.  A  decree  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Council  of  Trent  (1626) 
specifies  what  oug:ht  to  be  preserved  in 
an  episcopal  archive — namely,  the  pro- 
cesses and  proceedings  in  all  causes  tried 
in  the  bishop's  court ;  episcopal  sentences, 
precepts,  decrees,  mandates,  &c. ;  reports 
and  registers  of  all  kinds  relating  to 
ecclesiastical  affairs  within  the  diocese ; 


and  complete  inventories  of  Church  pro- 
perty, movable  and  immovable.  (Ferraris, 
Ai-c)iivimn.) 

ARCHPRXEST  (Gr.  dpxnrpea-^vre- 
poi).  The  chief  of  the  presbyters,  as  the 
archdeacon  was  the  chief  of  the  deacons. 
The  name  dates  from  the  fourth  century. 
The  archpriest  was  usually  the  oldest  of 
the  priests  attached  to  the  cathedral; 
yet  instances  are  not  wanting  of  their 
being  chosen  by  the  bishops  for  special 
qualifications,  without  regard  to  seniority. 
The  principal  function  of  the  archpriest 
was,  during  the  illness  or  absence  of  the 
bishop,  to  replace  him  in  the  Church 
offices.  He  occupied  the  place  of  the 
bishop  in  the  ceremonies  of  public  wor- 
ship, as  the  archdeacon  did  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  diocese.  Aspopidation 
increased,  a  rural  archpriest  was  placed 
in  each  of  the  larger  towns,  who  was  to 
the  local  clergy  what  the  archpriest  of 
the  cathedral  was  to  the  cathedral  clergy. 
In  course  of  time  the  latter  came  to  be 
called  the  dean,  tlie  former  7-urnl  deans. 
The  privileges  of  archprie.sts,  like  those 
of  archdeacons,  were  often  usui'ped  by 
laymen  in  the  ages  after  Charlemagne. 
Great  divergences  grew  up  in  different 
countries,  with  regard  to  the  duties, 
rank,  and  privileges  assigned  to  them. 
In  later  times  they  appear  to  have  been 
superseded  to  a  great  extent  by  vicars 
forane  (q.v.). 

Towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  the  Holy  See,  finding  that  the 
Catholic  clergy  in  England  were  much  in 
need  of  a  recognised  head,  yet  unwilling 
to  send  a  bishop,  lest  the  government 
should  take  it  as  an  excuse  for  fresh 
cruelties  against  the  Catholics  generally, 
appointed  George  Blackwell  superior  of 
the  English  mission,  with  the  title  and 
authority  of  "  Archpriest."  A  consulta- 
tive body  of  twelve  assistant  priests  was 
nominated  at  the  same  time.  This  was 
in  1598.  After  some  years  Blackwell 
took  a  course  abniit  Iho  new  oath  of 
allegiance  which  (li-jilciM-d  i  [„■  Holy  See, 
and  he  was  supersede, I  by  Birk- 

head.  Towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
James,  and  after  Birkhead  had  been  suc- 
ceeded ))y  a  third  archpriest,  Harrison, 
the  violence  of  the  persecution  being  now 
much  abated,  Gregory  XV.  decided  that 
the  time  was  come  to  send  a  bishop  to 
England.  The  first  vicar-apostolic  was 
accordingly  appointed,  in  162;J. 

ARXSTOTI.E.   [See  Philosophy.] 

ARIVS  AND  ARIANISM.  The 

heresy  of  Arius  consisted  in  the  denial 


ARIUS  AND  ARIANISM 


ARIUS  AND  ARIANISM 


53 


■of  the  Son's  consubstantiality  wltli  the 
Father,  and  so  virtually  of  Christ's  true 
and  eternal  Godhead.  In  ojiposilion  to 
this  error,  the  first  Nicene  Council  de- 
fined that  the  Son  is  "  only-ljptrotten, 
born  of  the  Father,  i.e.  of  the  Father's 
substance ;  "  that  He  is  "  not  made,"  as 
creatures  are,  but  that  He  is  "consulj- 
stantial"  with  the  First  Person  of  the 
Blessed  Trinity.  The  council  added  a 
condemnation  under  anathema  of  certain 
Arian  propositions,  in  which  this  heresy 
Tvas  summed  up.  To  understand  them, 
"we  must  know  something-  of  the  way  in 
which  Arianism  arose  and  spread;  and 
this,  again,  we  cannot  do  tiU  we  have 
acquainted  ourselves  with  the  teaching 
on  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity  which 
prevailed  in  the  early  Church.  A^'e  shall 
take  the  points  in  order,  reserving  for  the 
close  of  the  article  an  account  of  Arianism 
in  its  later  developments. 

1.  It  might  seem  as  if  there  could  be 
little  need  of  dwelling  on  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity,  as  held  by  the  Ante-Nicene 
Fathers.  Every  Christian  is  bound  to 
know  and  believe  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  and  it  cannot  be  supposed,  that 
the  early  Fathers  and  Martyrs  of  the 
Church  were  ignorant  of  a  fundamental 
doctrine  of  the  faith.  Scripture,  too, 
sets  the  matter  at  rest.  Our  Lord  pro- 
claims the  unity  of  His  nature  with  that 
of  the  Father.  "I  and  the  Father  are 
one."  "The  Father  is  in  me  and  I  in 
the  Father."  "  The  Word  was  with  God," 
St.  John  says,  "  and  the  Word  was  God." 
Kow,  in  one  sense  it  is  true  that  Arius 
could  find  no  support  for  his  heresy  in 
the  Ante-Xicene  age.  Scripture  declared 
and  the  Church  taught  from  the  begin- 
ning three  propositions  from  which  the 
"whole  of  the  Xicene  definition  follows  by 
logical  consequence :  viz.  first,  that  the 
Son  is  distinct  from  the  Father  :  next, 
that  the  Son  is  God ;  and,  thirdly,  that 
there  is  but  one  God.  All  this  is  certain, 
but  it  is  also  true  that  the  Ante-Nicene 
Fathers  often  used  inaccurate  language 
on  this  subject ;  that  we  do  not  find  in 
them  the  fuU  and  developed  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity,  as  the  Nicene  Council  defined 
it;  and  that  this  explains  to  a  certain 
extent  the  success  of  Ai-ianism  and  the 
calamities  it  brought  upon  the  Church. 
Nor  need  we  wonder  at  these  defects  in 
the  teaching  of  the  early  Fathers.  They 
■were  not  and  could  not  be  content  with 
the  simple  enunciations  of  the  proposi- 
tions enumerated  above :  they  endeavoured 
(and  how  could  they  do  otherwise  ?)  to 


reconcile  the  apparent  contradictions 
which  they  involve,  and  to  recommend 
them  as  reasonable  to  those  outside  the 
Church.  And  in  this  part  of  their  work 
they  were  not  secure  from  error.  One  or 
two  leading  instances  will  be  given  of 
the  errors  into  which  many  of  them  fell 
when,  instead  of  merely  delivering  the 
tradition  which  they  had  received,  they 
began  to  speculate  and  reason  about  it. 
A  difficulty  met  them  the  moment  they 
began  to  consider  the  eternity  of  the  Son. 
A  son  is  generated,  and  generation  pos- 
tulates a  beginning:  how,  then,  could 
the  Son  be  eternal  ?  They  did  not  cut 
the  knot,  as  Arius  did,  by  denying  the 
eternity  of  the  Son,  because  the  Catholic 
faith  saved  them  from  such  an  error; 
but  stiU.  many  of  them  did  introduce  a 
theory  inconsistent  with  the  unchange- 
able simplicity  of  God.  The  Word,  they 
admitted,  was  eternal,  but  many  of  them 
— aU,  indeed,  except  St.  Irenaeus  and 
the  Fathers  of  the  Alexandrian  school- 
denied  that  He  had  always  been  Son. 
With  us,  the  word  is  conceived  first  of 
aU  in  the  mind  and  then  comes  forth  as 
articulate  sound.  So,  they  maintained, 
the  Word  had  always  been  in  the  bosom 
of  the  Father  (Xdyoj  eVSin^^ros) ;  after- 
wards lie  issued  forth  as  the  first-begotten 
of  all  creation  (Xoyoy  Trpo(f>optK6s),  and  by 
this  procession  or  generation  became  the 
Son.  They  w^ere  led  into  similar  error 
in  considering  the  relation  of  the  Word 
to  creatures.  Down  to  St.  Augustine's 
time  the  Fathers  generally  attributed  the 
divine  apparitions  in  the  Old  Testament 
to  God  the  Son,  and  this  interpretation 
led  some  into  erroneous  ideas  on  the 
subordination  of  the  Son  to  the  Father. 
Thus  Justin  speaks  of  a  "  God  itndei-  the 
maker  of  the  universe,"  and  argues  that 
the  "maker  and  Father  of  all"  could  not 
"have  left  the  region  above  the  sky  and 
appeared  in  a  little  comer  of  the  earth." - 
TertuHian  speaks  of  a  "son  visible  ac- 
cording to  the  measure  of  his  deriva- 
tion,"' while  language  of  the  same  im- 
port was  used  by  Origen  and  Novatian.' 
Another  source  of  erroneous  language 
arose  in  the  third  century.  The  Sabellians 
denied  a  real  distinction  between  Father 
and  Son,  and  in  his  anxietj-  to  estal)lish 
the  distinction  between  these  divine  Per- 
sons, Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  in  the 
year  260,  compared  the  relation  of  the 
Father  and  the  Son  to  that  between  a 

>  Justin.  Did.  60. 

»  Adv.  Prax.  U. 

*  Petav.  De  Trinit.  viii.  2,  4  seq. 


54      ARIUS  A^^D  ARIANISM 


ARIUS  AND  ARIANISM 


vine-dresser  and  the  vine,  asserted  that 
the  Son  was  "  made  by  God "  (n-oifj^ua 
Tov  deov)  that  he  was  "foreign  to  the 
essence  of  the  Father  {^evnv  kut  ovo  lai'), 
and  "did  not  exist  till  he  was  made." 
In  the  same  year,  another  Dionysius, 
bishop  of  Rome,  on  account  of  charges 
brought  by  certain  orthodox  prelates 
against  his  namesake  of  Alexandria, 
summoned  a  synod  at  Rome,  and  issued 
a  memorable  document  to  the  bishops  of 
Egypt  and  Libya.  "  Had  the  Son,"  the 
Pope  argues,  "  been  created,  there  would 
have  been  a  time  when  He  was  not ;  but 
the  Son  always  was."  Thereupon,  the 
Alexandrian  bishop,  in  two  letters  which 
he  sent  to  Rome,  explained  away  his  for- 
mer inaccurate  language,  showed  that 
his  adversaries  had  taken  a  one-sided  view 
of  his  teaching,  and  distinctly  confessed 
the  Son's  etei-nity.  This  case  is  instruc- 
tive in  several  ways,  It  shows  that  early 
Fathers,  who  used  words  which  sound  like 
Arianism,  were  very  far  from  the  Arian 
belief ;  and  it  is  evidence  of  the  vigilance 
with  which  the  successor  of  St.  Peter 
watched,  as  his  supreme  office  required 
him  to  watch,  over  the  deposit  of  the 
faith.i 

2.  The  orthodox  doctrine  had  been 
maintained  in  Alexandria  bj-  subsequent 
bishops,  when,  about  the  year  318  or 
820,  Arius  began  to  put  forward  a  heresy 
which  engaged  all  the  energies  of  the 
Church  for  more  than  half  a  century. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  Libyan  by  birth ; 
he  had  twice  joined  the  Meletian  schism, 
but  had  been  reconciled  to  the  Church, 
and  was  exercising  the  office  of  a  priest 
in  Alexandria.  The  bishop  Alexander, 
Socrates  tells  lis,  was  discoursing  to  his 
clergy  on  the  Trinity  in  Unity.  Arius, 
who  was  distinguished  for  his  learning 
and  logical  skiU,  contradicted  the  bishop, 
urged  that  the  Son,  because  begotten, 
must  have  had  "  a  beginning  of  existence ; " 
that  there  was  a  time  when  he  did  not 
exist  (rju  ore  ovK  rjv) ;  and  that  he  was 
made,  like  other  creatures,  out  of  nothing 
(f^  OVK  ovToiv  e'xfi  TTjV  vnoo-Taa-w).  If 
we  add  to  this  that,  according  to  Arius, 
the  Son  was  liable  to  sin  in  his  own 
nature,  and  that  his  intelligence  was 
limited,  we  have  a  complete  statement  of 
the  Arian  doctrine.  He  not  only  held 
that  the  Fatlier  was  separated  from  the 
Son  by  a  priority  of  time— or  i-ather  like 

■  Hefele,  Conciliengeschichte,  i.  2,55  seq.  See 
on  the  whole  subject,  Petavius,  De  Trin.  ;  New- 
man, Hintory  of  Arianism,  and  Causes  of  the 
Success  of  Arianism. 


time,  since  time  in  the  proper  sense  began 
witli  tlic  Son— but  he  denied  that  the  Son 
Avas  from  thr  FatlwrV  >ubstance.  He 
did  not  im  i-i  ly  irjccl  till'  word  o^ioovaios 
or  oonsuli>t;iiit  iui,  as  an  orthdox  synod 
at  Antiocli  had  done  in  269,'  but  also  the 
otlii  r  language  in  which  early  Fathers 
had  expressed  the  same  idea. 

Arius  won  many  to  his  side :  in  par- 
ticular he  was  supported  by  the  famous 
Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  who  had  great 
influence  on  Constantine.  He  had  friends 
among  the  other  bishops  of  Asia,  and 
even  among  the  bishops,  priests,  and  nuns 
of  the  Alexandrian ])rovince.  Meanwhile, 
he  was  condennied  in  two  Alexandrian 
synods  and  obliged  to  leave  the  city.  He 
took  refuge  first  in  Palestine,  afterwards 
in  Nicomedia;  he  gained  the  favour  of 
Constantia,  the  em])eror's  sister,  and  he 
disseminated  his  doctrine  among  the  pop- 
ulace by  means  of  the  notorious  book 
which  he  called  6d\eia,  or  "  entertain- 
ment," and  by  songs  adapted  for  sailors, 
millers,  and  travellers.  At  first  Constan- 
tine looked  on  the  whole  aifair  as  a  strife 
of  words,  and  sent  Hosius  of  Cordova 
to  Alexandria,  that  he  might  restore 
peace  between  Arius  and  his  bishop. 
This  attempt  failed,  and  the  First  General 
Council  met  at  Nic;ea.  It  anathematised 
Arius,  with  all  who  afiirmed  "  that  there 
was  a  time  when  the  Son  of  God  was  not ; 
that  he  was  made  out  of  nothing;  that  he 
was  of  another  substance  or  essence  [than 
the  Father] ;  that  he  was  ci-eated,  or  alter- 
able or  changeable."  This  symbol  was 
adopted  after  many  di.sputes,  in  which 
the  deacon  Athanasius,  then  only  twenty- 
five  years  old,  was  the  great  champion  of 
the  faith.  Arius  and  those  who  refused 
to  anathematise  him  were  banished. 

However,  when  the  cause  of  Arianism 
seemed  desperate,  it  suddenly  revived. 
Constantia  pleaded  this  cause  with  her 
brother  on  her  death-bed.  Constantine 
asked  Athanasius  (bishop  of  Alexandria 
since  328)  to  restore  Arius  to  Church 
communion.  This  great  confessor  firmly 
refused,  and,  though  the  Emperor  did  not 
insist,  Athanasius  was  grievously  calum- 
niated, and  exiled  to  Treves.  Other 
opponents  of  the  heresy  met  with  like 
treatment.  Eustathius  of  Antioch  and 
Marcellus  of  Ancyra  were  deposed.  The 
Emperor  called  Arius  to  Constantinople, 
with  the  view  of  restoring  him  to  the 

1  Hefelo,  Conc'diengeschichte,  i.  140.  We  are 
of  course  aware  that  the  fact  of  this  rejection 
has  been  doubted,  but  we  cannot  believe  there 
is  any  serious  ground  for  questioning  it. 


ARIUS  AND  ARIANISM 


ARIUS  AND  ARIANISM  55 


communion  of  tlie  Cliiirch.  It  is  right  to 
add,  that  Arius  luul  assured  the  Emperor 
on  oath,  that  the  doctriue  for  w  hich  he  had 
been  exeommuuicated  wa-s  not  really  his. 
Before,  however,  he  had  attained  his  end, 
a  sudden  death  struck  liim  down  as  he 
•^valked  through  Constantinople  escorted 
by  his  followers.  He  died  in  the  year 
336,  the  eightieth  of  his  age. 

Arius  was  dead,  but  his  heresy  still 
prospered.  Constantius,  who  came  to  the 
throne  in  337,  recalled  Athanasius  next 
year  to  Alexandria.  Soon,  however,  a 
charge ofSabellian ism  was  broufiht  a<;iiin>t 
the  saint;  he  fled  for  his  life  froin  his 
episcopal  city,  and  took  refuge  in  liome, 
when  Pope  Julius  in  a  synod  solemnly 
acquitted  him.  But  a  council  at  Antioch 
confirmed  his  deposition,  and  drew  np 
four  confessions  of  faith,  in  which  the  word 
"  consubstantial "  was  studiously  omitted. 
Through  favour  of  Constans,  who  ruled 
the  "West,  a  council  met  at  Sardica  in  343 
or  344,  declared  their  adherence  to  the 
Nicene  Creed,  and  restored  Athanasius, 
with  Marcellus  and  others,  to  their  sees. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Arian  or 
Eusebian  bishops  held  a  counter-council  at 
Philippopolis,  the  Sardican  decrees  en- 
joyed an  almost  oecumenical  authority, 
and  Constantius  permitted  the  return  of 
Athanasius  to  Alexandria.  However, 
after  the  death  of  his  brother  Constans, 
Constantius  renewed  his  persecution  of 
the  Catholics.  At  Aries  and  Milan  synods 
condemned  Athanasius,  while  Pope  Libe- 
rius  and  other  bishops  who  woidd  not  sub- 
scribe the  condemnation  were  exiled. 
Again  an  intruder  seized  the  episcopal 
throne  of  Alexandria,  and  Athanasius,  in 
356,  sought  an  asylum  with  the  Egyptian 
monks. 

This  temporary  triumph  of  Arianism 
proved  its  ruin.  The  heretics  presented 
an  a])]iearance  of  unity  so  long  as  they 
were  engaged  in  a  struggle  for  life  or 
death  with  the  orthodox.  No  sooner  did 
they  feel  themselves  secure  than  they 
began  an  internecine  conflict  with  each 
other.  The  strict  Arians,  led  by  Aetius, 
a  deacon  and  a  bishop  Eunomius,  taught 
that  the  Father  and  Son  were  unlike,  and 
that  the  latter  was  made  out  of  nothing. 
They  were  also  known  as  Eunomians, 
Anomceans  (from  di/d/xoior,  unlike),  or 
Exucontians,  because  they  said  the  Son 
sprang  from  nothing  (e'f  ovk  ovtcov). 
Another  party,  known  as  Semiarians,  a 
name  they  received  about  358,  when 
they  held  a  famous  synod  at  Ancyra, 
confessed  that  the  Son  was  "like  in  sub- 


I  stance  to  the  Father  {ofioios  kut  ovalav). 
r>asil  dl'  Ancyra,  Eustathius  of  Sebaste, 
Macrddiiius,  and  Auxentius  of  Milan, 
were  llir  uKist  noted  among  them.  A 
third  ]iarty,  led  by  Ursacius,  Valens  and 
Acacius  (from  whom  they  are  sometimes 
called  Acacians),  rejected  the  phrase  "like 
in  substance  or  essence,"  and  contented 
themselves  with  the  vague  statement  that 
the  Son  was  "like"  the  Father.  The 
Council  of  Ancyra,  as  we  have  seen,  was 
Semiarian.  The  second  Sirmian  synod,  in 
357,  condemned  the  Semiarian  as  well  as 
the  orthodox  formula,  while  Semiarianism 
secured  a  fresh  victory  in  the  third  council 
held  at  the  same  place.  Pope  Liberius, 
under  fear  of  death,  is  believed  by  many 
to  have  subscribed  this  third  Sirmian 
formula,  while  at  the  same  time  he  anathe- 
matised those  who  denied  that  "the  Son 
is  in  essence  and  in  all  things  like  to  the 
Father."  [See  Liberius.]  In  350  the 
Emperor  did  his  utmost  to  establish  Semi- 
arianism, but  his  efforts  were  in  vain. 
The  hjastern  bishops,  160  in  nundjer,  met 
at  Seleucia;  400  Western  bishops  at 
Rimini.  The  latter  stood  firm  at  first  to 
the  faith  defined  at  Niceea,  but  they  were 
overcome  by  threats  and  by  bodily  suffer- 
ing. At  last  both  the  Eastern  and 
Western  council  subscribed  a  formida,  in 
which  the  word  "  essence  "  was  rejected 
altogether  as  unscriptural,  and  the  Son 
was  defined  to  be  "like  the  Father  in  all 
things." 

This  defeat  of  the  Semiarians  by 
Arians  inclined  the  former  to  accept  the 
Nicene  faith,  and  at  a  council  held  at 
Alexandria  in  362  Athanasius,  who  had 
returned  to  his  see  on  the  accession  of 
Julian  the  Apostate,  received  many  of 
them  into  communion.  The  Acacians,  on 
the  other  hand,  allied  themselves  with 
the  strict  Arians.  Arianism  found  a 
powerful  sup])orter  in  the  Emperor  Valens 
(364-378),  who  expelled  Athanasius  from 
his  see.  This  was  his  fifth  exile.  But  the 
palmy  days  of  the  heresy  were  over.  His 
people  insisted  on  the  recall  of  Athanasius 
to  his  see,  in  which  he  remained  till  his 
death,  in  373.  Ambrose  in  the  West, 
and  in  the  East  the  three  Cappadocian 
Fathers,  Basil  the  Great,  Gregory  of 
Nazianzus,  and  Gregoiy  of  Nyssa,  fought 
the  battle  of  the  faith.  The  orthodox 
Emperor  Theodosius  secured  the  peace  of 
the  Church,  and  the  Nicene  decrees  were 
enforced  again  by  the  General  Council  of 
Constantinople  (381). 

So  much  for  the  history  of  Arianism 
among  the  subjects  of  the  Roman  Empire. 


66      ARLES,  COUNCILS  OF 

It  liad  still  a  great  ]iai-t  to  play  amoiiff  ' 
the  Barbarians.  The  AVest  Goths'receivrll 
Christianity  in  the  Arian  form  tlirougli 
their  great  niissimiarv  Ulfila  (consecrated 
bishop  hy  iMisehius  of  Nicomedia  in  -'Ul), 
and  A'alens  allowed  a  part  of  their  nation 
to  settle  in  Thrace  on  the  condition  that 
they  became  Arians.  Soon  after,  the  j 
East  Goths  in  Italy,  the  Vandals  in  ' 
Africa,  the  Suevi  in  Spain,  the  Burgun- 
dians  in  Gaul,  the  Lombardians  who 
emigrated  to  upper  Italy,  became  Arians. 
The  Vandal  persecution  of  the  Catholics, 
which  rivalled  that  of  Diocletian  in 
severity,  began  under  Genscric  in  427 
and  lasted  till  533,  when  the  Byzantine 
general  Belisarius  conquered  Africa.  In 
Spain,  which  had  fallen  under  the  power 
of  the  West  Goths,  llermenegild,  son  of 
the  king,  fell  a  sncriiic'  to  th,-  Ariun 
fanaticism  of  his  fat  hoi-,  in  r>S4.  Her-  j 
menegild's  brother  Iti  ccarcd,  who  began 
to  reign  in  586,  became  a  Catholic  and 
established  tlie  faith  in  Spain,  with  the 
help  of  a  great  council  which  met  at 
Toledo  in  5S9.  About  a  century  earlier, 
Clevis,  with  3,000  of  his  Franks,  had 
received  Catholic  baptism,  and  the 
triumph  of  the  Frankish  arms  sealed  the 
fate  of  Arianism. 

ARXiES,  COVKTCZIiS  OF.  (1)  In 
314,  assembled  chi(;fly  to  settle  the  Dona- 
tist  disputes.  This  council  represented  the 
entire  Western  Church.  The  number  of 
the  bishops  who  met  is  unc(>rtain,  and  the 
acts  have  perished.  But  we  know  that  the 
Holy  See  was  represented  there  by  two 
priests  and  two  deacons,  and  Constantine 
himself  says  he  assembled  "  very  many 
bishops  from  diverse  and  almost  innu- 
merable districts."  It  appears  from  the 
letter  of  the  Council  to  Pope  Silvester, 
that  the  Donatists  were  condemned,  and 
Caecilian,  the  orthodox  bishop  of  Carthage, 
acquitted.  A  synod  at  Home  in  the  pre- 
vious year  had  given  the  same  decision. 
The  council  also  decreed  that  Easter 
should  be  observed  on  the  same  day 
throughout  the  world,  the  day  to  be 
notified  by  tlie  Pope  (Cnn.  i);  that 
baptism  conferred  with  the  proj)er  form 
was  valid  even  if  given  Ijy  heretics 
(Can.  8) ;  that  a  bishop  should  be  con- 
secrated by  three  others  (Can.  20) ;  that 
a  married  priest  or  deacon  who  lived  with 
his  wife  should  be  deposed  (Can.  29)  (see 
Hefele,  "  Concil."  p.  201  seq.). 

(2)  In  353  a  council  at  Aries  was  ten-i- 
fied  by  the  Emperor  Constantius  into  a 
condemnation  of  St.  Athanasius  (Hefele, 
i/>.  p.  652.)    Various  otlier  synods  which 


ARMENIAN  CHRISTIANS 

met  in  the  same  place  are  mentioned  hy 

Hefelr. 

ARMEirZATr  CHRZSTZAirS.  The 

native  legends  recount  the  preaching  of 
the  Gospel  to  the  Armenian  nation  by 
Thaddeus,  one  of  the  seventy  disciples, 
but  the  conversion  of  the  Armenian 
people  as  a  whole  was  brought  about  by 
their  great  Apostle,  Gregory  the  Illumi- 
Jiator,  whose  efforts  were  supported  by 
King  Tiridates  III.,  just  at  tlie  begin- 
ning of  the  fourth  century.  It  is  clear 
from  Eusel)ius  ("  H.  E."  i'x.  8)  that  the 
work  of  conversion  was  verj-  rapid.  Gre- 
gory established  the  chief  see  at  Etch- 
miazin,  near  Mount  Ararat:  he  and  his 
successors  were  consecrated  by  the  Metro- 
politan of  Ctesarea  in  Cappadocia,  and 
the  title  they  took — viz.  Catliolicos — sig- 
nified that  they  were  the  general  procu- 
rators and  representatives  of  the  see  of 
Cresarea  in  Armenia  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens 
Christianus,"  i.  1355).  Early  in  the 
fifth  century  the  golden  age  of  Armenian 
literature  began.  Isaac  the  Great  and 
Mesrob  (both  Catholics)  in\euted  the 
Armenian  alphabet  and  translated  the 
Bible  from  the  Syriac  Peshitto  into 
Armenian,  afterwards  improving  their 
work  by  collat  ing  it  with  good  MSS.  of 
the  LXX  (Hexaplar  text)  and  the  Greek 
New  Testament.  The  work  of  trans- 
lating Fathers,  as  well  as  works  of  Ari- 
stotle, Philo,  Poqihyry,  &c.,  from  Greek 
and  Syriac  was  carried  on  with  great  zeal. 
This  literary  aetix  it  y  was  aceom])anied  by 
other  changes  of  a  very  different  kind. 
The  brave  Armenian  nation  had  preserved 
its  independence,  but  in  31)0  Armenia 
was  divided  between  the  Byzantine  and 
Persian  empires,  and  I'>ast  Armenia,  the 
larger  and  more  fruitful  part  of  the 
country,  fell  to  the  portion  of  the  latter 
Power.  In  430  the  very  shadow  of  a 
national  monarchy  disappeared,  and  ever 
since  the  Armenians  have  been  subject  in 
succession  to  Persians,  Arabs,  Turks,  and 
Russians.  They  were  scattered  far  and 
wide  by  the  Mongol  invaders,  and  their 
unity,  like  that  of  the  Jews,  has  consisted 
in  the  common  bond  of  race,  language, 
literature,  and  religion.  After  the  Per- 
sian conquest  the  Ai-menian  Catholicos 
became  independent  of  Csesarea,  and  this 
change  was  followed  by  another  of  much 
greater  moment.  The  opposition  of  the 
Armenians  to  the  Council  of  Chalcedon, 
mainly  due  to  the  mission  of  Samuel, 
whom  the  Syrian  Archimandrite  Bai-su- 
mas  sent  to  the  Armenian  church,  was 
clearly  displayed  in  the  synod  of  Vagars- 


ARMENIAN  CHRISTIANS 


ARMENIAN  CHRISTIANS  57 


■liiabnd,  A.D.  491.  The  schism  was  con- 
fcummated  at  the  Synod  of  Dovin  in  596 
(see  Ilefele,  "Concil."  ii.  p.  717,  2nd 
ed.,  where  the  statements  of  Pagi,  Mansi, 
&c.,  are  corrected  from  the  National  llis- 
torj'  published  at  Venice  in  1785),  and 
has  endured  ever  since,  though  Greek 
influence  induced  the  Iberian  and  Colch- 
ian  bishops  to  sever  themselves  from  the 
Armenian  Catholicos.  True,  a  union 
between  the  Armenians  and  the  orthodox 
Greeks  was  effected  at  a  council  of  Karin 
(the  modern  Erzeroum)  in  628,  but  it 
did  not  last  long.  The  Armenians  held 
fast  to  the  Monophysite  doctrine — viz. 
that  in  Christ  there  was  but  one  nature — 
and  external  differences  increased  the 
opposition  between  them  and  the  Greeks. 
Some  of  these,  such  as  the  addition  of  the 
words  "Who  wast  crucified  for  us"  in 
the  Trisagion,  and  probably  the  use  of 
pure  wine,  without  the  addition  of  any 
water,  in  the  Mass,  were  connected  with 
their  theological  views.  Besides  this, 
they  maintained  the  old  Eastern  custom 
of  celebrating  Christ's  birth  and  His  epi- 
phany on  one  day— viz.  January  6.  They 
use  leavened  bread  at  the  altar,  eat  lac- 
ticinia  in  Lent  (Syn.  in  Trull,  can.  32, 
56).  They  were  also  charged  by  the 
Greeks  with  making  the  priesthood  into  a 
caste,  and  only  ordaining  sons  of  priests 
(ib.  can.  32) ;  and  fui'ther,  with  a  semi- 
Jewish  practice  of  cooking  flesh  in  the 
sanctuary  and  giving  portions  of  it  to  the 
priests  {ib.  can.  99). 

The  Catholicos  lives  at  Etchniazin, 
which  has  belonged  since  1828  to  Russia. 
He  is  chosen  from  the  metropolitans  by 
the  synod,  with  the  consent  of  the 
Armenian  bishops  and  of  all  Armenians 
present  at  the  place,  and  the  election 
must  be  confirmed  by  the  Czar.  He  is 
enthroned  in  his  cathedral  by  the  IMetro- 
politan  of  Siunic.  It  is  his  ofiice  to 
watch  over  religion  and  discipline  ;  he 
consecrates  the  chrism  for  his  bishops, 
which  he  does  only  once  in  seven  years, 
and  he  can  convene  a  national  council. 
In  matters  of  importance  he  must  consult 
his  synod.  He  is  Bishop  of  Ararat.  His 
distinctive  dress  consists  in  a  silk  veil, 
with  gold  fringes,  which  covers  his  head 
and  shoulders,  and  is  called  kuff/i,  and  in 
a  pallium  folded  five  times  over  Ids  breast. 
The  patriarchal  cross  and  torch  are  car- 
ried before  him,  and  he  uses  everywhere 
the  staff  of  the  vartabed  or  doctor.  He 
is  chiefly  supported  by  a  poll-tax  on 
all  adults  within  his  diocese,  contribu- 
tions, stole-fees,  &c.  from  the  revenues  of 


the  monastery  at  Etchniazin,  and  the 
gifts  of  pilgrims  to  the  shrine  of  St. 
Gregory.  There  are  twelve  archbishops 
and  bishops,  four  vartabeds  or  doctors, 
sixty  monks  in  priest's  orders,  and  500 
other  monks  in  the  great  monastery  just 
mentioned.  The  archbishops,  bishops, 
and  archimandrites  residing  there  form 
his  synod.  Deputies  from  the  Armenian 
nation  are  added  to  their  number  at  the 
election  of  a  patriarch. 
I  Next  come  the  patriarchs,  who  are 
now  almost  independent  of  the  Catho- 
licos. The  patriarchial  sees  arose  from 
I  the  constant  change  of  the  chief  see 
I  during  the  disasters  of  the  nation,  and  also 
from  the  dispersion  of  the  Armenians  after 
the  Mongol  invasion  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  The  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople (  bishopric  since  1307,  title  of  patri- 
arch since  1481)  holds  the  first  rank 
amongst  the  patriarchs,  and  is  only  in- 
ferior in  name  to  the  Cathiilicos.  He  is 
chosen  by  the  Armenians,  lay  as  well  as 
clerical,  at  Constantinople,  and  gets  his 
berat  from  the  Porte.  He  can  conse- 
crate the  holy  oil,  and  can  appoint  and 
consecrate  metropolitan  bishops  through- 
out the  Turkish  dominions  except  at  Jeru- 
salem. The  church  property  is  under  his 
control,  but  he  must  administer  it  with 
the  advice  of  a  synod  of  twenty  lay 
members  chosen  by  the  Porte.  He  has 
also  a  synod  of  ecclesiastics  for  spiritual 
matters.  He  has  secular  jurisdiction 
over  the  members  of  his  church,  and  he 
represents  not  only  the  Armenians  but 
also  the  Syrian  "Jacobites  before  the 
I  Turkish  Government.  The  Patriarch  of 
Sis  (title  granted  1441)  is  supposed  to 
be  chosen  by  the  twelve  neighbouring 
bishops,  who,  however,  really  follow  the 
popular  choice,  which  takes  place  under 
the  influence  of  the  Turkish  Government. 
His  jurisdiction  extends  over  Lesser 
Armenia,  Cappadocia,  and  Cilicia.  He 
receives  the  holy  oil  from  the  Catholicos. 
The  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  (title  since 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century)  is 
chosen  by  his  suflfragan  bishops,  with  the 
consent  of  the  clergy.  He  has  very 
limited  power,  for  he  leaves  the  conse- 
cration of  bishops  and  of  the  holy  oil  to 
the  Catholicos,  and  he  can  be  called  to 
the  court  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople. The  Patriarch  of  the  island  of 
Aghtamar  (1114)  has  little  power,  and 
his  jurisdiction  scarcely  extends  beyond 
the  shores  of  the  lake  of  Van.  He  is 
chiefly  maintained  by  the  monastery  on 
the  island. 


58      ARMENIAN  CHRISTIANS 


ARMENLAN  CHRISTIANS 


The  metropolitans,  accordiug  to  the 
canons,  are  empowered  to  consecrate 
their  sufl'ragans  and  the  holy  oils,  but 
these  rights  are  now  reserved  to  the 
Catholicos,  or  else  to  the  patriarch,  and 
the  metropolitans  only  difi'er  from  other 
bishops  by  wearing  a  gold  mitre,  a  triple 
pallium,  a  longer  staft',  and  an  archi- 
episcopal  eiriyovaTtov,  which  the  Arme- 
nians call  goncher,  suspended  from  the 
girdle.  A  monk  cannot,  except  by  dispen- 
sation, become  a  bishop,  and  the  bishops 
are  usually  chosen  from  the  unmarried 
vartabeds  or  doctors.  The  patriarch  may 
nominate,  but  usually  the  bishops  are 
chosen  by  the  clergy  and  fathers  of 
families.  The  election  is  confirmed,  and 
the  bishop  consecrated  by  the  Catholicos 
or  patriarch.  The  rite  of  consecration 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  Greeks,  but 
the  Armenians  anoint  the  head  and 
thumbs  of  the  elect  with  chrism,  and  he 
receives  a  ring  as  one  of  his  insignia. 
Bishops  also  wear  a  mitre '  like  that  of 
the  Latins,  and  they  do  not  use  the  aciKKos 
of  the  Greeks  (see  Vestments  of  the 
Greeks).  The  bishop  appoints  the  chor- 
episcopi ;  convents,  schools,  hospitals, 
&c.,  are  subject  to  him  ;  no  altars  may  be 
set  up  or  relics  exposed  for  veneration 
without  his  leave. 

The  priests  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  that  of  the  vartabeds  or  doctors, 
who  are  again  subdivided  into  many 
grades  and  who  remain  unmarried,  and 
the  parish  priests.  The  former  are  far 
more  highly  esteemed.  A  staff  is  the 
mark  of  their  office,  and  their  chief  duty 
consists  in  preaching.  They  live  by  col- 
lections made  after  the  sermon.  The  ordi- 
nary clergy  are  married,  taken  from  the 
humbler  classes  and  trained  either  by  a 
parish  priest  or  at  a  monastery.  The 
Armenians  have  the  same  minor  orders 
as  the  Latins,  and,  like  them,  they  reckon 
the  subdiaconate  among  the  greater 
orders.  A  priest  is  elected  by  the  people, 
who,  however,  invariably  accept  the  can- 
didate proposed  by  the  lay  administrator 
of  the  church  property ;  he  must  then 
be  approved  by  the  bishop.  The  priestly 
vestments  are  alb,  girdle,  maniple,  stole, 
chasuble ;  but  they  also  have  a  collar  of 
gold  or  silver  stuff  called  vagas,  from 
which  a  sort  of  metal  amice  is  suspended, 
with  the  figures  of  the  twelve  Apostles 
upon  it,  and  they  wear  a  high  cap 
with  gold  or  silver  crosses.  The  priest 
says  Mass  with  covered  head  till  the 
>  Introduced  in  1084  (Neftle,  Eastern  Church, 
i.  313.) 


Trisagion,  when  he  removes  his  cap 
amice,  and  sandals.  Priests  live  by  stole- 
fees  and  by  offerings  in  kind  at  Epi- 
phany and  Easter.  Tliey  al.<o  get 
subsidies  from  the  fund  for  pious  uses. 
But  they  are  very  poor,  and  generally 
have  to  follow  some  trade. 

The  Armenian  schismatic  monks  fol- 
low the  rule  of  St.  Basil,  but  their  fasts 
are  stricter  than  those  of  the  Greek  re- 
ligious. They  have  many  monasteries, 
and  at  least  one  large  convent  of  nuns — 
viz.  on  Mount  Sion.  Silbernagl  enumer- 
ates between  sixty  and  seventy  dioceses, 
of  which  fourteen  are  in  Russia,  five  in 
Persia  (including  the  see  of  the  Ar- 
menian Bishop  of  Calcutta),  the  rest  in 
the  Turkish  territory.  He  estimates  the 
number  of  schismatic  Armenians  in  Tur- 
key at  2,400,000,  of  whom  400,000  are  in 
Turkey  in  Europe.  There  are  500,000 
in  the  Russian  Empire.  Add  to  these 
the  Armenians  in  other  lands,  especially 
Egypt  and  the  principalities  of  the 
Danube,  in  which  last  the  chief  settle- 
ment of  the  Armenians  was  made  in 
1342,  and  we  may  calculate  the  whole 
number  as  about  three  millions. 

United  Armenians. — Some  of  the 
Armenians  in  Cilicia  were  united  with 
the  Catholic  Church  by  Latin  mission- 
aries sent  there  by  John  XXII.  But 
much  more  was  done  by  Jesuit  mission- 
aries and  the  Mechitarists  among  the 
Armenians  scattered  from  the  fourteenth 
century  onwards  throughout  other  coun- 
tries, and  at  present  there  are  about 
100,000  Catholics  of  the  Armenian  rite. 

In  1742,  Benedict  XIV.  appointed  a 
patriarch  for  the  Armenians  in  Cilicia 
and  the  Lesser  Armenia.  In  1830  Pius 
Vni.  nominated  a  primate  at  Constanti- 
nople for  the  Armenians  in  European 
Turkey;  and  owing  to  the  progress  of 
Catholicism  in  the  nation,  Pius  IX.  in 
1850  empowered  the  Primate  Anthony 
Hassun  to  erect  six  suffragan  dioceses. 
The  Pope  himself  nominated  the  bishops, 
and  a  schism  seemed  likely  to  ensue.  In 
1866  Ilassun  was  chosen  patriarch  by 
the  bishops  of  the  Cilician  patriarchate. 
Pius  IX.  confirmed  the  election,  united 
the  patriarchal  and  primatial  dignities, 
transferred  the  patriarchal  residence  to 
Galata,  near  Constantinople,  provided  for 
the  election  of  the  patriarch  by  the  bishops 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  laity,  and  regulated 
the  affairs  of  the  Armenian  church  by  the 
bull  "  Reversurus,"  of  July  12,  1867. 
Some  Armenians  thought  the  rights  of 
the  nation  injured  by  this  bull,  and  a 


ARTICLE  OF  FAITH 


ASCENSION  OF  CHRIST  59 


formal  schism  arose  iu  1870 ;  more  than 
thirty-five  of  the  clergy  and  many  of  the 
laity  were  excommunicated  by  the  Pope. 
The  schism,  however,  won  about  4,000 
adherents ;  a  schismatical  patriarch  was 
elected,  and  most  of  the  church  buildings 
and  goods  passed  into  their  hands.  They 
repudiated  the  decrees  of  the  Vatican 
Council.  In  1879  the  scbisiuatical  patri- 
arch Kuppelian  made  his  submission  to 
Leo  XIII.  Many  of  the  clergy  and  laity 
followed  his  example,  and  Monsiguor 
Hassun  was  acknowledged  as  patriarch 
by  the  Porte  till  he  was  made  cardinal  in 
1880,  and  replaced  by  Monsignor  Azarian. 
At  present  seventeen  dioceses  are  subject 
to  the  .^menian  Patriarch.  He  has  no 
authority  over  Armenians  in  Russia  and 
Austria.  Russia  has  many  Armenian 
inhabitants  in  the  Crimea,  Kasan,  and 
the  Ukraine.  Pius  VII.  sent  them  a 
vicar-apostolic  in  1 809,  and  the  Concordat 
of  1847  provided  for  the  erection  of  Ai- 
menian  bishoprics  at  Cherson  and  Kami- 
uiek.  This  arrangement,  however,  owing 
to  the  troubles  with  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment, has  not  been  carried  out.  Austria 
has  about  14,000  United  Armenians. 
Those  in  Slebenbiirgen,  who  came  there 
in  1671,  and  continued  for  a  time  Mono- 
physites,  are  under  the  Latin  bishops. 
The  archbishopric  of  Leni))erg  was 
erected  for  the  Armenians  of  Gallicia  in 
1635;  and  Pius  VII.,  by  a  brief  in  1819, 
agreed  that  the  em])eror  should  nominate 
one  of  three  candidates  proposed  by  the 
Armenian  people.  The  Ai-menians  who 
settled  in  Hungary  after  the  capture  of 
Belgrade  by  the  Turks  in  1521  are 
placed  under  the  Mechitarist  monks. 

The  United  Armenian  monks  belong 
to  the  order  of  St.  Antony.  The  Me- 
chitarists  will  be  described  in  a  se-  | 
parate  article.  (Chiefly  from  Silbernagl, 
"Kirchen  des  Orients,"  with  the  addi-  ; 
tion  of  the  facts  regarding  the  recent 
schism  from  Ilergenrother's  article  in  the 
"  Kirchenlexikon,"  edited  by  Kaulen.) 

ARTZCXiZ:  OF  FAZTH.  [See 
Dogma.] 

ilSCSSrSZON-,  FEAST  OF.  This 
feast  had  been  kept  from  time  immemorial 
in  St.  Augustine's  day,  and  he  attributes 
its  institution  to  the  Apostles.  We  have  ; 
a  sermon  amon?  the  works  of  St.  Chryso-  ' 
stom  preached  on  Ascension  Day.  St. 
Augustine  calls  it  Quadragesima,  because 
tept  forty  days  after  Easter  ;  the  Greek 
name  Tessarocostes  or  Tetracostes  was 
given  for  the  same  reason.  Gregory  of 
Tours  mentions  a  procession  which  used 


to  be  held  on  this  day,  in  memory  of  that 
which  the  Apostles  made  from  Jerusalem 
to  Bethany  and  the  Mount  of  ( )livt'^.  It 
was  also  the  custom  in  anci.  nt  tlnu^s  to 
bless  the  bread  and  new  fruits  m  the  -Mass 
of  this  day. 

The  practice  of  lighting  the  paschal 
candle  in  solemn  Mass  till  the  feast  of 
the  Ascension  was  establish 'd  thrnugout 
the  Franciscan  Order  bv  a  decree  dated 
126.3.  In  1607  the  Congregation  of  Rites 
ordered  that  the  paschal  candle  should  be 
lighted  when  3Iass  is  sung  and  in  vespers, 
on  Easter  Sunday, Easter  Monday,  Easter 
Tuesday,  on  Saturday  in  Low  '\\'eek,  and 
on  Sundays  till  Ascension  Day,  when  it 
is  extinguished  after  the  Gospel.  The  rite 
symbolises  Christ's  departure  from  the 
Apostles.   (Benedict  XIV.  "  De  Festis.") 

ASCSIJ-SZOia-  OF  CHRZST.  Our 
Lord  ascended  into  heaven  forty  days 
after  His  resurrection,  and  therefore,  ac- 
cording to  the  common  reckoning,  on  a 
Thursday.  The  opinion  of  Chiysostom 
that  the  Ascension  took  place  on  a  Satur- 
day, is  quite  singular.  He  ascended  by 
His  own  power — not  indeed,  St.  Thomas 
remarks,  by  the  power  proper  to  a  natural 
body,  but  by  the  virtue  proper  to  Him  as 
God  and  by  that  which  belongs  to  a 
blessed  spirit.  Such  an  ascension,  St. 
Thomas  continues,  "  is  not  against  the 
nature  of  a  glorified  body,  the  nature  of 
which  is  entirely  subject  to  the  spirit."' 
Christ  ascended  from  Mount  Olivet  in 
the  presence  of  His  disciples,  whom  He 
blessed  as  He  parted  from  them.  He  took 
His  seat  at  the  right  hand  of  God,  the 
sitting  posture  symbolising  His  rest  from 
toil  and  His  judicial  power;  the  "right 
hand  "  of  God  denoting  according  to  many 
of  the  Fathers,  the  equaUty  of  Jesus  Christ 
God  and  man  with  God  the  Father  :  ac- 
cording to  some  other  writers,  signifying 
that  as  man  He  holds  the  next  place  to 
God  in  heaven.  Angels,  as  has  been 
generally  inferred  from  the  sacred  narra- 
tive, attended  Him  in  His  ascent,  and  the 
souls  of  the  just,  who  had  been  detaiiu'd 
in  Limbo,  entered  heaven  with  Him.  Thus 
"ascending  on  high,  he  led  captivity 
captive." 

Theologians  give  many  reasons  for 
our  Lord's  ascension.  The  glory  which 
He  receives  in  heaven  is  due  to  the  merits 
of  His  sacred  humanity.  For  Christians, 
too,  it  was  "  expedient  that  he  should  go." 
Faith  is  exercised  by  tlie  fact  that  we  can 
no  longer  see  our  Lord :  His  ascent  into 
heaven  is  the  pledge  that  we  shall  foUow 
Him  if  we  are  worthy.  Above  all,  accord- 


CO 


ASH  WEDNESDAY 


ingtothe  constant  teaching  of  the  Fathers, 
Christ  exercises  His  priestly  office  in 
heaven.  Just  as  the  high-priest  on  the 
day  of  Atonement  ofl'ered  sacrifice  with- 
out on  the  brazen  altar,  and  then  with 
the  blood  of  the  sacrifice  and  with  burn- 
ing incense,  entered  the  holy  of  holies,  so 
the  high-priest  of  the  new  law,  having 
oifered  Himself  as  a  sacrifice  on  Mount 
Calvary,  continually  presents  His  merits 
and  exhibits  His  sacred  woimds  before  the 
Eternal  Father.  Whether  He  as  man 
actually  prays  for  us,  is  uncertain.  Of 
course  He  does  not  pray  as  the  saints  do, 
for  they  are  creatures,  and  ask  of  God 
what  they  cannot  give  by  their  own 
power.  And  the  words  "  Christ,  pray 
for  us,"  could  not  be  lawfully  used,  on 
account  of  the  scandal  and  confusion 
they  would  create.  But  it  is  quite  pos- 
sible that  Christ,  as  Petavius '  expresses 
it,  by  "  a  voluntary  condescension  "  still 
prays  for  us,  as  He  did  while  on  earth. 
(Benedict  XIV.  "  De  Festis.") 

A.SCETJE  (Gr.  daKta,  daKrjTrjs).  The 
belief  that  through  bodily  "exercise," 
and  a  strict  discipline  imposed  on  the 
senses,  it  was  in  the  power  of  man  to  per- 
fect his  moral  nature  and  rise  to  spiritual 
heights  not  othei-wise  attainable,  had 
been  common  both  among  Jews  and 
Pagans  for  some  time  before  the  coming 
of  Christ.  Philo's  account  of  the  Essenes 
is  well-known — a  Jewish  sect  of  mystical 
and  ascetic  tenets,  much  difi"used  in 
Palestine  in  the  first  century  before 
Christ,  with  its  initiations,  grades,  and 
secrets,  living  in  villages  because  of  the 
luxury  and  immorality  of  the  towns, 
renouncing  marriage,  and  following  rules 
of  strict  temperance  in  regard  to  food, 
sleep,  and  whatever  else  nature  craves. 
The  Therapeutse  in  Egypt  were  a  similar 
sect.  Their  name — and  that  of  the 
Essenes  is  said  to  have  the  same  meaning 
— signifies  healin(j,  for  they  believed  that 
their  discipline  healed  the  concretam 
labem  of  the  soul's  impurity. 

In  the  Pagan  world  similar  doctrines 
were  widely  held  by  the  Stoics.  Both 
among  them  and  the  Essenes  the  doc- 
trine of  the  two  principles,  the  persuasion 
that  matter  was  essentially  evil,  and 
that  he  was  most  perfect  who  was 
freest  from  the  blasting  touch  of  animal 
existence,  coloured  largely  both  their 
theories  and  their  practice.  The  Christian 
Ascetes  could  not  so  deem  of  that  fJeshly 
nature  of  which  Christ  their  divine  Lord 
had  deigned  to  be  a  partaker :  to  master 
•  De  Incamat.  xii.  8. 


!  the  lower  nature  was  their  aim,  not  tO" 
'  eradicate  it ;  desire  and  fear,  joy  and 
'  grief,  they  did  not  regard  as  in  themselves 
evil,  but  as  to  be  brought  by  discipline 
into  a  strict  subordination  to  the  true  end 
of  man,  which  is  to  know  and  love  God, 
I  and  do  His  will.  The  means  which  they 
j  employed  were  voluntary  chastity,  fast- 
ing, perseverance  in  prayer,  voluntary 
poverty,  and  maceration  of  the  flesh.  In 
the  Apostolical  Constitutions  (Kraus,  p. 
96)  the  Ascetae  are  mentioned  as  an  in- 
termediate order  of  Christians  between 
the  clergy  and  the  laity.  As  a  general 
rule,  they  did  not  go  out  of  the  world, 
like  anchorites  and  monks,  but  strove  to 
live  a  perfect  life  in  the  world.  Abuses 
after  a  time  appeared,  particularly  in 
regard  to  the  ywaiKts  a-wda-aia-oi,  wo- 
men who  lived  under  the  same  roof  with 
Ascetes  for  the  benefit  of  their  instruc- 
tion and  example. 

Modern  life,  especially  when  permeated 
with  Baconian  ideas  respecting  the  true 
task  of  man  in  the  world,  is  pointedly 
unascetic.  If  we  turn  over  a  series  of 
pictures  of  eminent  modern  men,  there  is 
one  common  feature  which  we  cannot  fail 
to  notice,  whether  the  subject  of  the  pic- 
ture be  artist,  or  literary  man,  or  man  of 
action,  and  whatever  intelligence,  power, 
or  benevolence  may  breathe  from  the  face 
— namely,  the  absence  of  an  expression  of 
self-mastery.  A  similar  series  of  por- 
traits of  men  who  lived  in  the  middle 
ages,  when  law  was  weaker  than  at 
present,  but  the  sense  of  the  necessity  of 
self-control  stronger,  reveals  a  type  of 
countenance  in  which  the  calmness  of 
self-conquest,  gained  by  the  Christian 
acrKr)ais,  is  far  more  frequently  visible 
than  in  later  ages. 

ASCETZCAIi  THEOI.OCY.  A 
name  given  to  the  science  which  treats  of 
virtue  and  perfection  and  the  means  by 
which  they  are  to  be  attained.  Whereas 
mystical  theology  deals  with  extraordinary 
states  of  prayer  and  imion  with  God, 
ascetical  writers  treat  of  the  ordinary 
Christian  life.  The  number  of  ascetical 
writers  has  at  all  times  been  great  in  the 
Church,  but  during  the  last  three  centuries 
special  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
life  of  secular,  as  distinct  from  religious, 
persons.  St.  Francis  of  Sales  and  St. 
Alphonsus  Liguori  may  be  mentioned  as 
modern  saints  whose  ascetical  works  are 
most  esteemed. 

ASH  -w-EDsrESBAY.  The  first 
day,  according  to  our  present  observance, 
of  the  forty  days'  fast  of  Lent.    But  that 


ASH  WEDNESDAY 


ASSUMPTION  61 


it  did  not  come  within  the  quadragesimal 
period  in  primitive  times  we  know  from 
the  testimony  of  Gregory  the  Great,  who, 
in  speaking  of  the  fast,  describes  it  as  of 
thirty-six  days'  duration — that  is,  as  ex- 
tending over  six  weeks,  from  the  first 
Sunday  in  Lent  to  Easter  Day,  omitting 
Sundaj-s.  Thirty-six  days  are  nearly  a 
tenth  part  of  the  year,  and  thus,  by  ob- 
ser\  ing  the  fast.  Christians  were  thought 
to  render  a  penitential  tithe  of  their  lives 
to  God.  Lent,  therefore,  at  the  end  of 
the  sixth  century,  began  on  the  first 
Sunday,  and  we  know  ficmi  the  Sacra- 
mentary  of  Gelasius  that  the  practice  was 
the  same  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  century. 
At  what  time  Ash  Wednesday  and  the 
three  following  days  were  added  to  the 
fast  has  not  been  precisely  ascertained. 
It  is  true  that  in  the  Sacramentary  of 
Pope  Gregory  there  is  a  Mass  for  Ash 
Wednesday,  under  the  heading  "  Feria  IV., 
caput  jejunii "  (beginning  of  the  fast) ; 
whence  it  might  be  inferred  that  Pope 
Gregory,  in  spite  of  the  words  cited  above, 
had  himself  before  his  death  sanctioned 
the  alteration  in  question.  But  this 
would  be  an  unsafe  conclusion,  for  one  of 
the  best  MSS.  of  the  Sacramentary  does 
not  contain  this  heading.  However  this 
may  be,  a  Capitulary  of  the  Churcli  of 
Toulon  (714)  and  the  liturgical  work  of 
Amaury  (about  820)  describe  the  Lenten 
usage  as  identical  with  our  own.  There 
can  be  no  difficulty  in  understanding  tlie 
motive  of  the  change  ;  for  by  the  addition 
of  the  four  days  preceding  the  first  Sun- 
day, the  number  of  fasting  days  before 
Easter  (the  Sundays  being  omitted)  be- 
comes exactly  forty,  and  accords  with 
the  fasts  recorded  of  Moses  and  Elias, 
and  witli  that  of  our  Saviour  in  the 
wilderness  of  Judea. 

The  office  for  Ash  Wednesday  opens 
with  the  solemn  ceremony  which  has 
given  the  day  its  name.'  After  an  in- 
troit  and  four  collects,  in  which  pardon 
and  mercy  are  implored  for  the  penitent, 
the  faithful  approach  and  kneel  at  the 
altar  rails,  and  the  priest  puts  ashes  upon 
the  head  of  each,  saying.  "  Memento, 
homo,  quia  pulvis  es,  et  in  pulverem  rever- 
teris"  (Remember,  man,  that  thou  art 
dust,  and  shalt  return  to  dust).  The 
ashes  are  obtained  by  burning  the  palms 
of  the  previous  year.  The  Lenten  pas- 
torals of  Bishops,  regidating  the  obser- 
vance of  the  season,  usually  prescribe  that 
the  fast  on  Ash  Wednesday  shall  be  more 

1  In  French,  Mtrcredi  <hs  Cenilres ;  in  Ger- 
man, Aschermittwitch. 


'  rigorously  kept  than  on  any  other  day  in 
Lent  except  the  four  last  last  days  of  Holy 
Week. 

I       The  administration  of  the  ashes  was 
not  originally  made  to  all  the  faithful, 
j  but  only  to  public  penitents.    These  had 
to  appear  before  the  church  door  on  the 
first  day  of  Lent,  in  penitential  garb  and 
[  with  bare  feet.  Their  penances  were  there 
j  imposed  upon  them;   then   the}"  were 
brought  into  the  church  before  the  bishop, 
who  put  ashes  on  their  heads,  saying, 
j  besides  the  words  "  Memento," &c.,  "age 
poenitentiam  ut  habeas  vitam  seternam " 
j  (Repent  [or,  do  penance],  that  thou  mayst 
I  have  eternal  life).  He  then  made  them  an 
j  address,  after  which  he  solemnly  excluded 
I  them  from  the  church.    Out  of  humility 
j  and  affection,  friends  of  the  penitents, 
though  not  in  the  same  condition,  used  to 
join  themselves  to  them,  expressing  ia 
their  outward  guise  a  similar  contrition, 
and  offering  their  foreheads  also  to  be 
sprinkled  with  ashes.    The  number  of 
these  persons  gradually  increased,  until 
at  length  the  administration  of  ashes  was 
extended  to  the  whole  congregation,  and 
the  rite  took  its  present  form.  ("Diet,  of 
Antiq  "  Smith  and  Cheetham;  Kossing, 
in  Wetzer  and  Welte.) 

ASPERCES.  A  name  given  to  the 
sprinkling  of  the  altar,  clergy,  and  people 
with  holy  water  at  the  beginning  of 
High  Mass  by  the  celebrant.  The  name 
is  taken  from  the  words,  "  Asperges  me," 
"  Thou  shalt  wash  me,  0  Lord,  with 
hyssop,"  &c.,  with  which  the  priest  begins 
the  ceremony.  During  the  Easter  season 
the  antiphon  "Vidi  aquam "  is  substi- 
tuted. This  custom  of  sprinkling  the 
people  with  holy  water  is  mentioned  in 
the  Canon  of  a  synod  quoted  by  Hincmar 
of  Rheinis,  who  lived  at  the  beginning  of 
the  ninth  century. 

ASFERSZOig-.  [See  Baptism.] 
ASSVAlPTlOsr.  After  the  death  of 
her  divine  Son  the  Blessed  Virgin  lived 
under  the  care  of  St.  John.  It  is  not 
quite  certain  where  she  died.  Tillemont 
conjectures  from  a  passage  in  a  letter  of 
the  Fathers  assembled  in  the  General 
Council  of  Ephesus  that  she  was  buried 
in  that  city,  but  the  common  tradition 
of  the  Church  re]uvsi>nts  her  as  having 
died  at  Jerusalem,  \\  here  her  empty  tomb 
was  shown  to  pilgrims  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury. In  any  ciise,  it  is  certain  that  she 
really  died,  and  that  her  exemption  from 
sin  original  and  actual  did  not  prevent 
her  paying  this  connnon  debt  of  humanity. 
The  verj-  fact  that  she  had  received  a 


62 


ASSUMPTION 


ATTRIBUTES  OF  GOD 


passible  nature  rendered  Ler  liable  to 
death.  Except  for  the  special  gift  of 
immortality  which  he  received  from  God, 
Adam  would  have  died  in  the  course  of 
nature,  even  if  he  had  never  sinned ;  and 
St.  Augustine  declares  that  our  Blessed 
Saviour  would  have  died  by  the  natural 
decay  of  old  age,  if  the  Jews  had  not  laid 
violent  hands  upon  Him.' 

Still,  although  the  Blessed  Virgin 
tasted  of  death,  her  body  was  preserved 
from  corruption  and  it  was  united  to  her 
soul  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  The 
Church  signifies  her  belief  in  this  fact  by 
celebrating  the  feast  of  her  Assumption 
on  the  fifteenth  of  August.  There  is  no 
distinct  assertion  of  the  corjmj-al  assump- 
tion in  the  prayers  of  the  feast,  but  it  is 
plain  that  the  Church  encourages  and  ap- 
proves this  belief  from  the  fact  that  she 
selects  for  the  lessons  during  the  octave 
a  passage  from  St.  John  Damascene  in 
which  the  history  of  this  coi-poral  as- 
sumption is  given  in  detail.  This  pious 
belief  is  recommended  by  its  intrinsic 
reasonableness  ;  for  surely  it  is  natural  to 
suppose  that  our  Lord  did  not  suffer  t  hut 
sacred  body  in  which  He  himself  had 
dwelt  and  from  which  He  had  formed 
His  own  sacred  humanity  to  become  a 
prey  to  corruption.  It  is  confirmed  by 
the  testimonies  of  St.  Andrew  of  Crete, 
of  St.  John  Damascene,  and  of  many 
ancient  Martyrologies  and  Missals,  cited 
by  Butler  in  his  note  on  this  feast.  It  is, 
moreover,  a  striking  fact  that,  notwith- 
standing the  zeal  of  the  early  Church  in 
collecting  and  venerating  relics,  no  relics 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin's  body  have  ever 
been  exhibited.  Much  weight,  too,  must 
be  given  to  the  common  sentiment  of  the 
faithful.  "Admirable,"  says  Petaviiis, 
"is  the  admonition  of  Paulinus  of  Nola, 
an  author  of  the  greatest  weight,  who 
bids  us  adhere  to  the  common  voice  of  the 
faithful,  since  the  spirit  of  God  breathes 
upon  them  all.'"^ 

The  corporal  nssimiption  isnot  an  article 
of  faith.  Still  ^Iclchior  Canus  sums  up 
the  general  tfachiiig  nf  theologians  on 
this  head  wlien  lif  says: — "The  denial 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin's  corporal  assump- 
tion into  heaven,  1  hough  by  no  means  con- 
trary to  the  faith,  is  still  so  much  ojiposed 
to  the  common  agreement  of  the  Church, 
that  it  would  be  a  mark  of  insolent  te- 
merity." * 

The  feast,  according  to  Butler,  was 

•  Billuart,  De  Myster  Diss.  xiv.  a.  1. 

2  Petav.  De  Incarnat.  xiv.  2. 

'  Melchior  Canus,  De  Locis  Theohg.  xii.  10. 


celebrated  before  the  sixth  century  in  the 
East  and  West.  The  Greeks  called  it 
KoifjLTja-ii  or  neTtia-Taa-is  ;  the  Latins,  dor- 
mit.to,  paiLsatio,  transitus,  assuiiq)t io. 

A.STROI.OGY.  The  doctrme  of  the 
Church  on  this  matter  is  clearly  laid  down 
by  St.  Thomas.  There  is  nothing  contrary 
to  the  faith  in  holding  that  the  stars 
affect  the  bodies  of  men,  and  so  indirectly 
cause  passions  to  which  most  men  will 
give  way.  Taking  this  influence  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  for  granted  (and  its  ex- 
istence or  non-existence  is  a  questi(jn  of 
physical  science,  not  of  theology),  an 
astrologer  may  make  probable  guesses  at 
the  truth.  But  he  cannot  predict  with 
certainty  our  future  actions,  for  it  is  of 
faith  that  the  will  in  all  cases  remains  free. 

Astrology  was  forbidden  to  the  early 
Christians.  A  law  of  the  emperor  Hono- 
rius  condemned  astrologers  to  banishment. 
The  practice  of  astrology  was  condemned 
in  15S6  by  a  bull  of  Sixtus  V.i 

A.SYI.VIVX.  A  place  to  which  a 
criminal,  pursued  by  the  ministers  of 
justice,  may  escape,  and  where  so  long  as 
he  remains  he  cannot  be  arrested.  Such 
asylums,  the  inviolable  character  of  which 
was  nearly  always  connected  with  some 
notion  of  the  religious  sanctity  of  the  spot, 
were  common  among  the  nations  of  anti- 
quity. Rome,  says  the  legend,  grew  out 
of  an  asylum  for  malefactors  of  every 
description ;  and  Moses  (Deut.  xix.  2) 
appointed  cities  of  refuge,  whither  men 
who  had  committed  involuntary  homicide 
might  flee  and  be  safe.  The  same  privi- 
lege passed  over  to  the  Church,  and  was 
sedulously  respected  by  the  Christian  em- 
perors. Theodosius  punished  the  viola- 
tion of  the  protective  sanctity  of  a  church 
as  a  crime  of  lese-maji'sty.  But  the  im- 
munity from  the  consequences  of  crime 
arising  from  the  extended  assertion  of 
the  principle  of  sanctuary  led  to  many 
abuses,  and  by  the  legislation  of  Justinian 
those  guilty  of  certain  specified  crimes 
were  to  find  no  right  of  asylum  in  the 
churches. 

For  particulars  as  to  the  immunities 
long  enjoyed  by  certain  famous  English 
sanctuaries — e.//.  St.  Cuthbert's  franchise, 
Beverley,  and  Westminster — see  the  ar- 
ticle Sanctuaey. 

ATHAN-ASIAN    CREED.  [See 

Creed.] 

ATOXTEMEM'T.  [See  Redemptio^j-.] 
ATTRIBUTES    OF    COD.  [See 

God.] 

1  Summ.  i.  115, 4 ;  Fleury,  Hist.  vi.  20 ;  xxii. 
19  ;  clxxvii.  06. 


ATTRITION 


AUGUSTINIAN  CAjS'OXS  63 


ATTRXTZOxr,  as  distinct  from  con- 
trition, is  an  imperfect  sorrow  for  sin. 
Contrition  is  that  sorrow  for  sin  which  has 
for  its  motive  the  love  of  God  whom  the 
sinner  has  offended.  Attrition  arises  from 
a  motive  which  is  indeed  supernatural — 
that  is  to  say,  apprehended  by  faith — but 
which  still  falls  short  of  contrition.  Such 
motives  are — the  fear  of  hell,  the  loss  of 
heaven,  the  turpitude  of  sin.  By  this 
last,  we  understand  the  turpitude  of  sin 
as  revealed  by  faith.  We  may  also,  for 
the  sake  of  clearness,  exclude  from  our 
definition  that  kind  of  sorrow  which  theo- 
logians call  serviliter  servilis — the  sorrow 
which  makes  a  man  renounce  sin  because 
he  is  afraid  of  hell,  while  at  the  same 
time  he  would  be  ready  to  offend  God 
if  he  could  do  so  without  incurring  the 
penalty. 

All  Catholics  are  bound  to  hold  that 
attrition,  as  explained  above,  is  good  and 
an  effect  of  God's  grace.  This  is  clear 
from  the  words  of  our  Lord,  "  Fear  him 
■who  can  destroy  both  body  and  soul  in 
hell ;  "  from  the  declaration  of  the  Tri- 
dentine  Council,  that  attrition  which  pro- 
ceeds from  considering  "  the  baseness  of 
sin  or  from  the  fear  of  hell  and  punish- 
ment, if  it  excludes  the  purpose  of  sinning 
and  includes  the  hope  of  pardon,  ...  is  a 
true  gift  of  God  and  an  impulse  of  the  Holy 
Spirit;"'  and  from  subsequent  pronounce- 
ments of  the  Popes,  particularly  of  Alex- 
ander VIII.  The  council  put  forward 
this  Catholic  truth  against  Luther,  and 
succeeding  Popes  against  the  Jansen- 
ists. 

Further,  the  Council  of  Trent  teaches* 
that  attrition  does  not  of  itself  avail  to 
justify  the  sinner.  Sin  which  separates 
the  soul  from  God  is  only  annulled  by 
love  -which  unites  it  to  Him. 

But  a  question  was  long  keenly  de- 
bated among  Catholic  divines,  viz,  whether 
if  a  man  comes  with  attrition  to  the 
sacrament  of  penance  and  receives  abso- 
lution, this  avails  to  restore  him  to  God's 
grace.  The  negative  opinion  was  held  by 
the  French  clergy  in  their  assembly  gene- 
ral of  the  year  1700,  and  prevailed  in  the 
universities  of  Paris  and  Louvain.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  affirmative,  according 
to  which  a  sinner  who  receives  absolu- 
tion with  attrition  is  justified  through 
the  grace  which  the  sacrament  confers, 
has  always  apparently  been  the  com- 
moner tenet  in  the  scliools.  It  rests  on 
the  strong  argument  that  as  perfect  con- 

1  Concil.  Trident,  sess.  xiv.  cap.  4.  De  Poenit. 

»  iWd. 


trition  justifies  without  the  actual  re- 
ception of  the  sacrament  of  penance,  it  is 
hard  to  see  why  this  sacrament  should 
have  been  instituted,  if  perfect  contrition 
is  needed  to  get  any  good  from  it.  Alex- 
ander VII.  in  1667  forbade  the  advocates 
of  either  opinion  to  pronounce  any  theo- 
logical censure  on  their  opponents.  But 
at  present  the  opinion  that  attrition  with 
the  sacrament  of  penance  suffices  is 
universally  held.  St.  Liguori'  calls  it 
"certain." 

A.VDZA.iarS  or  iXITDEAXTS.  [See 
Antheopomoephites.] 

AVBZTOR  or  ROTA.  [See  Rota.] 

AVCVSTZN-ZAMT  CA.N01TS.  The 

pretensions  to  high  antiquity  made  by 
this  order,  or  on  its  behalf,  have  involved 
the  history  of  its  origin  in  much  obscurity. 
Their  commencement  has  been  ascribed 
to  some  supposed  resolution  taken  by  the 
Apostles  to  renounce  all  private  property 
and  live  in  common.  This  being  difficult 
of  proof,  the  foundation  of  the  order  was 
at  least  confidently  referred  to  St.  Au- 
gustine of  Hippo,  whose  rule,  it  was  said, 
the  regular  canons  had  never  ceased  to 
follow.  But  it  cannot  be  shown  that  St. 
Augustine  ever  composed  a  rule,  properly 
so  called.  He  did,  indeed,  write  a  treatise 
"  De  Moribus  Clericorum,"  and  he  also 
wrote  a  letter  (No.  109)  in  which  he  laid 
down  a  rule  of  life  for  the  religious  women 
:  under  his  direction,  not  binding  them  to 
strict  enclosure,  but  requiring  them  to  re- 
nounce all  individual  property.  But  when 
and  by  whom  the  injunctions  contained  in 
this  letter  were  adapted  to  communities 
of  men,  are  points  which  have  never  been 
cleared  up.  Moreover,  it  has  been  urged, 
that  if  St.  Augustine  promulgated  a  rule 
and  founded  congregations  which  have 
had  perpetual  succession  ever  since,  it 
seems  impossible  to  explain  how  St. 
Benedict  should  have  been  universally 
regarded  for  centuries  as  the  founder  ot 
Western  monachisra 
j  In  one  sense,  indeed,  the  regular 
I  Canons  of  St.  Austin  may  lay  claim  to  an 
antiquity  with  which  no  other  order  can 
compete ;  for,  as  canons,  they  grow  out 
of  an  institution  and  a  way  of  life  which 
reachnearly totheapostolicage.  [Caxox.] 
Considered,  however,  as  a  particular  in- 
stitution, the  mode  in  which  they  arose 
has  been  thus  explained.  Discipline  hav- 
ing become  much  relaxed  among  the 
canons  of  the  various  cathedrals  in  the 
Frankish  empire,  a  council  held  at  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  in  816  drew  up  a  rule  for 
1  Moral  Tlieol.  vi.  n.  440. 


64     AUGUSTINI.^'  CAXO>:S 


AUGUSTIXIAX  HERMITS 


their  observance.  But  as  this  rule  did 
not  absolutely  prohibit  the  acquisition  or 
enjoyment  of  private  property,  abuses 
again  crept  in ;  and  the  Popes  Nicholas 
II.  and  Alexander  II.,  strenuously  assisted 
by  St.  Peter  Damian,  held  councils  at 
Rome  in  105'.)  and  1063,  by  the  decrees 
of  which  the  rule  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  was 
amended,  and  in  particular  the  canons 
were  bound  to  a  community  life  and  to 
the  renunciation  of  private  property 
(Fleury,  "  Hist.  Eccl."  Ixi.).  Even  after 
these  councils,  the  canons  of  many 
churches  lived  in  much  the  same  v^-ay  as 
before ;  those,  therefore,  who  obeyed  the 
rule  prescribed,  by  way  of  distinction 
from  the  recalcitrants,  were  called  regular 
canons.  The  rule  itself  after  a  time  was 
commonly  described  as  the  rule  of  St.  Au- 
gustine, apparently  because  it  was  held  to 
be  in  conformity  with  his  109th  letter  and 
the  general  spirit  of  his  teaching-.  The 
adoption  of  this  rule  facilitated  the  for- 
mation of  independent  bodies  of  regular 
canons,  neither  connected  with  cathedrals 
nor  with  collegiate  churches,  as  had 
hitherto  been  the  case  ;  accordingly,  soon 
after  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century, 
we  read  of  the  foundation  of  societies  of 
canons,  following  the  rule  of  St.  Austin, 
in  several  countries  of  Europe.  In  Eng- 
land these  canons — who  were  regarded  as 
monks,  not  as  friars — were  very  popular 
and  had  many  houses ;  they  were  called 
Black  Canons.  At  the  time  of  the  Disso- 
lution there  were  about  170  of  their 
houses  in  England;  two  out  of  their 
number,  Waltham  and  Cirencester,  were 
presided  over  by  mitred  abbots.  Newstead 
Abbey,  the  birthplace  of  the  poet  Byron, 
was  originally  an  Augustinian  house. 

In  Ireland  this  order  was  even  more 
popular  than  in  England,  holding  there, 
in  fact,  much  the  same  prominent  position 
that  the  Benedictines  held  amongst  our- 
selves. D'Alton  puts  the  number  at  223 
monasteries  and  33  nunneries.  The 
Augustinian  priors  of  Christ  Church  and 
All  Hallows,  Dublin,  and  of  the  monas- 
teries at  Conuell,  Kells,  Louth,  Athassel, 
Killagh,  Newtown,  and  Ivaphoe,  had 
seats  in  the  Irish  parliament.  (H^lyot, 
"Ordres  Monastiques  ; "  Dugdale's  "Mon- 
asticon.")  * 

•  List  of  English  Souses  of  Austin  Canons 
existing  at  date  of  suppression. 
Nunneries  and  cells  are  indicated  by  n  and  c. 
Aldebury  (Surr.)  Bamburgh 
Anglesey  (Cambr.)  (Northumb.) 
Ashby  Canons  Barlynch  (Som.) 

(Northonts.)  Barnwell  (Cambr.) 


AVCVSTZN-XAN-  BERMZTS.  The 

remarks  made  in  the  foregoing  article  on 


Beeston  (Norf.) 
Berdon  (Essex) 
Bethgelert  (Caem.1 
10.  Bilsington  (Kent)  ' 
Bissemede  (Beds.) 
Bliburgh  (SufE.), 

c.  to  St.  Osith 
Bodmin  (Com.) 
Bolton  in  Craven 
Bourn  (Line.) 
Bradenstoke 

(Wilts.) 
Bradley  (Leic.) 
Bradley  Mayden 

(Wilts.) 
Breamore  (Hants.) 
20.Bredon  (Leic.) 
Bridlington  (York) 
Brinkburn 

(Northumb.) 
Brooke  (Rutl.) 
Bruton  (Som.) 
Buckenham  (Norf.) 
Buckland  Mincbvn 

(Som.),  n. 
Burcester,  Bices- 
ter (Oxf.) 
Burnbam  (Bucks.), 

n. 

Burscough  (Lane.) 
SO.Butley  (Suff.l 

Bvshiun,  or  Bisham 

'(Berks.) 
Caldwell  (Beds.) 
Calke  (Derb.), 

c.  to  Repton 
Calwich  (Staff.) 
Campsey  (^Suff.), 

n. 

Canterbury,  St. 

Gregory's 
Cartmel  (Lane.) 
Cbacomb 

(Nortliants.) 
Chich  St.  Osith 

(E^sex) 
40.  Chirbury  (Salop) 
Cirencester 

(Glouc.) 
Cokesford  (Norf.) 
Colchester 
Conishead  (Lane.) 
Combury  (Heref.), 

Comworthy 

(Devon.),  n. 
Crabhouse  (Norf.), 

n.,  c.  to  Castle 

Acre 
Cumbwell  (Kent) 
Darley  (Derb.) 
50.  Dorchester  (Oxf.) 
Drax  (York) 
Dunmow  (Essex) 
Dunstable  (Beds.) 
EUesham  (Line.) 
Erdbury  (Warw.) 
Felly  (Notts.) 
Ferriby,  North 

(York) 


Fineshade 
(Northants.) 

Fiskerton  (Notts.), 
c.  to  Thurgarton 
60.  Flanesford  (Heref.) 

Flixton  (Suff.) 

Flitcham  (Norf.) 

Fristoke  (Devon.) 

St.GermaJi's(Com.) 

Gloucester,  St. 
Oswald 

Goring  (Oxf.),  n. 

Grace  Dieu  (Leic), 

Gresley  (Derb.) 
Guisborough 

(York) 
70.  Haghmon  (Salop) 
Haltem  Price,  near 

Cottingham 

(York) 
Hartland  (Devon) 
Harwood  (Beds.), 

Hastings  (Suss.) 
Haverfordwest 

(Pemb.J 
Helagh  Park,  near 

Tadcaster  (York) 
Hempton  (Norf.) 
Herringfleet  (SufE.) 
Hexham 

(Northumb.) 
80.  Hickling  (.Norf.) 
Huntingdon 
Hyrst  in  Axholme 

(Line.) 
Ipswich,  Trinity 
Ivychurch  fV\'ilta.) 
Ixworth  (SufE.) 
Kenilwortb 

(Warw.) 
Keynsham  (Som.) 
Kirkby  BeUer 

(Leic.) 
Kirkham  (York) 
90.  Kyme  (Line.) 

Lanercost  (Cumb.) 
Latton  (Essex) 
Launceston  (Corn.) 
Launde  (Leic.) 
Laycock  (Wilts.),  M. 
Leedes  (Kent) 
Leicester,  St. 

Mary  Pre. 
Leigh  (Devon),  n. 
Leighs,  Little 

(Essex) 
lOO.Letheringham 

(SufiE.),  c.  to 

Ipswich 
Lilleshall  (Salop) 
Llanthony  Abbey 

(Blonm.) 
Llanthony  (Glouc.) 
London,  St.  Barth. 
London,  Trinity 
London,  Elsing 

Spittel,  now  Sion 

College 


AUGUSTLS'IAN  llKli.MITS 

the  Canons  apply  equally  to  the  preten- 
sions to  !Ui historical  descentfrom  St.  Aus- 
tin niiide  by  the  Hermits  who  bear  his 
nanie.  lu  point  of  fact  the  order  orifji- 
nated  in  a  union  of  sevci-al  existing  con- 
gregations ell'ectfd  in  1 L' •'>•")  under  the 
direction  of  I'oiu'  AlrxaiuJt  r  Their 
houses  soon  ln'rami'  vi  rv  numerous,  and 
the  usual  variat  Kins  iu  regard  to  the  strict 
obsen'ance  of  thnr  rule,  followed  by  re- 
formations of  grfutcr  or  less  fame,  made 
their  appearance.  Thev  were  regarded 
as  friars,  not  as  luduk,-,  and  were  expressly 
aggregated  to  the  otlier  cirders  of  friars 
by  Pius  V.  in  15(57.  Their  house  at 
Wittenberg  had  the  dubious  honour  of 
counting  Martin  Luther  among  its  mem- 
bers. The  Augustiniau  Hermits  are  said 
to  have  possessed  in  the  sixteenth  century 
three  thousand  convents  with  thirty 
thousand  fi-iars,  besides  three  hundred 
nunneries  following  a  similar  rule.  But 
during  the  French  Revolution  an  immense 
number  of  their  houses  were  dissolved; 
and  at  the  present  time  scarcely  a  hundred 
are  left. 

In  England,   according  to  Tanner, 

Stafford,  St. 

Thomas  a  Becket 
140.Stone  (Staff.) 
Stonley  (Huuts.) 
Studley  (Warw.) 
Tandridge  (Surr.) 
Taunton  (Som.) 
Thornholm  (Line.) 
Thornton  Curtis 

(Line.) 
Tliremhall  (Essex) 
Thurgarton(Notts.) 
Tockwith  (York) 
150.Torksey  (Line.) 
Tortington  (Suss.) 
Trentham  (Staff.) 
Ulverscroft  (Leie.) 
Wayboiirne  (Norf.) 
Waisinghara(Norf.) 
"Waltham  (Essex) 
Warter  (York) 
Warwiek 
"Wallow,  near 
Grimsby  fLinc.) 
IGO.Westaere  (Norf.) 
Weybridge,  near 

Acle  (Norf.) 
Wigiiiore  (Heref.) 
Wombridge  (Salop) 
Woodbridge  (Suff.) 
Woodkirk,  or  West 
Avdslev  (York), 
c.  to  Nostell 
Worksop  (Notts.) 
Wormegay  (Norf.) 
Wormsley  (Heref.) 
Woi'spring  ( Som.) 
ITO.Wroxton  (Oxf.) 
Wtmondlev,  Little 
(Herts.)  " 


AUREOLE 


C.> 


Lymbroke  (Heref.), 

n. 

Mark-by  (Line.) 
ilarsh  (Devon.) 

('.  to  Plynipton 
llO.ilarton  (YorkI 
Maxstoke  (Warw.) 
Merton  (Surr.) 
Mickleham  (Suss.) 
Missenden  (Bucks.) 
Mottisfont  (Hants.) 
Newburgh  (York) 
Newenham  (Beds.) 
Newstead  (Line.) 
Newstead  (Notts.) 
laO.Nocton  (Line.) 
Northampton,  St. 

James' 
Norton  (Chesh.) 
Nostell  (York) 
Oseney  (Oxf.) 
Ouston  iLeic.) 
Oxford,  St.  Mary's 

CoU. 
Pentiiey  (Norf.) 
Plympton  (Devon) 
PoVcluster(Hant8.) 
130.Ratli7igliope 

(Salop),  c.  to 

Wigniore 
Ecigate  (Surr.) 
Reptou  (Derb.) 
Rocester  (Staff.) 
Pvonton  Abbey 

(Staff.) 
Rovston  (Herts.) 
Shelford  (Notts.) 
Southampton 
Southwark,  St. 

Mary  Overy 


there  were  about  thirty-two  houses  of 
Augustiniau  Hermits  at  the  Dissolution. 
The  most  celebrated  was  the  friary  at 
Oxford,  which  educated  many  dis- 
tinguished men ;  here  Erasmus  lodged 
with  his  friend  Prior  ( 'lianim  k  when  he 
visited  Oxford.  A  <^ rev  ei  imibling  gate- 
way in  New  Inn  ILdl  Lane  alone  is  left 
to  mark  the  spot.  Capgiave,  the  well- 
known  hagiogi  apher,  was  an  Augustinian 
Hermit.  At  the  present  time  there  is  one 
house  of  Augustiniau  friars  in  England  (at 
Iloxton,  London,  N.),  none  in  Scotland, 
and  twelve  in  Ireland — viz.  Drogheda,  in 
the  province  of  Armagh  ;  Dublin,  Rath- 
farnham,  Callan,  New  Ross,  and  Grants- 
town  {to  which  community  belonged  the 
illustrious  Dr.  Doyle);  Eethard,  Cork, 
Limerick,  and  Dungarvan,  in  the  province 
ofCashel;  and  Ballyhaunis  and  Galway 
in  that  of  Tuam.  The  house  in  London, 
as  well  as  one  in  Rome,  form  part  of  the 
Irish  province,  which  now  numbers  about 
forty-five  Fathers  and  twenty  clerical 
students,  and  whence  Augustinians  have 
gone  out  who  have  founded  a  new  and 
separate  province  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  where  there  are  several  fine 
churches,  convents,  and  colleges.  (Dug- 
dale's  "  Monasticon.") ' 

AVREOKE  (from  aureolus,  golden, 
gilt,  of  golden  colour).  1.  In  Christian 
art  it  is  the  gold  colour  surroiuidiiifi'  the 
whole  figure  in  sacred  pictures,  and  repi  e- 
sentingtheglory  of  tlie  persmi  repi-esented. 
It  is  distinct  frlim  tlie  uimbiis,  which  only 
covers  the  head.  The  a  ureole  (also  called 
scutum,  vesica,  J) isci.^,  itc.)  was  usually  re- 
served for  pictures  of  the  three  divine 
Persons,  of  Christ,  and  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin along  with  the  Holy  Child.  (Kraus, 
"Archseol.  Diet.") 

2.  In  theology,  it  is  defined  as  a  cer- 
tain accidental   reward   added   to  the 
1  bliss  of  heaven,  because  of  the 


of  Austin  Hermits 
suppression. 
Norwich 
Orford  (Suff.) 
Oxford 

.Penrith  (Cumb.) 
Rye  (Suss.) 
Shrewsbury 
Stafford 

Stamford  (Line.) 
Stoke  Clare  (Sufif.) 
Thetford  (Norf.) 
Tickhill  (York) 
Warrington  (Lane.) 
Winchester 
.  Woodhouse  (Salop) 
York 


'  List  of  English  Houses 
existing  at  date  of 
Atherston  (Warw.) 
Boston  (Line.) 
Bristol 

Canterbury  20 
Droitwich  (Wore.) 
Gorleston  (Suff.) 
Hull  (York) 
Huntingdon 
Leicester 
10.  Lincoln 
London 
Ludlow  (Salop) 
Lynn  (Norf.) 
Newark  (Notts.)  30 
Newcastle-on-Tyne 
Northampton 


66  AUTOCEPIIALI 


BAIUS 


excellent  victory  wliich  the  person  who 
receives  it  has  attained  durinor  his  warfare 
upon  earth.  It  is  given,  accordinpr  to  St. 
Thomas/  to  virgins,  martyrs,  and  to  doc- 
tors and  prcacliers.  Virgins  have  tri- 
umphed with  8]iecial  glory  over  the  flesh  ; 
martyrs,  over  tlie  world,  which  persecuted 
them  to  deatli ;  preachers,  over  the  devil, 
whom  they  have  driven,  not  only  from 
their  own  hearts,  but  also  from  those  of 
others. 

AITTOCEPHiLXiZ  (avroKf^aXot).  A 

name  given  by  Greek  canonists  to  metro- 
politans who  were  not  subject  to  a  patri- 
arch. Such  were  the  metropolitans  of 
Cyprus,  who  contrived  to  free  themselves 
from  subjection  to  the  Patriarch  of  An- 
tioch ;  or,  again,  the  archbishops  of  Bul- 
garia, who  were  independent  of  Constanti- 
nople. 

AUTO  DA  FE.    [See  Inquisition, 

Spanish.] 

A.VXIX.ZARY  BISHOP.  [See 
Bishop  Auxiliary.] 

AVE  MABZA.  This  familiar  prayer, 
called  also  the  Angelical  Salutation,  con- 
sists of  three  parts — (1)  the  salutation  of 
the  Archangel  Gabriel,  Ave  [Maria] ^ra^/a 
plena,  Dominies  tecum  ;  henedicta  tu  in 
mulieribm ;  (2)  the  words  of  Elizabeth  to 
our  Lady,  et  henedictus fructus  ventris  tui ; 
(3)  an  addition  made  by  the  Church, 
Sancta  Maria,  Mater  Dei,  ora  pro  nobis 
peccat.oribus  nunc  et  in  hora  mortis  nostrce. 
Parts  1  and  2  seem  to  have  come  into 
common  use  as  a  formula  of  devotion  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  twelfth  century; 
the  use  of  them  is  enjoined  by  the  Con- 
stitutions of  Odo,  bishop  of  Paris,  in  1196. 
1  Supplem.  qu.  xcvi. 


The  third  part  gives  a  compact  and 
appropriate  expression  of  the  feelings 
with  which  Christians  regard  the  Blessed 
"Virgin.  The  words  wmtic.  .  .  .  nostrcesLTQ 
said  to  have  come  from  the  Franciscans  ; 
the  rest  of  the  verse  is  believed  to  have 
first  come  into  use  in  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  The  whole  Ave  Maria 
as  it  now  stands  is  ordered  in  the  brevi- 
ary of  Pius  V.  (1568)  to  be  used  daily 
before  each  canonical  hour  and  after  com- 
pline. 

AVE  RECZM'A.    [See  Hymns.] 

AZYAXZTES  (a  priv.  ({ijxrj).  By  this 
term  the  Greek  Schismatics  designate 
Christians  of  the  Latin  Church,  because 
the  latter  use  unleavened  bread  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Eucharist.  In  the 
Western  Church  the  point  has  never  been 
regarded  as  of  vital  importance  ;  the  priest 
is  only  enjoined  smZ»  graviio  use  unleavened 
bread;  and  the  Council  of  Florence  de- 
clared (1439)  that  after  consecration  the 
body  of  our  Lord  was  really  present  {vera- 
citer  confid)  whether  the  bread  used  were 
made  with  or  without  leaven.  But  the 
Greek  ecclesiastics  who  assented  to  this 
article  were  ill  received  by  their  country- 
men on  their  return  to  Constantinople 
(Gibbon,  ch.  Ixvii.),  and  this  point  of 
using  or  not  using  leaven  is  still  one  of 
the  marks  of  difference  between  East  and 
West.  The  arguments  either  way  are 
well  summed  up  by  Fritz  (art.  Azymites, 
Wetzer  and  Welte).  The  original  pro- 
priety of  using  or  not  using  leaven  turns 
mainly  on  the  question  whether  Maundy 
Thursday  was  within  the  period  of  the 
Azymes ;  on  which  see  Holy  Week. 


BACCAXrAKZSTS    (or  Paocana- 

EiSTs),  or  Regular  Clerks  of  the  Faith  of 
Jesus.  The  object  of  this  congregation, 
founded  at  the  end  of  the  last  century  by 
one  Baccanari  or  Paccanari,  a  native  of 
the  Trentino,  was  to  revive  the  suppressed 
Society  of  Jesus  under  another  name.  In 
1798,  having  obtained  ecclesiastical  ap- 
proval for  his  project,  Baccanari  with 
twelve  companions  took  possession  of  a 
country  house  near  Spoleto,  and  com- 
menced a  monastery.  They  wore  the 
Jesuit  habit,  and  made  the  three  simple 
vows,  to  which  they  afterwards  added  a 
fourth  vow  of  unconditional  obedience  to 
the  Pope.  Many  others  joined  them,  and 
they  had  branches  in  France  and  even  in 


Holland.  But  as  the  prospect  of  a  speedy 
revival  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  grew 
brighter,  members  of  Baccanari's  congre- 
gation began  to  desert  him,  some  joining 
the  Jesuit  colleges  which  had  never  ceased 
to  subsist  in  Russia,  others  repairing  to 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  where  the  Society 
was  re-established  in  1804.  Finally,  in 
1814,  the  Jesuits  being  everywhere  re- 
stored, the  remaining  Baccanarists  applied 
for  admission  into  the  order,  and  the  con- 
gregation of  the  Faith  of  Jesus  came  to 
an  end. 

BAZVS.  A  famous  theologian  of  the 
University  of  Louvain,  who  anticipated 
the  errors  of  .Tansenius.  His  real  name 
was  Michael  Bay.    He  was  born  at  Melin, 


BAIL'S 


BANNER 


07 


in  the  Low  Countries,  in  1513.  He 
studied  at  Louvain,  whore  he  taught 
philosophy  and  took  his  Doctor's  degree. 
In  1551  he  became  Professor  of  Scripture, 
and  in  1563  he  was  sent  to  the  Council 
of  Trent  by  the  King  of  Spain,  returning 
in  the  following  year  to  the  university. 
He  won  great  repute  by  his  undoubted 
learning  and  by  his  blameless  life,  and 
honours  were  Leaped  upon  him.  In  1578 
he  was  made  chancellor  of  the  university, 
and,  at  a  later  date,  General  Inquisitor 
for  the  Netherlands.  He  continued  to 
teach  till  his  death,  in  1589. 

However,  his  life  was  a  stormy  one. 
Baius  deserted  the  scholastic  method  and 
did  much  to  revive  the  study  of  the 
Fathers.  No  one,  of  course,  could  justly 
blame  him  for  promoting  patristic  learn- 
ing. But  he  marred  the  services  which  he 
might  well  have  rendered  to  the  Church, 
by  exaggerating  and  misinterpreting 
the  Augustinian  doctrine  on  grace.  His 
lectures  excited  opposition  especially 
among  the  Franciscans,  and  several  pro- 
positions taken  from  his  oral  teaching 
were  delated  to  the  Sorbonne  and  con- 
demned there.  In  1563  and  1564  he 
published  various  treatises  on  free  will, 
original  justice,  justification,  &c.  Three 
years  later,  Pius  V.  condemned  76  pro- 
positions, representing  on  the  whole  the 
opinions  of  Baius,  although  some  are  not 
actually  contained  in  his  works.  These 
propositions  were  condemned  "  in  globo  et 
respective,"  as  heretical,  erroneous,  sus- 
picious, rash,  scandalous  and  ofl'ensive  to 
pious  ears — i.e.  each  of  these  propositions 
merited  one  of  these  censures,  but  no 
particular  censure  was  attached  to  any 
one  proposition.  The  name  of  Baius  was 
not  mentioned  in  the  bull,  which  was 
communicated  privately  to  the  theological 
faculty  at  Louvain,  without  being  pro- 
mulgated. Various  disputes  arose  on  the 
authority  and  sense  of  this  bull  which 
need  not  detain  us  here.  Gregory  XIII. 
confirmed  the  bull  of  his  predecessor,  and 
agam  condemned  the  propositions.  The 
famous  Jesuit  Toletus  took  the  constitu- 
tion of  Gregory  to  Louvain,  where  it  was 
read  before  the  assembled  university. 
Thereupon  Baius  acknowledged  that  many 
of  the  condemned  propositions  were  to  be 
found  in  his  writings.  "  I  condemn  them," 
he  said,  "  according  to  the  intention  of  the 
bull,  and  as  the  bull  condemns  them." 
Tolet<is,  it  is  reported,  frequently  declared 
that  he  had  never  met  a  more  learned  or 
more  humble  man. 

The  following  are  the  chief  heads  of 


the  erroneous  system  which  Baius  main- 
tained. He  regarded  original  justice, 
including  the  perfect  subjection  of  the 
lower  nature,  as  a  part  of  human  nature, 
not  as  a  free  gift  of  God  to  our  first 
parents.  Starting  from  this  principle,  he 
held  further  that  eternal  life  would  have 
been  due  to  Adam,  in  the  event  of  his 
perseverance,  as  a  matter  of  rigorous 
justice,  excluding  grace  and  mercy  al- 
together. Consequently,  man,  after  the 
fall,  was,  till  restored  by  grace,  mutilated 
in  nature  and  capable  only  of  sin.  Baius 
did  not  deny  the  freedom  of  the  will  in 
terms,  but  he  did  so  in  efi"ect,  for  he  made 
it  consist  in  the  mere  absence  of  external 
restraint.  Man  chose  to  sin,  but  he  could 
not  choose  anything  else.  The  Benedic- 
tine Gerberon  published  the  works  of 
Baius  with  the  documents  relating  to  the 
controversy  in  a  quarto  volume  at  Cologiie 
in  1696.  (See  Kuhn,  "  DogTnatik,"vol.  iv, 
p.  319  seq.;  and  his  article  Baius  in 
Wetzer  and  Welte.  Linsenmann,  "  Mi- 
chael Baius  und  die  Grundlegung  des 
Jan.*enismus,"  Tubingen,  1867.) 

BAKSA.CCBZN'O.  A  canopy,  such 
as  is  often  suspended  over  the  high-altar, 
usually  hanging  from  the  roof  of  the 
church,  though  sometimes,  as  at  Rome, 
it  rests  on  four  pillars. 

From  the  time  when  Constantine 
began  to  build  sumptuous  churches,  the 
altar-table  was  overshadowed  by  a 
canop}-  made  in  the  form  of  a  cupola  and 
surmounted  by  a  cross.  It  was  adorned 
with  sculptures  and  rested  on  columns  of 
precious  material.  This  canopy  was 
named  ciborium,  Ki^icpwv,  from  its  resem- 
blance to  the  bowlof  acup,  and  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  was  placed  in  a  vessel  sus- 
pended by  a  cord  from  the  interior  of  this 
canopy. 

The  name  Baldacchino  is  said  to  have 
come  into  use  in  the  middle  ages  and  to 
be  derived  from  Baaldak,  the  name  by 
which  Babylon  (Bagdad  ?)  was  known 
during  the  time  of  the  crusades.  Baaldak 
or  Babylon  was  celebrated  for  the  manu- 
facture of  fine  silken  stufl's,  and  with  these 
the  canopy  was  frequently  hung.  (Rock, 
"  Hierurgia,"  p.  506  seq.) 

Baldacchino  is  also  used  as  the  name 
of  the  canopy  which  is  carried  over  the 
priest  who  bears  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in 
procession  on  Holy  Thursday,  Corpus 
Christi,  &c.  (Gavantus.) 

BAlffTTEIt.  An  ecclesiastical  banner 
is  one  in  which  the  stufi',  whether  of  silk 
or  linen,  on  which  religious  persons,  ob- 
jects, or  mottoes  are  depicted,  is  not  nailed 


€8 


BANNS 


BAPTISM 


to  the  staff,  as  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary 
flag,  but  to  a  transverse  bar  which  is 
attached  to  the  staff  and  -with  it  forms 
the  figure  of  a  cross.  Of  this  kind  were 
the  cavalry  standards  {ve.rilla)  used  in 
the  Roman  army.  At  the  head  of  the 
staff,  above  the  banner,  and  also  in  those 
siffna  militai'ia  which  were  without  a 
banner,  was  fixed  some  emblem  possos.sing 
significance  in  the  eyes  of  the  soldiers,  as 
an  eagle,  or  a  serpent,  or  a  ball,  or  a  bronze 
figure  of  Victory,  or  of  Mars,  or  of  the 
reigiiing  emperor.  Constantine,  after  his 
vision,  and  the  victoiy  which  followed 
over  Mnxentius,  ordered  that  the  sacred 
standard  {laharutn;  q.  v.)  which  had  been 
shown  to  him  should  be  adopted  through- 
out the  army,  the  eagle  or  other  figure  at 
the  head  of  the  staff  being  replaced  by  the 
sacred  monogram  ;3j<;  or  -p  ,  representing 

the  first  two  letters  of  the  Greek  XPI2T02. 
The  Christian  apologists — e.g.  Minucius 
Felix  and  TertuUian — are  fondof  drawing 
attention  to  the  resemblance  which  a 
Roman  military  standard  bore  to  a  cross. 
The  adoption  of  the  laharvm  would  at 
once  satisfy  the  large  and  ever  increasing 
number  of  Christians  in  the  im])erial 
armies,  and  not  displease  the  I'agan 
soldiers,  because  the  traditional  shape 
was  not  departed  from. 

As  the  soldier  in  battle  looks  to  the 
colours  of  his  regiment,  and  while  they 
float  aloft  knows  that  the  day  may  still 
be  won,  and  is  animated  to  do  valiantly, 
so  should  Christians,  as  the  Church  by 
her  sanction  of  banners  reminds  us,  fix 
their  gaze  on  that  Cross  of  Christ  which 
is  the  standard  of  their  warfare,  and  be 
continually  animated  by  the  thought  to 
fresh  courage. 

Banners  are  chiefly  used  in  processions, 
but  they  are  also  hung  round  or  near  the 
altar,  their  prime  significance  being  in  all 
cases  that  they  show  forth  the  victory  of 
Christ. 

In  the  military  orders  [see  that  article] 
a  practice  was  introduced  for  each  knight 
at  the  time  of  his  admission  to  hang  up 
his  banner  in  the  church;  hence  the 
mouldering  relics  which  may  be  seen  in 
Heniy  VII.'s  Chapel,  "Westminster,  in  St. 
George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  and  other 
places.  ("Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiq.,"  Smith;  Smith  and  Cheetham; 
Schmid  in  Wetzer  and  Welte.) 

BATria'S.  The  proclamation  of  in- 
tended marriage,  in  order  that  if  anyone 
is  aware  of  an  impediment,  he  may  state 
it  to  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  so 


prevent  the  celebration  of  the  wedding. 
Such  proclamations  were  introduced  first 
of  all  by  the  custom  of  particular  places, 
but  it  was  not  till  1215  that  they  were 
imposed,  at  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council,  by 
a  general  law  binding  the  whole  Church,^ 
The  CouncU  of  Trent orders  the  banns  to 
be  proclaimed  by  the  parish  priest  of  the 
persons  who  intend  to  marry,  during 
Mass  on  three  continuous  festivals.  At 
the  same  time,  it  permits  the  ordinary  to 
dispense  from  the  obligation  of  proclaim- 
ing the  marriage,  for  a  grave  reason. 
According  to  theologians  and  the  S. 
Congregation  of  the  Council,  the  banns 
must  be  proclaimed  in  the  parish  church 
of  the  contracting  parties,  and  in  each 
parish  church  if  they  live  in  different 
parishes,  at  the  principal  Mass  on  three 
continuous  Sundays  or  holidays  of  obliga- 
tion— or  at  least  on  days  when  there  is 
sure  to  be  a  concourse  of  people  in  the 
church.  It  is  generally  held  that  if  the 
marriage  does  not  take  place  within  two 
months,  or  at  most  four,  of  the  last 
publication,  the  banns  must  be  proclaimed 
anew. 

BAPTISM  (from  /3a7rTi(r/ioy,  dipping, 
or  immersion'  in  water).  A  spiritual 
meaning  was  given  to  baptism  by  St. 
John  the  Baptist,  who  baptised  or  im- 
mersed his  disciples  in  the  Jordan,  to 
signify  the  repentance  and  renewal  by 
which  the  whole  man  was  to  be  cleansed 
and  purified.  The  Tabnud  of  Babylon  * 
mentions  a  baptism  of  Jewish  proselytes, 
but  it  is  impossible  to  say  when  this  rite 
arose.  In  any  case,  it  is  certain  that 
when  our  Lord  made  baptism  the  rite 
of  initiation  into  His  Church,  He  employed 
a  symbolism  already  familiar  to  the 
Jews.  But  Christ  exalted  the  act  to  a 
dignity  beyond  the  baptism  of  John, 
changing  the  "baptism  of  penance" 
into  the  sacrament  of  regeneration.  The 
Gospels  do  not  tell  us  when  Christian 
baptism  was  instituted,  and  a  great 
variety  of  opinions  has  prevailed  upon 
this  point  among  the  Fathers  and  theo- 
logians of  the  Church.  We  may,  how- 
ever, safely  assume  that  Christ  instituted 
baptism  before  His  Passion,  for  since  bap- 
tism is,  as  we  shall  see  further  on,  the  gate 

1  Fleury,  Hist.  Ixxvii.  62. 

2  Sess.  xxiv.  c.  1. 

5  Tingere  is  the  corresponding  Latin  word 
used  bv  Tertullian. 

*  Dollinger,  First  Age  of  the  Church,  p.  318. 
The  Jewish  baptism  is  fully  described  by  Bux- 
torf,  sub  voc.  "ij.    See  also  Ewald,  Geschichte 

del  Volkes  Israel,  vol.  viL  p.  255. 


BArilSM 


60 


-of  the  sacraments,  the  Apostles  could  not 
have  received  Holy  Communion  at  the 
Last  Supper,  unless  they  lunl  hten  previ- 
ously made  Christians  by  liaj)!  i-ni.  Christ 
himself  did  not  as  n  pt'iuTul  rule  ba])tlse: 
Still  He  did,  :icroi-.linu  an  ancient  tradi- 
tion, baptist-  >r.  r.  t,  r,  who  conlVned  the 
sacrament  on  fSt.  Audivw,  St.  Andrew  on 
St.  James  and  St.  John,  and  they  on  the 
rest  of  the  twelve. ^  After  "Christ's 
Passion  and  Resun-ection,  or  at  latest 
after  Pentecost,  the  precept  of  receiving 
baptism  became  binding  on  all  human 
beings. 

After  this  sketch  of  the  history  of  the 
institution  and  proiiiulfiation  we  may  go 
on  to  consider  the  sacrunieut  as  it  ex- 
ists in  the  Church.  A\'e  shall  treat 
-of  the  following  points  in  order:  viz. 
the  essentials  in  the  administration  of 
the  sacrament,  its  effects,  its  necessity, 
and  the  ceremonies  with  which  it  is 
given. 

I.  Under  the  first  head  questions  occur 
as  to  the  matter,  the  form,  the  minister, 
and  the  sulyect  of  baptism,  (a)  The 
matter  is  water,  poured  on  the  head  of 
the  candidate.  The  Scripture  makes  it 
clear  enough  that  water  is  to  be  used,  but 
it  is  not  so  plain  at  fi,i-st  sight  that  the 
sprinkling  or  pouring  of  water  will  sufKce. 
In  Apostolic  times  the  body  of  the  bap- 
tised person  was  immersed,  for  St.  Paul 
looks  on  this  immersion  as  typifying 
burial  with  Christ,  and  speaks  of  baptism 
as  a  bath.^  Immersion  still  prevails 
among  the  Copts  and  Nestorians,  and  for 
many  ages  baptism  was  so  given  among 
the  Latins  also,  for  even  St.  Thomas,  in 
the  thirteenth  century,  speaks  of  baptism 
by  immersion  as  the  common  practice 
(communior  ufivs)  of  his  time.'  Stdl  the 
rubric  of  the  Roman  Rituale,  which  states 
that  baptism  can  be  validly  given  by 
immersion,  infusion,  or  aspersion,  is  fully 
Justified  by  tradition.  Persons  on  a  sick- 
bed, in  danger  of  death,  were  baptised 
where  they  lay  without  immersion.  This 
baptism  was  always  considered  sufficient, 
and  in  case  of  recovery  they  had  only  to 

1  See  a  fragment  of  Clem.  Al,  from  his  lost 
•work  Hypotyposes  (Clem.  Al.  torn.  iii.  p.  494,  in 
Dindoif  s  ed.). 

2  Rom.  vi.  4  ;  Ephes.  v.  26  (Xovrpf). 

3  It  is  not  true  that  the  Greeks  and' all  other 
-Orientals  baptise  by  immersion.  The  child  is, 
indeed,  accordiuf;  to  the  common  Oriental  rite, 
placed  in  the  font;  but  the  actual  baptism  is 
by  infusion  of  water  ou  its  head.  Billuart, 
jbeBapt.  i.  3,  where  Goar  is  quoied.  Denzinger, 
Jiitus  Orientalium,  p.  17.  St.  Thorn.  Sum.  iii. 
66,  7, 


get  the  ceremonies  supplied  and  to  be 
confirmed.'  It  is  only  necessaiy  for  the 
validity  of  the  sacrament  to  pour  the 
water  once — for  although  a  threefold  in- 
fusion or  immersion  has  been  given  from 
the  earliest  times,  still  here,  too,  we  meet 
with  exceptions,  for  Gregory  the  Great 
allowed  the  Spanish  Chiu-ch  to  contin  ae  its 
custom  of  baptising  by  one  immersion. 

(3)  The  foi-m  or  words  used  in  the 
sacrament  are  "I  baptise  thee  in  the 
name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  or  words  equivalent 
to  these.  Thus  the  Greek  form  "The 
servant  of  Christ  N.  is  baptised  in  the 
name,"  &c.,  is  valid,  as  appears  from  the 
instruction  of  Eugenius  IV.  to  the  Ai-me- 
nians,  and  from  subsequent  decisions  of 
the  Holy  See.  A  form  similar  to  that  of 
the  Greeks  is  used  by  all  the  Orientals, 
except  the  Copts,  Abyssiuians,  and 
Maronites,  who  approximate  to  the  Latin 
form."  Many  great  theologians  suppose 
that  the  Apostles,  for  a  time,  in  virtue  of 
a  special  dispensation,  baptised  simply  in 
the  name  of  Christ ;  but  this  opinion 
seems  to  rest  on  a  very  questionable 
interpretation  of  passages  in  the  New 
Testament. 

(y)  The  minister  of  baptism,  says 
Eugenius  IV.,  in  the  instruction  quoted 
above,  "  is  a  priest,  to  whom  in  virtue  of 
his  office  it  belongs  to  baptise."  The 
Roman  Rituale  prescribes  that  baptism 
should  be  given  by  the  parish  priest  of 
the  place,  or  by  another  priest  appointed 
by  him,  or  by  the  ordinary.  A  deacon  is 
the  extraordinary  minister  of  solemn 
baptism.  The  Pontifical  mentions  bap- 
tising as  one  of  his  duties,  a  duty,  however, 
which  he  can  lawfully  exercise  only  by 
delegation  from  the  bishop  or  priest. 
But  besides  this,  in  case  of  necessity,  any- 
one, even  a  heretic  or  Jew,  may  baptise  if 
he  uses  the  proper  matter  and  fonn,  and 
intends  to  do  what  Christ  ordained ;  and 
even  if  no  such  necessity  exist,  baptism  so 
given,  although  imlawful,  is  still  valid. 
That  one  who  is  not  a  priest  may  baptise 
is  clear  from  the  fact  that  Philip  the  dea- 
con did  so,  as  we  learn  from  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  Tertullian  expressly  says  that 
baptism  can  be  given  "  by  all."  ^  The 
38th  Canon  of  the  Council  of  Elvira,  in 
306,  assumes  the  same  truth.  There  was, 
however,  a  difficulty  in  early  times  about 
baptism  given  outside  of  the  Church — viz. 

'  Euseb.  Hist.  vi.  43,  with  the  notes  of 
Valesius. 

2  Denzina;er,  loc.  cU.  p.  18. 
»  De  Bapi.  17. 


70 


BAPTISM 


BAPTISM 


by  heretics.  St.  Cyprian  and  Firinilian  de- 
nied, St.  Stephen,  the  contemporary  Pope, 
affirmed,  its  validity.  The  Pope  appealed 
in  favour  of  his  view  to  Apostolic  tradi- 
tion. It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  Pope's 
teaching  prevailed.  The  great  Council  of 
Aries  in  314  decided  for  the  ^•alidity  of 
heretical  baptism,  and  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  defined  it.  The  18th  Canon  of 
the  Council  of  Nicipa  in  no  way  contra- 
dicts this  article  of  faith,  for,  though  it 
orders  the  disciples  of  Paul  of  Samosata 
to  be  rebaptised,  these  heretics  had  in  aU 
probability  corrupted  the  form  of  bap- 
tism.' 

(S)  The  Recipient  of  Baptism.— AU. 
human  beings,  even  infants  and  adults 
who  have  never  had  the  use  of  reason, 
are  capable  of  receiving  this  sacrament. 
Adults  are  bound  by  the  precept  of 
Christ  to  come  and  be  baptised ;  parents 
and  guardians  are  bound  by  the  same  pre- 
cept to  bring  their  children,  or  other 
persons  in  their  cl  large,  who  have  not 
come  to  the  use  of  reason,  and  to  have 
them  baptised.  In  the  middle  ages  and 
in  modem  times  various  sects  have  re- 
pudiated infant  baptism.  It  is  difficult  to 
give  strict  proof  from  Scripture  in  favour 
of  it,  nor  can  it  be  denied  that  in  the 
early  ages  persons  often  deferred  their 
own  baptism  or  that  of  their  children, 
except  in  danger  of  death,  from  a  dread 
of  incurring  the  responsibilities  of  the 
Christian  life.  At  the  same  time  the 
Catholic  doctrine  that  children  are  to  be 
baptised  may  be  inferred  from  Scripture, 
and  is  abundantly  justified  by  tradition. 
Thus  we  read  of  the  Apostles  baptising 
whole  houses ;  and  the  very  fact  that  our 
Lord  promises  Ilis  kingdom  to  children 
shows  that  He  did  not  mean  to  exclude 
them  from  the  sacrament  of  regeneration. 
The  early  Fathers  supply  the  needed 
comment  on  Scripture.  We  have  an 
explicit  testimony  for  infant  baptism  in 
St.  Ireneeus.  "Christ,"  he  writes,  "came 
to  save  all — all,  I  say,  who  through  Him 
(17-6  born  again  to  God,  infants  and  little 
ones,  and  boys  and  young  men,  and  the 
aged."''^  In  a  letter  written  by  St. 
Cyprian  and  sixty-four  bishops  assembled 
in  council,  an  answer  is  given  to  the 
question  whether  the  baptism  of  children 
must  be  deferred,  on  the  analogy  of  cir- 
cumcision, tiU  the  eighth  day.  The 
bishops  answer  unanimously  in  the  nega- 
tive.   If,  the  saint  argues,  adults  are 

1  Hefele,  Cnnciliengeschichte,  i.  p.  417,  where 
an  alteruative  explanation  is  given. 

2  Iren.  ii.  22,  4.  ' 


admitted  to  the  font,  how  much  more 
should  those  be  baptised  at  once  who 
have  not  sinned,  except  so  far  as  by 
natural  doemt  from  Adam  they  have 
contrartfd  in  the  moment  of  birth  the 
infection  of  ancient  death,  who  for  this 
very  reason  come  more  easily  to  the  le- 
niission  of  sins,  because  it  is  the  sina 
of  another,  not  their  own,  which  are 
remitted  to  them.^ 

II.  T/ie  Effects  of  Baptism.— (a)  It 
remits  all  sin,  original  and  actual, 
"Be  baptised,  '  St.  Peter  said,^  "everyone 
of  you  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  for 
the  remission  of  your  sins."  "  I  believe  in 
one  baptism,"  says  the  Nicene  Creed,  "for 
the  remission  of  sins." 

(3)  It  remits  all  the  penalties  due  for 
sin  before  God,  whether  temporal  or 
eternal.  A  temporal  punishment  often 
remains  due  to  sin,  even  after  its  guilt 
has  been  removed  by  absolution.  Baptism, 
as  the  Church  defines,  leaves  no  such 
penalties,  and  the  apostolic  origin  of  thia 
iaelief  is  proved  by  the  practice  of  the 
early  Church,  which  imposed  no  penance 
for  the  gravest  crimes  if  committed  before 
baptism.  The  rebellion  of  the  flesh  does 
of  com-se  remain  after  baptism,  but  this 
rebellion  is  not  sin,  unless  the  will  fully 
consents  to  it.'  (y)  It  bestows  sanctify- 
ing grace  and  the  infused  virtues.  A  diffi- 
culty was  felt  even  among  Catholic  divines 
with  regard  to  the  case  of  children.  All 
admitted  that  children  received  the  for- 
giveness of  sins,  but  how  could  they  have 
grace  and  the  infused  virtues  imparted  to 
them  ?  How,  for  example,  could  a  child 
receive  faith  in  baptism,  when  it  plainly 
remains  unable  to  exercise  faith  till  the 
age  of  reason  ?  The  answer  is  that  the 
capacity  is  one  thing,  the  actual  exercise 
another.  A  man  in  sleep  may  have  the 
capacity  for  or  habit  of  faith,  though  he 
cannot  exercise  it  till  he  wakes.  More- 
over, the  very  fact  that  baptism  gives  a 
title  to  the  possession  of  heaven  proves 
that  it  always  confers  grace,  since  it  is 
the  grace  of  God,  not  the  mere  absence  of 
sin,  which  enables  us  to  enter  there.  The 
Council  of  Vienne  contented  itself  with 
pronouncing  the  opinion  that  grace  is  con- 
ferred in  baptism  "  more  probable."  Since 
then,  the  Council  of  Trent  defined  that  all 
the  sacraments  of  the  new  law  confer 
grace  on  those  who  rightly  receive  them.* 

1  Episi.  Ixiv.  ed.  Hartel.        ^  Acts  ii.  38. 

5  Decret.  pro  Armen.  in  Bulla  Eugen.  IV. 
Concil.  Trident,  sess.  vi.  cap.  14 ;  sess.  v. 
Decret.  de  Peccat.  Orig. 

*  Sess.  vii.  De  Sacram.  in.  gen. 


BArTlSM 


BAPTISM 


71 


(8)  It  imprints  a  "character"  or  in- 
delible mark  on  the  soul,  whence  it  can- 
not be  reiterated.  [See  underCHARACTEE.]  j 
(f)  It  makes  the  recipient  a  member  of 
Christ  and  of  the  Church,  and  makes  it 
possible  for  him  to  receive  the  other 
sacraments. 

An  infant  is  unable  to  put  a  bar  in  the 
way  of  sacramental  piace,  and  therefore 
must  receive  the  full  flirct  of  baptism 
rightly  administered.  With  adults  it  is 
difl'erent.  In  tliciii  i>o>iiivc  dispositions 
are  called  foi-.  In  oidrr  \o  n-rt-'wo  baptism 
validly,  an  adult  is  only  required  to  have 
the  intention  of  doing  so.  If  the  inten- 
tion be  there,  he  receives  the  character 
and  incurs  the  responsibilities  of  a  Chris- 
tian; but  in  order  to  obtain  the  grace  of 
the  sacrament,  he  must  come  with  faith 
and  with  contrition  perfect  or  imperfect — 
i.e.  he  must  from  a  supernatural  motive 
detest  his  sins,  and  resolve  to  begin  a  new 
life.'  Thus  a  person  who  comes  without 
at  least  attrition  for  all  his  mortal  ^ins, 
and  the  purpose  of  ameiuhiient,  would 
receive  neither  grace  nor  forgiveness.  If, 
however,  he  afterwards  sup;. lied  the  re-  i 
quisite  dispositions,  the  grace  of  the 
sacrament  would  revive,  and  he  would 
receive  remi.ssion  of  original  sin,  and  of 
all  actual  sins  (including  the  temporal 
punishment  annexed)  which  he  had  com- 
niiMed  u])  to  the  date  of  his  baptism.^ 

III.  r/ie  y<'crf,<lf!/  af  £aj)tL^»i.~The 
"passage'"  (fioni  death  to  life),  saj-s  the 
Council  of  Trout,  "cannot  be  made  since 
the  pronuilgation  of  the  Go.spel  except  by 
the  laver  of  regeneration,  or  by  the  desire 
of  it,  as  it  is  written,  '  Unless  a  man  be 
born  of  water  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  he 
cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God.'" 
It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  Tertullian 
makes  precisely  the  same  application  of 
this  text  against  the  heretics  of  his  day.^ 
Accordingly,  infants  dying  unbaptised  are 
excluded  from  the  kingdom  of  heaven, 
although,  according  to  the  opinion  now 
universally  held,  they  do  not  undergo 
suffering  of  any  kind  in  the  next  world. 
[See  Limbo.]  Protestant  ditticulties  on 
this  point  arise  from  inadequate  ideas  on 
grace  and  the  sovereignty  of  God.  Heaven 
is  a  reward  which  is  no  way  due  to  human 
nature,  and  God  can  withhold  it,  as  He 
pleases,  without  injustice.  In  adults  the 
baptism  of  desire  or  of  blood  may  supply 
the  place  of  baptism  by  water.    Thus  an 

»  Calich.  Rom.  ii.  cap.  2,  40. 
2  Billuart,  De  Baptism,  iv.  2. 
'  Concil.  Trid.  sess.  vi.  cap.  4,   Tertull.  De 
Baptism.  13. 


I  act  of  the  perfect  love  of  God  remits  sin, 
original  and  actual,  and  confers  sanctify- 
I  ing  grace.  Our  Lord  in  St.  John's  Gospel 
promises  that  He  will  love  those  who  love 
Ilim,  a  promise  which  would  not  be  ful- 
filled if  a  man  who  loved  God  above  all 
things  and  for  His  own  sake,  were  still 
allowed  to  remain  God's  enemy  in  conse- 
quence of  iinfcirgiven  sin.  The  baptism  of 
blood — i.e.  martyrdom — not  only  forgives 
sin  but  romits  the  temporal  penalties  of 
sin  al>o.  St.  ( '\  priau  s:n  s  ot'  catechumens 
who  di.'d  lioforo  hoiii,--  liaptis(>d  with 
water,  that  they  had  in  fact  lieen  baptised 
"with  th(>  most  glorious  and  greatest 
ba]itism  of  lilood,"  '  and  Tertullian  wit- 
ne.'-ses  to  the  belief  of  the  earlj-  Church 
that  the  Holy  Innocents  were  sanctified 
by  tlu'ir  blood. -' 

IV.  Coiidifional  Baptism  is  given 
when  there  is  some  doul)t  whether  a 
]ior>on  has  been  vallillv  liaptisofl.  The 
i'oriu  procrilied  in  tlio  llouian  Itituale  is 

\i  rhoii  ha.-t  not  beni  baptifed,  I  baptise 
thoo."  \-c.,  and  in  I'^ngland  this  form  is 
u>eil  in  the  case  of  all  persons  who  have 
reeclved  ba])tism  from  a  Protestant 
minister,  when  they  are  reconciled  to 
the  Church.-'  In  early  times  the  condition 
was  not  expio>sed  in  words.  Fleury 
could  not  find  any  trace  of  the  conditional 
form  hei'oie  the  time  of  Alexander  III., 
and  St.  Thomas  alleges  a  decretal  of  this 
Pope  for  its  use.' 

V.  The  Cereynonies  of  Baptism. — The 
following  is  a  summary  of  the  ceremonies 
jirescribed  by  the  Koman  Itituale,  with 
their  sifiiiification  as  given  in  the  Roman 
Catechism.  The  sacrament  is  to  be  ad- 
ministered, apart  from  cases  of  necessitj', 
in  the  church  or  baptistery  near  the 
church.  However,  the  children  of  kings 
and  princes  may  be  baptised  in  their  private 
chapels.  Baptismal  water  is  in  all  cases 
to  be  used.  The  person  baptised  is  to 
receive  a  baptismal  name,  and  the  Rituale 
recommends  the  parents  to  impose  the 
name  of  a  saint,  that  the  child  may  profit 
by  his   example  and  patronage.  The 

1  Ej>.  Ixxiii.  ed.  Ilartel. 
-  "TcstiiiKinium  Christi  sanguine  libave- 
runt,"  Adv.  I'ulmtin.  2. 

5  An  order  was  issued  by  the  Vicars  Apo- 
stolic nt  the  befjinning  of  this  century,  that  all 
converts  from  Protestantism  born  after  1773, 
should  be  conditionally  baptised.  This  order 
was  re-enacted  by  tlxc  first  provincial  synod  of 
Westminster,  cap.  xvi.  The  water  used  is  to  be 
holy  water,  not  water  taken  from  the  font,  and 
all  the  cpremoiiies  are  to  be  omitted. 

4  Fleury.  J/isl.  xciv.  .31.  St.  Tli.im.  iii.  lUJ, 
9.  The  form  8t.  Thomas  quotes  is  fuller  than 
the  one  in  present  use. 


72 


BAPTISM 


BAPTISTERY 


priest  meets  the  child  at  the  door  of  the 
church ;  drives  the  devil  from  him ; 
breathes  thrice  upon  his  face,  to  signify 
the  new  spiritual  life  -which  is  to  be 
breathed  into  his  soul :  puts  salt  into  his 
mouth,  as  a  sign  that  he  is  to  be  freed 
from  the  corruption  of  sin ;  signs  him  on 
the  forehead  and  breast  with  the  sign  of 
the  cross,  and  leads  him  into  the  temple 
of  God.  Then  the  priest  solemnly  exor- 
cises the  child ;  anoints  his  ears  and 
nostrils  with  spittle — after  our  Lord's 
example,  who  thus  restored  the  blind 
man's  sight — and  asks  him  in  thi-ee 
separate  interrogations  whether  he  re- 
nounces Satan,  all  his  works  and  all  his 
pomps.  He  next  anoints  him  with  the 
oil  of  catechumens  on  the  lireast  and  be- 
tween the  shoulders.  The  aticient  athletes 
were  anointed  hefoi-e  their  cimtests  in  the 
arena,  and  in  the  same  way  the  voung 
Cliristian  is  i.i  epare.l  fni-  the  "  gdod  h-ht" 
which  lies  before  hini.'  The  recijiient 
then,  through  his  spmi-ors,  jirotesses  liis 
faith  by  reciting  the  ( 'reed,  and  the  jn-est 
pours  water  three  times  on  his  head,  in 
the  form  of  across,  at  the  same  time  pro- 
nouncing the  words  "I  baptise  thee,"  &c. 
After  baptism,  chrism  is  put  on  the  top 
of  his  head,  to  signify  his  union  with 
Christ,  the  head  of  his  Church  ;  he  re- 
ceives a  white  garment,  and  a  burning 
light  in  his  hands,  symbols  of  innocence 
and  of  the  light  of  faith  and  charity. 

These  rites  are  recommended  as  well 
by  their  beautiful  symbolism  and  the 
majestic  words  which  accompany  them 
as  by  their  venerable  antiquity.  Ter- 
tuUian^  mentions  the  triple  renunciation 
made  in  baptism,  the  unct  ion,  the  triple 
immersion.  The  Sacramentary  of  Gela- 
sius  ^  (died  496)  contains  almost  every 
ceremony  of  baptism  to  l)e  found  in  the 
present  Itituale.  Two  dill'erences,  how- 
ever, must  be  noted.  In  the  West 
solemn  baptism  was  given  as  a  rule  only 
at  Easter  and  Pentecost ;  in  the  East  it 
was  also  given  at  the  Ejjiphany.*  Again, 
the  ceremonies  now  in  use  were  intended 
primarily  for  adults,  and  instead  of  being 
given  together  were  spread  over  three  or 
four  weeks.  Thus  in  the  Gelasian  Sacra- 
mentary, the  ceremonies  of  baptism  begin 
on  the  third  Sunday  in  Lent,  although 
the  bajitism  itself  did  not  take  place  till 

'  "Quasi  athleta  ;  "  Billuart,  De  Baptism. 
V.  2. 

^  De  Coron.  3,  where  he  also  mentions  the 
custom  of  tasting  milk  and  honey  after  bap- 
tism ;  J)e  Baptism.  7. 

3  Fleuri-,  Hist.  xxx.  62. 

^  Thoiiiassin,  Traite  dea  Festes,  ii.  7. 


Holy  Saturday.    (See  Chardon, "  Histoire 

des  Sacremenls.") 

BAFTZSM  OF  SKZPS.  Baptism, 
or,  more  correctly,  blessing,  of  ships,  a 
foi-m  in  the  Roman  Rituale.  Certain 
prayers  are  said,  in  which  God  is  asked 
to  bless  the  ship  and  those  who  travel  in 
it,  as  He  blessed  the  ark  of  Noe  and  helped 
Peter  when  he  was  sinking  in  the  deep. 
I  This  form  is  not  found  in  the  older  "  Or- 
dines."  The  practice  of  blessing  ships 
seems  to  have  become  common  during 
the  time  of  the  Crusades. 

BA.PTXsnxii.1.  urAitiE.  A  name 
given  in  baptism,  to  signify  that  the  baj)- 
tised  person  has  become  a  new  creature 
in  Christ.  The  Rituale  forbids  heathenish 
names,  and  advises,  though  it  does  not 
enjoin,  the  taking  of  a  saint's  name. 

The  custom  of  taking  a  new  name  in 
j  baptism  was  not  usual  in  the  early  Church 
— tliDUgh  we  find  instances  of  it  from  the 
third  centuiy  onwards.  Then,  and  long 
after.  Christians  bore  not  only  the  names 
of  saints,  but  also  those  (1)  of  feasts — e.f/. 
Epiphanius,  Natalis  (from  Christmas), 
Paschasius,  &c.;  (2)  of  virtues — e.ff.  Eaith, 
Imiocent,  Pius,  &c. ;  (3)  animals — 
Leo,  Columba,  Ursula,  &c.  (Ilefele, 
"  Beitriige,"  im.) 

BAPTZSiaAX.  -WATER.  Water 
blessed  in  the  font  on  Holy  Saturday 
and  the  vigil  of  Pentecost,  which  must 
be  used  at  least  in  solemn  baptism.  The 
priest  signs  the  water  with  the  cross, 
divides  it  with  his  hand,  pouring  it  to- 
wards the  north,  south,  east  and  west ; 
breathes  into  it,  and  places  in  it  the  pas- 
chal candle,  after  which  some  of  it  is 
spriniled  on  the  people  and  some  removed 
for  private  use.  The  priest  then  pours 
oil  of  catechumens  and  chi-ism  into  the 
water. 

The  origin  of  this  custom  of  blessing 
the  water  is  lost  in  immemorial  antiquity. 
A  form  for  blessing  the  water  is  found 
even  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,'  in 
ancient  Western  and  in  all  the  Oriental 
liturgies.'' 

BAPTISTERY  (called  also  in  Greek 
(fxtiTca-TtipLov,  the  place  of  illumination). 
That  part  of  the  church  in  which  solemn 
baptism  is  administered.  Anciently,  when 
ba])tism  was  constantly  given  to  adults 
and  the  rite  of  immersion  prevailed,  it 
was  inconvenient  to  baptise  in  the  church 
itself,  and  hence  after  the  conversion  of 
Constantine  separate  buildings  for  the 
administration  of  baptism  were  erected 
I  Apost.  Constit.  vii.  43. 
*  Denzinger,  Sitvs  Orient,  p.  24. 


BAREFOOTED  ERIAKS 


RASILIANS 


73 


and  attached  to  the  cathedral  church. 
Eusebius  '  mentions  a  baptistery  of  this 
kind  in  the  basilica  at  Tyre,  and  exanijih's 
of  such  buildinos  still  exist  at  Rome, 
Pisa,  Pistnia,  Mnd.-ua.  Padua,  &c.  It 
was  only  L;i-ailnaily  that  l)a]itisiii  was  nd- 

The  ancient  liapt  i>t  itv  was  siuiiet  iiues 
round,  sometimes  it  had  tour,  eight,  or 
twelve  sides.  Cyril  of  Jonisalcm  distin- 
guishes the  outer  part  of  the  baptistery 
{npoavXios  oikos),  in  which  the  catechu- 
mens renounced  Satan,  kc,  from  the  inner 
portion  (JaaTtpos  oiKos),  in  which  they 
were  baptised. 

The  modern  baptistery  is  merely  a  part 
of  the  cliurch  set  apart  for  baptism.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Rnmau  Rituale,  it  should 
be  railed  off,  it  should  have  a  patf  fas- 
tened by  a  loel{,  and  be  adorned,  if  possi- 
ble, with  a  picture  of  Clirist's  baptisui  by 
St.  John.  It  is  convenient  that  it  should 
contain  a  chest  with  two  compartments, 
one  for  the  holy  oils,  the  other  for  the 
salt,  caudle,  &c.,  used  in  baptism.  (See 
De  Montault,  "Construction  desEglises," 
p.  105.) 

BARSFOOTED  FKXARS.  [See 
DlSC.\I.CED.] 

BARXiAASX.  [See  Hjestchasts.] 
BARSTABXTES.  The  proper  desig- 
nation of  the  religious  of  this  order  is 
that  of  "  Regular  Clerks  of  the  CongTe- 
gation  of  St.  Paul ;  "  they  are  popularly 
called  Barnabites  on  account  of  a  chm-ch 
of  St.  Barnabas  at  Milan  which  belonged 
to  them  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Their 
principal  founder  was  the  holy  priest 
Antonio  Maria  Zaccaria  (died  15.30) ;  with 
liim  were  joined  Bartolommeo  Ferrari  and 
Giacomo  Antonio  Morigena.  The  fre- 
quent wars  by  which  the  north  of  Italy 
had  been  devastated ;  the  influx  of  Lu- 
theran soldiers,  whose  example  tended  to 
propagate  a  spirit  of  contempt  for  the 
sacraments  and  the  clergy  ;  and  the  fre- 
quency of  pestilential  disorders  caused  by 
the  famine  and  miseiy  of  the  population, 
had  produced  about  1530  a  state  of  things 
which  powerfully  appealed  to  the  charity 
and  pity  of  the  true  pastors  of  Jesus 
Christ.  It  occuiTed  to  Zaccaria  that  a 
better  way  of  combating  these  evils  could 
not  be  found  than  by  organising  a  con- 
gregation of  secular  clergy,  not  going  out 
of  the  world  but  living  in  it  and  working 
for  it,  and  bound  by  a  rule — that  is,  dili- 
gently attending  to  their  own  sanctifica- 
tion  whilepreachingreformationto  others, 
— "  who  should  regenerate  and  reTive  the 
»  U.  E.  X.  4,  46. 


I  love  of  the  divine  worship  and  a  truly 
Christian  way  of  life  by  frequent  preach- 
j  ing  and  the  faithful  administration  of  the 
Sacraments."  In  15.'?.'!  the  foundation  of 
such  a  congregation,  under  a  special  rule 
approved  by  the  Holy  See,  was  sanctioned 
l)y  Clement  VII.  Thememberspronounced 
their  vows  before  the  Archbishop  of  Milan, 
and  chose  Zaccaria  for  their  su])erior.  The 
order  soon  spread  into  France  and  Ger- 
many. In  1579  their  constitutions  were 
examined  by  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  Arch- 
bishop of  Milan,  protector  of  the  congre- 
gation, and  being  approved  by  him  were 
finally  confirmed.  They  called,  and  still 
caU,  their  establishments  colleges.  They 
are  governed  by  a  General  residing  at 
Rimif,  clpcted  for  three  years,  and  capable 
of  rf-i'lrctiou  once.  Besides  the  three 
usual  vows  they  take  a  fourth,  never  to 
seek  any  office  or  ecclesiastical  dignity, 
and  to  accept  no  post  outside  of  their  order 
without  the  permission  of  the  Pope.  The 
habit  is  merely  tlie  black  soutane  worn 
by  secular  priests  in  Lombardy  at  the  time 
of  their  foundation.  Their  principal 
house  is  now  at  Pome ;  and  they  have 
about  twenty  colleges  in  all,  one  in 
Paris,  and  others  in  various  parts  of 
Italy  and  Austria.  There  is  no  house 
of  these  religious  either  in  England  or 
in  Ireland.  Among  the  eminent  men  of 
this  order  may  be  mentioned  Sauli,  called 
the  Apostle  of  (^orsica;  Bascape,  the 
biographer  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo;  and 
Gavanti,  the  well-known  writer  on  ru- 
brics and  ceremonies.  (H^lyot,  "Ordres 
Monastiques.") 

BASHilAHS.  This  order  takes  its 
name  from  the  great  St.  Basd  (died  yrO), 
bishop  of  Cfesarea  in  Oappadocia.  On 
his  return  to  his  own  country  after  a  long 
journey  through  Egypt,  Palestine  and 
Mesopotamia — made  that  he  might  collect 
the  experience  of  monks  and  solitaries 
living  under  many  different  rules — Basil, 
still  thirsting  for  the  perfect  life  in  which 
self  should  be  subdued  and  union  with 
Christ  attained,  withdrew  into  a  desert 
region  of  Pontus,  where  his  mother 
Emelia  and  his  sister  Macrina  had  already 
established  monasteries,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  great  order  which  bears 
his  name.  To  those  who  placed  them- 
selves under  his  direction  he  gave  two 
rules,  the  Great  and  the  Little — the  for- 
mer containing  fifty-five,  the  latter  thi-ee 
hundred  and  thirteen  articles.  This  1  wo- 
fold  rule  became  so  famous  and  p(q)ular 
in  the  East  as  to  sujiplant  all  others ;  and 
at  this  day  it  alone  is  recognised  and  fol- 


74 


BASILICA 


BASILICA 


lowed  by  the  monks  of  tlie  Greek  Church.  I 
The  order  never  penetrated  into  France  or 
Eiip-hmd ;  hni  in  southern  Itah'  there  j 
wereniiuiy  Hasilian  convents  in  existence, 
even  hetore  the  time  of  St.  Benedict,  who  | 
regarded  both  the  rule  and  its  author  with 
great  veneration,  and  a  |  pears  to  have  had 
it  before  him  when  framing  his  own  rule. 
In  Russia,  the  first  missionaries  to  which 
were  (^reek  monks,  the  Basilian  order  re- 
ceived an  immense  development.  Nearly  [ 
all  of  them  have,  since  the  division  of  the  1 
ninth  century,  adhered  to  the  Photian 
schism  ;  there  are,  however,  in  Austrian 
Poland  and  Hungary  several  communities 
of  Basilian  monks  which  are  in  com- 
munion with  Rome  ;  the  monks  of  these 
call  themselves  Ruthenians.  In  Spain 
there  were  several  Basilian  monasteries, 
reformed  and  unreformed,  up  to  the  date 
of  the  suppression  in  1835.  The  habit  of 
the  Basilians  is  scarcely  to  be  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  Benedictines.  Nearly 
all  the  convents  of  Basilian  nuns,  founded 
by  St.  Macrina,  like  those  of  the  monks, 
have  embraced  the  l""astern  schism. 
(Helyot,  "  Ordres  Monastiques.") ' 

BASZIiZCA  {^aa-iKiKT)).  This  name 
began  to  be  applied  to  Christian  churches 
about  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century. 
The  earlier  expressions  were  "  house  of 
prayer  "  (o?ko9  wpocr(VKTijpios),  "  oratory  " 
(TTfjoa-evKTripLov),  and  "  Lord's  house " 
{KvpiaKov,  dominicum),  besides  the  loosely- 
employed  term  "  ecclesia." 

It  has  been  commonly  held  that  the 
ancient  Roman  basilicas  (large  halls,  like 
the  "Basilica  Portia"  built  by  Cato  about 
180  B.C.,  used  for  the  purposes  of  justice 
or  commerce)  passed  in  considerable  num- 
bers into  Christian  hands,  after  the  con- 
version of  Constantine,  and  were  used  for 
Christian  worship ;  that  new  churches  were 
built  after  the  model  of  these,  and  that  the 
name  "  basilica  "  was  naturally  applied  to 
buildings  of  either  class.  Closer  investiga- 
tion has  furnished  grounds  for  a  somewhat 
different  view.  In  a  learned  paper  contri- 
buted by  Prof.  Kraus  of  Freiburg  to  the 
"  R.  Encykl.  d.  christl.  Alterth."  the  follow- 
ing conclusions  are  given,  as,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  writer,  solidly  established  by  the 
evidence.  ( 1 )  All  that  the  Romans  meant 
by  "  basilica  "  was  a  fine,  stately,  splendid 
building ;  no  notion  of  what  was  kingly  or 
'princely  connected  itself  in  their  minds 
with  the  term.  (2)  Christian  congrega- 
tions used  buildings  or  rooms  set  apart  for 

1  There  is  at  present  (1891)  a  Basilian 
house,  the  College  of  St.  Mary  Immaculate,  at 
Plymouth. 


divine  worship,  from  the  first.  (3)  Before 
the  time  of  Constantine,  these  were,  at 
Rome, ordinary chanibei sin  |ii  i\  !tte houses, 
the  triclinia,  or  other  lai  >i>'  niciiis  ui  the 
dwellings  of  the  wealthy,  and,  specially, 
the  private  basilicas  of  Roman  palaces. 
Such  a  basilica  is  mentioned  in  the  Cle- 
mentine "  Recognitions  "  (a  work  wh  ch, 
apart  from  all  question  as  to  its  genuii;e- 
ness,  is  certainly  of  a  date  not  later  than 
the  third  century)  as  having  formed  part 
of  the  mansion  of  Theophilus,  a  wealthy 
citizen  of  Antioch,  even  in  the  Apostolic 
age,  and  been  used  by  the  Christians  as  a 
church.  (4)  The  form  of  these  private 
basilicas  probably  Lore  a  considerable  re- 
semblance to  that  of  the  pre-Augustan 
forensic  basilicas,  such  as  the  Portian  basi- 
lica already  noticed;  this  point,  however,  is 
not  at  present  determined  with  absolute 
certainty.  (5)  It  is  not  probable  that, 
apart  from  the  chambers  or  halls  and 
private  basilicas  above  mentioned,  the 
Christians  of  the  pre-Nicene  period  pos- 
sessed, at  least  in  Rome,  any  churches 
properly  so  called  within  the  city.  (6) 
Besides  the  private  basilicas,  sepulchral 
buildings  were  used  for  Christian  worship 
in  the  period  referred  to — exceptionally, 
and  in  times  of  persecution,  those  under 
ground  (Catacombs);  regularly,  the  "Me- 
mories" and  Cells  of  Martyrs  built  above 
ground.  Both  parts  of  this  proposition 
can  be  proved  by  abundant  evidence. 
(7)  The  Christian  basilica  of  the  age  of 
Constantine  is  not  a  simple  adaptation  or 
imitation  of  the  forensic  basilica  of  the 
preceding  period.  For  the  forensic  basilica 
appears  to  have  had  no  one  determiiuite 
shape;  sometimes  it  had  an  apse,  some- 
times not,  and  it  was  entered  either  from 
one  end  or  from  the  side — whereas  the 
Christian  basilica,  faithful  to  the  form  of 
the  crypt,  or  "Memory,"  of  the  earlier 
time,  had  always  an  apse,  and  was  always 
entered  from  the  end  opposite  the  apse. 
At  the  same  time,  the  forensic  basilica, 
with  its  constant  in^emaZ  feature  of  a  space 
divided  by  rows  of  columns  into  three 
aisles — a  form  very  suitable  to  the  needs 
of  a  large  congregation — was  certainly  not 
overlooked  by  Christian  architects.  (8) 
The  final  conclusion  is  that  the  Christian 
basilica  of  the  age  of  Constantine  arose 
out  of  the  combination  of  two  factors — one 
the  sepulchral "  Cella,"  terminating  in  one 
or  three  apses  ;  the  other,  the  great  three- 
i  aisled  hall,  so  familiar  to  Roman  eyes, 
whether  in  the  forensic  or  in  the  private 
I  basilicas. 

The  origin  of  the  Christian  basilica 


BASILIDIANS 

haying  been  considered,  it  remains  to  show 
what  were  its  parts,  structural  features, 
and  arrangements  for  wor^hij).  .Vs  a 
general  rule,  it  was  hiiilt  in  an  cast  and 
west  direction,  the  altar  or  table  being 
sometimes  at  one  end,  .-.(uiit  l inies  at  the 
other.  It  was  UMiallv  Minnunded  by 
an  outer  wall.  Through  a  ]iortico  or 
colonnade,  forming  a  ve>tibulc',  admission 
was  obtained  into  a  quadrant: (i/friian), 
round  which  ran  an  arcade,  si  ]iarated  by 
a  low  partition  from  the  enclosed  space 
(m-ea),  which  was  open  to  the  air.  In 
tlu'  middle  of  the  "area"  was  the  "can- 
thanis,"  or  water-basin,  where  the  faith- 
ful washed  their  faces  and  hands  before 
entering  the  church.  The  right-hand 
arcade  was  for  men;  that  on  the  left, 
for  A\-omen  ;  here  penitents  must  remain 
during  the  service ;  those,  however,  whose 
ofl'ences  were  of  a  very  heinous  ty])c  ^\rvi' 
excluded  even  from  the>f,  and  bad  to 
stand  in  the  open  area.  (Jn  the  o])p()site 
side  of  the  atrium  was  an  oblong  hall, 
formed  by  rows  of  pillars,  which  was 
sometimes  called  the  "narthejc"  or 
"  ferula."  Passing  through  this,  the  wor- 
ship])fr  ent.'i-ed  tlif  church  bv  a  door  which 
was  callc.l  tlic  IVautifui  ( iate."  He 
found  hini-i  If  in  a  iia\r  (rnof)  with  two 
t)ankiiigai.-lc>(li-,,ni  «  hadnt  wass<:>])arated 
by  pillar>),  Imt  without  a  traiisejit  ;  as  he 

firoceeded,  lie  came  upon  the  "  ambo " 
see  that  article]  ;  beyond  which  were 
the  "  cancelli,"  or  rails,  parting  off"  the 
choir — which  was  for  the  clergy  — from 
the  rest  of  the  church.  At  the  end  of 
all  was  the  semicircular  vaulted  apse  [see 
Apse],  with  the  bishop's  chair  in  the 
centre,  and  seats  for  the  clergy  on  either 
hand  ;  just  in  front  of  the  apse  was  the 
altar  or  table.  Dui-ingthe  divine  worship, 
the  men  occupied  the  south,  the  women 
the  north,  aisle ;  the  space  between  was 
left  free. 

At  Rome  thirteen  churches  still  retain 
the  name  of  "  basilicas  " — five  larger,  and 
eight  smaller.  Those  of  the  foriiier  class 
are  8t.  Petei's,  St.  .John  Lateran,  St.  Mary 
Major,  St.  Paul  ^^■ithout  the  Walls,  and 
St.  Lawrence.  Among  the  smaller  basili- 
cas, San  Clemente  (beneath  which  an 
older  church  was  discovered  in  1858  by 
the  Irish  Dominican,  Father  MuUooly), 
Santa  Croce  in  Gerusalemme,  Santa  Sabi- 
na,  and  San  Sebastiano,  are  of  great  interest 
and  beauty.  (Kraus,  "  Real-Encyklo- 
padie."  Platner, " Beschreibung  der  Stadt 
Rom,"  1829,  vol.  i.  p.  417.) 

BASZx.xsxA.irs.  [See  Gnosticism.] 
BA.SX.X:,  coVN-gzx  OF.  The  schism 


BASLE,  COrXClL  OF  75 

!  in  the  Papacy,  iirab'd  with  ditliculty  at 
the  Council  of  Constance  t  iirougii '  t  he 
election  of  Martin  produced  in  the 
fifteenth  century  a  prevalent  sentiment 
that  the  most  ellectiial  safeguard  against 
the  recurrence  oi' so  tcrril)lc  an  evil  lay  in 
the  frequent  assmiblagc  of  general  coun- 
cils. It  was  ])7-o\  idcd  accorilinglv,  bv  one 
of  the  decree,-  of  (.'on-nince  (1414  1418), 
that  a  geneial  couned  should  in  future 
be  held  every  li\t'  years.  Martin  Y.,  in 
pursuance  of  the  decree,  convoked  a 
council  for  1423,  to  meet  at  Pavia  ;  but 
various  difficulties  arose,  and  it  was  finally 
an-anged  that  Basle  should  be  the  place 
of  meeting,  and  the  time,  July  1431. 
Martin  also  named  Cardinal  Julian 
Cesarini  papal  legate  and  president  of  the 
assembly.  But  before  the  day  of  meeting 
the  Pope  died;  and  a  doubt  as  to  the 
int  ent  i<uis  of  his  successorinfluencedmany 
bishops,  so  that  there  was  but  a  slender 
gathering  at  the  formal  opening  of  the 
council.  Cesarini,  however  who  had 
himself  been  absent  on  the  opening  day, 
having  been  sent  into  Bohemia  to  endea- 
vour to  efi'ect  a  reconciliation  with  the 
Hussites,  sent  out  messengers  and  letters 
in  all  directions ;  and  soon  a  great  number 
of  French  and  Geniian  bishops — most  ot 
whom  sincerely  desired  to  carry  out  a  real 
reformation,  both  "  in  the  head  and  the 
members  "  of  the  Church — was  assembled 
at  Basle.  The  new  Pope,  Eugenius  IV., 
was  deeply  impressed  with  the  importance 
of  taking  advantage  of  the  humiliation  of 
the  Eastern  Empire  (which,  owing  to  the 
encroachments  of  the  Ottoman  power, 
was  now  reduced  to  a  small  district  round 
Constantinople)  to  open  negotiations — 
earnestly  desired  by  the  Greeks  them.selves 
— for  the  healing  of  the  Photian  schism, 
and  reunion  of  the  East  and  West.  The 
joint  council  which  would  be  necessary 
for  this  pui-pose  could  not,  the  Pope  saw, 
be  held  at  Basle,  because  the  Greeks 
would  never  consent  to  cross  the  Alps. 
Again,  the  Hussites  in  Bohemia  having 
recently  gained  some  important  military 
successes,  the  Pope  considered  that  bishojis 
could  not  safely  proceed  to  a  city  which 
seemed,  in  Italian  eyes,  to  be  within  the 
reach  of  the  di-eaded  Procopius.  Other 
special  objections  were  alleged  in  the  bull, 
which  transferred  the  council  to  Bologna. 
The  bishops  at  Basle,  headed  by  Cesarini — 
who  wrote  to  the  Pope,  endeavom-ing  to 
show  that  the  particular  reasons  alleged 
for  the  transfer  were  founded  on  mistake, 
or  had  little  weight — vehemently  opposed 
the  removal  of  the  council,  and  continued 


7U        BASLE,  COUNCIL  OF 

their  sittings.  They  came  chiefly  from 
France  and  Gemianv ;  Italy,  England, 
and  Spain,  furnished  each  a  very  slender 
contingent.  The  number  present,  even 
at  the  most  important  sessions,  does  not 
appear  to  have  exceeded  fifty.  According 
to  the  relative  importance  which  good 
men  might  attach  to  the  project  of  re- 
union with  the  Greeks  or  to  the  reform  of 
.  rcloia.-tical  abuses,  they  might  honestly 
pi  i'tV-r  a  city  south  or  north  of  the  Alps 
as  the  place  of  meeting  for  the  council. 
The  general  opinion,  however,  seems  to 
have  been  at  this  time  in  favour  of  Basle. 
The  Pope  himself,  finding  in  1432  that  he 
could  not  bring  over  the  Emperor  Sigis- 
mund  to  his  opinion,  began  to  waver,  and 
sent  a  legate,  Christopher,  Bishop  of 
Cervia,  to  Basle  with  authority  to  nego- 
tiate with  the  council  on  the  question. 
By  February  in  the  following  year,  he 
had  come  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was 
expedient  to  yield  still  further;  a  bull 
iip])eared,  explaining  the  reasons  why  the 
I'lipe  had  hitherto  objected  to  Basle,  and 
the  considerations  which  now  induced  him 
to  witiidraw  his  opposition  and  send 
legates  to  tlic council.  This  he  did  ;  but 
his  Ifgiitcs,  who  were  to  agree  to  the  dis- 
cussion only  of  certain  subjects  prescribed 
by  the  Pope,  w^ere  ill  received  at  the 
council.  Several  other  decrees  and  bulls 
wfie  issued  on  one  side  and  on  the  other 
in  this  controversy;  at  last,  in  February 
1 4.S4,  a  letter  from  the  Pope  was  read  at 
the  council,  with  the  terms  of  which  they 
declared  themselves  satisfied,  and  they 
admitted  the  papal  legates.'  But  before 
long  a  breach  occurred,  which  proved  to 
lie  irreparable.  At  its  twenty-first  session 
(June  1435)  the  council  adopted  a  decree 
for  the  reform  of  the  Roman  Chancery — 
abolishing  first-fruits,  cutting  down  fees, 
and  regulating  official  charges  and  per- 
quisites. The  Pope  might  well  complain 
that  a  measure  so  important  had  been 
adopted  without  previous  consultation 
with  him.  He  refused  his  sanction,  and 
the  council  launched  an  angry  decree 
against  him.  Meantime  the  Eastern  em- 
peror, John  Palaeologus,  had  been  in  ne- 
gotiation both  with  the  Pope  and  the 
council  on  the  subject  of  the  proposed  re- 
union of  East  and  West ;  one  consequence 
of  which,  the  Emperor  fondly  hoped, 
1  A  consideration  of  these  dates  shows  how 
unfounded  is  the  view  of  Gil)l)on  {Decline  and 
Fall.  ch.  Ixvi.)  that  the  revolt  of  the  Konians 
against  the  Pope,  and  his  consc(|iient  Hinht — 
an  event  which  happened  in  May  1484 — com- 
pelled Eugeuius  to  make  a  humiliating  subniis- 
«on  to  the  CounciL 


BASLE,  COUNCIL  OF 

would  be  the  efleetive  armed  intervention 
of  Western  Europe  to  roll  back  the  tide 
of  Ottoman  invasion.  A  synod  can  seldom 
hold  its  own  with  a  single  ruler  in  such 
transactions  ;  moreover,  the  envoys  of  the 
council  were  empowered  to  propose  to 
the  Emperor  and  the  Greeks  no  place  of 
meeting  more  acceptable  than  Avignon, 
to  which  Ferrara,  ofi"ered  by  the  Pope, 
would  appear  to  them  infinitely  preferable. 
A  division  hereupon  sprang  up  in  the 
council  itself,  the  minority — among  whom 
was  the  excellent  and  able  Nicholas  of 
Cusa,  a  theologian  from  Coblentz — voting 
for  the  removal  of  the  council  to  Italy, 
while  the  majority  were  in  favour  of 
Avignon.  In  October  1437,  Eugenius 
published  a  bull  in  which  he  formally 
transferred  the  council  from  Basle  to 
Fen-ara ;  and  although,  at  the  first  ses- 
sion held  in  the  last-named  city,  in  Janu- 
ary 1438,  the  number  in  attendance  was 
scanty,  the  Papal  influence  gradually  as- 
serted its  ascendency,  and  defections  from 
the  coiincil  at  Basle  began  to  be  of  fre- 
quent occurrence.  In  his  famous  work, 
written  some  years  before,  "  Concordantia 
Catholica,"  Nicholas  of  Cusa  had  said, 
"  Where  there  is  no  true  oecumenical 
council,  the  most  certain  synod  is  that  in 
which  the  Pope  is  found ;  "  and  agreeably 
to  this  maxim,  Nicholas  himself  now 
abandoned  the  cause  of  the  council,  and 
repaired  to  Ferrara.  From  the  time  of 
the  publication  of  thebull  of  October  1437, 
the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Basle  are  con- 
sidered as  of  no  authority.  Before  that 
date,  in  the  years  between  1431  and 
143H,  their  most  meritorious  and  success- 
ful work  was  the  pacification  of  the 
Hussites,  whom  they  succeeded  to  a  great 
extent  in  7'econciling  to  the  Church,  by 
conceding  the  demand  of  the  more  mode- 
rate party— the  Utraquists — for  com- 
munion under  both  species. 

The  recalcitrants  at  Basle,  headed  now 
by  the  Cardinal  of  Aries,  exasperated  by 
the  desertions  from  their  ranks  and  the 
growing  influence  of  the  Council  of  Ferra- 
ra, proceeded  to  extreme  measiu-es.  They 
erected  into  a  universal  axiom  that  theory 
of  the  subjection  of  Popes  to  General 
Councils  which,  as  enunciated  by  the 
Council  of  Constance,  had  been  a  parti- 
cular proposition,  refei-ring  only  to  one 
Pope  and  a  special  complex  of  circum- 
stances. Next  (May  14.")9),  they  pretended 
to  depose  Eugenius,  in  whose  stead  they 
chose  Aniadeus  of  Savoy.  This  anti-pope 
took  the  title  of  Felix  V.  But  he  was 
I  feebly  supported,  and  after  playing  his 


BEARD,  CLERICAL 


BEATIFIC  VISION 


77 


miserable  part  for  five  years,  abdicated  in  ' 
April  1445.  At  the  same  time,  the  Council 
of  Basle,  which,  after  lingering  on  for  , 
several  years  in  almost  entire  obscurity, 
had  transferred  its  sittings  to  Lausanne, 
gave  a  last  sign  of  life  by  recognising  the 
pontificate  of  Nicholas  V.  Nothing  more 
is  heard  of  them  aftenvards. 

Bsa.HS,cx.z:RZCAX..  In  the  earliest 
times  the  shaving  of  the  hair  on  the  face 
was   considered   efl'eminate  (Clem.  Al. 
"  Pffidagog."  iii.  11),  and  the  board  was 
worn  by  clergy  and  laity  alilie.  Early, 
however,  in  the  middle  ages,  ecclesiastics 
in  the  West  shaved  otf  the  beard  (Bede, 
"H.E."  iv.  14),  and  this  custom  furnished 
Photius,  in  867,  with  the  grouiul  for  one 
of  the  reproaches  which  he  made  against 
the  Latins.    Pope  Gregory  TIL  required 
the  Archbishop  of  Cngliari  and  his  clergy  ! 
to  shave,  and  from  the  twelfth  century  | 
onwards,  all  through  the  middle  ages, 
synods  were  constantly  enforcing  the  rule, 
"  Clerici  barbam  ne  nutriant.'"    In  the  j 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  cleri-  j 
cal  beard  again  came  into  fashion,  and  | 
the  beard  is  seen  on  the  portraits  of  the 
Popes  from  Paul  III.  to  Innocent  XII. 
Synods  now  simply  required  that  the 
beard  should  not  be  too  long.    At  the  j 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century  fashion  ! 
changed  again,  under  French  influence, 
and  when  some  of  the  Bavarian  priests 
began  to  wear  the  beard,  Pius  IX.,  in  a 
brief  dated  1863,  commissioned  the  Nun- 
cio at  Munich  to  see  that  the  bishojis  put  ■ 
a  stop  to  the  innovation.    This  rule,  of 
course,  does  not  apply  to  an  order  like  ; 
that  of  the  Capuchins,  with  whom  the 
beard  is  no  novelty.    (Talhofer,  in  the 
new  edition  of  the  "  Kirchenlexikon.") 

BEATIFIC  VISIOM-.    The  sight  of 
God  face  to  face,  which  constitutes  the  ' 
essential  bliss  of  angels  and  men.  The 
Council  of  Florence   defines   that  the 
"  souls  iif  those  who  after  receiving  bap- 
tism lia\  (■  incurred  no  stain  of  sin  what- 
soever, or  who  after  incurring  such  stain 
have  been  purified,  in  the  body  or  out  of  } 
the  body,  ....  are  at  once  received  into  | 
heaven  and  clearly  see  God  Himself  as 
lie  is,  in  three  Persons  and  one  sub-  ! 
stance,  some,  however,  more  perfectly 
than  others,  according  to  the  diversity  of 
their  merits."  " 

Many  passages  of  Scripture  speak  of 
this  vision  as  the  reward  of  the  just. 
"  When  He  shall  appear,"  St.  John  says, 
"  we  shall  be  like  to  Him,  because  we  , 
shall  see  Him  as  He  is."  Similarly, 
1  Deci  et.  unionii.  i 


St.  Paul  contrasts  the  seeing  through  a 
glass  in  an  obscure  manner  with  that 
vision  "  face  to  face  "  which  is  reserved 
for  the  life  to  come.'  Petavius  adduces  a 
multitude  of  patristic  testimonies  on  this 
point,  and  explains  passages  from  other 
Fathers  who  seem  to  affirm  the  absolute 
impossibility  of  seeing  God  as  He  is.  At 
the  same  time,  he  confesses  frankly  that 
some  ancient  Catholic  writers  >poke  am- 
biguously and  others  erroneously  with 
regard  to  the  vision  of  God.  They  had  a 
difficulty  in  supposing  it  possible  even 
for  the  blessed  to  behold  the  divine 
essence. 

It  is  with  the  eyes  of  the  soul,  not 
with  the  bodily  eyes,  that  God  is  seen. 
This  follows  from  the  very  fact  that  God 
is  incorporeal.  Nor  can  any  created 
intellect  in  its  own  strength  or  by  the 
force  of  its  nature  enjoy  the  beatific  vision, 
for  there  is  no  proportion  between  the 
divine  nature  and  any  created  intelligence. 
In  order  that  the  blessed  may  see  Him, 
God  infuses  a  supernatural  quality  which 
elevates  and  perfects  tlu^  intellect  and 
makes  it  capable  of  the  beatific  vision. 
Just  as  the  natural  eye,  in  order  that  it 
may  see,  requires  first  the  presence  of  the 
object,  and  then  light,  in  order  that  the 
image  of  the  object  may  be  received,  so 
the  intellect,  in  order  to  see  God,  re- 
qnirrs  not  only  the  proximity  of  the  divine 
c.-si  iici',  liut  alxi  an  interior  disposition 
by  wliich  it  is  elevated  to  an  act  above 
its  natural  powers.*  The  schoolmen  fitly 
call  this  quality  in  the  intellect  of  the 
blessed  the  "  light  of  glory,"  a  term 
which  occurs  in  the  Fathers — e.g.  in  St. 
Augustine,  though  not  in  the  same  definite 
seuM>.  The  Council  of  Vienne  adopted 
the  t'xpre^>ion  in  its  condemnation  of  the 
error  "that  the  soul  does  not  need  the 
light  of  glory,  which  elevates  the  soul  so 
that  it  beholds  God  and  enjoys  Him  in 
bliss."  The  word  "light"  is  of  course  a 
mere  metaphor,  for  the  light  of  glory  is 
immaterial.  Nor  is  it  anything  outside 
the  intellect,  or  again  an  object  which  the 
intellect  perceives.  It  is  in  the  intellect 
and  enables  it  to  see  God. 

By  the  ordinary  law  of  God,  this 
vision  is  not  given  in  the  flesh,  since  no 
man  can  see  God's  face  and  liA  e,  although 
great  authorities  maintain  that  it  has 
been  bestowed  in  exceptional  cases  even 
during  this  life.  St.  Thomas,  for  instance, 
maintains  that  Closes  and  St .  Paul  enjoyed 
the  beatific  vision  before  their  death, 

1  1  John  iii.  2  ;  1  Cor.  xiii.  12. 

2  St.  Thorn,  i.  12,  5. 


78 


BEATIFIC  VISION 


BEATITUDE 


though  the  gift  was  not  a  permanent  one. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  was  a  question  long 
discussed  in  the  Church,  whether  the 
paints  saw  God  fact^  to  face  before  the  day 
of  judgment.  The  Council  of  Florence, 
quoted  above,  closed  the  controversy,  and 
this  definition  is  the  true  developnunit  of 
patristic  teaching.  From  the  first  it  was 
held  that  martyrdom,  as  the  perfect  purga- 
tion of  the  soul,  admits  to  the  immediate 
possession  of  glory,  a  tenet  which  logically 
involves  the  belief  that  heaven  since 
Christ's  ascension  has  been  opened  to  all 
who  are  fitted  by  perfect  purity  for  the 
vision  of  God.  St.  Gregory '  places  the 
difi'erenee  between  the  saints  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  in  this  very  point, 
that  whereas  the  former  had  to  wait  for 
the  vision  of  God  till  Christ's  descent  into 
limbo,  the  latter,  when  "their  earthly 
house  of  this  habitation  is  dissolved,"  have 
a  "house  not  made  with  hands,  eteriuil  in 
the  heavens."  The  words  of  the  council, 
with  which  we  began,  explain  what  it  is 
that  the  beatific  vision  implies.  The  saints 
and  angels  see  God — i.e.  His  essence,  His 
attributes,  and  the  three  Persons  of  the 
Trinity.  Further,  seeing  God,  they  see 
creatures  in  Him,  who  is  the  supreme 
cause,  in  whom  all  things  live  and  move 
and  exist.  The  saints  do  not,  indeed, 
know  all  that  God  can  do,  because  even 
to  the  blessed  He  remains  in  a  certain 
sense  incomprehensible,  and  it  is  one 
thing  to  see  an  object  before  us,  quite 
another  to  know  that  object  in  the  utmost 
extent  to  which  it  can  be  known.  Such 
perfect  comprehension  of  the  divine  nature 
belongs  to  God  Himself,  and  cannot  be 
communicated  to  any  creature.  But  the 
saints  see  in  God  all  the  facts  concerning 
creatures  which  it  is  suitable  for  them  to 
know.  They  have,  for  example,  a  special 
knowledge  of  those  who  are  placed  under 
their  patronage;  they  are  aware  when 
souls  on  earth  implore  their  prayers;  they 
are  acquainted  with  the  best  means  of 
helping  their  clients.  The  most  plausible 
objection  which  is  made  to  the  invocation 
of  the  saints  falls  to  the  ground  if  this 
point,  which  St.  Augustine  sets  forth  with 
great  fulness,  is  well  understood.  We 
ask  the  saints  to  pray  for  us,  not  because 
we  believe  them  omniscient  or  omni- 
present, but  because,  seeing  God,  they  see 
in  Him  all  that  He  wishes  them  to  see. 

Lastly,  though  all  the  bl.-^s,..l  s,.,.  God, 
they  do  so  with  dilfcrent  .-i  _  ■  -i..  ,it'  per- 
fection.   The  vision  of  (i.i.l      ihr  iv\s  ard 
of  merit,  and  as  (iod  repays  exery  man 
»  Petav.  IJe  Deo,  vii.'  1.3. 


according  to  his  works,  as  the  crown  pro- 
mised in  heaven  is  a  crown  of  justice, 
therefore  the  vision  of  God  cannot  be 
given  in  precisely  the  same  manner  to  all. 
This  truth  was  denied  by  Jovinian  in 
ancient,  by  Luther  in  modem,  times,  and 
the  anathema  of  the  Council  of  Trent — 
sess.  vi.  cap.  16,  can.  32 — is  directed 
against  the  latter.  (See  Petavius,  "  De 
Deo,"  lib.  vii.) 

BEATirxcATZOW.  [See  CixoNi- 

SATION.] 

BBATXTVDE,  or  bliss,  is  defined  by 
St.  Thomas  as  that  perfect  good  which 
completely  appeases  and  satisfies  the  appe- 
tite.^ God  alone  can  constitute  man's  per- 
fect bliss,  for  man's  will  seeks  the  fulness 
of  all  good,  and  this  cannot  be  found  e.\- 
cept  in  God.  Had  man  been  left  without 
grace,  then  he  would  have  found  his  natu- 
ral beatitude  in  knowing  God  most  per- 
fectly as  the  author  of  nature,  and  in 
adhering  to  Him  by  natural  love,  sweetly 
and  constantly.-  He  would  have  at- 
tained thishappiuess,  after  passingsucces.s- 
fully  through  his  probation  in  this  mortal 
life.  As  it  is,  man  has  been  raised  to  a 
supernatural  state,  and  his  bliss  consists 
in  God,  seen  face  to  face  in  the  heavenly 
country.    [See  Beatific  Vision.] 

So  far  all  the  Catholic  theologians  are 
at  one.  All  admit  that  God  is  man's  last 
end  and  that  he  attains  this  end  through 
the  l)eatific  vision.  But  if  we  que.stion 
theologians  more  closely  and  wish  to  know 
the  precise  manner  in  which  the  blessed 
reach  perfect  hap])iness,  various  answers 
are  given,  of  which  tliree  may  be  rejjeated 
hei'e.  The  Thomists,  following  apparently 
the  clear  teaching  of  their  master,-'  place 
the  essential  hap])iness  of  the  blessed 
{beatitudo  formalis)  in  the  act  of  the  in- 
tellect by  which  the  saints  see  God  as  He 
is.  They  argue  that  while  the  will  is  an 
appetite  which  tends  to  its  object  and 
rests  in  it,  it  is  by  the  intellect  that  an  im- 
material object  actually  becomes  present 
to  the  soul.  Thus  while  the  will  of  the 
blessed  rests  in  God,  it  is  the  intellect 
which  actually  apprehends,  acquires  and 
possesses  Him.  The  delight  which  the 
will  takes  in  good  attained  does  not  con- 
stitute the  possession  of  this  good,  but 
presupposes  it.  The  Thomists  allege  fur- 
ther that  the  intellect  is  the  nolilest  of  the 
faculties,  and  that  the  bliss  of  man  must 
consist  in  the  exercise  of  this  power.^ 

1  Sep  l"!  2«,  2,  S. 

2  Billuart,  De  Grnt.  Diss.  ii.  1. 

3  See  4.  -2. 

*  liilluait,  De  Ultimo  Fine,  Diss.  ii.  2. 


BEATITUDES,  THE  EIGHT 


BEGUINES  AND  BEGIL\KDS  79 


Here,  we  may  add,  they  make  a  legiti- 
■mate  application  of  Aristotle's  principles. 
■''That  wbieli  is  proper  to  each  by  nature," 
says  this  philosopher,'  "is  best  and  sweet- 
est for  each ;  sweetest,  then,  for  man  is 
the  intellectual  life  (6  Kara  rbv  vovv 
^ios),  since  this  [_i.e.  reason]  chiefly  con- 
stitutes man.  Such  a  life,  therefore, 
is  most  happy."  St.  Basil,  St.  Cyril 
•of  Alexandria,  and  St.  Augustine  (con- 
sciously or  unconsciously)  made  a  similar 
application  of  the  Aristotelian  princi- 
ple.^ 

The  second  opinion  is  that  of  Scotus, 
which  places  beatitude  in  the  act  of  the 
■will  by  which  it  loves  God  with  the  love 
•of  friendship;  a  third,  that  of  fevciril 
Jesuit  theologians,  who  make  it  rmisi-t  ii; 
the  e.\ei'cise  of  intellect  ami  w  ill  vmi- 
bined.  It  is  scarcely  necr>-ary  to  >ay 
that  the  Tliomists  only  j)la<  r  thf  o-fnc-' 
•or  spring  of  beatitude  in  ihr  \  dt 
God  by  the  intellect.  Ili'iicr  How  the 
full  satisfaction  of  the  will,  tlu'  liaiJpy 
necessity  of  lovino-  God,  the  luiowlrdi^c 
■which  the  saints  have  that  then-  lia])])i- 
ness  is  eternal.  After  the  reMin-fit  mn 
this  bliss  will  overflow  into  the  liody,  lie- 
stowing  upon  it  the  four  gifts  of  i>/,j>'issi- 
bility,  subtleti/ (by  which  it  will  ))(•  aMc  to 
penetrate  other  bodies,  as  the  rl^en  (_'lu  i>t 
penetrated  the  closed  duors),  cK/ilitij 
(which  will  make  it  capable  of  the  swiftest 
motion),  darity  (through  which  it  will 
become  luminous  or  transjiarent). 

BEATZTUBES,  THE  EIGHT.  The 
blessiiiii>  iininiiuuced  Ijy  our  Lord  at  the 
beginniiii:  of  the  .Serimin  on  the  Mount 
•(Matt.  \.  .-3-10).  In  the  so-called  Sermon 
on  the  Plain  (Luke  vi.  only  four 

•are  enumerated.  \'arious  reasons  are 
eiven  by  the  Fathers  for  this  ditl'erence 
•(see  St.  Thomas,  1«      qu.  Ixix.  a.  3). 

BECVZirES  and  BEGHARSS.  The 
Bdguiues  of  Handers  are  an  interesting 
and  ancient  foundation.  An  attempt,  in- 
deed, was  madeinthe  seventeenth  century 
to  trace  their  origin  to  St.  Begg:,,  the 
mother  of  Pepin  of  Herstal,  who  flour- 
ished about  A.D.  700;  but  in  the  judg- 
ment of  Ilefele  ^  the  attempt  failed.  That 
they  can  be  traced  back  to  the  twelfth 
centui-y,  and  are  consequently  older  than 
either  the  Franciscans  or  Dominicans,  is 
unquestionable.  The  scandals  caused  by 
the  conduct  of  a  dissolute  Bishop  of 
Liege,  about  1180,  aroused  the  zeal  of  a 
holy  priest  of  the  diocese,  Lambert  le 

I  Eih.  Nicnm.  x.  7. 

»  Petav.  De  Deo,  vii.  8. 

"  Art.  "Beghines  "  in  VVcUcr  and  Welte. 


Beghe,  who  spent  his  fortune  in  founding 
an  institution  at  Liege  for  widows  and 
single  women  desirous  to  consecrate  their 
lives  to  God,  and  opened  it  in  1184. 
The  associates  calledtheniseh  es  15egliines, 
corrupted  to  Beguines,  after  their  founder, 
and  the  name  of  Ijeuinnai:''  \va>  given  to 
the  abode,  or  rather  grcnip  of  aliodes,  in 
which  they  lived.  For  the  lir^uiiiiiaL;.'.  re- 
sembling in  this  respect  tlieaiu  iei,t  imird, 
is  not  a  convent,  but  a  collect  ion  of  Mnall 
houses  (each  inlialiited  Ijy  om-  or  two 
Beguines,  who  do  1  heir  ow  n  housekeeping), 
surrounded  Ijy  u  wall,  and  with  a  cha))el 
in  tlie  centre.  ThelJeguines  do  not  take 
])'  r]ietual  \ows,  nor  do  they  renounce 
]iri\ all- projierty  :  they  can  leave  theasso- 
ciation  wheue\er  they  desire  it,  and  re- 
claim the  capital  which  they  may  have 
contriliuted  to  it.  But  each  Beguine  on 
admission  to  the  habit  makes  a  vow,  in  the 
jirer-eiice  of  the  Cure  who  has  the  s])iritual 
charge  of  the  community,  of  obedience 
and  chastity  so  long  as  >he  remains  in  the 
lieguinage.  They  eni])loy  theniseU  es,  ac- 
cording to  tlie  strength  or  capacity  of  the 
several  members,  in  educational  work 
(  including  large  Sunday-schools  for  girls) 
and  corporal  works  of  mercy  of  various 
kinds,  besides  taking  part  in  the  di\  ine 
othce.  Some  of  their  communities  in  the 
fourteenth  century  fell  into  the  eiTor  of 
the  Fraticelli,  or  brethren  of  the  free  spirit, 
and  incurred  condemiuition  on  that  ac- 
count from  the  Council  of  \'ienne  (Itill). 
At  the  ]>re-ent  day,  they  are  >till  lloui  isli- 
mu  111  ]leli;iiuu,  their  oi'in'inal  seat  ;  there 
are  r.e--iiinages  at  (ihent.  Drug.-.  Aiit- 
werj),  Mechlin,  and  other  ])lac.'^.  the 
great  ]5eguinage  at  (ilidit  t  her.^  w  .  i.' in 
1857  six  iiundred  pr.ife.>5.ed  1  ieguiiu'.-,  and 
two  hundred  locaiaires — that  is,  ladies  liv- 
ing within  the  enclosure,  paying  a  certain 
pension,  and  to  some  extent  participating 
in  the  religious  life  of  the  sisters.  There 
are  Ijc'guinages  in  Germany,  and  one  was 
lately  founded  at  Castelnaudary,  in  the 
south  of  France,  by  a  zealous  priest  of 
Carcassonne,  M.  Soubiran-la-Louviere, 
which  promised  to  be  eminently  success- 
ful and  useful. 

The  Beghards  had  no  special  founder, 
but  were  associations  of  laymen  living 
together  in  imitation  of  the  Beguines. 
They  first  appear  in  the  early  part  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  Heresy  and  anti- 
nomianism  made  great  ravages  in  their 
ranks  in  the  following  ag.-,  and  the  sev.:- 
rities  of  which  they  wen'  con,-.>(juenlly 
the  object  caused  the  gi-eater  number  to 
pass  into  the  third  orders  of  the  Mendicant 


80 


CELLS 


BENEDICTINES 


fraternities.  They  were  finally  suppressed 
by  Innocent  X.  in  ]  050. 

BStliS.  Nothing  certain  is  known 
as  to  the  date  of  their  introduction,  which 
has  been  attributed  sometimes  to  St. 
Paulinus  of  Nola,  sometimes  to  Pope 
Sabinian.  During-  the  heathen  persecu- 
tion it  was  of  course  impossible  to  call 
the  faithful  by  any  signal  which  would 
have  attracted  public  notice.  After  Gon- 
stantine's  time,  monastic  communities 
used  to  sig-nify  the  hour  of  prayer  by 
blowing  a  trumpet,  or  by  rapping  with 
a  hammer  at  the  cells  of  the  monks. 
Walafrid  Strabo,  in  his  celebrated  book 
on  the  divine  otlices,  written  about  the 
middle  of  the  ninth  centuiy,  speaks  of  the 
use  of  bells  as  not  very  ancient  in  his 
time,  and  as  having  been  introduced  from 
Italy.  However,  we  learn  from  the  his- 
tory of  St.  Lupus  of  Sens  that  church- 
bells  were  known  in  France  more  tlian  | 
two  centuries  before  Strabo's  time.'  For 
long  tlie Eastern  Church  employed  instead 
of  bells  clappers,  such  as  we  still  um'  on 
Good  Friday,  and  bells  were  not  known 
among  the  Orientals  till  the  ninth  cen-  j 
tury.'-  Even  then  their  use  cannot  have 
become  universal  among  them,  for  Fleury  1 
mentions  the  ringing  of  church-bells  us 
one  of  the  customs  which  the  ^laroniti's 
adopted  from  the  Latins  on  their  reunion 
with  the  Cathohc  Church  in  1183.^  The 
classical  words  for  bell  are,  Kd>8o}v  and 
tintinnahulum.  From  the  seventh  cen- 
tury onwards,  we  find  the  names  ccanpana 
(from  the  Campanian  metal  of  which  they 
were  often  made),  nola  (from  the  town 
where  their  use  is  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced), and  cloccce  *  (French  cloche). 
Originally  church  bells  were  compara- 
tively small.  Large  ones  of  cast  metal 
first  appear  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries;  those  of  the  greatest  size  in 
the  fifteenth.  In  the  tenth  century  the 
custom  began  of  giving  bells  names.* 

Before  the  Church  sets  aside  bells  for 
sacred  she  blesses  them  with  solemn  cere- 
monies. The  form  prescribed  in  the 
Pontifical  is  headed  "  the  blessing  of  a 
bell,"  though  it  is  popularly  called  "the 
baptism  of  a  bell,"  a  title  by  which  the 
office  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  eleventh 
century.*  The  bishop  washes  the  bell 
with  blessed  water,  signs  it  with  the  oil 

»  Fleury,  Hist,  xlviii.  42. 

2  Kraus,  Kirchengeschichte,  p.  172. 

S  Ixxiii.  46. 

•»  First  occurs  in  Bonifacius,  Ep.  134 ;  per- 
haps from  the  old  German  chlachan  =frangi. 
Kraus.  p.  288. 

5  Kraus, /«c.  cit.         »  Fleury,  lix.  20. 


of  the  sick  outside,  and  with  chrism  inside, 
and  lastly  places  under  it  the  thurible 
with  burning  incense.  He  prays  re- 
peatedly that  the  sound  of  the  bell  may 
avail  to  summon  the  faithful,  to  excite 
their  devotion,  to  drive  away  storms,  and 
to  terrify  evil  spirits.  This  power  of 
course  is  due  to  the  blessings  and  prayers 
of  the  Church,  not  to  any  efiicacy  super- 
stitiously  attributed  to  the  bell  itself. 
Thus  consecrated,  bells  become  spiritual 
things,  and  cannot  be  rung  without  the 
consent  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities. 

Hitherto,  we  have  been  treating  of  the 
large  church-bell.  Small  bells  are  also 
used  during  Mass,  and  are  rung  by  the 
server  at  the  Sanctus  and  at  the  Eleva- 
tion. The  object  of  this  rite  is  to  excite 
the  attention  and  devotion  of  the  faithful. 
The  practice  of  ringing  the  bell  at  the 
Elevation  was  introduced  after  the  custom 
of  elevating  the  Host  [see  Elevation] 
had  become  common  in  the  Church.  The- 
Elevation-bell  is  mentioned  by  William 
of  I'aris.  In  England  it  is  the  custom  to 
ring  the  bell  also  as  the  priest  spreads  his 
hands  over  the  Host  and  chalice  before 
the  consecration,  and  at  the  Domine,  non 
sum  dii/'iNs,  before  the  priest's  commu- 
nion. 'Phis  bell  is  not  rung  when  Mass  is 
^aiil  liil'iirr  the  Blessed  Sacrament  exposed, 
nor  a>:ain  in  the  private  chapel  of  the 
Apostolic  Palace  if  the  Pope  says  or 
hears  :Ma^s.' 

BESIESZCAMVS  DOMZITO,  i.e. 
"Let  us  bless  the  Lord,"  a  form  used  in 
the  breviary  at  the  end  of  each  hour  ex- 
cept matins,  and  at  the  end  of  Mass  in- 
stead of  Ite,  3lissa  est  on  days  Avhen  the 
Gloria  in  e.vcelsis  is  not  said.  "N'arious 
reasons  are  given  for  the  use  of  J!<ne- 
dicamus  Domino  for  the  usual  Ite,  Missa 
est.  Cardinal  Bona  thinks  that  the  Ite, 
Missa  est  was  omitted  first  of  all  during 
penitential  seasons,  such  as  Advent  and 
Lent,  because  then  the  people  did  not  im- 
mediately leave  the  church,  but  waited 
for  the  recitation  of  the  hours,  and  that 
gi-aduaUy  the  Benedicamus  Domino  came 
to  be  used  in  ferial  Masses  generally.  In 
Masses  for  the  dead,  Ilequiescant  in  pace 
took  the  place  of  the  Ite,  Mis-m  est,  per- 
haps because  the  people  often  had  to 
remain  for  the  funeral  rites.  (Benedict 
XIV.  "De  Miss."  11,  24.) 

BSlffEBZCTZSrES.  The  patriarch 
of  monks  in  the  West,  St.  Benedict, 
having  first  established  his  order  at 
Subiaco,  removed  it  to  Monte  Cassino,  on 
which  Apollo  was  in  those  days  stiU 
1  Benedict  XIV.  De  Miss.  ii.  11,  19  ';  16,  31. 


BENEDICTINES 


BENEDICTINES  81 


•worshipped,  in  529.  The  rule  which  he 
compiled  for  his  monks  was  regarded  as 
frauo:ht  with  sincfular  wisdom,  and  dic- 
tated by  a  marvellous  insight  into  human 
nature,  neither  prescribing  to  aU  an 
asceticism  only  possible  to  a  few,  nor 
erring  on  the  side  of  laxity.  It  regulated 
with  great  minuteness  the  mode  of  cele-  j 
brating  the  divine  office  at  the  canonical  1 
lii>ur#;  and,  eschewing  all  idleness,  ordered 
that  the  monks,  when  not  employed  in 
the  divine  praises,  or  in  taking  necessary 
food  and  rest,  should  engage  themselves 
in  useful  works,  either  manual  labour,  or 
study,  or  copying  books,  or  teaching. 
Every  monastery  was  to  have  a  library, 
and  every  monk  was  to  possess  a  pen  and 
tablets.  The  clothing,  of  which  the  pre- 
vailing colour  was  black,  was  to  vary  in 
material  and  warmth  at  the  discretion  of 
the  abbots,  according  to  the  exigencies  of 
different  climates  and  circumstances.  The 
abstinence  from  meat  enjoined  by  the 
rule  (except  in  the  case  of  the  sick)  is 
perpetual ;  but  there  is  some  doubt 
whether  the  prohibition  was  meant  to  ex- 
tend to  poultry  and  winged  game,  as  well 
as  the  tlesh  of  four-footed  animals.  A 
singular  clause  in  the  rule,  and  one  which 
was  fruitful  in  results,  was  that  which 
ordered  that  all  persons  whatever,  with- 
out distinction  of  age,  rank,  or  calling,  ' 
should  be  admissible  to  the  order  of  St.  j 
Benedict.  If  parents  offered  a  son  to  the 
service  of  God  in  a  monaster}^,  even  if  he 
were  but  a  boy  of  five  years  old,  the 
monks  were  to  receive  and  take  full 
charge  of  him.  Thus  our  own  Beda  was 
given  over  when  only  seven  years  old  to 
the  monks  at  Wearmouth  and  Jarrow, 
and  the  good  Orderic,  the  historian  of 
Normandy,  was  committed  by  his  father 
in  his  tenth  year  to  the  kind  hands  of  the 
monks  of  St.  Evroult,  and  saw  his  native 
land  no  more.  Out  of  this  practice  of 
offering  young  boys  to  the  monasteries  a 
great  system  of  monastic  schools  naturally 
arose. 

St.  Maur,  a  disciple  of  St.  Benedict, 
founded  the  first  Benedictine  monastery 
in  France,  in  his  master's  lifetime,  at 
Glanfeuil,  near  Angers.  In  Spain  they 
were  introduced  about  633.  "We  in 
England  have  special  caaise  to  be  grateful 
to  the  Benedictine  order,  for  it  was  by  it 
that  Christianity  was  first  taught  to  our 
Saxon  forefathers.  The  monastery  on 
Monte  Cassino  was  destroyed  by  the  Lom- 
bards towards  the  end  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, but  the  monks  took  refuge  at  Rome, 
where  Pope  Gregory  gave  them  St. 


Andrew's  Church.  The  Benedictine 
abbot  of  St.  Andrew's  was  the  person 
chosen  by  the  Pope  to  head  the  mission 
which  he  sent  to  the  Court  of  Ethelbert, 
and  he  will  be  remembered  through  all 
time  as  St.  Augustin,  the  Apostle  of 
England.  Benedictine  monks  from  Eng- 
land—St. Willibrord  (699)  and  St.  Boni- 
face (750) — introduced  Christianity  in 
the  Low  Countries  and  the  Rhineland. 
Volumes  might  be  -RTitten  on  the  mani- 
fold services  which  the  German  Benedic- 
tines, going  forth  from  the  tomb  of  St. 
Boniface  at  Fulda,  and  settling  themselves 
down  as  welcome  guests  at  numberless 
points  in  the  forests  which  then  covered 
the  Teutonic  land,  rendered  to  their  halt- 
savage  country  men,  accustoming  them  by 
degrees  to  the  restraints  of  religion  and 
law,  and  training  and  cultivating  both 
the  land  and  the  people.  But  all  human 
institutions  are  liable  to  change,  and  even 
this  famous  order,  chiefly  through  the 
intrusion  of  ambitious  laymen  into  the 
office  of  abbot,  witnessed  before  the  end 
of  the  eighth  century  a  great  decline  of 
monastic  virtue.  St.  Benedict  of  Anian 
then  appeared  as  a  reformer  and  re?torer. 
So,  when  the  fierce  Danish  and  Norman 
barbarians  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  cen- 
turies had  destroyed  many  monasteries  in 
France  and  England,  and  murdered  great 
numbers  of  monks,  while  those  who  were 
spared  lived  with  little  regularity,  the 
reformation  of  Cluny  by  St.  Peter  the 
Venerable,  and  tliat  earned  on  by  our 
own  St.  Dunstan  in  England,  caused  the 
old  life,  in  its  lovely  peace  and  fruitful- 
ness,  to  flourish  again.  It  is  said  that,  a 
calculation  being  made  in  the  first  half  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  it  was  found  that 
up  to  that  time  twenty-four  Popes,  two 
hundred  cardinals,  seven  thousand  arch- 
bishops, fifteen  thousand  bishops,  and  a 
still  greater  number  of  saints,  had  been 
given  to  the  Church  by  the  Benedictine 
order. 

In  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries 
many  relaxations  and  corruptions  crept 
into  the  Benedictine  mona  steries  in  various 
parts  of  Europe.  In  France  the  reaction 
against  these  led  to  the  foundation  of  the 
reformed  congregation  of  St.  Vanne,  in 
which  the  rigid  observance  of  the  rule 
was  revived  (1550) ;  and  out  of  this  pro- 
ceeded the  yet  more  celebrated  congrega- 
tion of  St.  Maur  (1618),  to  which  a  great 
number  of  French  monasteries  adhered. 
This  congregation,  by  its  colossal  patristic 
and  historical  labours,  directed  by  such 
men  as   Mabillon,   Martene,  Ruinart, 


82  BENEDICTINES 


BENEDICTINES 


Rivet,  and  D'Ach6ry,  rendered  incalcul- 
able services  to  the  learned  world.  Two 
such  works  as  the  "France  Litteraire"  and 
the"Recueil  des  Historiens,"  if  they  had 
accomplished  nothing  else,  would  entitle 
the  congregation  to  the  gratitude  of  all 
men  of  letters.  At  the  Revolution  the 
order  was  entirely  suppressed  in  France. 
In  the  present  century  it  has  again  taken 
root,  and  begun  to  bear  fruit  of  the  old 
kind ;  witness  the  new  foundation  at  So- 
lesmes,  the  residence  of  the  pious  and 
gifted  I)om  GntSranger ;  the  community  at 
Pierre-qui-Vire  (founded  by  the  Pere 
Muard,  who  died  in  1854);  and  the 
Benedictine  nunneries  of  Pradines  and 
Flavigny.  In  S])ain  and  Germany  also 
the  oidri-  su])pressed  during  the  re- 
volui  li  ouliles:  in  the  former  coun- 

try It  li:is  nut  yet  been  re-introduced;  in 
Germany  it  has  reappeared  at  Munich. 

In  England,  at  the  dissolution,  there 
were  one  hundred  and  eighty-six  Bene- 
dictine abljeys,  priories,  and  nunneries, 
the  revcnuesof  which  appear  in  tlie  ""\'alor 
Ecclesiiisticus,"and  about  a  hundred  otlier 
cells  and  jiriories  of  less  importance, 
besides  those  jjreviously  suppressed  by 
Wolsey  (twenty-nine,  of  which  the 
majority  were  Benedictine)  and  the 
"alien"  priories— that  is,  those  which 
were  cells  of  foreign  abbeys.  All  these 
were  sup])ressed,  with  what  ruinous 
results  to  education,  art,  and  learning, 
all  the  world  knows.  Dom  Feckenham, 
the  last  abbot  of  Westminster,  made  a 
noljlc  >]i'rrli  in  the  House  of  Lords 
against  tlic  cliange  of  religion  in  the  first 
year  of  I'^lizabetli ;  it  may  be  read  in  the 
Smiirrs  Tracts.  Fecki'nham  was  thrown 
into  ](i-isi)ii  and  kept  there  for  the  rest  of 
liis  life.  One  of  his  monks,  Dom  Sigebert 
Buckley,  after  forty  years'  imprisonment, 
died  at  a  gi-eat  age  in  IGIO;  before  dying 
he  gave  the  habit  to  two  Englisli  Bi'ue- 
dictines  who  had  been  prdii  ^x  il  aliroad, 
and  was  thus  the  luik  betwiTn  the  niunks 
of  old  and  those  of  modern  times.  For 
several  generations  the  English  Benedic- 
tines were  obliged  on  account  of  persecu- 
tion to  have  their  houses  abroad,  whence 
tliey  sent  men  to  the  Engli.sh  mission. 
Mr.  Law's  *'  Calendar  of  English  Martyrs" 
(IHT't)  contains  the  names  of  nine  or  ten 
Bcnrdici  nil'  niissioners  hanged,  drawn, 
and  (iiiartfrrd  between  1558  and  1681. 
The  old  titles,  abbot  of  Westminster, 
Glastonbury,  &c.,  are  still  kept  up.  At 
the  present  time  the  Benedictines  have 
ten  or  eleven  houses  in  England,  the  chief 
of  which  are  Downside,  Belmont,  and 


Ampleforth.  The  English  college  at 
Douai  is  also  an  English  Benedictine 
monastery.  By  recent  Apostolic  Letters 
(October  31, 1890)  the  Benedictine  missions 
are  placed  under  three  abbeys.  Downside, 
Ampleforth,  and  Douai,  and  various 
changes  are  made  in  the  constitutions. 
The  abbey  at  Fort  Augustus  (in  Scotland) 
is  an  offshoot  from  the  English  province. 
There  is  a  monastery  at  Ramsgate  belong- 
ing to  the  Cassinese  branch  of  the  order. 
An  English  colony.  Western  Australia, 
furnishes  a  noble  example  of  the  old 
civilising  and  colonising  energy  of  tlie 
order.  Two  Spanish  Benedictines,  Dom 
Serran6  and  Dom  Serra,  driven  by  the 
Revolution  from  their  own  country,  emi- 
grated with  Bishop  Brady  to  Perth ;  about 
live-and-forty  years  ago  they  formed  a 
settlement  on  the  Moore  river,  sixty  miles 
to  the  north  of  Perth ;  where  they  gathered 
the  natives  round  them,  learned  their  lan- 
guage, instructed  them  in  the  truths  of 
salvation,  and  taught  them  how  to  till 
the  ground  and  to  practise  many  useful 
arts.  They  have  changed  hundreds  of 
these  wild  blacks  from  barbarous  nomads 
into  civilised.  God-fearing,  home-loving 
men.  The  name  of  their  colony  is  New 
Nursia.  By  a  special  Papal  indult,  the 
head  of  their  abbey  is  an  abbot-bishop,  like 
St.  Columba  and  his  successors  at  lona. 

(H6lyot;  "Sketch  of  the  Life  and 
Mission  of  St.  Benedict,"  vsrritten  for 
the  fourteenth  centenary  of  the  Saint  by 
a  monk  of  Downside;  Taylor's  "Index 
Monasticus,"  1821 ;  Cardinal  Newman's 
"  Mission  of  the  Benedictine  Oi-der.")  ^ 

1  List  of  English  Benedictine  Houses 
existing  at  date  of  siipprfssion. 
Nunneries  and  cells  are  inidcated  by  n  and  c 
respectively. 

Bardney  (Line.) 
Barking'  (Essex),  n. 
Barrow  lEsse.K), 
c.  to  Cok-hester 


Abbotsbury  (Dorset)  i 
Abin'-'don  (Berks.) 
St.  Alban's  (Herts.) 
St.  Albau's  de  Pra- 

tis,  n. 
Alcestpr  (War\v.), 

c.  to  Evesham 
Aldeby  iNorf.) 

c.  U\  Norwich 
Anibrosbury,  or 

Amcsbury 

(Wilts),  n. 
Ankerwyke,  near 

Wrayslmry 

(Bucks.)  n. 
Arden  (York),  n, 
10.  Armathwuite 

(Cumb.),  n. 
Arthinifton  {Yk.),w. 
Athelney  (Som.) 
Avecot  (Wavw.), 

c.  to  Malvern 


Batb  (Sojnerset) 
Battle  (Suss.) 
St.  Bees  (Cumb.) 

c.  to  St.  Mary's, 

York 
20.  Belvoir  (Line), 

c.  to  St.  Alban's 
St.  Benet  Hulme 

(xXorf.) 
Binhani  (Norf.), 

c.  to  St.  Alban'a 
Birkenhead 

(Cbesli.) 
Blarkborough 

(Norf.),  n. 
BIyth  (Notts.) 
Boxgrave  (Suss.) 
Bradewell  (Bucks.) 


BENEDICTION,  ETC. 


BENEDICTION,  ETC.  83 


BEIffESZCTZOSr  OF  THE 
BZ.ESSEB    SACRAMEM-T.     A  rite 


Brewood  (Staff.),  n. 
Bromfield  (Salop) 
30.  Bungay  (Suff.),  n. 
Burnham  (York),  n, 
Burton-on-Trent 

(Staff.) 
Burj-  St.  Edmund's 

(Suff.) 
Canterbury.Christ- 

church 
Canterbury,  St. 

Augustine 
Canterbury,  St., 

Sepulchre,  n. 
Canyngton  (Som.), 

n. 

Cardigan, 

c.  to  Cliertsey 
Car.  v,-   Xorf.),  n. 
40.  L  .Ut ■^l.y  (Xorth- 

antsi,  ((. 
Ceme  (Dorset) 
Chatteris  (Cambr.), 

n. 

Chertsey  (Surr.) 
Chester,  St.  Wer- 

burgh 
Chester,  St.  Mary, 

M. 

Cheshunt  (Herts.), 

Colchester  (Essex) 
Colne,  Earl's 

(Essex) 
Coquet  Isle 

(Northumb.), 

c.  to  Tynemouth 
to.  Coventry  (Warw.) 
Cowick  (Devon.), 

c.  to  Tavistock 
Cranbourne  (Dors.), 

c.  to  Tewkesbury 
Croyland  (Line.) 
Daunton  (Kent),  n. 
Deeping  (Line), 

c.  to  Thorney 
Dover  (Kent) 
Dunster  (Som.) 
Eastbourne  (Sues.), 

Evesham  (Wor«.) 
60.  Exeter,  S^.  Cathe- 
rine, n. 

Exeter,  St.  Nicholas 

Eye  (Suff.). 

Eynsham  (Oxf.)  i 

Fame  I. 

(Northumb.)  I 

Feversham  (Kent)  | 

Finchale  (Durh.) 

Flamstead  (Herts.), 
n. 

Folkestone  (Kent) 
Fosse  (Line),  n. 
70.  Frieston  (Line.) 
Glannach  (Angles.) 
Glastonbury  ( Som.) 
Gloucester,  St. 
Peter 


Godstow  (Oxf.),  n. 
Grimsby  (Line),  n. 
Halliwell  (Midd.),«. 
Hallystone 

(Northumb.),  n. 
Haiidale  (York),  n. 
HatHeia  Peveril 
(Essex),  c.  to  St. 
Alban's 
80.  Heanwood(Warw.), 

Hedingham  Cas. 

(Essex),  n. 
Hertford 
Hincliinbrook 

(Hunts  I 
Horsham  (Noif.) 
Hortnn  (Dors.), 

c.  to  Sherborne 
Hoxne  (Suff.), 

c.  to  Nonvich 
Hoyland  (Lane.) 
Hunston  (Line.) 
Hurley  (Berks.), 
c.to  Westminster 
90.  Hyde  (Hants) 
Jarrow  (Durh.), 
c.  to  Durham 
IckletoiuCaiiil..),». 
St.  Ives  iHuiiUi 
Keeling  l  Yuiki,  n. 
Kidwelly  (Caerm.), 

c.  to  Sherborne 
Kilbum  (Midd.),  n. 
Kington  (Wilts.),  n. 
Lamblev 

(Northumb.),  n. 
Langley  (Leic),  n. 
lOO.Leominster  (Herf.) 
C.  to  Read  ng 
Lincoln,  St.  Mary 
Blagd.,  c.  to  St. 
Mary's,  York 
Lindisfarne 
(Northumb.), 
c.  to  Durham 
London,  Clerken- 

well,  n. 
London, 

St.  Helen's,  n. 
Luffield(Northants) 
Lynn  (Norf.), 

c.  to  Norwich 
Lytham  (Lane.) 

c.  to  Durham 
Mailing  (Kent) 
Malvern,  Great 
(Worc.),c.  to 
Westminster 
lO.Malvern,  Little 
(Wore),  c.  to 
Worce.ster 
Market-Street 

(Beds.),  n. 
Marlow,  Little 

(Bucks.),  n. 
Marrick  (York),  n. 
Marsh,  Little 
(York),  n. 


which  has  now  become  verj'  common  in 
the  Catholic  Church.  The  priest  takes 
the  Host  from  the  tabeniach',  plares  it 
in  the  monstrance,  and  then  puts  the 
monstrance  containing  the  Host  on  a 
throne  above  the  tabernacle.  The  priest 
then  incenses  the  Blessed  Sacrament, 
■while  the  choir  (at  least  in  England) 
usually  sing  the  "0  8alutaris  Ilobtia."' 


Meuresley,  or 
Ivinghoe(Bucks), 

Michelnev  (Som.) 
Mid.llesburgh 

(Yorki,  c.  to 

Whitby 
Milton  Abbas 

(Dors.) 
Modney,  near 

Hilgay  (Xorf.), 

c.  to  Ramsey 
120.Molesby  (York),  7i. 
Monkton  Nun 

(York),  n. 
Monmouth 
Morfield  (Salop), 

c.  to  Shrewsbury 
St.  Neot's  (Hunts.) 
Neasham  (Dur.)  n. 
Newcastle 

(Xorthumb.),  n. 
Norwich,  Trinity 
Norwich,  St.  Leo- 
nard's, c.  to 

the  last 
Oldbury  ( Warw.1, 

c.  to  "Pok-sworth 
ISO.Oxn^^v  iXoitiiants), 

c.  to  Pfter- 

borou-h 
Pembroke, 

c.  to  St.  Alban's 
Penwortham 

(Lane.) 
Pershore  (Wore) 
Peterborough 

(Northauts.) 
Pilton  (Devon), 

c.  to  Malmesbury 
Polesworth 

(Warw.),  n. 
PoUeshoo  (Devon) 
Ramsay  (Hunts.) 
Reading  (Berks.) 
140.Redburn  (Herts.) 
Bedlingfield  (Suff.) 
Rochester  (Kent) 
Romsey  (Hants.),  w. 
Rusper  (Suss.),  n. 
Sandtoft  (Linc.),?i., 

c.  to  St.  Mary, 

York 
Selby  (York) 
Seton  (Cuml).),  n. 
Shaftesbury  (Dors.) 

Sheppey  (Kent),  n. 
150.Shrewsbury 

Snelleshall  (Bucks) 
Sopewell  (Herts.),?!. 


Spalding  (Line.) 

Stanford  (Line), 
c.  to  Durham 

Stanford 
(Northants.),  n. 

Stanlev  (Glouc), 
c.  to"St.  Peter's 
Glouc. 

Stratford  le  Bow 
(Midd.),  11. 

Stroguil.  or  Chep- 
stow iJIonm.i 

Stn.llrv  I  Oxf.  I.  II. 
leO.Sudburv  iSiilf  1, 

c.to  Westminster 

Swaliham  ( Cambr.  I, 


St.  Sv 


tn  lie 


I  Corn.), 


Tavistock  (De 
Tewkesbury 

(Glouc.) 

Thetfonl  (Nor 

Thukhr.llYnr 

Thorn.  v  ((Ann 
Tvne.noutli 


iNoi 


St.  All 


iffrou 


Uske  (Moi 
.TO.AValdeu,  ^ 

(Essex) 
Wallingwells 

(Notts.),  n. 
Wearmouth  (Dur.) 

c.  to  Durham 
Wenuy  (Glam.), 

c.  to  Glouc. 
Wetherell  (Cumb.) 

c.  to  St.  Mary's, 

York 
Wherwell  (Hants.), 

)i. 

Whitby  (York) 

Wilberf  orce  ( Yk.),  7K 

Wilton  (Wilts.),  n. 

Winchcombe 
(Glouc.) 
LSO.Winchester 

Winchester,  St. 
Mary,  n. 

Winchester,  New- 
minster 

Worcester,  St. 
Mary 

Wroxall  (Warw.),  n. 

Wymondham 
(Norf.) 

York,  St.  -Mary's 

York,  Trinity 

York,  St.  Clement's, 

62 


84  BENEDICTIONALE 


BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY 


Next  tte  Te  Deum,  the  Litany  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  or  some  other  canticle  or 
antiphon,  is  sung,  followed  by  the  "Tan- 
tuui  Ergo,"  during  which  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  is  again  incensed,  and  the 
prayer  "  Deus,  qui  nobis,"  &c.,  is  recited. 
Finally,  the  priest,  mantled  with  the  veil, 
makes  the  sign  of  the  cross  with  the 
monstrance  over  the  people.  The  Congre- 
gation of  Rites  orders  this  Benediction  to 
be  given  in  silence;  probably  to  show 
thai  it  is  not  the  earthly,  but  the  Eternal 
Priest  who  in  this  rite  blesses  and  sanc- 
tities His  people.  If  a  bishop  gives  Bene- 
diction of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  he  makes 
the  sign  of  the  cross  over  the  people  three 
times. 

The  rite  is  comparatively  modem. 
Processions  and  expositions  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  date  from  the  early  part  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  but  at  first,  apparently, 
the  Host  was  replaced  in  the  tabernacle, 
w-itlu)ut  any  benediction  being  given  to 
the  people.  "The  custom"  [of  benedic- 
tion], says  the  learned  Thiers,  in  a  treatise 
on  the  exposition  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment, published  in  1673,  "appears  to  me 
somewhat  novel  (assez  nouvelle)  for  I  have 
found  no  Ritual  or  Ceremonial  older  than 
about  a  hundred  years  which  mentions  it." 
The  same  author  tells  us,  that  the  custom 
of  singing  the  "0  SulutarisHostia" '  at  the 
Elevation  in  the  Mass  was  introduced  by 
Loui.-^  XII.  of  France,  a  little  before  his 
death,  in  1515,  at  a  time  when  he  was 
harassed  by  various  enemies.  Thiers  also 
mentions  that  the  Carthusians  still  main- 
tained the  custom  of  replacing  the  Host, 
after  exposition,  without  giving  benedic- 
tion.'^ 

BSiTESZcTXOU'AiiX:.  A  collection 
of  forms  of  blessing,  compiled  for  the  con- 
A  (mience  of  priests,  from  the  Roman  Ritual, 
I'ontifical,  Missal,  &c.  Such  books  may 
be  lawfully  published  with  the  approba- 
tion of  the  ordinary,  but  they  possess  no 
authority  in  themselves.  "Those  books 
only  are  to  be  employed,  and  those  Bene- 
dictions only  to  be  given  which  conform 
to  the  Roman  Ritual."  (Decree  of  S. 
Coiigr.'g.  of  Rites,  April  7,  1832.) 

BBNEFZCE.  An  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fice is  a  pei-petual  right,  established  by  the 
Church  in  favour  of  an  ecclesiastical  per- 
son, of  receiving  the  profits  of  Church 
property,  on  account  of  the  discharge,  by 
6uch  person,  of  a  spiritual  office. 

The  term  had  iCs  origin  in  a  special  use 

1  Traite  de  I'exposition  du  Saint  Sacrement 
de  I'auiel.  iii.  ch.  6. 
»  Ibid.  m.7. 


of  the  Latin  word  beneficium  which  arose 
in  the  dark  ages,  and  was  connected  with 
the  difi'erence  between  allodial  and  feudal 
property.  The  aUodial  estate  of  a  Teuton 
was  his  absolute,  hereditary,  freehold  pro- 
perty, which  royal  favour  had  not  given, 
and  royal  rapacity  seldom  dared  to  de- 
prive him  of.  But  a  king  could  reward  a 
faithful  follower  by  the  grant,  usually  for 
life,  of  lands  belonging  to  the  crown  ;  and 
estates  so  granted  were  called  henejicidj 
as  being  pure  emanations  of  the  king's 
grace  and  favour,  though  it  is  true  that 
military  service  was  always  an  implied 
condition  of  the  tenure.  As  the  landed 
possessions  of  the  Church  increased,  usur- 
pations of  them  by  unscrupulous  laymen 
became  frequent.  The  clergy  found  that, 
practically,  they  had  no  other  defence 
against  this  species  of  rapine  but  by 
granting  portions  of  Church  property  to 
lay  lords,  on  condition  of  military  service 
against  those  who  might  disturb  them  in 
the  quiet  possession  of  the  rest.  The 
tenure  being  much  the  same.  Church 
lands  thus  came  to  be  called  hmeficia; 
and  this  name  was  graduallj'  transferred 
to  the  beneficial  enjoyment  of  all  Church 
property,  after  the  lands  above  descril^ed 
had  been,  with  the  advent  of  more  peace- 
ful times,  restored  to  ecclesiastical 
hands. 

According  to  the  canonists,  six  things 
are  required  in  a  benefice.  First,  that  it 
should  be  estiiblished  by  episcopal  autho- 
rity. Secondly,  that  it  should  have  some 
spiritual  work  annexed  to  it — thus  the 
function  of  an  organist,  or  a  verger,  being 
merely  temporal,  is  incompatible  with  the 
possession  of  a  benefice.  Thirdly,  that  it 
should  be  conferred  by  an  ecclesiastical 
person.  (Lay  patrons  are  not  projierly 
said  to  confer, to  present  to,  a  benefice.) 
Fourthly,  that  it  should  be  conferred  on 
a  clerk  who  has  at  least  received  the 
tonsure.  Fifthly,  that  it  should  be  for 
life.  Sixthly,  that  whoever  has  the  right 
of  conferring  it  should  not  keep  it  for 
himself,  but  give  it  to  another.  Ferraris, 
Benefidum. 

BEXTEFXT  OF  CI.ERGV.  By  this 
was  originally  meant  the  privilege  enjoyed 
by  persons  in  holy  orders  of  claiming,  if 
charged  with  any  felony  (unless  it  were 
high  treason,  or  arson),  to  be  tried  in  the 
bishop's  instead  of  the  king's  court.  The 
ancient  usage  was,  says  Blackstone,  "  for 
the  bishop,  or  ordinary,  to  demand  his 
clerks  to  be  remitted  out  of  the  king's 
courts  as  soon  as  they  were  indicted." 
Henry  II.  endeavoured  to  do  away  with 


BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY 


BERENGARIUS 


85 


the  exemption,  and  to  subject  clerks 
charged  with  felony  to  the  jvirisdiction  of 
his  o^v^l  court ;  but  the  reaction  in  popular 
feeling  which  followed  the  munler  of  St. 
Thomas  a,  Becket  prevented  the  realisa- 
tion of  his  intention.  After  much  conflict 
between  the  secular  and  ecclesiastical 
courts,  it  was  settled,  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VI.,  that  a  clerk  charged  with 
felony  should  first  be  arraigned  in  the 
king's  court,  after  which  he  might  either 
plead  his  benefit  of  clergy  at  once,  de- 
clining thejurisdiction,  or,  after  convict  ion, 
byway  of  an-e.^tingjudgment.  Originally, 
only  persons  who  had  the  clerical  di-ess 
and  tonsure  were  entitled  to  the  privilege ; 
but  a  laxer  test  was  gradually  accepted, 
until  it  came  to  be  a  settled  thing  that 
every  prisoner  who  could  read  should  be 
allowed  the  benefit  of  clergy,  even  though 
neither  ordained  nor  tonsured.  It  was 
found  that  too  many  laymen  were  thus 
let  in,  and  by  a  statute  of  1487  it  was 
enacted  that  a  layman  might  not  claim 
the  privilege  more  than  once,  and,  when 
allowed  it,  he  was  to  be  burnt  with  a  hot 
iron  "  on  the  brawn  of  the  left  thumb  " 
— an  effectual,  if  barbarous,  mode  of  iden- 
tification— so  that  he  should  not  illegally 
claim  it  a  second  time. 

After  benefit  ofclergy  had  been  claimed 
and  allowed,  the  culpz-it  was  remitted  to 
the  bishop's  court,  and  there  tried.  An 
elaborate  procedure  was  followed,  of 
which  the  ordinary  result  is  said  to  have 
been  an  acquittal.  If,  however,  the  tem- 
poral courts  suiTendered  the  accused  to 
the  ordinary  absque  purgatione  facienda, 
he  had  to  be  imprisoned  for  life. 

The  later  history  of  benefit  of  clergy 
turns  upon  a  statute  of  1576.  The  govern- 
ment of  Elizabeth  were  resolved  to  take 
away  all  criminal  jurisdiction  from  the 
bishops,  but  the  principle  of  immunity  to 
the  educated  classes  as  compared  with  the 
uneducated  was  inwoven  by  so  long  a 
usage  into  judicial  practice,  and  was  so 
convenient  for  the  former,  that  it  is  easy 
to  understand  why  it  should  not  readily 
be  relinquished.  By  the  statute  above 
mentioned,  it  was  forbidden  to  surrender 
any  prisoner  to  the  ordinary  ;  but  when 
benefit  of  clergy  had  been  allowed,  and 
burning  inflicted  in  the  usual  way,  the 
prisoner  was  to  undergone  further  punish- 
ment— except  that  the  judge  might,  at  his 
discretion,  order  him  to  be  kept  in  gaol 
for  any  period  within  a  year.  Acts  were 
afterwards  passed,  allowing  Peers,  even 
though  they  could  not  read,  to  claim 
benefit  ofclergy,  and  extending  the  statute 


to  female  defendants,  on  their  being  burnt 
and  imprisoned  for  less  than  a  year.  But 
"  those  men  who  could  not  read,  if  under 
the  degree  of  peerage,  were  hanged."  It 
should  be  understood  that  not  all  felonies 
were  within  benefit  of  clergy.  High  trea- 
son and  arson,  as  already  mentioned,  were 
always  excluded  from  it ;  and  other  crimes, 
such  as  murder,  burglary,  unnatural  crime, 
ifcc,  were  expressly  withdrawn  from  it  by 
diflerent  statutes. 

As  more  and  more  criminals  were 
found  able  to  read,  the  state  of  the  law 
was  thought  to  tend  too  much  to  laxity. 
Acts  of  1718  and  1720  provided  that  any 
person  convicted  who  was  entitled  ti> 
benefit  of  clergy,  with  consequent  burning 
and  short  imprisonment,  might  be,  in 
substitution  for  such  burning,  &c.,  sen- 
tenced to  transportation  to  America  io\- 
seven  years.  Benefit  of  clergy  was  finally 
abolished  in  1827.  (Blackstone's  "Com- 
mentaries," book  iv.) 

BES^ciaGARZVS.  A  writer  of  the 
eleventh  century,  celebrated  for  having 
anticipated  the  Sacramentariaus  of  a  later 
age  in  assailing  the  mystery  of  the  Eucha- 
rist. He  was  bom,  probably  at  Tours, 
about  A.B.  1000,  and  was  about  forty  years 
of  age  when  he  was  made  Archdeacon 
of  Angers.  At  this  period  of  his  life  he 
gave  vent  to  the  crude  and  novel  theory 
on  the  sacrament  of  the  altar  which  an 
inquisitive  intellect,  joined  to  a  vain  and 
unstable  character,  suggested  to  him.  His 
former  friends,  Adelmann  of  Liege,  and 
Hugh,  bishop  of  Langres,  wrote  to  him 
letters  of  earnest  remonstrar.c  ^ ;  but  being 
at  this  time  supported  by  the  king  of 
France,  Bruno,  bishop  of  Angers,  and 
other  persons  of  influence,  he  disregarded 
their  admonitions.  The  French  king, 
Henry  I.,  seeing  that  a  line  of  German 
Popes  was  apparently  firmly  fixed  in  the 
chair  of  Peter,  and  apprehensive  lest  the 
Papal  influence  should  be  used  to  further 
imperial  designs  against  France,  is  said  * 
to  have  meditated  the  formation  of  a 
Galilean  schism,  and  in  pursuance  of  this 
design  to  have  encouraged  Berengarius  to 
resist  the  authority  of  Rome.  The  treatise 
in  which  he  set  forth  his  peculiar  teaching 
has  been  lately  discovered  and  printed.  In 
the  judgment  even  of  those  who  would  be 
most  inclined  to  take  a  favourable  view,  -  it 
is  described  as  "hard,  harsh,  and  obscure." 
It  is  certain  that  he  denied  any  real  or  ob- 
jective change,  any  trLUSubstantiatlon  of 

1  By  Gfrorer,  on  no  authority.  See  art. 
"  Berengar  '  in  Herder's  Kirchenlex.  2nd  ed. 

2  Milman,  Latin  Christiatiity,  iii.  BOO. 


86 


BERENGARIUS 


BETROTHAL 


the  bread  and  wine ;  with  Erigena  he  held 
that  the  presence  of  the  body  of  Christ  in 
the  Sacrament  was  only  real  in  so  far  as 
it  was  spiritually  conceived,  and  rejected 
the  opposite  tenet  of  Paschasius  Radbert. 
A  letter  of  his  to  Lanfranc,  then  Prior 
of  Bee,  refeiTing  to  these  views,  found  its 
way  to  Rome ;  the  matter  was  immedi- 
ately taken  up,  and  in  a  council  held  at 
Rome  in  1050,  the  ancient  faith  of  the 
Church  was  emphatically  reasserted,  and 
the  tenets  of  Berengarius  and  Erigena 
condemned.  Again,  in  the  Synod  of 
Vercelli  (Sept.  1050),  and  shortly  after- 
wards at  Paris,  Berengarius  was  con- 
demned. For  some  time,  so  long  as 
he  was  able  to  avoid  attendance  at  any 
of  these  i^ynods,  he  treated  their  decisions 
with  contempt.  But  the  King  of  France, 
who  had  now  learned  to  form  a  truer 
estimate  of  the  great  character  and 
apostolic  aims  of  Leo  IX.,  withdrew  his 
support  of  Berengarius,  who  was  conse- 
quently compelled  to  appear  at  a  synod 
held  at  Tours  in  1054,  over  which  the 
legate  Hildebrand  (afterwards  Gregory 
Vll.)  presided.  Berengarius  made  and 
signed  the  recantation  required  of  him, 
but  not  long  afterwards  he  reasserted 
the  condemned  error.  This  happened 
several  times  over,  Berengarius  sub- 
scribing whatever  orthodox  formulary 
might  be  set  before  him,  and  then,  in 
some  fresh  publication,  giving  an  inad- 
missible turn  to  the  subscription  which  he 
had  made.  The  last  of  his  retractations 
— from  which  he  does  not  seem  to  have 
subsequently  receded — was  pronounced 
at  the  Council  of  Bordeaux,  in  1080. 
Malmesbury  ^  declares  that  he  changed  his 
views  before  his  death  (in  1088),  and 
lamented  that  he  could  not  effect  the 
like  change  in  all  who  had  espoused  his 
opinions.  The  same  writer — the  passage 
has  been  often  quoted — professes  to  give 
us  his  dying  words.  It  should  be  men- 
tioned that  he  died  on  the  feast  of  the 
Epiphany.  "To-day,  being  the  day  of 
his  manifestation,  my  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
will  appear  to  me,  either,  as  I  hope,  to 
raise  me  to  glory  for  my  repentance,  or, 
as  I  fear,  to  punish  me  for  the  heresy 
which  I  have  been  instrumental  in  spread- 
ing." 

It  should  be  added  that  William  of 
Malmesbury  quotes  a  long  passage  from 
a  Latin  poem  by  HUdebert,  bishop  of  Le 
Mans,  a  former  pupil  of  Berengarius,  in 
which  he  warmly  eulogises  the  temper- 
ance, charity,  and  self-denial  of  his  departed 
I  Malm.  Gest.  Reg.  lib.  ill. 


master,  and  that  Malmesbury  himself 
writes  of  him  in  the  same  strain,  though, 
whether  he  is  merely  echoing  the  encomi- 
um.- (if  llildebert,  or  speaking  from  some 
independent  source  of  information,  there 
are  no  means  of  ascertaining. 

BERRSTTA.  A  square  cap  with 
three  or  sometimes  four  prominences  or 
projecting  corners  rising  from  its  crown. 
There  is  usually  a  tassel  in  the  middle 
where  the  corners  meet.  It  is  worn  by 
a  priest  as  he  approaches  the  altar  to  say 
Mass,  by  ecclesiastics  in  choir,  &c.  The 
berretta  worn  by  the  Pope  is  white ;  that 
of  a  cardinal  is  "red.  Leo  XIII.  granted 
to  bishops  the  privilege  of  wearing  a 
purple  beiTetta  (Feb.  3rd,  1888).  All 
other  clerics  wear  a  black  one.  A  four- 
cornered  berretta  belongs  to  Doctors  of 
Divinity,'  though  Benedict  XIV.  men- 
tions that  in  his  time  Spanish  ecclesiastics 
generally  wore  a  berretta  of  this  kind. 

The  word  is  derived  from  hirrm,  a 
mantle  with  a  hood,  and  that  again  from 
TTVjipos,  flame-coloured.  "  At  Rome,"  says 
Benedict  XIV.,  "and  in  most  churches, 
the  berretta  was  unknown  as  late  as 
the  ninth  century.  Its  ecclesiastical  use 
began  when  priests  gave  up  the  ancient 
custom  of  covering  their  heads  with  the 
amice  till  the  actual  beginning  of  the 
Mass."   (Benedict  XIV.  "  De  Miss."  i.  9.) 

BETHXiEHEIVlZTES.  1.  Matthew 
Paris  speaks  of  some  "  fratres  Bethleem- 
itse"  to  whom  a  house  was  gi-anted  at 
Cambridge,  on  the  way  leading  to  Trump- 
ington,  in  1257 ;  their  habit,  he  says, 
was  like  that  of  the  Friars  Preachers,  with 
the  addition  of  a  red  and  blue  star  on 
the  breast.  Of  this  foundation  nothing 
further  is  known. 

2.  An  order  bearing  the  same  name 
was  founded  by  a  noble  Spanish  gentle- 
man of  Teneritte,  Peter  of  B6tencourt,  at 
Guatemala,  in  Central  America,  about  the 
year  1600.  He  founded  a  hospital,  con- 
vent, and  school  under  the  patronage  of 
Our  Lady  of  Bethlehem,  with  an  order  of 
monks  to  attend  the  sick  and  teach  in  the 
school.  The  Bethlehemites  were  rapidly 
propagated  through  every  part  of  Spanish 
America.  In  1687  Innocent  XI.  placed 
them  under  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine. 
They  are  said  to  possess  some  forty  houses 
even  now,  the  chief  establishment  being  at 
Guatemala. 

BETROTBAXi.  [See  EsPOUSAL.] 

1  Who,  however,  are  forbidden  to  use  this 
peculiar  berretta  in  sacred  functions.  S.  R.  C. 
7  Dec.  1844.  But  there  is  some  doubt  as  to  the 
precise  force  of  this  decree. 


BIBLE 


BIBLE 


87 


BIBKZ:  (from  ^i^Xiov,  a  letter  or 
paper,  and  that  from  3l^>.osAhe  inner  bark 
of  pap_\Tus).  A  name  given  to  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Je-n  s  and  the  Christians.  In 
itself  "Bible"  might  mean  a  book  of  what- 
ever kind,  just  as  its  syiionTm  "  Scrip- 
tures "  {ypa^ai)  means  orifrinally  ■writings 
of  any  sort.  Gradually  the  Jews  who 
spoke  Greek  employed  the  word  "Bible  " 
as  a  convenient  name  for  their  sacred 
books.  Thus  the  Greek  translator  of 
Ecclesiastieus,  writing- soon  after  132  a.c, 
mentions  the  law  and  the  prophets  and  the 
rest  of  the  Bible  (ra 
and  a  similar  in^tauce  might  be  quoted 
from  first  Machabees.'  Our  Lord  and 
His  disciples  received  the  Jewish  collec- 
tion of  the  sacred  books  with  the  same 
reverence  as  the  Jews  themselves,  and 
gave  it  the  title  usual  at  the  time — viz. 
•'  the  Scriptures."  But  after  an  interval 
there  Ciime  a  change.  The  Apostles  and 
their  disciples  wi-ote  books  professing 
sacred  authority.  These  writings  ap- 
peared in  the  latter  half  of  the  first  ceu- 
tury,  and  were  quoted  withiu  the  Church 
with  the  same  formulas — "  it  is  written," 
Sec. — which  had  been  used  before  to  intro- 
duce citations  from  the  law  and  the  pro- 
phets. These  books  of  Christian  author- 
ship were  called,  first  of  all,  "  the  books  " 
or  "  scriptures  of  the  new  covenant,"  and 
from  the  beginning  of  the  third  century, 
the  shorter  expression  "  new  covenant " 
came  into  vogue.  In  Chrysostom  and  suc- 
ceeding writers  we  find '"bible"  (3t/3Xi'n) 
as  the  familiar  term  for  the  whole  collec- 
tion contained  in  either  "  covenant,"  or,  as 
we  should  now  say,  in  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.^ 

Under  the  article  Canon  op  the 
Scripture  the  reader  will  find  some  ac- 
count of  the  way  in  which  and  the  au- 
thority by  which  the  list  of  sacred  books 
has  been  made,  while  the  nature  of  their 
inspiration  is  also  treated  in  a  separate 
article.  Here  we  take  for  granted  that 
the  Bible  consists  of  a  number  of  inspired 
books,  contained  in  the  Vulgate  transla- 
tion and  enumerated  by  the  CouncQ  of 
Trent;  and  we  proceed  to  treat  of  its 

1  EccIqs.  Praef.  ;  1  Mach.  xii.  9.  In  Dan. 
ix.  1,  we  find  iv  reus  $i$Kois,  a  translation  of 
DnSDl- 

"The  scriptures  of  the  new  covenant," 
Euseb.  iii.  25;  "  the  books  of  the  new  covenant," 
by  implication  inMelitoof  Sardis.about  170  a.d. 
( apud  Euseb.  iv.  2ti).  The  " new  document "  and 
Testament,  Tertull.  Adv.  Marc.  iv.  1  ("novum 
iustruiiientum  ").  We  have  translated  Smfl^/cTj 
"covenant."  It  never  means  "  testament  "  in  the 
Christian  Scriptures  except  in  Heb.  ix.  15-17. 


authority,  its  interpretation,  and  of  its 
use  among  the  faithful. 

I.  The  Church  holds  that  the  sacred 
Scripture  is  thi>  written  word  of  God. 
The  Council  of  Trent,  "  following  the  ex- 
ample of  the  orthodox  Fathers,  receives 
with  piety  and  reverence  all  the  books  of 
'  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  since  one  God 
'  is  the  author  of  each."  These  words  of 
the  council,  which  are  an  almost  verbal  re- 
petitiiiu  of  many  early  definitions,  separate 
the  Bible  utterly  from  all  other  books.  Of 
no  human  composition,  however  excellent, 
can  it  be  said  that  God  is  its  author.  And 
the  divine  origin  of  Scripture  implies  its 
perfect  truth.  AVe  know  for  certain,  St. 
Irenfeus  argues,  that  the  Scriptures  are 
perfect,  since  they  are  spoken  by  the 
Word  of  God  and  by  the  Spirit.^  Some 
few  Catholic  theologians  have,  indeed, 
maintained  that  the  Scriptures  may  err  in 
minimis — i.e.  in  small  matters  of  historical 
detail  which  in  no  way  afiect  faith  or 
morals.  Nor  in  doing  so  do  they  contra- 
dict any  express  definition  of  Pope  or 
council,  though  such  an  opinion  has  never 
obtained  any  currency  in  the  Church. 
But  of  course  the  modern  Protestant 
theories  which  reduce  the  historical  ac- 
counts of  the  Bible  to  mere  myths,  or 
!  again  which,  while  they  allow  that  the 
Scripture  contains  the  word  of  God, 
deny  that  it  is  the  written  word  of  God, 
are  in  shai-p  and  obvious  contradiction  to 
the  decrees  of  the  Church. 

2.  The  Church,  then,  afiirms  that  aU 
Scripture  is  the  word  of  God,  but  at 
the  same  time  it  maintains  that  there  is  an 
imwritten  word  of  God  over  and  above 
Scripture.  Just  as  Catholics  are  bound 
to  defend  the  authority  of  the  Bible  against 
the  new  school  of  Protestants  who  have 
come  to  treat  it  as  an  ordinary  book,  so 
they  are  compelled  to  withstand  that 
Protestant  exaggeration,  on  the  other  side, 
according  to  which  the  word  of  God  is 
contained  in  Scripture  and  in  Scripture 
alone.  The  word  of  God  (so  the  Council 
of  Trent  teaches)  is  contained  both  in 
the  Bible  and  in  Apostolical  tradition,  and 
it  is  the  duty  of  a  Christian  to  receive 
the  one  and  the  other  with  equal  venera- 
tion and  respect.  The  whole  history  and 
the  whole  structure  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment witness  to  the  truth  and  reason- 
ableness of  the  Catholic  view.  If  our 
Lord  had  meant  His  Church  to  be  guided 
by  a  book  and  by  a  book  alone,  He  would 
have  taken  care  that  Christians  should  be 
at  once  provided  with  sacred  books.  As 
1  Iren.  ii.  28,  2. 


88  BIBLE 

a  matter  of  fact  He  did  nothing  of  the  | 
kind.  He  refers  those  who  were  to  em-  j 
brace  His  doctrine,  not  to  a  book,  but  to 
the  living  voice  of  Ills  apo.^t  Ics  and  of  His 
Church.  "  He  who  heareth  you,'"  lie 
.said  to  tlie  ajiosties,  "  lu'areth  me."  For 
twi'uty  years  after  our  Lord's  ascension, 
not  a'sino'le  book  of  the  Ni^w  Testament 
was  written,  and  all  that  tiiiii'  no  Cbrislian  ! 
could  a])peal,  as  many  I'l-ot  e>t  ~  do  now. 
to  tiu>  Bible  and  tli'e  liible  only,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  the  New  Testament 
did  not  exist,  and  the  faithful  were  evi- 
dently called  upon  to  believe  many  truths 
for  which  no  strict  and  cogent  proofs 
could  be  brought  from  the  pages  of  the 
Jewish  Scriptures.  Further,  when  the 
writings  of  the  New  Testament  were 
issued,  they  appeared  one  by  one,  in  order 
to  meet  special  exigencies,  nor  is  the  least 
hint  gi-^  en  tliat  the  Ajioslles  or  tlieir  dis- 
ciples proMcledlhat  tlMMV  wrlliii-s  shoul.l 
contain  tlie  \\  liole  sum  ol'  (,'lu  isl  i.-m  truth. 
St  Paul  wrote  to  \arioii>  elimvlies  in 
order  to  give  them  insti'uelion  on  iiai-tiru- 
lar  points,  and  in  order  to  jire-i  i\e  them 
from  moral  or  doctrinal  errors  to  which 
they  were  exposed  at  the  mouu'ut.  Far 
from  professing  to  communicate  the  whole 
circle  of  doctrine  in  a  written  form,  he 
exhorts  his  converts  in  one  of  his  earliest 
ejiistles,  to  "  liold  the  traditions  which" 
tliev  "had  le;n-ned,  whether  byword  or 
Ijy  "  his  "  epistle  ;  "  a  few  year>  later  he 
prai>es  the  ('orinthians  for  kei'ping  the 
traditions  (TrapaSdtrfty)  as  he  delivered 
them,  and  towards  the  close  of  his  life, 
he  warns  St.  Timothy  to  keep  the  "  de- 
posit" of  the  faith  {napaBr^Ktiv)  without 
a  syllable  to  imply  that  this  deposit  had 
been  committed  to  writing.'  So,  with 
regard  to  the  Gospel  records,  St.  John  ex- 
pressly declares  that  they  were  from  the 
necessity  of  the  case  an  incomplete  ac- 
count of  Christ's  life.-  The  Christians 
who  lived  nearest  to  Apostolic  times 
believed,  as  the  Apostles  themselves  had 
done,  that  Scripture  is  a  source,  but  by  no 
means  the  only  source,  of  Christian  doc- 
trine. Tertullian  constantly  appeals  to  the 
tradition  of  the  Apostolic  Churches,  and 
lays  down  the  principle  on  which  all  his 
arguments  against  heresy  turn— viz.  that 
the  Apostles  taught  both  by  word  and  by 
letter.-'  A  little  before  Tertullian's  time, 
St.  Iren;Teus  actually  put  the  imaginary 
case  that  the  Apostles  had  left  no  Scrip- 
ture at  all.    In  this  case,  he  says,  we 

1  2  Thcss.  ii.  14  ;  1  Cor.  xi.  2 ;  1  Tim.  vi.  20. 
*  John  xxi.  2.') ;  and  see  Acts  xx.  35. 
•5  Prescript.  2\. 


BIBLE 

should  still  be  able  to  follow  the  order  of 
tradition,  which  [the  Apostles]  handed 
down  to  those  into  whose  hands  they 
committed  the  Churches.^ 

3.  There  is  a  controversy  no  less  vital 
between  Catholics  and  Protestants  as  to 
the  interjn-etation  of  Scripture.  A  po])u- 
lar  Protestant  theory  makes  it  the  right 
and  the  duty  of  each  individual  to  iuter- 
]iret  the  13ii)le  for  himself  and  to  frame 
his  own  relit;ion  accordingly  ;  the  Catho- 
lic, on  the  contrary,  maintains  that  it  be- 
longs to  the  Church,  and  to  the  Church 
alone,  to  determine  the  true  sense  of  the 
Scripture,  and  that  we  cannot  interpret 
contrary  to  the  Church's  decision,  or  to 
"  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  Fathers," 
without  making  slii])\vrecli  of  tlie  faith. 
The  Catholic  is  fully  jii>t  ili.  .l  in  b.-lieving 
with  jierl'ect  confidence  that  the  Church 
cannot  teach  any  doctrine  contrary  to  the 
Sen])tiire,  for  our  Lord  has  promised  that 
the  gates  of  hell  will  not  prevail  against 
His  Church.  On  the  other  hand,  Christ 
has  made  no  promise  of  infallibility  to 
those  who  expound  Scri])ture  by  the  light 
of  private  judgment.  St.  Peter  tells  us 
distinctly  that  some  parts  of  the  New 
Testament  are  hai-d  to  understand.  More- 
over, the  exjiei-ience  of  centtiries  has 
abundantly  coniiinied  the  Catholic  and 
disproNeil  the  l'ioie>tant  rule  of  inter- 
pretation. Unity  IS  the  test  of  truth. 
If  each  man  received  the  Ilolv  (iho.st, 
enablinii'  him  to  a>certain  the  sensi'  of  the 
Bible,  then  pious  Protestants  would  beat 
one  as  to  its  meaning  and  the  doctrines 
which  it  contains,  whereas  it  is  notorious 
that  they  have  differed  from  the  first  on 
every  point  of  doctrine.  The  principle 
of  private  judgment  has  been  from  the 
time  it  was  first  applied  a  principle  of 
division  and  of  confusion,  and  has  led 
only  to  the  multiplication  of  heresies  and 
sects,  ae-reed  in  nothing  except  in  their 
common  disagTeement  with  the  Church. 
Nor  does  the  authority  of  the  Church  in 
any  way  interfere  with  the  scientific  ex- 
position of  Scriptiu-e.  A  Catholic  com- 
mentator is  in  no  way  limited  to  a  servile 
repetition  of  the  interpretation  already 
given  by  the  Fathers.  He  is  not,  indeed, 
permitted  to  give  to  any  passage  in  Scrip- 
ture a  meaning  which  is  at  variance  with 
the  faith,  as  attested  by  the  decision  of 
the  Church  or  the  unanimous  consent  of 
the  Fathers.  But  he  may  differ  as  to 
the  meaning  of  passages  in  Scripture,  even 
from  the  greatest  of  the  Fathers  ;  he  is 
not  bound  to  consider  that  these  passages 
1  Ircn.  iii.  4,  1. 


BIBLE 


BISHOP 


89 


necessarily  bear  the  meaning- given  them  by 
general  councils  in  the  preambles  to  their 
decrees ;  he  may  even  advance  interjireta- 
tions  entirely  new  and  unknowni  before. 
"When  for  example,  God  is  said  to  have 
hardened  Pharao's  heart,  a  Catholic  com- 
mentator cannot  infer  from  this  tliat  the 
book  of  Exodus  makes  (rod  the  author  of 
sin,  but  he  may,  if  lie  sees  cause,  give  an 
explanation  of  the  words  which  differs 
from  that  of  St.  Augustin  or  St.  Thomas, 
or,  indeed,  from  that  of  all  the  Fathers  and 
Doctors  of  the  Church  taken  together.' 

4.  AVe  now  come  to  the  use  of  the 
Bible,  and  the  Catholic  principles  on 
this  head  follow  from  what  has  been 
already  said.  It  is  not  necessary  for  all 
Christians  to  read  the  Bible.  Many  na- 
tions, St  IrenjEus  tells  us,  were  con- 
verted and  received  the  faith  without 
being  able  to  read.-  Without  knowli'due 
of  letters,  without  a  Bible  in  their  nwn 
tongue,  they  received  from  the  Churck 
teaching  which  was  quite  sufficient  for 
the  salvation  of  their  souls.  Indeed,  if 
the  study  of  the  Bible  had  been  an  indis- 
pensable requisite,  a  great  part  of  the 
hui)ian  race  would  have  l)een  kft  ^vitllout 
the  means  of  grace  till  the  invention  of 
printing.  More  than  this,  parts  of  the 
Bible  are  evidently  unsuited  to  the  very 
yoimg  or  to  the  ignorant,  and  lience 
Clement  XI.  condemned  the  projiosition 
that  "  the  reading  of  Scripture  is  for  all." 
These  principles  are  fixed  and  invari- 
able, but  the  discipline  of  tlie  Church 
with  regard  to  the  reading  of  the  Bible 
in  the  vulgar  tongue  has  varied  with 
varying  circumstances.  In  early  times, 
the  Bible  was  read  freely  by  the  lay  peo- 
ple, and  the  Fathers  constantly  encou- 
rage them  to  do  so,  although  they  also 
insist  on  the  obscurity  of  the  sacred  text. 
TSn  prohibitions  were  issued  against  the 
popular  reading  of  the  Bible.  New  dan- 
gers came  in  during  the  middle  ages. 
When  the  heresy  of  the  Albigenses  arose 
there  was  a  danger  from  corrupt  transla- 
tions, and  also  from  the  fact  that  the 
heretics  tried  to  make  the  faithful  judge 
the  Church  by  their  own  interpretation 
of  the  Bible.  To  meet  these  evils,  the 
Councils  of  Toulouse  (1229)  and  Tarra- 
gona (1234)  forbade  the  laity  to  read  the 
vernacular  translations  of  the  Bible.  Pius 
IV.  required  the  bishops  to  refuse  lay 
persons  leave  to  read  even  Catholic  ver- 
iiions  of  Scripture  unless  their  confessors 

'  Pallavicini,    Hist.    Concil.   Trident,  in 
Miihler's  Si/mbolik,  p.  386. 
»  Iren.  ill.  4,  2. 


I  or  parish  priests  judged  that  such  reading 
was  likely  to  prove  beneficial.  During 
this  centurj-,  Leo  XII.,  Pius  VIII.,  and 
Pius  IX.  have  warned  Catholics  against 
I  the  Protestant  Bible  Societies,  which 
distribute  versions  (mostly  corrupt  ver- 
sions) of  the  Bible  with  the  avowed  pur- 
pose of  perverting  simple  Cathohcs.  It 
is  only  surprising  that  any  rational  being 
could  have  thought  it  possible  for  the 
Holy  See  to  assume  any  other  attitude 
I  towards  such  proceedings.  It  is  right, 
however,  to  observe  that  the  Church  dis- 
'  plays  the  greatest  anxiety  that  her  chil- 
!  dren  should  read  the  Scriptures,  if  they 
[  possess  the  necessary  dispositions.  "  You 
judge  exceedingly  well,"  says  Pius  VI., 
"in  his  letter  to  Martini,  the"  author  of  a 
translat  ioTi  ol'  the  llible  into  Italian,  "that 
the  faitliiul  >lio.iM  be  excited  to  the  read- 
ing of  holy  Scriptures:  for  these  are  the 
most  abundant  sources,  which  ought  to 
be  left  o])ento  everyone,  to  draw  fromthem 
purity  of  morals  and  of  doctrine.  This 
you  have  >ea-onably  effected  ....  by 
])ublisliin2'  the  sacred  Scriptures  in  the 
hinguage  of  your  country  especi- 
ally when  you  show  that  you  have  added 
explanatory  notes,  which  being  extracted 
from  the  holy  Fathers  preclude  every 
possible  danger  of  abuse." 

BZBX.IA  PAUPERvni  (the  Bible  of 
the  poor).  A  representation  in  between 
forty  and  fifty  pictures  of  events  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  with  short  ex- 
planations and  Scriptural  texts  appended 
in  Latin  or  Gemian.  The  redemption  by 
Christ  is  the  central  idea  of  the  collection, 
so  that  the  Old  Testament  subjects  are 
chosen  for  their  typical  significance.  The 
paintings  were  often  copied  from  the 
MSS.  and  represented  in  sculpture,  or  on 
walls,  glass,  the  antipendia  of  altars,  &c. 
At  Vienna  there  is  an  antipendium  thus 
adorned  which  dates  from  the  twelfth 
century.  The  Court  libraiy  of  the  same 
city  contains  two  copies  of  the  "  Biblia 
Pauperum,"  both  of  the  year  1430.  They 
are  block  books.  Copies  printed  on 
movable  types  soon  followed,  but  owing 
to  the  popularity  of  the  book,  copies  were 
soon  worn  out,  and  are  now  very  rare. 
BZCAMT.  [See  Iereguxaritt.] 
BISHOP.  I.  Meaning  of  the  Name 
and  Divine  Institution  of  the  Office. — The 
word  bishop  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
inla-KOTTos,  which  latter  occurs  in  writers 
of  the  earliest  age  in  the  general  sense  of 
"  overseer,"  and  was  specially  applied  in 
later  Greek  to  the  ofiicers  whom  the 
Athenians  sent  to  subject  states.    In  the 


90 


BISHOP 


BISHOP 


LXX  *  fTTia-Kcmos  is  used  for  an  officer 
or  prefect  of  any  kind.  The  Christians 
adopted  the  -word  as  the  title  of  an  eccle- 
siastical dignitary  who  has  received  the 
highest  of  the  sacred  orders  and  is  in- 
vested with  authority  to  rule  a  diocese 
as  its  chief  pastor. 

A  bishop,  therefore,  is  superior  to 
simple  priests,  and  the  Council  of  Trent 
defines  that  this  superiority  is  of  divine 
institution.  "  If  anyone  deny,"  says  the 
council,  "  that  there  is  in  the  Church  a 
hierarchy  instituted  by  divine  ordinance, 
which  consists  of  bishops,  presbyters,  and 
ministers,  let  him  be  anathema;"  and 
again,  "  if  anyone  affirm  that  bishops  are 
not  superior  to  presbyters,  or  that  they 
have  not  the  power  of  confirming  and  or- 
daining, or  that  the  power  which  they 
have  is  common  to  presbyters  also,  let 
him  be  anathema."'^ 

The  Anglican  Church,  as  is  well 
known,  did  not,  at  least  formally,  cast  ofi" 
Vielief  in  the  divine  institution  of  epi- 
scopacy, and  learned  Anglican  divines, 
among  whom  Pearson  is  the  most  cele- 
brated, have  strenuously  vindicated  the 
episcopal  authority.  With  most  of  the 
I'rotestant  bodies  it  has  been  otherwise. 
They  do  not  pretend  to  have  bishops,  or 
if  they  have  superintendents  whom  they 
call  by  that  name,  they  attribute  to  them 
no  authority  except  such  as  has  been 
bestowed  upon  them  by  the  Church.  They 
deny,  in  other  words,  that  the  episcopate 
is  of  divine  institution,  and  directly 
impugn  the  definitions  of  Trent  on  this 
subject.  They  admit,  of  course,  that 
bishops  ((TTLa-KOTroi)  are  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  New  Testament,  but  they 
urge  that  in  the  Acts  and  the  Epistles 
bishop  and  presbyter  are  two  names  for 
the  same  office.  They  suppose  that 
originally  there  were  three  grades  in  the 
hierarchy — viz.  the  Apostles,  whose  office 
ended  with  their  life-time,  and  who  left 
no  successors  ;  the  bishops  or  presbyters, 
corresponding  to  the  ministers  or  clergy- 
men of  the  present  day ;  and  deacons. 
They  defend  their  position  chiefly  on  the 
following  grounds : — 

We  first  find  the  word  irricrKoiros  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  xx.  28.  "  Take 
heed,"  St.  Paul  says,  to  the  clergy  of 
Ephesus,  "  take  heed  to  yourselves  and  to 
the  whole  flock,  in  which  the  Holy  Ghost 
made  you  bishops."  It  is  plain,  however 
(so  it  is  urged),  that  these  "bishops"  were 
mere  presbyters,  so  that  "  bishop "  and 
»  E.g.  Num.  xxxi.  14  ;  2  Par.  xxxiv.  12. 
*  Concil.  Trident,  sess.  xxiii.  can.  6,  7. 


presbyter  in  Ncav  Testament  language  are 
synonymous,  for  St.  Luke  tells  us  at  the 
beginning  of  the  same  cha]>tor  that  the 
Apostle  was  addressiug  "  tlir  presbyters 
of  the  Church"  whom  he  had  suiniuoned 
to  Miletus.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
Apostle's  life  the  Church  was  stiU  with- 
out bishops  in  the  modern  sense,  for  St. 
Paul  addressed  an  epistle  to  the  faithful 
at  Philippi  "with  the  bishops  and  the 
deacons."  Here  the  plural  number  and 
the  fact  that  no  allusion  is  made  to 
presbyters  as  distinct  from  the  "bishops" 
are  said  to  prove  that  in  that  age  fVio-Kon-of 
or  "bishop"  meant  presbyter.  Later 
still,  St.  Paul  writes  to  Titus  that  he  had 
left  him  in  Crete  to  "  appoint  presbyters 
in  every  city,"  and  continues — "for  the 
bishop  must  be  irreproachable,"  &c. 
Presbyterian  writers  also  allege  certain 
confirmatory  evidence  from  antiquity — 
some  words  of  St.  Jerome  (who,  however, 
anxious  as  he  was  to  exalt  the  priestly 
dignity,  expressly  mentions  the  power  of 
conferring  orders  as  marking  the  dis- 
tinction between  bishop  and  priest),  and 
the  supposed  tradition  of  the  Alexandrian 
Church.  The  reader  who  is  cui-ious  on 
this  latter  point  will  find  a  full  discussion 
of  it  in  Pearson's  "  Vindiciae  Ignatiance." 
But  Presbyterian  arguments  from  anti- 
quity need  not  detain  us  here.  Even  on 
their  own  showing,  Presbyterians  can  but 
produce  one  or  two  doubtful  testimonies, 
and  they  have  against  them  a  cloud  of 
witnesses  dating  from  the  sub-Apostolic 
age.  One  additional  remark,  however, 
must  be  made  before  we  end  our  state- 
ment of  the  Presbyterian  case.  We  have 
seen  that  there  are  plausible  reasons  for 
holding  that  the  words  presbyter  and 
bishop  are  synonymous  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. It  is  right  to  add  that  Clement  of 
Rome,  writing  towards  the  end  of  the  first 
centui-y,  does  not  seem  to  recognise  any 
distinction  in  meaning  between  the  two 
words.' 

In  spite  of  the  objections  just  stated, 
the  arguments  for  the  divine  institution 
of  episcopacy  are  clear  and  cogent.  We 
need  not  deny  that  the  same  persons  were 
at  first  called  indiflerently  bishops  and 
presbyters.  It  is  possible,  as  some  ancient 
writers  suppose,  that  at  Philippi  and  other 
places,  a  number  of  persons  received  epi- 
scopal consecration ;  that  they  were  occu- 

1  Clem.  1  Ep.  42.  He  thrice  mentions  eVf- 
(TKOTTOi  Kol  SiaKOVoi  together,  as  in  Phil.  i.  1, 
which  is  striking,  because  the  object  of  his 
epistle  is  to  defend  the  authority  of  the  pres- 
byters.  See  Lightfoot,  in  loc. 


BISHOP 


BISHOP 


91 


pied  for  a  time  in  administering  the 
sacraments  and  preaching  at  the  place  of 
their  consecration,  and  ready,  as  conve- 
nience required,  to  be  removed  to  such 
other  Churches  as  the  Apostles  should 
empower  them  to  govern  with  proper 
episcopal  jurisdiction.  Or  again,  we  may 
suppose,  with  other  great  authorities,  that 
the  Apostles  did  not  at  once  provide  the 
newly-founded  Churches  with  bishops,  but 
left  them  for  a  season  under  clergy  of  the 
second  order,  who  at  that  time  were  called 
indifferently  "  bishops  and  presbyters.' 
"VMiatever  theory  we  adopt  as  to  the 
early  use  of  the  word  "bishop,"  it  is 
certain  that  there  are  clear  traces  of  the 
episcopal  office,  as  we  now  understand  it, 
within  the  lifetime  of  the  Apostles,  and 
with  the  sanction  of  their  authority. 

For,  first,  St.  James  the  Less  was  be- 
yond reasonable  doubt  bishop  of  Jerusa- 
lem. Thus,  in  the  year  44,  when  St. 
Peter  was  released  from  prison  he  desired 
information  to  be  given  to  James  and  the 
brethren.  At  the  Apostolic  Council  James 
delivers  judgment  ("wherefore  I  judge  "). 
St.  Paul  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Galatians 
describes  Judaisers  from  Jerusalem  as 
"certain  who  came  from  James,"  thus 
naming  the  Church  by  its  bishop ;  in 
Acts  xxi.  18,  St  Pauf  is  said  to  have 
made  a  formal  visit  to  St.  James  and  to 
his  presbyters.  Moreover,  in  the  middle 
of  the  second  century  all  parties  were 
agreed  in  regarding  St.  James  as  bishop 
of  Jerusalem.^  This  is  clearly  proved  by 
Bishop  Lightfoot,  who  rightly  describes 
St.  James  as  "  the  precedent  and  pattern 
of  the  later  episcopate."  We  refer  to 
Dr.  Lightfoot  for  this  admission,  not  only 
because  of  his  great  learning  and  high 
ability,  but  also  because  he  is  perhaps 
the  very  ablest  writer  who  has  ever 
■written  against  the  Apostolic  origin  of 
episcopacy. 

Next,  St.  Paul  gave  Titus  power  to 
ordain  presbyters ;  he  gives  St.  Timothy 
directions  for  the  way  in  which  he  is  to 
receive  accusations  against  presbyters. 
Clearly  then  both  Timothy  and  Titus 

I  Petavins,  De  Eccles.  Hierarch.  lib.  iv. 
ad  init.,  gives  both  theories  as  probable,  qnotin;,' 
Kathers  of  the  Church  for  each.  The  latter 
Beems  much  the  more  attractive  on  instrinsio 
grounds.  The  former  is  recommended  by  the 
language  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  where  Acts 
XX.  28,  is  interpreted  of  bishops  in  the  proper 
sense. 

Lightfoot,  Ep.  to  Philippiaos,  "  Essav  on 
the  Christian  Ministrv."  Routh,  Melt.  Sacr.  i. 
p.  228. 


were  ecclesiastical  officers  superior  to  the 
clerg\-  of  the  second  order. 

Thirdly,  tlie  Angels  of  the  Churches 
in  the  Apocalypse  cannot  possildy  be  an- 
gels in  the  ordinary  sense,  for  some  of 
them  are  charged  with  serious  faults. 
Nor  can  the  Angels  be  idcntitied  witli  the 
Churches,  since  botli  Angds  and  Churches 
are  represented  by  (li>tiiu't  syniliol?. 
"The  seven  stars,"  St.  .Idhii  >ay>.  "are 
the  angels  of  the  seven  chur(  iu'>.  ami  the 
seven  candlesticks  are  the  seven  churclu's." 
TMiat,  then,  were  the  Ang.l>  of  the 
Churches  ?  Each  of  them  rf]>re>ent>  the 
Church  of  a  city,  and  is  responsible  for 
the  purity  of  its  doctrine  and  its  morals. 
They  answer  to  the  idea  of  diocesan 
bishops  and  to  nothing  else.' 

This  inference  from  Scripture  rises 
to  demonstration  if  considered  in  con- 
nection with  the  earliest  tradition.  Poly- 
carp,  the  disci  [lie  of  St.  John,  writes  as  a 
bishop  and  distinguishes  himself  from  his 
;  presbyters.  The  Ignatian  epistles  no- 
j  toriously  exalt  the  episcopal  ofHce  as  the 
I  centre  of  unity,  and  insist  on  the  necessity 
laid  both  on  presbyters  and  laymen  of 
submission  to  the  bishop.  St.  Ignatius 
wrote  only  a  few  years  after  St.  John's 
j  death,  and  his  letters  prove  that  episco- 
j  pacy  was  established  in  his  time,  not 
only  at  Antioch,  where  he  himself  was 
bishop,  but  at  each  of  the  six  Churches  in 
Asia  Minor  to  which  he  writes,  nor  does 
he  hint  that  there  was  any  Church  with 
other  than  an  episcopal  organisation. 
True,  the  authenticity  of  these  letters  has 
been  disputed,  but  this  on  most  inade- 
quate grounds.  Indeed,  many  eminent 
German  scholars,  prejudiced  as  they  are 
against  the  Ignatian  teaching  on  episco- 
pacy, have  been  compelled  by  the  weight 
of  evidence  to  admit  the  authenticity  of 
these  epistles.  The  Clementine  homilies 
supply  another  important  contribution  to 
the  evidence.  Their  witness  is  all  the 
more  valuable  because  they  are  deeply 
marked  with  heresy.  Still  the  author  of 
these  homilies,  differing  as  he  does  from 
Catholics  on  other  points,  agrees  with 
them  in  affirming  the  Apostolic  origin  of 
the  episcopal  office.'^  These  homilii  >  cdme 
from  early  times:  they  cannot  be  placed 
later  than  the  end,  and  should  perhaps  be 
placed  at  the  beginning,  of  the  second  cen- 

>  See  the  authorities  for  this  interpretation 
in  Petav,  op.  cit.  lib.  i.  2.  It  was  adopted  by 
Grotius,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  Protes- 
tant conunentators,  and  himself  member  of  a 
Presbyterian  sect. 

2  See,  e.g.,  the  Epistle  of  Clement  to  James. 


92 


BISHOP 


BISHOP 


tiiry.  Now,  if  we  allow  the  Apostolic 
institution,  this  ancient  evidence  presents 
no  difficulty.  It  does  but  confirm  the  con- 
clusion we  had  already  reached  from  an 
examinat  ion  ot'theNew  Testament  records. 
If,  on  the  cither  hand,  it  is  maintained 
that  bisliops  in  tlie  modern  sense  beg-an 
to  be  after  the  death  of  the  Apostles,  or 
at  least  withdut  tlieir  sanction,  it  is  im- 
possible to  understand  how  in  so  brief  a 
space  Churclifs  all  over  the  world  ex- 
channvd  presbytcrian  for  episcopal  govern- 
ment. Xor  is  tliis  all.  "\Ve  must  sup- 
pose that  in  a  very  short  time — with- 
in a  century  at  the  most — all  recollec- 
tion of  the  original  state  of  things  had 
perished.  St.  Irenseus  cannot  even  un- 
derstand tliat  the  name  of  "  bishop  " '  had 
ever  bei'u  given  to  mere  presbyters.  We 
say  nothing  of  later  Fathers,  for  in  the 
Church  of  the  fourth  century  it  is  ad- 
mitted to  have  been  a  settled  maxim  that 
bishops  only  could  ordain,  and  Epiphanius 
describes  the  doctrine  of  Aerius,  the  first 
presliyterian,  as  frantic. 

1 1 .  X(i  t  lire  n  ft  lie  EpixcojKtl  Office.  — We 
may  now  dismiss  tlie  controversial  part  of 
the  subject,  and  proceed  to  explain  the 
duties,  ri(/hts  and  potiition  of  a  bishop  in 
the  Church.  A  bishop  is,  according'  to 
the  Council  of  Trent,  the  successor  of  the 
Ajiostles.  He  has  received  the  sacrament 
f)f  order  in  all  its  fulness.  He  can,  like 
the  Apostles,  confirm;  he  can  ordain 
])riests  and  consecrate  otlier  bishops.  The 
Pope  liiuiself,  so  far  as  onler  noes,  is  sim- 
ply a  bishop,  .\liiien\er,  the  hishop  is  the 
meudier  of  a  liier.nchy  \\  hich  is  divinely 
constituted,  and  which  coilecti\  ely  repre- 
sents the  colh'ge  of  the  Apostles.  The 
Holy  Ghost  lias  appointed  bishops  "  to 
rule  the  Church  of  God,"  and  although 
the  Pope  can  suppress  sees  or  change  their 
boundaries,  he  cannot  do  away,  through- 
out the  Churcli,  with  bishops  governing 
their  sees  witli  ordinary  jurisdiction, 
because  tliis  woukl  involve  a  change  in 
the  divine  const  it  u1  ion  of  the  Church, 
which  is  inalterabli'.  Again,  even  an  in- 
dividual bishop  has  cei'tain  chities  to  the 
whole  Church.  It  is  his  duty  to  bear 
witness  to  the  faith  and  tradition  of  his 
predecessors  and  of  his  flock,  and  he  sits 
as  a  judge  in  general  councils.  Of  course 
all  these  rights  are  held  and  duties  exer- 
cised in  union  with  and  in  submission  to 
the  see  of  Peter. 

■  iii.  14,  2.  The  pas.sage  is  very  instructive. 
St.Ircn.Tus  says  St.  Paul  at  Miletus  "convoked 
the  bishops  and  the  pre.sbyters."  He  is  evidently 
unable  to  understand  the  interchange  of  names. 


1.  In  his  own  diocese  it  is  a  bishop's 
duty  (a)  to  temh.  He  himself  is  required 
by  the  Council  of  Trent  to  jjreach  the 
word  of  God,  unless  he  be  lawfully  hin- 
dered, nor  can  anyone,  secular  or  regular, 
preach  in  the  diocese  without  his  leave, 
lie  must  watch  over  purity  of  doctrine, 
especially  in  all  schools  public  and  pri- 
vate, and  a]i|io!iit  professors  in  the  semi- 
nary and  cieni-al  cdUeges.  No  book 
treating  on  religion  (<le  j-ebus  sacris)  can 
be  published  till  it  has  been  examined  by 
the  bishop's  orders  and  received  his 
imprimatur.' 

(6)  To  guard  the  morals  of  his  flock, 
and  especially  to  maintain  discipline 
among  his  clergy ;  to  take  measures  for 
the  due  performance  of  divine  worship  ; 
to  see  that  the  people  are  provided  with 
the  sacraments,  &c.  Hehimself  (oranother 
bishop,  with  his  leave)  must  confirm,  or- 
dain priests,  consecrate  the  holy  oils, 
churches,  altars,  chalices,  &c.  He  must 
also  approve  priests,  and  give  them  their 
faculties  to  hear  confessions,  to  adminis- 
ter the  other  sacraments,  &c.,  ifcc. 

(e)  To  reside."  (d)  To  make  a  visita- 
tion of  all  the  churches  in  his  diocese  at 
least  every  two  vears.^ 

2.  In  oriler  tliat  he  may  perform  these 
duties,  a  bishop    i->r>,-es  certain  rielits  : — 

(a)  He  may  make  laws  for  his  dio- 
ce.se  :  not,  however,  such  as  are  contrary 
to  the  law  of  the  Church. 

(b)  He  decides  in  the  first  instance 
all  ecclesiastical  causes,  (c)  He  can  in- 
flict penalties,  suspension,  excommunica- 
tion, and  the  like. 

(d)  He  may  dispense  from  the  observ- 
ance of  his  own  laws,  and  altliough,  gene- 
rally speaking,  a  bishop  cannot  dispense 
inlaws  made  hy  those  who  hii\e  power 
superior  to  his  own.  still  ihe  ^viu'i-al  law 
of  the  Church  eualiles  him  to  dispense  in 
certain  cases  of  irregularity,  in  the  pro- 
clamation of  banns,  in  oaths  (unless  the 
diiBpensation  tends  to  the  injury  of  a  third 
party),  and  in  simple  vows,  except  vows  of 

I  chastitv  and  \  (i\\s  to  enter  religion,  or  to 
make ]ii Igrimages  toll' mie, the  IJoly  Land, 

I  or  St.  .lames  of  Ccmijiostella,  &c.,  &c. 

I  Some  bishops  have  additional  power  to 
dispense  by  virtue  of  lawful  custom  or  by 
delegation  from  the  Pope. 

(e)  Certain  other  rights  of  bishops 
are  summed  up  imder  the  general  head  of 

1  Concil.  Trident,  sess.  v.  cap.  2,  De  Reform.; 
sess.  xxiv.  cap.  4,  De  Reform. ;  sess.  iv.  De  Edit, 
et  Usu  SS.  lib. 

2  Jbid.  sess.  xxiii.  cap.  1,  De  Reform. 
»  Concil.  Trid.  sess.  xxiv.  cap.  3. 


BISHOP 


BISHOP 


93 


"administration."  A  bishop  may  erect 
or  suppress  churches  or  benefices,  provided 
he  observes  the  canonical  regulation  re- 
specting such  matters.  He  collates  to  all 
b.'nefices,  parish  churches,  prebends  in 
his  diocese,  except  such  as  are  reserved  to 
the  Pope.  He  assigns  their  duties  to  his 
clergy,  and  determines  the  persons  among 
his  subjects  who  are  to  be  admitted  to 
the  ecclesiastical  state  or  to  higher 
orders.  He  watches  over  the  manage- 
ment of  temporal  goods  pertaining  to  the 
Church  or  to  pious  places.  As  Apo.^tulic 
Delegate,  he  becomes  in  certain  cu,-rs  men- 
tioned by  the  law  jhe  executor  to  carry 
out  the  intentions  of  those  who  have  given 
or  left  money  for  pious  uses. ' 

III.  Titles,  Imiynia,  ifc,  of  Bishops. — 
All  priests  saying  Mass  in  the  diocese 
pray  for  the  bishop  by  name  in  the  Canon. 
He  is  received  by  the  priests  and  people 
at  the  door  of  the  church  when  he  comes  on 
official  visits.  He  receives  certain  titles 
of  honour.  In  the  first  ages  he  was  called 
Most  Holy,  Most  Blessed,  Lord  {domi- 
w««),"  Your  Holiness  "'(.s«nc/«Vr/.s  tua).  Sec, 
&C.,  some  of  which  titles  art-  now  reser\ 
to  the  Pope.  Desidrrlu-  ..t'  CnUn>.  almut 
650,  calls  himself  /  >  *. •/•»•»»/•///«.-  At 
present  a  bishop  i^  called  ■•iimst  ilhi-ti  lnus 
and  most  reverend  Lord;""  the  Tope  ad- 
dresses him  as  ''veneraljle  brdtbev/'  "yoiir 
fraternity,"  &c.,  while  the  bishop  .-peaks 
of  himself  as  "N.,  by  the  grace  of  God 
and  of  the  Apostohc  See,  Bishop  of  X." 
The  insignia  of  his  office  are  the  pastoral 
staff  {pedum,  haculus),  the  ring,  pectoral 
cross,  episco})al  throne,  the  niitre,  ponti- 
fical vestments,  gloves  and  sandals.  In 
many  cmuitries  the  liisliup  has  spreial 
rights  and  titles  of  honour  accorded  to 
him  bv  the  laws  of  the  State. 

IV.  Election, ii,-c..ofIlishni,<.—B[shoi>r, 
were  first  of  all  chosen  In"  the  Apostles. 
St.  Paul,  for  instance,  left  St.  Titus  at 
Crete,  with  authority  to  ordain  priests,  &c. 

In  the  third  century  bishops  were 
chosen,  as  Cyprian  sa\s,  -Miy  the  vote  of 
all  the  faithful  and  by  thv-  jmlgiiient  of 
the  bishops  "  of  the  pro\  ince  ^ — i.e.  t  he  peo- 
ple chose  a  bishop,  but  tRe  Ijishops  of  the 
province  could  put  a  veto  on  this  choiee  : 
nay,  the  bishops  could  in  extreme  ea-es 
actually  choose  the  bishop.  The  fourth 
canon  of  Xicaea  recommends  (Trpoo-tj/cei) 
that  a  bishop  be  appointed  {naBL  n  iktBul) 

'  Concil.  Trid.  sess.  xxii.  cap.  8,  De  Reform. 
Chieflv  from  Card.  Soglia,  Instilut.  Juris 
Eccl.  ■ 

-  Kraus,  Archwolag.  Diet.  Art.  "  Biscliof." 
'  Cyprian,  Ep.  l.wiii. 


by  the  bishops  of  the  province.  If  this 
is  impossible,  three  bishops  are  to  con- 
secrate him  with  the  consent  of  the  rest. 
The  confirmation  of  the  whole  matter  {t6 
Kvpoi  tS)v  yivofih'tiiv)  is  to  rest  with  the 
metropolitan.  Two  intei-pretations  of  this 
canon  were  current  in  the  Church.  The 
Greek  canonists,  following  the  lead  of  tlie 
Seventh  General  Council,  understood  the 

I  Nicene  canon  as  reserving  the  clioii  f  a 

new  bishop  to  the  bislio]-  of  the  province, 
and  so  annulling  the  old  form  of  election 
by  clergy  and  people.  In  the  West,  the 
canon  was  iutei-preted  as  merely  requiring 
the  presence  of  the  bishops  of  the  pro- 
vince at  the  consecration.  Hence  in  the 
Latin  Church  jiopular  election  continued, 
at  least  in  ronii.till  the  eleven!  h  century. 
Aft.'r  that,  tlie  bi.hop  was  elected  by  the 
clergy  of  the  cathedral  church,  the  conhr- 
mation  restm-.a-  1  irt'ore,  with  t]u>  metro- 
pohtan.'  Gradually,  from  tlie  eleventh 
century  onward?,  the  right  of  coutirniation 
passed  from  the  metropolitan  to  the  Pope.'^ 
Later  on,  from  the  time  of  Clement  V.,  the 
Popes  reserved  the  whole  apjiointment  of 
bi.-liops  in  certain  cases,  ancl  at  last  in  all 
t-ases,  to  themselves.  This  la>t  state  of 
things,  liowexer,  did  not  continue.  The 
l'ope~  restored  in  some  countrie.-  the  riuht 
of  electing  bi.shops  to  the  chapters,'' and 
tile  riLilit  is  still  continued  in ( iermany  (ex- 
]lu\  aria  and  ].art  of  Austria)  and  in 
Switzerland.  In  other  countries  tlie  Pope 
has  given  to  ( 'atholic  sovereigns  tlie  right 
of  noininatini:  to  \  acaiit  bishoprics.  Such 
rights  hax  e  been  coiu-eded  to  the  Kings  of 
France,  Portugal,  Spain,  Naples  and 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  to  the  l  iuiperor  of  Austria 
with  certain  exceptions,  and  by  the  Con- 
cordat of  1817  to  the  King  of  i!a\aria. 
Even  Protestant  Governments  in  ( ierinany 
are  jierniitted  to  inspect  a  list  of  names 
proposed  provisionally  by  th(>  chapters  and 
to  exclude  such  names  as  are  displeasing  to 
them.  In  England  the  choice  of  bishops 
belongs  simply  and  exclusively  to  the  Pope. 
At  tlie  same  time  certain  privileges  have 
been  L;i  anted  in  this  respect  to  the  I'higlish 
(;iiurcli  liy  Pius  IX.  A  week  after  the 
see  is  vacant  the  canons  are  required  to 
eli-ct  a  vicar  capitular.  A  month  later, 
under  the  presiclency  of  the  metrojiolitan, 
or,  failing  him,  of  tlie  senior  liislio]),  they 
l)y  their  separate  ^  otes  recoiniiiend  tiiree 
persons  for  the  vacant  see.  Ivich  of  tiiese 
persons  must  have  obtained  an  absolute 
majority  of  the  votes  of  the  chapter. 

>  Hefele,  Concilien.  i.  p.  382. 

-  Kraus,  Kirchengeschirhte,  p.  326. 

3  Soglia,  Inslitut.  Juris  Jf  rivat.  v.  38. 


94 


Bisiior 


BISHOP 


The  names  are  given  or  s.  iit  in  alphabeti- 
cal order  to  the  metmpolitaii.  The  bishops 
of  the  province  {i.e.  of  I'.niiland)  examine 
the  names,  annex  thcir  jiKlu  I  iirnt  upon  each 
of  them,  and  transmit  them  to  the  Congre- 
gation of  Propaganda.  It  need  scarcely 
be  said  that  this  recommendation  is  wholly 
different  from  true  and  canonical  election.' 
The  person  thus  elected,  nominated  or  re- 
commended must  be  thirty  years  of  age,  in 
holy  orders,  of  Catholic  parentage,  of 
good  fame,  able  to  produce  the  public 
testimony  of  some  university  or  academy 
to  his  learning.'-  If  the  person  elected 
accepts,  he  must  Avithin  a  tixed  time  ask 
for  the  ra]ial  confirmation,  by  which  the 
person  elected  is  approved  and  made  bishop 
of  the  see.  This  confirmation  is  given  by 
the  Pope  in  a  consistory  of  Cardinals, 
and  in  virtue  of  it  the  bishop  designate 
contracts  spiritual  marriage  with  his  see 
and  receives  full  jurisdiction  within  it. 
He  cannot,  of  course,  previous  to  his  con- 
secration, confirm,  ordain,  &c.,  but  he  can 
delegate  power  for  the  performance  of  these 
and  other  acts  of  episcopal  order  to 
another  bishop. 

It  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said 
that  the  discipline  of  the  Church  with 
regard  to  the  appointment  of  bishops  has 
varied  from  age  to  age,  and  that  the 
Holy  See  now  exercises  a  more  immediate 
control  over  the  matter  than  was  usual 
in  the  primitive  or  even  the  medineval 
Church.  From  the  first,  however,  the 
Pope  possessed  the  full  power  of  governing 
the  whole  Church.  No  one  is,  and  no  one 
ever  could  he,  a  Catholic  bishop,  unless 
either  expressly  or  tacitly  recognised  as 
such  by  the  Pope.  Varyinu  circumstances 
made  it  prudent  for  the  Pope  to  exercise 
his  control  in  a  less  or  in  a  greater  degTee, 
but  the  principle  of  government  has  re- 
mained the  same.  The  Pope,  by  the  law 
of  Christ,  is  the  head  of  the  Church.  On 
the  other  hand,  ])atriarchs  and  metro- 
politans are  of  ecclesiastical  institution; 
they  could  therefore  possess  no  inherent 
right  to  confirm  bishops,  and  they  suffered 
no  wrong  when  the  Pope  withdrew  it 
from  them. 

V.  Connecrationof  Bishops. — The  con- 
secration of  bishops  used  to  be  performed 
by  the  metropolitan  and  two  other  bishops. 
According  to  the  present  discipline,  the 
consecration  of  bishops  is  reserved  to  the 
Pope,  or  to  a  bishop  specially  commis- 

'  See  Synod.  Prooinc.  Weslmonuxl.  decret. 
xii.  and  the  Instruction  of  l'rc>iiagamla  in  the 
Appendix. 

Concil.  Trid.  sess.  xxii.  cap.  2,  De  lleform. 


sioned  by  him.  The  consecrator  is  assisted 
by  two  other  bishops,  for  which  latter  the 
Pope  sometimes  permits  mitred  abbots,  or 
even  simple  priests,  to  be  substit\ited. 
The  consecration  should  take  place  within 
three  months  of  confirmation,  and  on  a 
j  Sunday,  or  feast  of  an  Apostle.  The 
bishop-elect,  who  must  already  have  been 
ordained  priest,  takes  an  oath  before  the 
bishop  who  is  to  consecrate  him,  that  he 
will  be  faithful  to  the  Holy  See,  that  he 
will  promote  its  authority,  and  that  he 
will,  at  stated  intervals  prescribed  by  law, 
and  different  for  different  countries,  visit 
the  city  of  Rome,  and  give  an  account  to 
the  Pope  of  his  whole  pastoral  office. 
Afterwards,  the  elect  is  consecrated  bishop 
i  by  imposition  of  hands,  the  tradition 
[  of  staff  and  ring,  the  unction  with  the 
j  chrism,  the  imposition  of  the  book  of  the 
I  Gospels  on  his  shoulders,  and  other  rites 
;  prescribed  in  the  Pontifical.  Thus  the 
fulness  of  the  priesthood  is  received,  and 
the  person  consecrated  acquires  episcopal 
order  in  addition  to  episcopal  jurisdict  ion, 
which  he  already  held.  [See  also  Oudee, 
HoltO 

Vl.  Translatiov ,  Resignation,  Depo- 
sition of  Bishops.  — Ho  sacred  is  the  con- 
!  nection  between  a  Ijishop  and  his  see,  that, 
1  as  Innocent  III.  declares,  the  power  to 
i  sever  it  belongs,  "not  so  much  by  canoni- 
cal legislation,  as  by  divine  institution,  to 
the  lioman  Pontiff"',  and  to  him  alone." 
This  follows  from  principles  already  stated, 
i  The  Pope  alone  can  make  a  bishop ;  and 
therefore  the  Pope  alone  can  unmake 
him. 

Translation  from  one  see  to  another 
was  absolutely  forbidden  by  the  Nicene 
Council  (Can.  15),  and  by  the  Council  of 
Antioch,  which  met  in  341.  This  pro- 
hibition was,  however,  modified  by  the 
I4th  of  the  Apostolic  Canons,  which  per- 
mits translation  if  the  reasons  are  very 
m-gent  and  approved  by  the  judgment  of 
"many  bishops.'"  At  first,  such  transla- 
tion was  eff'ected  by  provincial  councils. 
In  the  ninth  century,  Hincmar  of  Rheims 
says  a  bishop  might  be  tran.slated  "by  the 
ordinance  of  a  sjmod,  or  by  the  consent  of 
the  Apostolic  See ; "  but  by  the  law  which 
has  pi-evailed  from  the  twelfth  century 
the  consent  of  the  Pope  is  always  required. 
The  Pope's  leave  is  also  required  for  re- 
signation. Finally,  the  "grave  causes" 
against  bishops  such  as  deserve  deposi- 
tion or  privation  can  only  be  examined 
and  terminated  by  the  definitive  sentence 

I  Hefele,  Concil.  i.  p.  «04 ;  Neandcr,  Kir- 
chenffeichichte,  iii.  p.  233. 


BISllOr  AUXILIARY 


BISHOP  IN  PARTIBUS,  ETC.  95 


of  the  Pope.'  Less  serious  charges  may 
be  examined  and  decided  in  a  provincial 
council. 

BZSBOP  AVXZX.ZART.  When  a 
bishop  is  unable,  for  various  reasons,  to 
perform  all  the  functions  nvjuired  by  his 
office,  it  is  usual  to  assign  to  him  a 
titular  bishop  to  a^^i^t  him.  This  aux- 
iliary bishop,  as  such,  has  no  jurisdic- 
tion; he  only  performs  those  things  which 
belong  to  thi-  e])i>t'()pal  office  and  order. 
He  may,  however,  lie  nominated  by  the 
bishop  as  vicar  "general  :  in  which  ca.se 
he  has  the  right  to  e.vercise  jurisdiction. 
Another  name  for  an  auxiliary  is  Bishop 
Sufirag-an  [q.v.]. 

BISHOP,  COADJUTOR.  [See  CO- 
ADJUTOR.^ 

BISBOP  Zir  PABTZBVS  ZM-FZBE- 
1Z1T2VI.  A  bisho])  coiiseci'ated  to  a  sei' 
which  formerly  exi-^ted,  lii;f  wliich  has 
been,  chiefly  through  the  dc- .i-tations  of 
thefoUowersof  Mahomet, lo>t  to  I  'hn-ti'ii- 
dom.  Such  a  bishop  may  als(;  be  described 
as  a  "Titular"  bishop. 

The  creation  of  such  titular  bisliops 
dates  only  from  the  pontificateof  Leo  X., 
but  they  existed  de  facto  from  the  time 
when  the  first  Christian  see  as  widowed 
by  the  attacks  of  a  foreign  eiu'my  oi-  tin- 
action  of  a  hostile  governnn'iit.  (  ui  iioiy 
the  Great  provided  for  several  lUyiiau 
bishops,  whom  an  inroad  of  the  Avars  had  | 
driven  from  their  sees,  by  appointing  them 
to  vacant  sees  in  Italy,  till  they  should  be  ! 
able  to  return  home.  The  Moorish  con- 
quest of  Spain  widowed  a  great  number 
of  sees,  the  prelates  of  which  fled  to  the 
parts  still  unconquered,  chiefly  settling  at 
Oviedo,  which  thence  had  the  name  of  ' 
"  the  City  of  Bishops."  But  it  was  the 
progress  of  IMohammedan  arms  in  the 
East,  devastating  numberless  Cliurcbes  in 
Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Africa,  which, 
till  then,  had  been  flourishing  bishoprics, 
that  caused  a  great  and  sudden  rise  in  the 
number  of  titular  bishops,  attached  to  no 
special  sphere  of  duty,  but  wan^iering 
from  place  to  jilne.',  some  liojiing  our  day 
to  return,  other,-  ,-oi  long  for  suitable  work 
wherever  it  might  be  offered.  Tiiis  state 
of  things  led  to  great  abuses ;  for  a  bishop 
whose  see  was  lyi  jmrtihuii  would  often 
enter  some  remote  portion  of  tlie  diocese 
of  a  more  fortunate  brotliei-  further  west, 
and  there  exercise  in  various  w  ays,  with- 
out the  permission  of  the  bishop  of  the 
diocese,  his  episcopal  ofllce.  Clerks  whom 
their  own  bishop  would  not  have  promoted 
to  priest's  orders  often  received  through 
'  Concil.  Trid.  sess.  xxiv.  cap.  5,  De  Reform. 


the  agency  of  these  wandering  bishops 
the  ordination  which  they  desired.  This 
abuse  was  condemned  by  a  decree  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,'  which  expressly  forbids 
these  wandering  bishops — "clero  careutes 
et  populo  Christiano" — to  promote  candi- 
dates for  ordination  to  any  orders  what- 
ever, without  the  consent  of  the  bishop 
of  the  diocese. 

"With  the  increasing  eonij)lication  of 
political  afl'airs  in  Europi',  circumstances 
could  not  but  arise  which  should  induce 
the  Pojies,  while  providing  for  Catholic 
populations  more  or  less  at  the  mercy  of 
Protectant  Governments  pastors  armed 
with  lull  episcopal  powers,  to  prefer  in- 
ve>tiiig  them  with  the  titles  of  ancient 
sees,  now  extinct,  to  asserting  their  claim 
to  local  titles  and  thus  arousing  the  hos- 
tility or  suspicion  of  unfriendly  Govern- 
ments. Considerations  of  this  nature  were 
the  cause  why  Catholic  affairs  in  our  own 
country  were  committed  to  the  administra- 
tion of  bishops  in  partibus,  from  the  ap- 
])oiiitment  of  the  first  Vicar  Apostolic 
(1(>2.'^.)  to  the  creation  of  a  new  hierarchy 
in  18-")0.  Besides  the  Vicars  Apostolic  in 
a  non-Catholic  country,  the  Vicars  of 
Cardinal-bishops,  auxiliary  bishops  in 
countries  where  it  is  usual  to  appoint 
them,  and  Papal  Nuncios,  usually  have 
their  sees  in  partibus  injidelium. 

Bishops  in  partibus  can  attend  general 
councils.  They  are  considered  as  truly 
wedded  to  the  Churches  of  which  they 
bear  the  titles,  so  that  they  cannot  be 
ajipointed  to  other  sees  except  upon  the 
conditions  common  to  all  episcopal  trans- 
lations. They  are  not  obliged,  like  other 
bishops,  to  make  periodical  visits  ad  limina 
apostolorum,  because  they  have  no  dioceses 
to  report  of.  They  are,  however,  expected 
to  inform  themselves,  so  far  as  they  may 
have  opportunity,  of  the  condition  of 
affairs  in  their  titular  dioceses,  and  work 
actively  for  their  restoration  to  Christen- 
dom, if  any  favourable  opening  should 
present  itself. 

The  political  condition  of  the  eastern 
and  southern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
has  for  some  time  been  such  as  to  allow 
of  the  existence  of  flourishing  Christian 
communities  in  many  places  where  for- 
merly Mussulman  bigotry  would  have 
rendered  it  impossible.  These  countries 
are  no  longer  "partes  infidelium,"  in  the 
full  sense  of  the  words.  His  Holiness 
Leo  XIII.  has  therefore,  by  a  recent 
decision,  substituted  the  phrase  "  Titular 

»  Sess.  xiv.  De  Ref.  ii. 


06       lUSIIOP,  SUFFRAGAN 


BLESSING 


Bishop  "  for  "  Bishop  in  Partibus  Infide- 
liiiiu." 

BISHOP,  SVFFRACAXir  (Lat.  mf- 

fragari,  to  support.)  This  name  is  given 
to  a  bishop  in  an  ecclesiastical  province, 
relatively  to  the  metropolitan  [y.v.]  in 
whose  province  he  is.  Also  to  a  titular 
bishop  or  bi.shop  in  pnrtibm  who  is  exer- 
cising the  pontifical  functions  and  ordi- 
nations for  the  ordinary  bishop  whom  he 
has  been  invited  to  assist. 

BISHOP,  TiTVXiAii.  [See  Bishop 

ITS  PAETIBUS  INTIDELIUM.] 

BX.ACK  FRIARS.  [See  Domini- 
cans.] 

BXiASPHBMT  (Gr.  ff\a(T(i>r)fiia;  ety- 
mol.  uncertain).  Originally,  injurious  and 
opprobrious  words  generally  ;  afterwards 
it  was  restricted  to  language  dishonouring 
to  God — contumeliosa  in  Deum  locutio — 
but  yet  so  that  the  offence  committed 
against  those  known  to  be  God's  servants 
was  held  to  be  committed  against  God 
Himself;  as  when  Stephen  was  charged 
by  the  Pharisees  with  speaking  "blasphe- 
mous words  against  Moses;"  finally,  and 
in  modem  use,  the  employment  of  such 
language  against,  or  concerning,  God  only. 
In  Matt.  xii.  31,  we  read  that,  while  every 
other  sin  and  blasphemy  are  pardonable, 
"  the  blasphemy  of  the  Spirit "  shall  not 
be  forgiven.  Various  explanations  of  this 
passage  have  been  given  by  theologians. 
There  is  a  chapter  on  "Blasphemy"  in 
the  body  of  the  Canon  Law,  which  pre- 
scribes the  penalties  to  be  awarded  to  the 
various  persons  who  may  be  guilty  of  it. 
In  England  the  statute  10  "William  III. 
ch.  32,  modified  by  52  George  III.  ch.  160, 
contains  the  existing  law  in  respect  of 
blasphemy.  The  code  of  Wurtemberg 
punishes  outrageous  and  offensive  words 
or  acts  against  the  customs,  rites,  &c.,  of 
any  recognised  religion ;  but  the  pain  in- 
dicted on  the  feelings  of  men,  not  the 
dishonour  to  God,  seems  to  be  the  motive 
of  such  legislation.  Similarly  the  French 
code,  while  not  punishing  blasphemy, 
as  such,  restrains  it  indirectly  by  severe 
regulations  repressive  of  anything  like 
what  we  should  consider  "  brawling  "  in 
church. 

Protestant  divines  have  often  stigma- 
tised the  rapturous  language  in  which 
Catholics  indulge  in  praise  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  as  "  blasphemous,"  on  the  ground 
that  God  is  indirectly  dishonoured  when 
His  creature  is  thus  exalted.  But  this 
seems  to  involve  a  misuse  of  the  term 
"  blasphemy,"  which  implies  a  conscious 
and  intentional  use  of  language  which  the 


speaker  knows  to  be  injurious  to  the- 
Being  of  whom  it  is  uttered.  No  excess 
of  "profane  swearing," culpable  as  it  may 
be,  can  amount  to  blasphemy,  because  the 
intentional  conterojjt  of  God  is  not  there. 
In  the  same  way,  to  speak  of  Mary  a* 
"negotiating  our  peace,  not  only  is  not 
"  blasphemous,"  but  conveys  an  important 
truth  ;  while  to  deny  that  her  Son  "  nego- 
tiated our  peace  "  in  a  higher  sense  would, 
of  course,  be  blasphemous  in  the  highest 
degree. 

B&ESSXM'C  in  its  most  general 
sense,  a  form  of  prayer  begging  the  favour 
of  God  for  the  persons  blessed.  God  is 
the  source  of  all  His  blessing,  but  certain 
persons  have  special  authority  to  bless  in 
His  name,  so  that  this  blessing  is  mora 
than  a  mere  prayer ;  it  actually  conveys 
God's  blessing  to  those  who  are  fit  to  re- 
ceive it.  Thus  in  the  old  law  God  said 
of  the  sons  of  Aaron,  "  They  shall  invoke 
my  name  on  the  children  of  Israel,  and  I 
will  bless  them;"'  and  Christ  said  to  his 
disciples,  "Into  whatsoever  house  you 
euter,  first  say :  Peace  be  to  this  house  : 
and,  if  the  son  of  peace  be  there,  your 
peace  shall  rest  upon  him."'  Accord- 
ingly, the  Church  provides  for  the  so- 
lemn blessing  of  her  children  by  the 
hands  of  her  ministers.  Such  bles.sings^ 
are  given, 

(1)  By  priests.  "It  is  the  part  of  a 
priest  to  bless,"  the  Pontifical  says,  in  the 
office  for  their  ordination.  This  blessing 
may  be  given  privately,  at  discretion.  It 
is  given  by  a  form  tolerated  in  England 
to  the  penitent  before  confession ;  to  those 
who  have  received  communion  out  of 
Mass  ;  on  many  other  occasions,  some  of 
which  are  determined  by  custom,  but 
above  all  at  the  end  of  all  Masses  except 
those  for  the  dead.  The  priest  raises  his- 
right  hand  and  makes  the  sign  of  the 
cross  once  over  the  people.  This  custom 
of  priests  blessing  at  .Muss  is  not  very 
ancient.  The  older  writers  on  ritual 
make  no  mention  of  it,  and  although  it 
was  known  to  the  author  of  the  "  Micro- 
logus,"  a  contemporary  of  Gregory  VII., 
the  custom  does  not  seem  to  have  beeu 
universally  received  even  then.  At  one 
time  priests  used  to  make  the  sign  of  the 
cross  three  times  over  the  people.  Pius 
V.  restricted  them  to  a  blessing  with  a 
single  sign  of  the  cross,  except  in  solemn 
Masses;  Clement  VIII.  made  the  rule,, 
which  forbids  a  priest  to  bless  with  th& 
triple  sign  of  the  cross,  absolute. 

«  Num.  vi.  27. 

*  Luc.  z.  6. 


BLESSING 


BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN  97 


(2)  By  bisshops.  A  bishop  immediately 
after  his  consecration  is  conducted  round 
the  church,  blessing  the  people ;  and  after- 
wards, returning  to  the  altar,  blesses  them 
solemnly,  making  the  triple  sign  of  the 
cross.  lie  uses  the  same  rite  of  blessing 
whenever  he  says  Mass.  An  abbot, 
according-  to  the  decrees  of  Alexander 
Vll.,  can  give  the  blessing  with  the  triple 
sign  of  the  cross  only  when  he  celebrates 
Mass  pontificallv.  (See  Benedict  XIV. 
"  De  Miss."  ii.  l4.) 

(3)  By  the  Pope.  The  Pope  blesses 
the  people  solemnly  at  Easter,  on  the 
feast  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  and  also 
on  other  special  occasions.  To  this  papal 
blessing  ( Benedict io  Pontijicia  seu  Apo- 
stolica)  a  plenarj-  indulgence  is  attached, 
to  be  gained  by  the  faithful  on  certain 
conditions.  Bishops  in  virtue  of  a  special 
indult  sometimes  receive  the  privilege  of 
bestowing  the  Papal  blessing  at  stated 
times.  The  bishop  gives  it  after  Mass, 
first  causing  the  Apostolic  letters,  which 
confer  the  plenary  indulgence,  to  be  read. 
The  power  of  bestowing  it  is  also  some- 
times conimunicatedtoslmple  priests — e.g. 
to  regulars,  at  the  conclusion  of  a  mission, 
&c. 

Hitherto  we  have  been  occupied  with 
blessings  bestowed  upon  the  faithful  in 
general.  But  there  are  al?o  lil('.~-inas 
reserved  for  special  persons  or  f.n-  -jHcial 
objects.  Gavantus  and  other  writers  nn 
ritual  divide  blessings  of  this  kiiKl  '  intu 
two  classes — viz.  into  benedict ione.?  intyicc- 
tiea,  or  blessings  which  merely  invnkr  the 
blessing  of  God  upon  persons  or  things  ; 
and  benedictiones  constii utivff,  or  blessings 
which  set  apart  a  person  or  thing  for  the 
service  of  God.  To  the  former  class 
belongs  the  blessingof  houses, fields,  ships, 
candles,  food,  &c.,  &c. :  to  the  latter  the 
blessingof  sacerdotal  vestments,  coi-porals, 
altar-cloths,  &c.  It  is  impossible  to  dis- 
tinguish accurately  between  the  use  of  the 
word  consecration  and  blessing  when  it  is 
used  in  the  sense  of  benedictio  constitutiva ; 
but  consecration  denotes  a  more  solemn 
form  of  blessing,  so  that  we  speak  of 
blessing  an  abbot  or  a  bell,  but  of  conse- 
crating a  chalice  or  an  altar.  Of  these 
blessings  some  (such  as  that  of  the  At/nm 
Dei,  and  the  rose  sent  to  sovereigns)  are 
resened  to  the  Pope;  others  {e.ff.  the 
blessing  of  a  king  or  queen  at  their 
coronation,  of  bells,  vestments,  &c.)  are 

1  This  division  really  includes  all  lilessiners, 
for  such  as  are  jiiven  to  the  laitht'ul  };enerally 
tall  under  the  head  of  Benedict  hues  invoca- 
ticce. 


roper  to  bishops;  others  (such  as  the 
lessing  of  houses,  fields,  medals,  crosses. 
&c.)  may  be  given  by  simple  priests,  though, 
of  course,  for  many  blessings  special  facul- 
ties are  required. 

"With  regard  to  the  rite  employed, 
the  more  ordinary  blessings  are  given  by 
the  priest  in  surplice  and  stole,  with 
prayer,  accompanied  by  the  sign  of  the 
cross  and  very  often  by  the  use  of  holy 
water.  In  other  more  solemn  blessings 
other  rites  are  added,  such  as  exorcisiiis, 
incensation  and  anointing  with  th"  Imly 
oils.  Theprinciples  on  which  tlie,-e  sp.-cial 
blessings  rest  are  very  simple,  (^od  nunle 
all  things  good,  but  altliuu-h  niatier  -till 
remains  good,  it  has  lieeii  marreij,  and  is 
constantly  aliased  by  the  spirits  of  evil. 
HeiK-e  the  L'hurcli,  in  the  power  and 
name  (it  (_'lin>t,  reseiies  persons  and  things 
from  the  power  of  the  devil.  Further, 
she  prays  that  the  things  which  she 
blesses  may  avail  to  the  spiritual  and 
bodily  health  of  her  children.  It  may  be 
asked,  how  water,  or  medals,  or  candles, 
can  possibly  help  us  on  the  way  to  heaven. 
In  theinseives  ]ilaiuly  they  have  no  such 
power,  lint  they  tend  to  excite  good 
dispositi(.in,~  in  tlmse  who  use  them  aright, 
not  iinly  beeau.-e  they  remind  us  of  holy 
things,  but  also  liecause  they  have  been 
blessed  for  our  use  by  the  prayers  of  the 
Chinch.  There  is  surely  no  superstition 
in  lielievingthat  if  the  Church  prays  that 
the  sight  or  use  of  pious  objects  may 
excite  good  desires  in  her  children,  God 
will  listen  to  these  prayers  and  touch  in  a 
sjiecial  way  the  hearts  of  those  who  use 
them  aright. 

BXiOOB.  [See  B.\PTisii,  §  III.  See 
also  Precious  Bi.ood.] 

I        BOBEMZAK   ERBTHBEIir.  The 

gentleness  with  which  the  L'omicd  of 
:  Basle  dealt  with  the  Hussites,  ami  the 
;  evident  desire  of  the  majority  of  the  pre- 
lates to  go  to  the  verge  of  lawful  con- 
cession in  order  to  restore  them  to  the 
unity  of  the  Church,  deprived  tin  lii-ni 
otmuch  of  rnison  d'etre.  The  moderate 
party  (Calixtines)  were  disposed  to  lie 
satisfied  with  the  concession  as  to  eoui- 
munion  under  both  species,  joined  to  a 
]iromise  that  clerical  abuses  should  be 
reformed;  while  the  violent  section 
(Taborites),  after  a  long  succession  of 
victories  over  their  German  foes,  were 
signally  defeated  at  Lalian  (1434),  and 
after  that  found  it  necessary  to  abate 
their  pretensions.  Some  years  pas.-ed  ;  a 
[  Taborite  remnant  which  had  found  shelter 
at  Lititz,  on  the  frontiers  of  Moravia  and 
H 


■98      BOHEMIAN  BEETHBEN 


BOLLANDISTS 


Silesia,  throve  unmolested ;  its  leaders 
plunged  anew  into  the  dreamy  mysticism 
which  has  such  charms  for  the  Slavonian 
mind;  they  fraternised  with  some  scat- 
tered Calixtine  pastors,  who  were  dis- 
contented with  what  they  regarded  as 
the  undue  pliability  of  the  mass  of  their 
party,  and  the  "  Union  of  the  Bohemian 
Brothers'  (1457)  was  the  result.  Three 
of  their  leading  men,  Kunwald,  Pre- 
lautsch,  and  Krenov,  were  ordained  (1467) 
by  a  Vaudois  bishop.  Under  the  Bohe- 
mian prince  George  Podiebi-ad  (died  1471) 
tliey  were  subjected  to  much  persecution. 
"Wladislav,  his  .successor,  left  them  undis- 
turbed, and  in  his  long  reign  they  grew 
greatly  in  numbers  and  solidity;  about 
1500,  they  possessed  two  hundred  churches 
in  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  When  the 
Reformation  came,  the  brethren,  after 
vainly  endeavouringto  extract  an  approval 
of  the  "  Apology  "  for  their  system  which 
they  had  drawn  up  from  the  wary 
lu-asmus,  made  overtures  to  Luther. 
These  were  well  received;  but  the 
brethren  were  scandalised  at  the  lack  of 
discipline  which  prevailed  amongLuther's 
followers,  and  for  a  long  time  there  was  a 
coolness;  ultimately,  however,  sometliing 
like  a  cordial  understanding  was  estab- 
lished. The  toleration  which  the  brethren 
bad  long  enjoyed  was  withdrawn,  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  by 
Ferdinand,  brother  to  Charles  V. ;  and 
many  of  them  emigrated  in  consequence 
to  Prussia  and  Poland.  The  Emperors 
Maximilian  and  Rodolph  (1564-1612) 
w^ere  favourable  to  them  ;  the  latter  gave 
them  permission  to  found  an  Academy 
and  a  Consistory,  to  hold  churches  and 
found  new  ones  on  the  estates  of  their 
adherents.  With  prosperity,  says  their 
historian,  Comenius,  came  the  relaxation 
of  their  peculiar  discipline.  They  joined 
the  general  rising  of  the  Bohemian  Pro- 
testants against  Ferdinand  XL,  and  after 
the  battle  of  the  White  Hill  (1620)  were 
implicated  in  the  consequences  of  their 
defeat.  Many  thousands  of  them  aban- 
doned their  native  soil;  and  of  those  who 
remained,  hoping  against  hope  that  the 
old  state  of  things  would  one  day  be 
restored,  the  greater  number,  at  last  re- 
nouncing that  hope,  quitted  Bohemia  in 
1721  and  found  a  refuge  on  the  estate  of 
Count  Zinzendorf,  in  Lusatia.  Under  the 
name  Herrn-huters  or  Moravians,  the 
new  organisntion  which  these  refugees, 
aided  by  their  patron  Zinzendorf  (who  to 
a  my.stical  and  imaginative  turn  united 
much  quiet  power  and  practical  sagacity), 


succeeded  in  forming,  has  gained  a  world- 
wide notoriety.  The  Brethren  who  still 
lingered  on  in  Bohemia  adhered  under 
Joseph  n.  (1780-1790)  to  the  Helvetic 
Confession,  because  that  Emperor  would 
tolerate  in  his  dominions  no  other  Protes- 
tant doctrine  but  either  that  or  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg.  As  a  distinct 
sect  the  Bohemian  Brethren  no  longer 
exist. 

With  regard  to  their  doctrine  and  dis- 
cipline, it  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  they 
neither  admitted  the  authority  of  the 
chair  of  Peter,  nor  the  unity  of  the  visible 
Church.  After  the  Reformation  period 
they  adopted  Luther's  opinions  on  most 
other  points,  but  would  not  follow  him 
in  embracing  the  tenet  of  consubstantia- 
tion  :  they  would  only  allow  of  a  mystical 
union  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
with  the  elements,  and  denied  anything 
like  a  real  presence.  Their  organisation 
was  the  most  remarkable  thing  about 
them.  They  divided  themselves  into 
three  classes,  the  Beginners,  the  Profi- 
cients, and  the  Perfect  {incipientes,  profi- 
cientes,  perfectt).  From  the  ranks  of  the 
Perfect  were  chosen  the  ministers,  who 
were  also  of  tkree  kinds,  acolytes  or  dea- 
cons, pastors  or  priests,  and  bishops  or 
presidents.  They  had  four  fu.-t  days  of 
obligation  in  the  year.  In  relation  to  sin, 
the  laity  (if  their  oifences  were  of  an  open 
nature — for  such  only,  in  the  absence  of 
confession,  could  the  system  reach)  were 
subjected  to  three  degrees  of  discipline : 
warning,  public  reproof,  and  excommuni- 
cation. (Ginzel's  article  in  Wetzer  and 
Weltp.) 

BOIiKAWDZSTS.  A  name  given  to 
the  Jesuit  editors  of  the  great  "Acta 
Sanctorum,"  or  Lives  of  the  Saints.  The 
first  plan  of  the  work  came  from  the 
Flemish  Jesuit  Rosweid,  who  calculated 
the  size  of  the  whole  work  at  eighteen 
volumes.  He,  however,  died  in  1629, 
without  actually  beginning  the  work. 
His  papers  were  entrusted  to  another 
Jesuit,  John  BoUand  (born  in  the  Nether- 
lands, 1596— died  1665),  who  settled  at 
Antwerp  and  opened  a  correspondence 
with  learned  men  over  Europe,  in  order 
to  procure  the  documents  useful  for  his 
purpose.  The  plan  grew  in  the  hands  of 
Bollandus,  and  in  1635  his  brother-Jesuit 
George  Henschen  (born  1600— died  1681) 
was  appointed  to  help  him.  In  1643.  two 
large  folios  appeared,  containing  the  lives 
of  the  Saints  who  are  commemorated  in 
January  ;  they  were  followed  in  1658  by 
three  more  folios,  containing  the  Saints 


BOLSEXA,  MASS  OF 


BRASSES 


99 


for  Ft'brxiary.  Two  years  later  a  new 
labourer  was  secured,  the  Jesuit  Daniel 
Pa pe brock  (bom  16:^8 — died  1714),  and,  at 
the  wish  of  Pope  Alexander  VII. ,  Hen- 
schen  and  Papebrock  travelled  through 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  where  they 
found  many  precious  MSS.  A  little  later 
Bolland  died,  but  the  number  of  those 
w])0  laboured  at  the  work  was  continually 
recruited  from  the  society ;  indeed,  even 
at'ii'r  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  the 
BoUandist  Lives  were  still  continued  by 
ex-Jesuits,  until  in  1794  the  French  Revo- 
lutionary troops  entered  the  Netherlands, 
and  put  an  end  for  the  time  to  this  great 
undertaking.  At  that  date  the  Lives  had 
reached  the  o3rd  volume,  which  was 
priuted  at  Tongerloo  in  the  very  year  the 
French  troops  entered,  and  contained  Lives 
of  the  Saints  from  the  12th  to  the  15th 
October.  The  papers  of  the  Jesuit 
fathers  were  scattered,  some  perishing 
entirely,  others  being  preserved  in  the 
Royal  Librarv-  at  Haag,  and  in  the  Bur- 
gundian  Library  at  Brussels.  Napoleon 
desired  in  vain  to  procure  a  continuation 
of  the  work.  At  last,  in  1837,  the  Belgian 
Government  entrusted  the  prosecution  i^f 
the  work  to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and 
next  year  a  prospectus  was  published, 
"De  Prosecutione  Operis  BoUandiani." 
The  first  volume  of  the  new  series  wa>: 
published  about  nine  years  later.  A  new 
edition  in  sixty-one  vols,  folio — viz.  down 
to  the  last  volume  published — has  been 
issued  at  Paris  by  Palnu?,  1863-1875. 

BOIiSEN-A,  MASS  or  MZRACZiE 

OP.  A  portent  which  is  said  to  have 
happened  at  Bolsena  (the  ancient  Volsi- 
nium)  in  the  reign  of  Urban  IV.  This 
Pope  was  still  in  doubt  whether  he  should 
cause  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi  to  be 
kept  throughout  the  Church.  While  he 
held  his  court  at  Orvieto  in  the  year  1264, 
a  priest  in  the  neighbouring  city  of  Bol- 
sena spilt  a  drop  of  the  Precious  Blood 
from  the  chalice  with  which  he  was  saying 
Mass,  and  tried  to  conceal  the  accident 
by  covering  the  spot  where  the  consecrated 
wine  had  fallen,  with  the  corporal.  Sud- 
denly the  corporal  was  covered  with  red 
spots  in  the  shape  of  a  host.  This  miracle 
led  the  Pope  to  delay  the  institution  of 
the  least  no  longer.  The  corporal  is  still 
presei-ved  at  Orvieto,  and  the  event  is 
commemorated  in  a  famous  picture  of 
Ra])hael's  in  the  Vatican.  (See  Hefele  in 
"\^'etzer  and  Welte,  and  Benedict  XIV. 
"  De  Festis,"  De  Festo  Corporis  Christi, 
wliere  another  account  is  also  given,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  miracle  happened 


'  to  remove  the  priest's  doubts  in  transub- 
j  stantiation.) 

]  BOirz  BOMZM-ES.  Several  monastic 
brotherhoods    have    borne  this  name. 

\  (1)  The  order  founded  in  the  eleventh 
century  by  St.  Stephen  Grandmont  was 
once  so  called.  A  house  of  theirs  at 
Vincennes  having  been  transferred  by 
Henry  HI.  in  1584  to  the  Minims,  "a 
branch  of  the  Franciscans,  these  (2)  came 
to  be  called  in  France  Bons  /lommes. 
(3)  A  Portuguese  order  of  Canons, 
founded  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  John 
Vicenza,  Bishop  of  Lamego,  had  the  same 
appellation.  After  a  time  they  had  four- 
teen houses  in  Portugal,  and  we  read  of 
their  sending  missionaries  to  the  Indies 
and  to  Ethiopia.  (4)  Matthew  Paris 
describes  the  arrival  in  England  in  1257 
of  some  friars  of  an  order  previously  un- 
known, whom  he  calls  fratres  saccati. 
Comparing  this  with  a  passage  in  Poly- 
dore  Vergil  referring  to  the  same  y^ar, 
we  find  that  these  unknown  religious 
professed  the  rule  of  .^t.  Austin,  and  were 
called  in  England  "  Boni  Homines." 

Roger  de  Ho\  e(len,  under  the  year 
1176,  gives  an  abstract  of  the  proceedings 
of  a  council  held  at  Lombers,  near 
Toulouse,  which  examined  and  condemned 
some  heretics  calling  rlieiiiselves  Boni 
Homines,  whose  tenets  seem  to  have 
closely  rrsrnibled  tli(»e  of  the  Cathari 
and  Paulicians.  'AT.i)ir;ENSES.^ 

BOWIIffG.     [See  r4E>TFLEX10N.] 

BRASSES.  Engraved  sepulchral 
memorials  on  brass  are  so  called,  which 
began  to  a  large  extent  to  supersede  stone 
tombs  and  effigies  in  the  course  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  One  great  advantage 
of  their  use  was  that  they  could  be  let 
into  the  pavement :  they  took  up  no  room 
in  the  church.  Once  introduced,  the 
fashion  spread  rapidly :  improvements  and 
,  developments  appeared:  and  during thrr^ 
I  centuries  brasses  may  be  said  to  have  been 
in  general  use.  The  material  employed 
was  hard  latten  or  sheet  brass.  The 
Reformation  brought  in  a  period  of 
plunder  and  destruction,  from  which 
(especially  the  former,  because  of  the 
intrinsic  value  of  the  metal)  our  bra>ses 
sufl'ered  enormously.  Their  number  must 
have  been  very  great,  if  it  be  true  that 
four  thousand  are  still  preserved  in  various 
parts  of  England.  They  were  once 
equally  common  in  France,  Germany, 
and  Holland :  in  France,  however,  all 
that  eseaped  the  Ilugu.  nots  were  pur- 
loined by  the  revolutionist^.  There  are 
I  fine  brasses  at  Meissen  and  Freiberg  ia 


100  BREVIARY 

Saxony,  at  Werden  and  Paderborn  in  \ 
"Westphalia,  and  at  Bruges  in  Flanders.  ' 
The  greater  number  of  those  preserved  in 
England  are  in  the  eastern  counties ;  the 
churches  of  Ipswich,  Norwich,  Lynn,  and 
Lincoln,  are  exceptionally  rich  in  them. 
The  chapel  of  Merton  College,  Oxford,  ' 
once  possessed  a  large  number;  but  many  ! 
have  di,^u]i]icai<'(l,  and  of  those  that  re-  | 
mam  >uiiif  Ii.im'  been  sadly  mutilated. 
Tlir  eal■lit_'^t  I'.nglish  brass  now  in  exis- 
tence is  said  to  be  tliat  of  Sir  Roger  de 
Trumpington,  at  Truiii])iiig'ton,  near  Cam- 
bridge; Its  date  is  V2S\).  That  of  Sir 
John  d'Abernon,  at  Stoke  d'Abernon  in 
Surrey  (1327),  is  exceedingly  fine;  the 
ettigy  is  the  size  of  life.  In  Acton  Bur- 
nell  church  there  is  a  well-known  one  of 
a  Lord  BurufU,  dating  from  the  same 
century.  In  tlie  fifteenth  century  this 
art,  111  n'.-pfi-t  both  of  design  and  of  exe- 
cution, i-rarlicil  its  acme.  In  the  cathe- 
dral of  ('(iii>l  ance  there  is  a  fine  brass  of 
English  ^\  .u-lviuauship  commemorating  a 
bishop  of  Salis))ui-y,  Robert  Hallam,  who 
difd  (luring  the  council  held  at  that  city 
(1414-17).  In  the  sixtcentli  centuiy  the 
figures  become  jmi  traits.  "  The  incised 
lini's  were  filled  up  with  some  black 
resinous    substaiu-i',  and    the  ai-niorial 

or  coarsi'  eiianicl  of  various  colours." 
(Parker's  "  (Hoss.  of  Arch.").  T\w  sub- 
ject of  iMiglisli  brasses  is  exhaustively 
treated  in  iIih  work  of  Cotniaii. 

BREVZARV.  The  word  ]5reviary, 
or  compendium,  is  of  median  al  (U-igin,  and 
Fleurv  could  find  no  examjile  of  its  use 
before  the  Year  10!»'.>.'  Ibit  tile  recitation 
of  thr  l!iv\iary  is  the  coiit  inuation  of  a 
ju'actici'  -which  \\as  in  iisi'  from  the  in- 
fancv  of  tlic  Church,  nay,  which  the 
Churt-li  la  r.M  11'  ]ici'i\cd  from  the  Syna- 
gogue. ^\^■  may  divide  the  liistory  of 
the  Bre^•iary  prayer  into  four  periods : 
the  first  from  the  beginning  of  Church 
liistory  down  to  Pope  Damasus  in  the 
fourth  century  ;  the  second  extending  to 
the  reign  of  Gregory  VII.  in  the  eleventh; 
the  third  to  that  of  Pius  V.  in  the  six- 
teenth ;  while  the  fourth  period  stretches 
from  Pius  V.  to  our  own  day.  In  these 
periods  we  propose  to  trace  the  history  of 
the  Iioiirs  of  prayer,  the  origin,  the  com- 
])lctioii,  and  the  final  revisions  of  the 
Bre\  iaiy.  We  shall  treat  in  conclusion 
of  its  c(jmponent  parts,  of  the  obligation 
of  reciting  it,  and  of  the  authority  which 
belongs  to  its  teadiing. 

I,  The  Hours  of  Prayer  in  the  first 
»  I'leury,  Hist.  Ixiv.  64. 


BREVIARY 

Tour  Centuries. — Even  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  we  find  the  third,  sixth,  and 
ninth  hours  specially  mentioned.  From 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  Cy- 
prian,^ and  others,  we  learn  that  the 
observance  of  these  hours  was  general 
among  Christians,  and  that  mystic 
significations  were  attached  to  them. 
In  the  eighth  book  of  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions^  morning  and  evening 
prayer  are  mentioned  in  addition  to 
the  three  hours  already  named,  and  all 
five  hours  are  regarded  as  times  of  public 
prayer.  To  these  five  hours  we  must  add 
the  nocturnal  prayers  on  the  vigils  of 
feasts.  This  last  became  more  prominent 
when  the  times  of  persecution  passed 
away,  and  the  coenobitical  or  monastic 
life  grew  and  flourished.  Cassian  tells  us 
that  the  monks  divided  the  nocturnal 
olticc  into  three  nocturns.  Thus,  count- 
ing the  nocturnal  office  as  one,  we  get 
six  hours,  corresponding  to  matins  with 
lands,  prime,  t  irrcc,  si 'Xt.  none  and  vi'spers, 
in  the  present  P.rcvlaiy.  We  may  men- 
tion here,  for  thf  salic  of  comcnieiice, 
though  the  fact  belongs  to  our  second 
period,  that  St.  Benedict,  in  the  sixth 
century,  added  compline  to  the  hours,  and 
so  completed  the  number  seven,  answering 
to  the  praises  "seven  times  a  day"  of 
which  the  psalmist  speaks.^  The  service 
at  these  hours  consist. '(1  of  psalms,  Lrtions, 
and  prayi'r-.  As  (•arl\-  at  !i  a-t  as  the 
time  of  Atliauasius,'  it  was  thr  custom 
in  the  East  to  have  the  alternate  verses 
of  the  psalm  intoned  by  difi'erent  choirs, 
and  this  practice  was  introduced  at  Milan 
uudi'T'  St.  Amlirose.*  The  lections  were 
Usually  from  Scripture,  but  on  the  feasts 
of  the  3lartyi',s  their  Acts  were  also  read. 
Much  was  left  to  free  choice  in  the  selec- 
tion of  the  Scriptural  lessons.'  The 
prayers  were  recited  after  each  psalm,  and 
the  office  concluded  with  the  blessing  of 
the  celebrant.' 

II.  Origin  of  the  Breviary.  Damasus 

1  Tertull.  De  Orat.  Domin.  2.i  ;  Clem.  Al. 
Strom,  vii.  7;  Cypriiin.  De  Orat.  Dnm.  Si,  o.i. 

'-  Ap.  Const,  viii.  33.  Pravor  at  "cock- 
crow" is  also  mentioned. 

s  Some  liturirical  writers  niaUe  .seven  hours, 
counting  matins  ami  lauds  as  one.  Bona  counts 
seven  day  hours,  and  makes  matins  correspond 
to  the  '"midnight  praise"  spoken  of  in  the 
1  Psalms. 

^  I'lipodoret.  Hist.  ii.  29. 
•'■  .\ugust.  Confess,  ix.  7. 
I       s  Probst,  Brevier  und  Brevier-gebet,  p.  28. 
The  permission,  however,  Merati  says,  was  not 
universal. 

7  The  Council  of  Laodicea,  canon  17,  orders 
a  lection  after  each  psalm. 


BREVIARY 


BREVIARY 


101 


to  Grego)-y  VII — Great  ehanfres  occurred 
-during  this  second  period.  According  to 
a  tradition  which  is  not  well  attested,  but 
which  is  most  likely  correct  in  sut)stance, 
St .  Jerome,  at  the  request  of  Pope  Daniasus, 
ammged  thepsalms  for  the  diti't  rent  hours 
and  put  the  lections  together  in  books 
called  Lectionaries,  and  these  Lectionaries 
were  provided  with  indices  marking  the 
beginning  and  end  of  the  lections.  Later 
on,  in  the  middle  ages,  we  find  the  word 
Breviary  used  for  a  collection  of  rubrics, 
pointing  out  the  way  in  which  the  office 
was  to  be  said  on  each  day,  and  sometimes 
these  rubrics  were  united  with  the  office 
itself  so  as  to  form  one  book,  which  was 
■called  Plenarium,  and  answers  to  our 
present  Breviary.'  Further,  hjTiins  were 
added  to  the  office  as  early  as  the  sixth 
century,"  although  particular  churchts 
varied  in  this  respect,  and  the  l!om<ni 
Church  did  not  adopt  them  till  our  thinl 
period.'  At  the  same  time  lections  were 
introduced  from  the  writings  of  tlie 
Fathers,  and  these  as  well  as  the  psalni.s 
and  responsories  were  adapted  to  the 
diflerent  feasts.  Lastly,  the  influence  of 
the  Roman  Church  introduced  uniformity 
throughout  the  West.  We  find  an  Eng- 
lish council  in  the  year  748  i)a,--iiiii  a 
decree  that  the  feasts  should  be  kept  ■•  in 
all  things  pertaining  to  them  ...  in  c-  li- 
bration  of  Masses,  in  mode  of  singiui;, 
according  to  the  written  copy  which  \\  e 
have  from  the  Roman  Church."  Charle- 
magne introduced  the  Roman  office 
throughout  most  of  his  vast  empire,  and 
at  last,  in  1048,  the  Council  of  Burgos 
ordered  its  use  in  Spain."' 

III.  The  Vomplction  of  the  Breviary. 
Gregory  VII.  to  Pius  F.— Hitherto  we 
have  traced  the  origin  of  the  Breviary 
offices ;  we  now  find  the  word  "  Bre\  iary "' 
in  its  modern  sense.  "  A  certain  shorten- 
ing of  the  office,'"  says  Merati,  "was 
made  by  Gregory  VII.,  and  the  office  so 
shortened  was  called  Breviary."  Lender 
Innocent  III.  the  office  was  abbreviated 
still  further.  Next,  changes  were  made 
in  its  an-angements  by  the  Franciscan 
•General  Ilaymo,  and  Nicholas  III.  pre- 
scribed the  use  of  the  Breviary  thu>  m  xli- 
fied  in  the  churches  of  Rome.  Canlnuil 
Quignon  made  additional  and  radical 
alterations.  In  his  Breviary  the  Psalms 
were  recited  every  week  ;  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  New  Testament  and  a  great  part 
of  the  Old  were  read  in  the  course  of  the 


»  Probst,  p.  32. 

*  Concil.  Agath.  can.  30. 

»  Probst,  p.  34.  * 


Ibid.  p.  35  seq. 


year;  the  chapters,  responsories,  and 
versicles  were  excluded.  The  use  of  this 
Brevian-  was  permitted  from  the  time  of 
Paul  lil.  to  that  of  Pius  V.— viz.  for 
about  forty  years.' 

IV.  Final  Revisions  of  the  Breviary. 
Pius  V.  to  the  present  day. — The  Council 
of  Trent,  finding  that  the  commission 
which  it  had  appointed  to  revise  the 
Breviarj-  had  not  time  to  complete  their 
work,  left  the  matter  in  the  Pope's  hands. - 
Pius  v.,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Barna- 
bite  Fathers,  eff  ected  the  desired  revision, 
and  imposed  the  new  Breviary  on  the 
whole  Latin  Church,  permitting,  however, 
churches  to  retain  a  special  Breviary  of 
their  own,  if  tliev  could  alleu't'  a  i)re~crlp- 
tion  of  200  years  on  its  behalf.  Addi- 
tional inipri)\ ements  were  i  tl'.  rt.  il  liy  a 
commissi(.)n  under  Clement  VIII.  Bcliar- 
mine  and  Baronius  were  nieuiliers  nt  it, 
and  to  them  we  owe  great  amelioi  a' ions 
in  the  lections  of  the  second  noeturu 
which  contain  the  history  of  the  Saints. 
The  finishing  touches  were  added  by 
Urljan  Vlll. :  once  more  the  lections  were 
revised,  and  with  the  liel])  of  three  learned 
Jesuits  many  barbaiisms  and  false 
quantities  were  removed  from  the  hymns. 
Since  the  time  of  this  Pope  the  Breviary 
lia~  reni,;iue.l  unaltered,  except  that  of 
iour,-e  I'tliees  tVir  ,-aints  canonised  since 
that  time,  and  for  11. -w  feasts,  have  been 
added  by  the  authorit\-  of  different  Popes. 
It  is  true  that  new  I'reviaries  were  con- 
structed in  Frame  .luring  the  seven- 
teenth and  eiuliteeiitli  l  eiituries;  but  the 
bishops  who  IjroiiuLt  them  into  use  had 
no  power  to  do  so  lawfully,  and  these 
new  Breviaries  are  now  entirely  or  almost 
entirely  abandoned.  These  modern  Galil- 
ean Breviaries  must  not  lie  confused  with 
the  ancient  Galilean  ntiiee,  current  in 
France  before  Cliarleniat;ni>',-  time. 

V.  The  Arranycmcnt  I'f  the  Ilri  i  iary. 
■ — The  Breviaiy  is  dnided  into  lour 
parts:  viz.  a  winter,  sjniug,  summer,  and 
autumn  quarter.  Each  part  contains 
(a)  the  psalter — i.e.  the  psalms  arranged 
for  each  day  of  the  week.  (3)  The 
]iroper  of  the  season — i.e.  hymns,  aiiti- 
jilions,  chapters,  and  lessons,  with  re- 
sjionsories  and  versieles,  for  each  day  of 
the  Church  year,  ineluding  the  mo\al)le 
feasts,  (y)  The  pi  o]ier  of  the  saints — i.e. 
prayers,  lesson.-,  resixuisories,  &c.,  for  tlie 
immovable  feasts.  (S)  The  common  of  the 
saints — i.e.  psalms,  with  antiphons,  lec- 
tions, &c.,  for  feasts  of  a  particular  class,  e.g. 

'  Fleury,  Contin.  cxx.xvi.  49;  Probst,  p.  46. 
2  Scss.  xsv.  contin. 


102  BREVIARY 


BRIGITTINES 


of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  of  a  Martyr,  &c.  To 
this  division  the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed 
"\'irgin,  the  office  of  the  dead,  the  peni- 
tential and  gradual  psalms  are  added, 
(e)  A  supplement  containing  offices  which 
do  not  bind  the  whole  Church,  but  ai-e 
recited  only  in  particular  countries,  &c. 
Besides  this,  a  diocese,  province  or  county, 
&c.,  or,  again,  an  order  or  congregation, 
may  have  a  special  supplement  with 
offices  approved  for  use  in  that  district. 
This  second  supplement  forms  no  part  of 
the  Breviary.  It  is  printed  separately  for 
the  persons  who  are  to  use  it,  and  then, 
usually,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  bound 
into  the  Breviai-y.  Every  day  the  office 
is  composed  of  matins  and  lauds,  prime, 
tierce,  sext,  none,  vespers  and  compline  ; 
but  the  rules  which  determine  the  mode 
of  their  recitation  are  too  elaborate  to  be 
given  here. 

VI.  The  Obligation  of  Reciting  Office. 
— At  first  all  the  faithful  were  accustomed 
to  assist  at  the  canonical  hours.  "The 
piety  of  the  lay-people,"  says  Thomassin, 
"  cooled :  the  clergy  did  not  relax  their 
primitive  fervour."  From  the  sixth  cen- 
tury downwards,  many  councils  speak  of 
this  obligation  on  the  part  of  clerics,  but 
they  do  not  so  much  enforce  it  as  take 
for  granted  a  law  ab-eady  enforced  by  the 
custom  of  the  Church.  The  present  disci- 
pline of  the  Church  imposes  the  obliga- 
tion (a)  on  all  clerics,  even  if  not  iu 
holy  orders,  who  hold  a  benefice.  By- 
omitting  their  duty  they  forfeit  the  fruits 
of  their  benefice  and  must  make  restitu- 
tion (so  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council, 
session  ix.) ;  0)  on  all  persons  in  Holy 
Orders,  i.e.  on  subdeacons,  deacons, 
priests  ;  {y)  on  religious  men  and  women, 
professed  for  the  duties  of  the  choir.  In 
the  two  last  cases  Billuart  considers  that 
the  obligation  cannot  be  proved  by  any 
positiv(>  law,  but  is  founded  on  custom 
which  has  the  force  of  precept.'  All  these 
persons  are  required  under  pain  of  mortal 
sin  to  recite  the  office  at  least  iu  private. 

VII.  The  Authority  of  Statements  in 
the  Breviary. — As  the  Church  herself  im- 
poses the  recitation  of  the  Breviary,  it 
cannot  contain  anything  contrary  to  faith 
or  morals  ;  otherwi.«e  the  Church  herself 
would  be  leading  her  children  into  error. 
But  no  Catholic  is  obliged  to  believe  his- 
torical statements  merely  because  they  are 
found  in  the  Breviary,  and  as  a  matter  of 

1  Rilliiart.  De  Re/itj  ii.  8,  .3.  whcro  ho  says 
that  the  canons  speak  "either  of  priests  only, 
or  of  beneficed  clerks,  orof  the  public  office,"  &c. 
See  also  Liguor.  Theol.  Moral,  v.  §  140. 


fact  many  of  them  have  been  questioned  and 
denied  by  Catholic  critics  and  historians. 

The  ])rincipal  books  on  the  Breviary 
are : — in  the  middle  ages,  Amalarius  of 
Metz,  who  wrote  four  books  "  Be  Eccle- 
siastico  Officio,"  in  the  year  820 ;  the 
author  of  a  work  called  "  Micrologus  de 
Ecclesiasticis  Observationibus,"  written  iu 
the  time  of  Gregory  VII. ;  John  Beleth, 
a  Paris  theologian,  who  wrote,  about  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century, "  De  Divinia 
Officiis ;  "  the  abbot  Rupert,  •'  De  Divinis 
Officiislibri  xli."  (died  1 135),andDurandus, 
"Rationale Divinorum  Officiorum "(about 
1286).  In  modern  times  the  principal 
authors  are  : — Grancolas,"Commentariu3 
historicus  in  Romanum  Breviarium  ;  " 
Bona,  "De  Divina  Psalmodia;"  but  above 
all  Gavantus,  who  published  "  Commen- 
taria  in  Rubricas  Missalis  et  Breviarii," 
in  1628,  and  Merati,  who  edited  the  work 
of  Gavantus  with  elaborate  notes.  (From 
Gavantus,  with  Merati's  notes,  and  from 
Probst,  "Brevier  und  Breviergebet.") 

BRZSAIi    WREATH.  [See  Mab- 

RIAGE.] 

QRZEF.  A  papal  Brief  is  a  letter 
issuing  from  the  Court  of  Rome,  written 
on  fine  parchment  in  modern  characters, 
subscribed  by  the  Pope's  Secretary  of 
Briefs,  dated  "  a  die  IS  ativitatis,"  and 
sealed  with  the  Pope's  signet-ring,  the 
seal  of  the  Fisherman.    [See  Bull.] 

BRZCZTTzn-ES.  This  order  was 
founded  about  1344  by  St.  Brigit  of 
Sweden,  author  of  the  "  Revelations  "  so 
well  known  and  so  greatly  esteemed  by 
persons  aspiring  to  perfection.  Each 
monastery  is  double,  for  nuns  and  for 
monks  ;  but  the  foundation  of  the  nun- 
neries, which  were  to  contain  on  the 
average  sixty  inmates,  was  the  principal 
object  of  the  founder:  the  related  houses 
of  monks  were  to  have  thirteen  inmates 
each,  priests,  besides  four  deacons.  The 
constitutions  of  the  order,  which  took  the 
name  of  the  Order  of  the  Saviour,  were 
said  to  have  been  communicated  to  St, 
Brigit  by  divine  revelation ;  the  rule  was 
that  of  St.  Austin.  The  first  monastery 
was  built  oil  the  saint's  estate  of  Wastein, 
in  the  diocese  of  Lincopen.  The  order 
spread  through  all  the  northern  countries 
of  Europe,  and  was  of  notable  service  to 
the  Church.  The  convent  of  "Wastein, 
partly  through  the  extraordinary  con- 
stancy of  the  nuns,  partly  from  their  find- 
ing friends  where  they  could  have  least 
expected  them,  survived  the  change  of 
religion  in  Sweden  for  many  years,  and 
I  was  only  suppressed  in  1.505.  In  England 


BRITISH  CHURCH,  ANCIENT 


BRITISH  CHURCH,  ANCIENT  103 


there  was  one  great  aud  wealthy  Brigit- 
tiiie  house,  Sion  Convent,  near  Brentford. 
This  was  one  of  the  few  monasteries  re- 
stored by  Queen  Mary  ;  but  being  again 
suppressed  under  EHzabeth,  the  nuns, 
that  they  might  be  free  to  observe  their 
rule,  took  refuge  at  Lisbon.  They  have 
had  a  perpetual  succession  in  Portugal 
down  to  our  own  day ;  and  in  1861  some 
of  them  came  to  England  and  founded 
the  Brigittine  convent  of  Sion  House, 
Spettisbury,  in  Dorsetshire,  afterwards 
(1887 1  removed  to  Chudleigh,  Devon. 

BRZTZSH  CHITRCH,  ANCISHT. 
"In  the  year  156  from  our  Lord's  Incar- 
nation, whilst  Eleiitherius,  a  holy  man, 
was  vested  with  the  pontificate  of  the 
Roman  Church,  Lucius,  king  of  Britain, 
sent  him  a  letter  praying  to  be  made  a 
Christian  by  an  act  of  his  authority — the 
object  of  which  pious  request  he  soon 
after  obtained — aud  the  Britons  having 
received  the  faith  kept  it  whole  and 
undetiled,  and  in  peace  and  quiet  till  the 
days  of  the  Emperor  Diocletian  "  (Beda, 
"  Eccl.  Hist."  i.  4).  During  the  persecu- 
tion St.  Alban  and  many  others  suti'ered 
martyrdom  in  Britain.  After  the  eleva- 
tion of  Constantine  to  the  purple  (which 
took  place  at  York,  where  bis  father 
Coustantius  died,  in  the  year  306)  we  tiiid 
the  Briti.<h  Church  in  communion  of  faith 
aud  discipline  with  the  rest  of  Christen- 
dom. Contemporary  documents  tell  us 
of  British  bishops  sitting  in  the  Councils 
of  Aries  (314\  Sardica  (347),  and 
Rimini  (359).  The  Arian  and  Pelagian 
heresies  both  found  favour  in  Britain — 
indeed,  the  latter  is  said  to  have  had  a 
British  origin  (see  Pelagiauism).  It 
wasexpelled  by  St.  Germanusof  Auxerre, 
assisted  by  Lupus  of  Troyes,  and  Severus 
of  Treves.  From  the  moment  that  the 
Romans  withdrew  from  Britain  we  are 
left  in  darkness  as  to  the  fate  of  the 
British  Church,  untD,  about  559,  we  meet 
with  the  writings  of  the  Briton  Gildas. 
From  these  we  gather  the  following 
information  as  to  the  worship  and  doc- 
trine of  the  Britons.  1.  They  believed 
in  one  God  in  three  Persons ;  in  the 
Divine  and  human  natures  of  Christ,  in 
the  redemption  of  mankind  through  His 
death,  and  in  the  eternity  of  heaven  and 
hell.  2.  Their  hierarchy  consisted  of 
bishops,  priests,  and  other  ministers ;  a 
particular  service  was  employed  at  their 
ordination;  the  hands  of  the  bishops  and 
priests  were  anointed  and  blessed ;  these 
were  looked  upon  as  successors  of  St. 
Peter,  the  prince  of  the  Apostles  and 


bearer  of  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of 
heaven;  they  sate  in  his  seat,  and 
inherited  his  power  of  binding  and  loos- 
ing ;  it  was  their  duty  to  teach  the  people, 
and  to  offer  sacrifice.  3.  The  Britons 
had  monasteries  of  monks,  presided  over 
b}'  abbots ;  the  monks  made  the  usual 
vows  of  obedience,  poverty,  and  chastity  ; 
and  widows  often  bound  themselves  by 
!  vows  to  a  life  of  continence.  4.  They 
[  built  churches  in  honour  of  the  martyrs ; 

there  were  several  altars,  the  seats  of  the 
I  heavenly  sacrifice,  in  the  same  church  ; 
the  service  was  chanted  by  the  clergy  in 
the  churches  ;  oaths  of  mutual  forgiveness 
and  peace  were  taken  by  adverse  parties 
on  the  altar.  5.  Their  liturgical  language 
was  Latin ;  their  translation  of  the  Bible 
the  Vetus  Itala ;  they  sang  the  Psalms 
from  a  translation  of  the  Septuagint,  the 
same  as  that  used  in  the  Latin  Church  ; 
they  quoted  the  Books  of  Wisdom  and 
Ecclesiasticus  as  of  equal  authority  with 
the  other  canonical  books.  Gildas  re- 
bukes both  clergj'  and  laity  alike  for  their 
unchristian  lives.  Murder,  rapine,  gross 
immorality,  simony,  ambition,  are  some 
of  the  crimes  to  which  he  attributes  the 
downfall  of  Britain.  The  deplorable 
state  of  the  British  Church  as  described 
by  liildaswas  probably  the  motive  which, 
4<)  years  later,  induced  Pope  Gregory  to 
place  the  British  bishops  under  the 
superintendence  of  St.  Augustin.  "  Your 
brotherhood,"  says  the  Papal  mandate, 
"  will  moreover  have  subject  to  you  .  .  . 
all  the  bishops  of  Britain,  by  authority  of 
God  and  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ;  that 
from  your  instruction  they  may  learn  to 
believe  correctly  and  from  your  example 
to  live  religiously,  and  thus,  by  the  dis- 
charge of  then-  duty,  obtain  the  reward 
of  the  heavt^nly  kingdom "  (Beda,  i. 
29).  In  the  course  of  time  Augustin 
had  a  meeting  with  the  Britons.  He 
requested  them  to  join  in  fellowship  with 
him,  to  help  him  in  the  conversion  of  the 
idolaters,  and  to  conform  to  the  usages  of 
the  universal  Church,  especially  in  the 
celebration  of  Easter  [see  Eastek]  and  iu 
completing  baptism  after  the  Roman 
manner,  viz.  by  adding  ConfirnMtion  to  it. 
These  demands  clearly  show  that  there 
was  no  difference  of  doctrine  between  the 
British  and  the  Roman  Church,  nor 
respecting  the  authority  claimed  and 
exercised  by  the  Bishop  of  Rome.  Had 
the  Britons  differed  from  Augustin 
on  these  points  he  would  never  have 
I  invited  them  to  become  his  fellow-mis- 
I  sionaries.    The  meetings  and  conferences 


104  BRITISH  CHURCH,  ANCIENT 


BULGARIANS 


however,  led  to  no  practical  results,  on 
account,  we  may  safely  assume,  of  the 
hatred  of  the  Britons  for  the  Saxon 
invaders.  The  British  Church  naturally 
met  with  the  sauie  fate  as  the  British 
race.  The  Saxon  conquest  was  one  of 
ruthless  e.xtermination.  Some  of  the 
unfortunate  natives  escaped  into  the 
western  portions  of  the  island,  and  there 
the  British  Church  long  survived,  until  it 
was  ultimately  absorbed  into  the  En|,'lish 
Church.  Attempts  have  lately  been 
made  to  trace  the  origin  of  the  .Vnglican 
Protestant  Church  to  the  ancient  British 
Church.  But,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
the  British  Christians  agreed  with  the 
Roman  Augustin  on  every  substantial 
point,  and  held  doctrines  now  repudiated 
by  -Viiglifiins.  "Those  who  study  the 
learned  work  of  the  late  Mr.  Haddon  and 
Bi.shop  Stubbs  ('  Councils  and  Ecclesias- 
tical Documents,'  &c.,  vol.  i.)  will  find  in 
the  materials  collected  (from  which  alone  it 
is  possible  to  obtain  any  knowledge  of  the 
ancient  Welsh  Church)  nothing  to  jusiily 
the  statement  that  the  disappearance  of 
diiYerences  or  the  establishment  of  prac- 
tical unity  between  the  Church  of 
England  and  that  ot'  the  Principality  was 
the  result  of  Norman  wars  or  conquests, 
or  of  the  interference  of  Norman  kings, 
barons,  <<v  bishops.  T/ie  differences  ivere 
of  a  tri villi  l-iiid,  quite  iinirortiiy  to  divide 
€hur</i,>  ;  //n'i/d/sa/ipr,,rr,/io.^  ]„i,<'l,  iindrr 
native  ,is  inuhr  .Sii.ioii  nijliimce] 

during  the  Anff/o-Sa.vo/t  periii<l,^  about 
the  end  of  the  eighth  century.  Full  inter- 
communion, and  close  ecclesiastical  rela- 
tions between  the  Churches  followed. 
During  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor, 
the  English  diocese  of  Hereford  was 
administered  by  one  of  the  Welsh  bishops  " 
("  A  Defence  of  the  Church  of  England 
against  Disestablishment,"  by  the  Earl 
of  Selborne,  4th  ed.  p.  335).  Besides, 
if  any  tiling  is  certain  in  English  history 
it  is  that  the  great  bulk  of  our  institutions 
and  especially  the  Church,  had  a  Saxon 
and  not  a  Brit  ish  origin.  The  philological 
argument  which  proves  so  convincingly 
the  extermination  of  the  Britons  tells 
strongly  in  our  favour.  Nn  Anglican 
prelate  can  style  himself  a  "  bislioj),"  or 
speak  of  West-"  minster,"  or  exhort  I. is 
flock  to  give  "alms,"  or  "preacii,"  or 
"  ordain  "  without  admitting  the  Poman 
origin  of  the  English  Church.  "  The  intro- 
duction of  Christianity  about  the  end  of 
the  sixth  century  brought  England  into 
connection  with  Pome,  and  during  the 

I  Italics  ours. 


four  following  centuries  a  large  number  of 
Latin  words  became  familiar  to  educated 
Englishmen.  The  words  introduced  into 
the  language  were  for  the  most  part  con- 
nected with  the  Church,  its  services  and 
observances"  (Morris'  "Historical  Eng- 
lisli  Grammar,"  p.  11).  [See  English 
Church,  Anglo-Saxon  period;  Beda, 
"Hist.  Eccles." ;  Gildas,  "  De  Excidio 
Britannise,"  ed.  Stevenson,  Lond.  1838; 
"  Monumenta  Historica  Bi'itannica," 
vol.  i. ;  Lingard,"  Anglo-Saxon  Church  "  ; 
Haddon  and  Stubbs,  "Councils  and  I'^ccle- 
siaslical  Documents  relating  to  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland."] 

BUXiCARZANTS.  This  was  another 
name  lor  the  Paulician  heretics  {q.  v.) 
owing  to  their  long  sojourn  in  Bulgaria. 
Constantine  Copronymus,  about  A.D.  750, 
traiis])Uinted  great  numbers  of  Paulicians 
from  the  banks  of  the  upper  Euphrates  to 
Constantinople  and  Thrace  ;  whence  their 
preachers  passed  into  Bulgaria  and  ob- 
tained many  followers.  Another  powerful 
colony  of  these  sectaries  was  brought  to 
the  %  alleys  of  the  Balkans  in  970,  by  John 
Zimisces,  with  the  view  of  detaching 
them  from  the  Moslem  alliance,  and 
em;>loying  them  as  a  barrier  against  the 
barbarians  of  Scythia.  They  occupied 
Philippopolis,  and  soon  gained  great  in- 
fluence in  Bulgaria.  About  1200  their 
Primate  Y\\v<\  at  or  near  that  city,  and 

iM-ncd  by  his  vicars  affiliated  bodies 
in  Fnincr  and  Italy.  By  three  channels 
tliey  nl.itained  access  to  Western  countries 
— the  trade  of  Venice,  the  military  service 
of  the  Byzantine  emperors,  and  the  pil- 
grim track  to  Jerusalem  along  the  valley 
of  the  Danube.  Mingled  with  the  Cathari 
and  other  heretics,  they  were  found  in 
considerable  numbers  in  the  south  of 
France  at  the  time  of  the  Albigensian 
Crusade.  [Aliiigexses.]  (Gibbon,  "De- 
cline and  Fall,"  ch.  liv.) 

BUliXi.  A  Papal  Bull  is  so  named 
from  the  l)idln  (or  round  leaden  seal,  hav- 
ing on  one  side  a  representation  of  SS. 
Peter  and  Paid,  and  on  the  other  the 
name  of  the  reigning  Pope),  which  is 
attached  to  the  document  (by  a  silken 
cord,  if  it  be  a  "  Bull  of  Grace,"  and  by 
one  of  hem[)  if  a  "Bull  of  Justice")  and 
■  gi\es  authenticity  to  it.  Bulls  are  en- 
]  gnissed  on  strong  rough  parchment,  and 
begin  "[Leo]  Episcopus  servus  servorum 
Dei  ad  perpetuam  rei  memoriam."  ^  A 

•  Or  "  jid  futuram  rei  memoriam  ; "  or,  if  the 
bull  relates  to  doctrine,  the  words  "ad  ...  . 
nieinoriam  "  are  omitted,  and  the  style  usually 
is,  "  universis  Christi  fidelibus  salu'tem  et  apo- 
I  stolicam  beiiedictionem." 


BILL  IN  CCEXA  DOMINI 


C^REMOXIARIUS 


105 


Bull  is  dated  "  a  die  Iiicarnationis,"  and  ,' 
«igfned  by  the  fiinctionaries  of  the  Papal 
Chancery.    It  is  a  document  of  a  more 
formal  and  weighty  character  than  a  Brief,  i 
and  many  memorable  Pa])al  decisions  and 
condemnations  have  been  given  in  this 
form,  such  as  the  bull  Unam  Sanctum 
■of  Boniface  VIII.,  the  bull  Unigenitus  of  [ 
Clement  XL.  &c.  .^c. 

BUXiZ.  XXr  C(E2ffA  SOMZirZ.  This 
"was  a  Papal  sentence  of  excommunication 
formerly  published  against  heretics  every  ! 
Maundy  Thursday.  The  latest  form 
which  it  assumed  was  given  to  it  by 
L'rban  VIII.  in  16:27.  It  excommunicates 
all  heretics,  mentioning  the  chief  modern 
sects  and  here.'>iarchs  l)y  name,  as  well  as 
those  who  aid  and  abet  them,  or  read 
their  works :  all  those  who  appeal  from 
the  Pope  [Appeal]  to  a  future  general 
council;  pirates  and  Avreckers;  Christians 
who  ally  themselves  with  the  Turks  ; 
those  who  maltreat  I'apal  officials  or 
falsify  Papal  bulls,  and  many  others.  By 
degrees  a  spirit  of  marked  ()])p()sition  to 
the  publication  of  the  bull  in  their  do- 
minions displayed  itself  on  the  part  of 
many  Catholic  sovereigns :  Pope  C'lenu  nt 
XIV.  yielded  to  their  wislir.-,  and  after 
1773  the  periodical  publication  of  the 
lull  was  discontinued. 

BTTX.X.A.BZVax.  A  Collection  of 
Papal  bulls  is  so  called.  That  of  Cocque- 
lines  (Rom.  1737)  containing  the  bulls  of 
*11  the  Popes  from  Leo  the  Great  to  Bene- 
dict XII.  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated. 

BTTBZAZ..    'See  FlXERAL." 

BVBSZ:     (BITRSA,    also  ~  PEBA). 
A  square  case  into  which  the  priest  puts  - 
the  corporal  which  is  to  be  used  in  Mass. 
It  was  introduced  in  the  fourteenth  ceu-  , 


tury.  It  should  be  of  the  same  colour  as 
the  vestments  of  the  day.  Usually  it  has 
a  cross  in  the  middle.  The  priest  places 
it  above  the  chalice,  with  the  open  side 
towards  his  own  breast.  AMien  he  reaches 
the  altar,  he  extracts  the  corporal  and 
places  the  burse  on  the  Gospel  side. 
Pius  V.  allowed  the  Spanish  priests  to 
carry  the  corporal  outside  the  burse. 
(Benedict  XIV.  "  De  Miss."  i.  5.) 

BT  TH£  GRACE  OF  GOD  AJSH 
FAVOVB  OP  THE  APOSTOX.ZC 
SEE.  Bishops  and  archbishops  now  use 
this  formula  ("  Dei  et  Apostolicse  Sedis 
Gratia  ")  at  the  beginning  of  their  pas- 
torals and  instructions.  Something  re- 
sembling it  came  in  very  early ;  thus  St. 
Boniface,  the  Apostle  of  Germany,  called 
himself  the  Servus  apostolicce  seiUs,  and 
an  archbishop  of  Cologne  in  the  eleventh 
century  took  the  a]i])ellation  of  Christi  et 
Clnrit/eri  ejus  servus.  But  there  was  for 
a  long  time  no  unif(.)rmity  ;  inllovedeu's 
"  Chronicle ''  may  be  read  a  brief  of 
Gi'olli-ey,  Archbishi)])  of  York,  in  which 
tilt-re  is  no  reference  whatever  to  the 
Holy  Sc.',  wliile  not  many  pages  further 
on  is  a  ^eries  of  decrees  of  Archbishop 
Hubert,  each  of  which  ends  with  the 
words  "  Salvo  in  omnibus  sacrosauctfe 
Romanae  eccle#i;v  hondre  et  privilegio." 
In  some  European  countries,  the  sove- 
reigns evincing  a  desire  to  appropriate  for 
use  in  their  own  ])rnclamatious  the  phrase 
Dei  Gratia,  the  bisho])s  liave  used  instead 
the  forniida  dicina  ip-atia.  In 
Otho  IV.,  one  of  the  eaiulidates  for 
the  Imperial  crown,  adopted  the  style 
of  "Roman  Emperor  by  the  grace  of 
God  and  favour  of  the  Holy  Apostolic 
See." 


CSBEKOXrZAZ.E  EPISCOPO- 
K1TM.  A  book  containing  the  ceremonies 
to  be  observed  by  bishops  and  other  eccle- 
■siastics,  in  the  peif(!rmiince  of  ei)iscoj>al 
acts.  An  edition  '•emended  and  refoimed  " 
was  published  by  authority  of  Clement 
VIII.  In  the  bull  L'vm  novissiine  the 
Pope  strictly  requires  aU  whom  it  con- 
cerns to  follow  the  prescrijiticms  of  this 
Cjeremoniale,  and  several  of  the  subse- 
quent Popes  have  renewed  and  confirmed 
tlie  same  law.  ("  Maniiale  Decret.  SS. 
Kit.  Congr."  n.  94  .ler/.) 

CEBEMOirZABZVS.  A  name 
given  to  the  ecclesiastic  who  superintends 


I  the  ceremonies  in  solemn  ofTices.  In 
cathedral  churches  ow  such  master  of 
cereuionies  should  be  eli-M-n  by  the  bl.-lm]), 
another,  with  the  a]i]ii(i\al  nf  the  bijlmp, 
bv  the  eliapter.  In  ipi.-c. .jjal  functions 
l.'r  may  wear  a  violet  ea.-.>.a  k  and  hold  a 
ferule  in  his  hand.  The  dignitaries  even 
of  the  chapter  are  bound  to  obey  him 
dui-ing  the  functions,  for  he  is  their 
director,  not  their  servant.  Besides  the 
income  which  may  belong  to  him  as 
canon,  &c.,  he  has  a  right  to  the  offerings 
made  by  clergy  and  people  on  Good 
Friday  after  the  adoration  of  the  cross. 
("  Manuals  Decret.  SS.  Hit.  Congr.") 


106  C.ESARL\:nS 


C.-VLATKAVA,  ORDER  OF 


CJESAHXAIVS.  The  adherents  of  a  1 
pious  German  friar  of  the  order  of  St. 
Francis,  Ccesar  of  Spires,  were  so  called. 
Cpesar  was  one  of  those  who,  when  Elias  ; 
of  Cortona,  the  general  of  the  order  after 
St.  Francis,  attempted  to  introduce  relax- 
ations of  the  rule,  resisted  him ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which  Elias,  having  deceived 
the  Pope,  threw  Caesar  into  prison.  After 
having  been  in  confinement  more  than 
two  years,  the  poor  friar,  finding  one  day 
the  door  of  his  dungeon  open,  went  out 
to  warm  himself  in  the  sun's  rays.  His 
gaoler,  a  rough  unfeeling  lay  brother,  com- 
ing in  and  thinking  that  Caesar  meditated 
escape,  struck  him  on  the  head  with  a 
bludgeon  with  such  violence  that  he  died 
of  the  effects  of  the  blow.  This  was  in 
1239.  Under  the  generals  Crescenzio 
and  John  of  Parma,  who  in  various  ways 
incurred  the  disapproval  of  the  stricter 
Franciscans,  the  party  of  Caesar  lingered 
on;  but  after  the  glorious  St.  Bonaventure 
became  general  (1256)  and  the  rule  and 
spirit  of  St.  Francis  were  restored  in  their 
first  purity,  the  name  of  Caesarians  was 
soon  forgotten.  (Fleury,  "Hist.  Eccl." 
xxxi.) 

CAGOTS.  The  name  given  to  a 
race  of  Christian  Pariahs  who  first  came 
into  notice  in  the  South  of  France 
about  the  tenth  century.  The  term  has 
been  thought  to  be  derived  from  caas- 
Goth,  dog  of  a  Goth,  as  if  they  were  a 
remnant  of  the  Visigoths  who  occupied 
Aquitaine  till  they  were  expelled  by  the 
Franks ;  but  this  derivation  is  quite  un- 
certain. The  Cagots  Avere  not  allowed  to 
live  in  towns  or  villages,  but  in  groups  of 
dwellings  set  apart  for  them,  called 
cngoteries.  Like  the  Swiss  cretins,  they 
were  looked  down  upon  as  an  inferior 
race;  yet  this  inferiority  was  not 
apparent:  in  physical  development  and 
intelligence  they  seem  to  have  been  on  a 
par  with  their  neighbours;  their  skin, 
however,  was  said  to  emit  a  peculiar 
odour,  by  which  they  could  always  be 
recognised.  They  were  required  to  go 
into  church  by  a  separate  door,  to  use  a 
special  benitier,  and  to  sit  only  on  benches 
set  apart  for  them.  No  trades  but  those 
of  butcher  and  carpenter  were  open  to 
them.  They  are  said  still  to  be  nume- 
rous in  the  valleys  of  the  western  Pyre- 
nees. 

CAX.ATBAVA,  ORBEB  OF.  One 

of  the  three  great  military  orders  of 
Spain;  the  other  two  were  tlie  knights  of 
Santiago  and  those  of  Alcantara.  The 
Templars  in  Spain   had  had  immense 


estates  conferred  upon  them,  and  corre- 
sponding services  in  the  xmremitting  war 
against  theMoorswere  expected  from  them, 
Calatrava,  a  town  on  the  upper  Guadiana, 
on  the  borders  of  Andalusia  and  Castile, 
was  a  post  of  great  military  importance 
to  the  sovereigns  of  the  latter  country, 
whether  for  offensive  or  defensive  pur- 
poses. In  the  twelfth  century  it  was  en- 
trusted to  the  guardianship  of  the  Tem- 
plars ;  but  these,  finding  the  charge 
embarrassing,  abandoned  the  place  after 
eight  years.  Sancho  III.,  King  of  Castile, 
desired  to  find  a  body  of  knights  who 
would  undertake  its  defence;  and  his 
wishes  were  soon  fully  met  by  the  energy 
and  ability  of  a  Spanish  Cistercian  monk, 
Velasquez  by  name,  who  with  the  con- 
currence of  his  order  founded,  in  1258, 
a  chivalrous  institute,  the  knights  of 
which  were  to  live  under  a  strict  rule  and 
devote  themselves  to  the  protection  and 
extpjision  of  the  Christian  kingdom  to 
wli'ch  they  belonged.  A  knight  of  Cala- 
trn\  a  bound  himself  to  perpetual  chastity, 
and  this  obligation  was  only  relaxed  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  when  permission 
was  granted  to  the  knights  to  marry  once. 
He  was  enjoined  to  have  his  sword  ready 
to  his  hand  while  he  slept  and  also  while 
he  prayed.  Silence  was  prescribed  at 
meals;  the  fare  was  plain,  meat  not  being 
allowed  more  than  thrice  a  week.  The 
chaplains  of  the  order  were  at  first  allowed 
to  talje  the  field  in  expeditions  against 
the  Moors  ;  but  this  was  afterwards  for- 
bidden. In  1197  Calatrava  was  taken  by 
the  Moslems,  and  the  knights  retired  to 
Salvatierra,  in  the  north  of  Spain,  and 
took  the  name  of  that  city  till  their 
former  home  was  recovered.  The  order 
soon  became  very  rich,  and  the  extensive 
influence  and  patronage  which  its  wealth 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  grand-mas- 
ters caused  the  ofilce  to  be  eagerly 
sought  by  ambitious  men.  Such  violent 
quarrels  and  animosities  arose  from  this 
cause  (which  was  similarly  operative  in 
the  case  of  the  other  military  orders) 
that  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  the 
fifteenth  century  wisely  procured  the 
Papal  sanction  to  the  annexation  of 
the  grand-mastership  of  all  three  orders 
to  the  crown  of  Castile.  In  the  general 
suppression  of  the  monastic  orders 
which  the  present  century  has  witnessed 
in  Spain,  the  knights  of  Calatrava  have 
lost  all  their  property,  but  as  a  source 
of  honorary  distinction  the  order  still 
survives.  (H^lyot ;  Prescott's  "  Ferd  inand 
and  Isabella."") 


CALENDAll,  ECCLESIASTIC-IL     CALENDAR,  ECCLESIASTICAL  107 


CAXiENBAR,  ECCX.ESZASTX- 
CAX.  An  arran^oineiit,  I'oiiuded  on  tlie 
Juliaii-Gregoriau  determinations  of  the 
civil  year,  marking  the  days  set  apart 
for  particular  religious  celebration. 

The  Diocletian  persecution  made 
havoc  among  Christian  records  and 
writings  of  every  kind,  and  for  this 
reason  but  few  calendars  of  great  anti- 
quity have  been  preserved.  One  of  the 
earliest,  dated  about  350,  is  little  more 
than  a  list  of  holy  days;  it  places 
Christmas  Day  on  JDecember  25,  and 
the  Feast  of  St.  Peter's  Chair  on  Feb- 
ruary '2-2.  In  a  calendar  prefixed  to 
the  "  Responsoriale "  of  Gregory  the 
Great,  there  is  no  mention  of  the  Cir- 
cumcision, nor  of  Ash  Wednesday,  but 
in  other  respects  it  closely  resembles  the 
present  Roman  Calendar.  The  various 
scientific  and  historical  questions  in- 
Tolved  in  the  determination  of  Easter 
attracted  the  earnest  attention  of  the 
Church  from  an  early  period.  The 
Venerable  Beda  wrote  an  elaborate  work 
"De  Computo;"  he  is  also  thought  by 
many  to  have  been  the  real  author  of 
the  essay  on  the  true  calculation  of 
Easter,  given  in  the  form  of  a  letter  of 
the  Abbot  Ceolfrid  to  X;iiton,  King  of 
the  Picts,  which  he  has  in.-erteil  in  the 
fifth  book  of  his  "Ecclesiastical  History." 
A  treatise  "De  Computo"  is  also  among 
the  works  of  Rabanus  Maurus,  the  great 
Archbishop  of  Mayeuce,  in  the  early  part 
of  the  ninth  centiu-y.  It  was  ordered  by 
the  Council  of  Orleans  (541)  that  bishops 
should  every  year  announce  the  date  of 
Easter  on  the  festival  of  the  Epiphany. 

Since  Easter  varies  every  year,  the 
liturgical  arrangements  of  the  Church, 
which  depend  on  Easier,  must  vary  in 
like  mamier;  and  the  calendar,  which 
notifies  those  arrangements,  can  only  be 
good  for  the  year  to  which  it  refers. 
From  the  first  Sunday  after  Epiphany  to 
Advent  Sunday — that  is,  from  about  the 
middle  of  January  to  the  end  of  Novem- 
ber— there  is  not  a  single  Sunday  of  which 
the  ritual  observance  is  not  liable  to 
variation  from  year  to  year,  according  to 
the  varying  date  of  Easter.  The  calendar 
which  announces  the  actual  course  of  the 
liturg;\-  for  every  day  of  the  year,  may 
be  called  the  liturgical  calendar.  It 
takes  into  account  the  relative  importance 
of  the  celebrations  which  come  into  com- 
petition on  the  same  day,  in  accordance 
with  canon  law  and  the  decrees  of  the 
Sacred  Coiigregation  of  Rites,  and  shows 
•which  celebration  is  to  prevail  and  be  had 


in  use.  A  glance  at  this  calendar  will 
show  that  many  saints  are  trarusf erred  in 
it,  as  to  the  celebration  of  their  festivals, 
and  that  Masses  in  their  honour  cannot  be 
said  on  their  own  proper  days ;  but  a 
little  further  search  wiU  generally  show 
that  the  festival  has  only  been  transferred 
a  few  days  later — that  is,  to  the  first 
vacant  day.  Owing  to  the  difiVrent 
dignity  of  feast  (see  Double,  Semi- 
Double,  Feasts),  their  priority,  and  the 
extent  to  which  they  may  be  transferred 
are  often  ditficult  matters  to  decide.  In 
general  outline  this  liturgical  calendar 
is  the  same  for  the  whole  Church :  the 
feasts  of  our  Lord  and  of  his  Dlessed 
Mother  are  observed  by  all  Catholics  on 
the  same  days  ;  so  also  are  the  principal 
feasts  of  the  Apostles,  and  of  some  of  the 
more  eminent  martyrs  and  saints.  But 
special  circumstances,  arising  out  of  the 
history  of  each  Christian  nation,  ati'ect  its 
liturgical  calendar  to  a  certain  e.xtent; 
St.  Patrick's  day,  which  is  a  holiday  of 
obUgation  in  Ireland,  is  not  so  in  England ; 
and  the  octave  assigned  to  the  feast  of  St. 
Edward,  king  and  confessor,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Westminster,  is  not  observed  in 
Ireland.  Many  other  modifications  more 
or  less  important  might  be  mentioned,  in 
virtue  of  which  not  only  each  Christian 
nation,  but  every  religious  order,  every 
ecclesiastical  province,  eveiy  diocese — one 
might  almost  say  every  city,  at  lea^t  in  a 
Catholic  land, for  the  "fete  patrouale"  of 

i  Cambray  is  not  that  of  Douay,  and  each 
causes  a  slight  disturbance  of  the  general 
Ordo  in  its  own  favour — may  be  said  to 
have  a  liturgical  calendar  of  its  own. 

In  the  common  ecclesiastical  calendar 
prefixed  to  Catholic  directories,  the  "  Pro- 
priirm  de  Tempore  "  (that  is,  the  arrange- 
ment of  feasts  and  offices,  most  of  which 
depend  on  Easter,  from  Advent  to  Pente- 
cost) is  given  in  the  liturgical  directoiy, 

I  but  the  feasts  of  saints  are  assigned  to 
their  fixed  days. 

Still  more  general  is  that  description 
of  ecclesiastical  calendar  in  which  the 
"Proprium  de  Tempore"  is  omitted,  and 
only  the  fixed  festivals  retained.  This,  if 
we  exclude  from  it  the  festivals  of  our 
Lord  and  the  Blessed  Virgin,  is  little 
more  than  a  calendar  of  saints'  days,  and 
would  tend  to  pass  into  a  Martyrologv. 

i  The  "  Acta  Sanctorum  "  of  the  BoUandists 
may  be  regarded  as  a  colossal  calendar  of 
saints,  arranged  according  to  the  succes- 
sive occurrence  of  their  festivals  in  the 
civil  year,  and  enriched  with  biographies 

I  and  collateral  information.     A  Greek 


108  CALEIsDAE,  JULIAX-GREGORIAN      CALYIX  AND  CALVINISM 


Menology  is  something  between  a  calendar 
and  a  Marty rolog;\-. 

CAXiENDAK,  JVI.ZAM--GREGO- 
JtXAN,  THE.  Julius  Caesar,  in  the 
year  708  of  the  city,  caused  the  civil 
calendar,  which  had  fallen  into  confu- 
sion, to  be  reformed  by  dividing  the  year 
into  twelve  months,  each  with  the  same 
number  of  days  as  at  present,  and  pro- 
viding that  an  additional  day  should  be 
given  to  February  in  every  fourth  year, 
in  order  that  the  natural  year,  which 
was  believed  to  be  365  days  6  hours 
in  length,  might  keep  even  pace  with 
the  legal  year.  But  as  the  real  excess 
of  the  time  taken  in  the  solar  revolution 
over  365  days  does  not  amount  to  six 
hours,  but  only  to  five  hours  and  forty- 
nine  minutes  (nearly),  it  was  an  inevit> 
able  consequence  of  the  disregard  of 
this  fact  that  the  addition  of  nearly 
forty-four  minutes  too  much  every  leap- 
year  should  again  in  course  of  time 
make  the  natural  and  civil  years  dis- 
agree. The  accumulated  error  cau.sed 
the  difference  of  a  day  in  about  134 
years ;  thus  the  vernal  equinox,  which 
in  the  year  of  the  Council  of  NiciJea 
(■■!-•■"))  fell,  as  it  ouglit  to  fall,  on 
;Minch  21,  in  1582  occun-ed  ten  days 
earlier.  But  since  Easter  ought  to  be 
kept  on  the  Sunday  after  the  first  full- 
moon  following  the  vernal  equinox,  it 
is  'ibvious  that,  witli  so  serious  a  differ- 
ence between  the  real  equinox  and  tlie 
e(iuinox  of  the  Calendar,  Easter  might 
easily  be  kept  a  month  too  late;  the 
Paschal  full-moon  miglit  liave  occurred 
on  some  day  between  March  11  (the  date 
of  the  real  equinox)  and  March  21,  but 
be  disregarded  in  favour  of  the  next 
full-moon,  which  fell  after  the  equinox 
of  the  calendar.  Gregory  XIII.,  con- 
sulting with  men  of  science,  eff'ectually 
remedied  the  evil,  and  provided  against 
its  recurrence.  He  ordered  that  the 
days  between  October  4  and  October  15 
in  the  current  year  (1582)  should  be 
suppressed,  and  that,  beginning  with 
17U0,  three  out  of  every  four  centesimal 
leap-years— 1700,  IsOO,  1900,  but  not 
2000— should  be  omitted,  so  that  those 
years  should  have  only  365,  not  366 
days.  This  change,  having  originated 
at  Rome,  was  long  resisted  in  Protestant 
countries.  In  England  it  was  only 
adopted  in  1751,  by  which  time  the 
accumulated  error  amounted  to  eleven 
days ;  these  days  were  suppressed  between 
September  2  and  14,  1752.  In  Russia 
the  Julian  Calendar  is  still  adhered  to, 


with  the  result  that  their  computation 
of  time  is  now  twelve  days  in  arrear  of 
the  rest  of  Em-ope. 

CAXiZXTZiarES.  A  section  of  the 
followers  of  John  Hubs,  who  were  so- 
called  because  they  demanded  the  cup  or 
chalice  {cnlix) — that  is.  Holy  Communion 
under  the  form  of  wine  as  well  as  under 
the  form  of  bread.  They  were  also  called 
Utraquists  {i<ub  ut)-ague  specie).  [See 
Hussites  :  CojiMuifioif  (6).] 

CAZ.VA.RZA.N'S.  On  the  steep  com- 
manding hill  known  as  Mont  ValtSrien, 
looking  down  upon  the  Bois  de  Boulogne 
and  famous  in  connection  with  many  re- 
markable incidents  in  the  siege  of  Paris 
some  years  ago,  a  priest  of  the  diocese  of 
Auch  established,  about  1635,  an  institute 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Calvary. 
The  name  of  the  priest  was  Hubert  Char- 
pentier,  and  the  object  of  the  association 
of  priests  which  he  founded  was  to  honour 
the  Passion  of  Jesus  Christ  and  labour 
for  the  promotion  of  Catholicism  in  Beam, 
where  the  Protestants  were  then  working 
with  considerable  success.  It  would  ap- 
pear that  this  institute  of  Calvarians  dis- 
appeared during  the  lievolution. 

A  congTegation  of  Calvarian  nims, 
j  founded  at  I'oitiers  in  1617  by  the  Pere 
'  Joseph,  a  Capuchin  and  intimate  friend 
of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  aided  by  the  high- 
born Antoinette  d'Orl^ans,  still  flourishes- 
'  in  France. 

There  is  also  a  congregation  of  Cal- 
varian sisters,  established  by  Virginia 
Braccelli  at  Genoa  in  161 9  for  the  purjjose 
of  supporting  and  educating  destitute  and 
homeless  girls,  which  has  received  many 
favours  from  successive  Popes. 

CAIiVXSr     AUJi  CAX.VZM'ZSIVX. 

Calvin  was  born  in  1509  at  Noyon  iu 
Picardy.  His  father  (Chauvin),  who  was 
an  episcopal  fiscal-procurator,  secured  a 
good  education  for  his  son  in  the  noble 
family  of  Montmor.  Young  Calvin  was 
pro\  ided  with  a  benefice,  though  he  never 
received  more  than  the  tonsure,  and  went 
to  study  theology  at  Paris.  •  There,  how- 
ever, the  influence  of  Olivetan  and  Farel 
won  him  over  to  the  heresy  of  the  Re- 
formers ;  he  gave  up  all  idea  of  the 
priesthood,  and  went  to  study  law  at 
Bourges.  The  change  which  had  begun 
at  Paris  was  made  complete."'  'llie  Luthe- 
ran Wolmar  persuaded  him  to  give  up 
the  law  and  to  devote  himself  entirely 
to  theology.  Later,  when  it  was  no 
longer  safe  for  him  to  remain  in  France, 
he  fled  to  Basle,  went  afterwards  to  Fer- 
rara,  and  finally  settled  at  Geneva  in  I53G, 


CALVIN  AND  CALVINISM 

as  professor  of  theology  and  preacher. 
However,  in  1538,  he  was  driven  from 
the  town,  and  remained  for  three  years 
at  Strasburg,  wliere  he  married  and 
formed  intimate  connections  with  the  Ger- 
man Refonners.  In  1541  he  was  recalled 
to  Geneva,  and  here  he  organised  his 
Consistory,  through  which  till  his  death, 
in  1504,  he  exercised  an  absolute  power 
in  temporal  as  well  as  in  spiritual  matters. 
Calvin  brooked  no  contradiction.  Cas- 
tellio  had  to  leave  Geneva  for  attacking 
the  doctrine  of  predestination,  and  the 
Spaniard  Michael  Servetus  (Servede), 
who  attacked  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
was  burnt  alive,  an  auto-da-fe  which 
M-as  approved  by  Melanchthon  and 
Bucer. 

As  to  Calvin's  extraordinary  talents, 
there  can  be  no  doubt.  Both  in  Latin 
and  French,  his  writings  are  a  model  of 
clear,  concise,  nervous  language ;  he  had 
great  stores  of  varied  learning  at  his 
command  ;  his  commentaries  on  Scripture 
still  hold  a  very  high  place  in  the  esteem 
of  Protestant  scholars,  and  his  s^uhtlety 
and  power  of  reasoning  fitted  him  to 
become  the  gi-eat  theologian  of  the  lie- 
formed  sects.  AVitli  a  vast  section  of 
Protestants  in  Switzerland,  Ilolhuul, 
England,  Scotland,  \-c.,  lii^  Institutes  [  In- 
sti'utio  Rf/ij/ionis  C/iristi/iuce)  pii>>t>M  d 
almost  unlimited  authority,  and 
esteemed  as  the  greatest  work  which  hud 
appeared  since  the  days  of  the  .\po,-tlos. 
It  is  this  book  which  contains  the 
methodical  exposition  of  his  doctrinal 
system.  It  affords  abundant  proof,  not 
only  of  Calvin's  exalted  talents,  but  also 
of  the  gulf  which  separated  him  from  t  he 
tradition  of  the  Church.  Its  peculiar 
doctrines  have  long  since  lost  their  hold 
on  Protestants  of  the  better  >ort,  and  his 
system  outrages  the  principles  of  natural 
as  well  as  of  revealed  religion.  It  is  im- 
portant, however,  to  remember  wh.it  the 
system  was  which  so  many  found  purer 
and  more  attractive  than  that  of  the 
Church. 

According  to  Calvin,  God  ordains  some 
to  everlasting  life,  others  to  everlasting 
punishment.  God  does  not  choo-.  tli.> 
elect  for  any  good  He  sees  in  tlieui,  or 
which  He  sees  they  will  do ;  nor  does  lie 
select  some  for  eternal  reprobation  be- 
cause of  their  evil  deeds  foreseen  by  Ilim. 
Indeed,  as  the  whole  nature  of  fiiUen 
man,  in  Calvin's  view,  is  "  utterly  de- 
void of  goodness ;  is  a  seed-bed  of  sin," 
which  "cannot  but  be  odious  and  abo- 
minable to  God ; "  as  man  has  no  free- 


CAMALDOLI  109 

I  will,  and  as  God's  grace  is  absolutely 
irresistible ;  it  follows  that  there  can  be  no 
question  of  merits  foreseen,  on  account  of 
I  which  God  chooses  the  elect,  or  of  de- 
I  merits,  because  of  which  the  reprobate 
j  are  rejected.    Calvin's  words  are  explicit 
on  this  point.  "  If,"  he  writes,  "  we  cannot 
assign  any  reason  for  His  [God's]  bestow- 
ing mercy  on  His  people,  but  just  that 
It  pleases  Ilim,  neither  can  He  have  any 
reason   for  reprobating  others  but  His 
will."  '  Here  of  course  Calvinist  heresy  is 
in  sharp  antagonism  to  Catholic  doctrine, 
1  according  to  which  God  by  His  eternal 
decree  condemns  none,  except  for  their 
1  sins  foreseen  by  Him  and  of  course  freely 
committed. 

As  to  the  means  by  which  the  elect 
actually  enter  into  a  state  of  salvation 
Calvin  was  at  one  with  the  rest  of  the 
Reformers.  He  taught  that  justification 
is  effected  by  faith  and  by  faith  alone. 
Calvin's  doctrine  on  the  sacraments — of 
which  he  only  recognised  Baptism  and 
the  Eucharist — stands  midway  between 
that  of  Luther  and  Zwingli.  He  con- 
sidered the  doctrine  of  the  latter  (which 
made  the  sacraments  mere  signs  of 
Christian  profession,  tokens  by  which  a 
man  is  known  as  such  ainonp  his  fellow- 
Chi-istlaiis)  to  lie  eiToiieou^  and  even 
prolaiie.  He  >jie;ii<r-  ni  the  sacraments  as 
niystieal  sions  instituted  by  God,  who 
through  them,  not  only  reminds  men  of 
past  beuetits,  but  also  renews  these  bene- 
fits, seals  His  promises,  strengthens  and 
iui  iva-^rs  the  faith  of  the  recipient  by  the 
n|„  rai!ou  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Thiis  to 
Calvin  the  sacraments  were  not  bare 
signs,  but  real  channels  of  grace.  But  it 
was  to  the  elect  only  that  they  conveyed 
this  grace.  To  others  they  were  bare 
and  ino])rrat  n  e  svniK'iU.- 

The  Cahiiustu-  \vorship  was  much 
more  hare  and  simple  than  the  Lutheran, 
and  the  constitution  of  tlie  Calvinistie 
sects  was  riiiidlv  Piv>hvterian.  But  ( '.-il- 
vin  had  hifrher'  notions  of  Church  free- 
dom and  iiule]icndence  than  Luther.  He 
maint+iini'dtliat  the  ( 'hurch  wasaltogether 
independent  of  the  State,  and  the  govern- 
iiieut  which  he  estahlislied  at  Geneva  was 
theocratic  in  its  character.  The  influence, 
however,  of  Calvin's  doctrine  was  not 
confined  to  sects  with  Presbyterian  con- 
stitution. His  Imtitutio  represented  the 
dominant  theology  in  the  Anglican  Church 
down  to  the  time  of  Laud. 

CAMAiiSOXiX.    The  austere  order 
'  I„sth.  lib.  iii.  2-2. 
-  Miihler,  Syinholik,  bk.  i.  ch.  4. 


110  CAMALDOLI 


UAADLES  AND  LIGHTS 


of  Camaldoli  -was  founded  by  St.  Romuald  1 
in  1012  on  a  small  plain  among  the  Apen-  ' 
nines  bearing  that  name,  about  thirty 
miles  east  of  Florence.  He  had  previously 
been  abbot  of  several  Benedictine  monas- 
teries, the  monks  of  which,  unable  to  bear 
the  rigorous  penitential  life  which  he 
wished  them  to  practise,  had  all  after  a 
time  expelled  him.  The  foundation  of 
1012  has  always  been  known  as  the 
Hermitage  of  Camaldoli.  Romuald  built 
separate  cells  for  his  disciples,  most  of 
whom  had  to  repair  to  the  chapel  at  the 
canonical  hours,  but  there  was  a  class 
among  them  called  recluses  who  were 
exempted  from  this  obligation.  He  gave 
a  white  habit  to  his  hermits,  whom  he 
obliged  to  fast  during  two  Lents  in  the 
year,  and  to  abstain  perpetually  from 
meat;  moreover,  during  the  rest  of  the 
year  they  had  to  fast  on  bread  and  water 
on  three  days  in  the  week.  After  some 
time  a  monastery  was  built  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountains,  at  a  place  called  Fonte- 
buono,  and  peopled  by  monks  under  a 
prior;  these,  however,  wore  the  same 
habit  as  the  hermits,  and  were  bound  to 
the  same  rule  of  life.  Alban  Butler,  who 
seems  to  have  visited  Camaldoli  about 
the  middle  of  the  last  century,  thus 
writes  of  it.'  "The  hermitage  is  two 
short  miles  distant  from  the  monastery 
[Fontebuono].  It  is  a  mountain  quite 
overshaded  by  a  dark  wood  of  fir-trees. 
In  it  are  seven  clear  springs  of  water. 
The  very  sight  of  this  solitude  in  the 
midst  of  the  forest  helps  to  fill  the  mind 
with  compunction,  and  a  love  of  heavenly 
contemplation.  On  entering  it  we  meet 
with  a  chapel  of  St.  Antony  for  travellers 
to  pray  in  before  they  advance  any  fur- 
ther. Next  are  the  cells  and  lodgings  for 
the  porters.  Somewlial  further  is  the 
church,  which  is  lai-gi-,  well  built,  and 
riclily  adorned.  Over  the  door  is  a  clock 
which  strikes  so  loud  that  it  may  be 
heard  all  over  the  desert.  On  the  left 
side  of  the  cb\irch  is  thi>  ckII  in  which 
St.  Romuald  lived,  wli..ii  lir  li.-l  .-tal.- 
lished  these  herniils.  .  .  .  Thr  wliole 
hermitage  is  now  enclosed  with  a  wall ; 
none  are  allowed  to  go  out  of  it ;  but  they 
may  walk  in  the  woods  and  alleys  withiii 
the  inclosure  at  discretion.  Everything 
is  sent  them  from  the  monastery  in  the 
valley ;  their  food  is  every  day  brought 
to  each  cell,  and  all  are  supplied  with 
wood  and  necessaries,  that  they  may  have 
no  dissipation  or  hindrance  in  their  con- 
templation. ...  No  rain  or  snow  stops 
»  Lives  of  the  Saints,  Feb.  7. 


anyone  from  meeting  in  the  church  to 
assist  at  the  divine  office.  They  are 
obliged  to  strict  silence  in  all  puljlic 
common  places,  and  everywhere  during 
their  Lents,  also  on  Sundays,  holy  days, 
Fridays,  and  other  days  of  abstinence, 
and  always  from  comphne  till  prime  the 
next  day." 

The  order  became  very  wealthy,  and 
many  of  its  hermitages  were  after  a  time 
changed  into  monasteries.  It  was  agreed 
that  the  general  of  the  order,  who  was 
also  e.v  officio  prior  of  Camaldoli,  should 
be  taken  from  among  the  hermits  and  the 
monks.  Rudolph,  the  fourth  general, 
drew  up,  in  1102,  the  first  written  consti- 
tutions of  the  order,  in  wluch  he  slightly 
mitigated  the  severity  of  the  original  rule. 
In  process  of  time  the  order  was  separated 
into  five  provinces  or  congregations :  that 
of  Camaldoli,  or  the  Holy  Hermitage;  that 
of  St.  Michael  at  Murano,  near  Venice; 
that  of  the  hermits  of  Monte  Corona  near 
Perugia,  a  reformation  founded  by  Paul 
Giustiuiani  early  in  the  sixteenth  century; 
that  of  Turin  ;  and  that  of  France. 

The  Canialdolesi,  if  the  vandalism  of 
the  present  Government  of  Italy  ha>  not 
yet  destroyed  their  monasteries,  have  still 
a  famous  house  near  Rome,  besides  se\  ei-al 
in  other  parts  of  Italy.  Pope  Gregory 
XVI.  belonged  to  this  order.  (H^lyot.) 

CAIVIEB&.    [See  Ctjria  Roma'na.] 

CAMERIiENGO.  [See  CUBIA 
ROMAXA.] 

CAircEXiiZ.   [See  Chancel.] 

CA.N'DX.EMAS.  [See  PURIFICA- 
TION OF  THE  Blessed  Virgin.] 

CAlfDl.ES  and  X.XGHTS.  St  Luke, 

in  Acts  XX.  7,  mentions  the  "  great 
number  of  lamps"  which  burnt  in  "the 
upper  chamber,"  while  St.  Paul  "conti- 
nued his  speech  until  midnight."  The 
fact  that  Chi'istian  assemblies  during  the 
times  of  persecution  were  held  Ijefore 
dawn  made  a  similar  employment  of 
lights  necessary,  but  we  may  well  believe 
that  (he  Clirist  ian-.  familiar  as  they  were 
Willi  ili,-vinlHii;.Mhn..niilugofthecandle- 
stick  in  the  tabi'iiiaclc  and  temple,  also 
attached  a  symbolical  significance  to 
the  lights  which  they  bui-ned  during  the 
holy  mysteries.  This  conjecture  is  con- 
finned  by  the  fact  that  the  Church  of  the 
fourth  century  still  continued  the  reli- 
gious use  of  lights  when  they  were  no 
longer  needed  to  dispel  the  darkness. 
"Throughout  the  churches  of  the  East," 
says  Jerome,  writing,  against  Vigilantius, 
"  lights  are  kindled  when  the  gospel  is  to 
be  read,  although  the  sun  is  shining :  not, 


CANON 


CANON 


111 


Indeed,  to  drive  away  the  darkness  but  as  a 
sign  of  spiritual  joy."  So  Pauliiuis  of 
Nola  speaks  of  "altars  crowned  with  a 
forest  of  lights,"  and  similar  language 
might  be  quoted  from  Prudentius.  The 
use  of  lights  at  Mass  is  mentioned  in  all 
the  Oriental  liturgies. 

With  regard  to  the  West,  a  very 
ancient  African  canon  makes  mention  of 
the  candle  handed  to  the  acolyte  at  his 
ordination  ; '  while  the  niedi;Bval  author  of 
the  "  Micrologus  "  says  :  "  According  to  the 
Roman  order  we  never  celebrate  Mass 
without  lights  ....  using  them  as  a  type 
of  that  light  ....  without  which  even 
in  mid-day  we  grope  as  in  the  night."  Nor 
was  the  use  of  lights  confined  to  Mass. 
St.  Gregory  Nazianzen  speaks  of  the 
lights  borne  by  the  neophytes  at  baptism, 
"emblems,"  he  says,  "of  those  lamps  of 
faith  with  which  radiant  souls  shall  hasten 
forth  to  meet  the  bridegroom  ;  "  and  our 
custom  of  carrying  lights  at  funerals  can 
be  traced  back  to  the  fourth  century. 

The  present  custom  of  the  Church  re- 
quires that  candles  should  be  lighted  on 
the  altar  from  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  Mass,  nor  can  lighted  candles  be  dis- 
pensed with  on  any  consideration.  A 
parish  priest,  for  instance,  must  not  say 
Mass  for  his  flock,  even  on  a  Sunilay,  un- 
less candles  can  be  procured.  Tlie  can- 
dles must  be  of  pure  wax  and  of  white 
colour,  except  in  Masses  for  the  dead, 
when  the  S.  Cong.  Rit.  prescribes  candles 
"de  communi  cera" — i.e.  of  yellow  wax. 
Two,  and  not  more  than  two,  may  be  1  ighted 
at  a  priest's  low  Mass,  unless  the  Mass  be 
said  for  the  parish,  or  for  a  convent,  or  on 
one  of  the  greater  solemnities,  when  four 
candles  may  be  used.^  Six  candles  are 
lighted  at  High  Mass,  seven  at  the  Mass 
of  a  Bishop.  Twelve  candles  at  least 
should  be  lighted  at  Benediction  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  or  six  if  Benediction 
is  given  with  the  pyx.'  Candles  must  also 
be  lighted  when  Communion  is  given, 
whether  in  the  church  or  in  private 
houses  ;  and  one  lighted  candle  is  required 
in  the  administration  of  Extreme  Unction. 
(See  Rock,  "  Ilierurgia,"  On  the  Use  of 
Liffhfs.) 

CAnroxr  (member  of  a  chapter).  The 
clergy  of  every  large  cluiich  in  ancient 
times  were  termed  ranoyuct,  as  Ijeing 
entered  on  the  list  (for  this  is  one  of  the 
meanings  of  K(ivi>v)  ol'  ecckviastics  serv- 

1  Hefele,  CnncU.  ii.  70. 
'  "  Plus  quani  duo,"  aceordinf?  to  a  decree 
of  the  S.  Cong.  ;  Matmah.  n.  377. 

^  See  the  note  in  Munuale  Decret.  to  n.  27.'5.5. 


ing  the  church.  A  more  definite  meaning 
was  attached  to  the  word  in  consequence 
of  the  labours  of  Chrodegang,  Bishop  of 
Metz,  in  the  eighth  century,  to  revive  a 
stricter  discipline  among  his  clergy,  and 
give  scope  for  the  exhibition  among  them 
of  shining  examples  of  virtuous  living. 
He  formed  the  clergy  of  his  cathedral  into 
a  commimity,  bound  by  a  rule  {Knvwv  in 
the  common  sense,  under  which  they 
lived  in  common,  on  the  proceeds  of  an 
undivided  property,  and  recited  the  divine 
office  in  choir  with  the  same  regularity  as 
monks.  Many  other  cathedrals  and  large 
churches,  thence  named  collegiate,  orga- 
nised themselves  in  the  same  way.  In  the 
course  of  ages,  the  obligation  of  living  in 
common  was  abandoned,  and  the  common 
property  was  divided  into  portions  or 
prebends  [Prebeitd],  one  for  each  canon; 
yet  still  the  clergy  of  each  cathedral 
formed  a  united  body  [see  Chapter]  which 
the  Council  of  Trent  calls  an  "  ecclesias- 
tical senate," '  declaring  that  those  who 
were  called  to  fill  places  in  it  ought — inas- 
much as  cathedral  dignities  were  origin- 
ally instituted  in  order  to  preserve  and 
increase  discipline,  supply  society  with 
examples  of  pious  life,  and  assist  the 
bishops — to  be  chosen  with  extreme  care 
and  circumspection.  In  some  cathedrals 
the  community  life  instituted  by  Chrode- 
gang was  retained,  and  other  separate 
institutions  similarly  ordered  arose  [see 
Atjgtjstiu-ian  Canons  ;  Pkemonstra- 
TENSiANs].  The  secular  canons,  with 
whom  we  are  at  present  concerned,  having 
the  administration  of  large  properties, 
and  holding  in  cathedrals,  relatively  to 
bishops,  a  position  which  might  be  one  of 
willing  subordination,  yet  might  easily 
become  one  of  antagonism,  form  the  sub- 
ject of  numerous  chapters  of  the  canon 
law.  A  canonry  is  defined  as  a  spiritual 
right — arising  out  of  election  or  recep- 
tion into  the  chapter — first,  to  a  stall  in 
choir  and  a  voice  in  chapter ;  next,  to  a 
prebend  or  competent  portion  of  the 
chapter  revenues,  on  the  earliest  possible 
opportunity.  Till  the  acquisition  of  a 
])rebend,  the  holder  of  a  canonry  is  a 
minor  canon  (cano/iici/s  minor)  ;  after  it, 
a  major  or  full  canon.  The  Council  of 
Trent  (loc.  cit.'^  ordered  that  no  one 
should  be  appomted  to  a  canonry  with 
cure  of  souls  attached,  under  twenty- 
four  years  of  age.  When  there  is  no 
cure  of  souls,  a  person  may  receive  a 
canonry  in  a  collegiate  churcli  at  as  low 
an  age  as  fourteen ;  in  a  cathedral  where 
>  Se-os.  xxiv.  De  Reform,  c.  12. 


112 


CAXON  LAW 


CANON  LAW 


the  prebends  are  distributed  among  canons 
with  difierent  orders,  the  recipient  of  a 
subdiaconal  canonrv  must  be  twenty-one ; 
of  a  diaconal,  twenty-two;  of  a  sacer- 
dotal, twenty-four  years  of  age.  In 
a  cathedral  where  the  canonries  are 
not  distributed,  he  must  be  at  least 
twenty-two.  The  Council  ordered  that 
all  cathedral  canons  should  possess  a 
grade  of  orders  not  lower  than  the 
subdiaconate,  and  recommended  that  at 
least  half  of  them  should  be  in  priest's 
orders ;  it  also  obliged  them  to  reside  not 
less  than  nine  months  in  the  year.  With 
regard  to  their  duties,  it  says: — "Let  all 
be  bound  to  attend  the  divine  offices  in  per- 
son and  not  by  substitutes,  and  to  assist 
and  serve  the  bishop  when  celebrating 
Mass,  or  pontificating  in  any  other  man- 
ner, and  to  praise  the  name  of  God  reve- 
renth',  distinctly,  and  devoutly  in  hymns 
and  canticles  in  the  choir  appointed  for 
psalmody." 

Chapters  were  established  in  England 
at  the  restoration  of  the  Hierarchy 
(1850) ;  but,  as  there  are  no  revenues 
attached  to  them,  the  canons  are  exempt 
from  residence  and  attendance  at  the 
divine  offices  in  the  cathedral.  They  are 
bound,  however,  to  be  present  once  a 
month. 

CANON  IiAW.  From  the  earliest 
timt>s  the  determinations  of  the  Church 
received  tlie  name  of  Canons — that  is,  rules 
directory  in  matters  of  faith  and  conduct. 
Thus  we  read  of  the  Apostolic  Canons, 
the  Canons  of  the  Council  of  Nice,  or  of 
Chalcedon,  &c.  A  tendency  afterwards 
appeared  to  restrict  the  term  Canon  to 
matters  of  discipline,  and  to  give  the  name 
of  dogma  to  decisions  bearing  on  faith. 
But  the  Council  of  Trent  confirmed  the 
ancient  use  of  the  word,  calling  its  deter- 
minations "canons,"  whether  they  bore 
on  ],oints  of  belief  or  were  directed  to  the 
reformation  of  discipline. 

Canon  Law  is  the  assemblage  of  rules 
or  laws  relating  to  faith,  morals,  and 
discipline,  prescribed  or  propounded  to 
Christians  by  ecclesiastical  authority. 
The  words  "  or  laws  "  are  added  to  the 
definition,  lest  it  be  thought  that  these 
rules  are  only  matters  of  publication  and 
persuasion,  and  not  l)inding  laws,  Uable 
to  be  enforced  by  penalties.  The  defini- 
tion shows  that  the  ohject  of  canon  law 
is  "  faith,  morals,  and  discipliiu! ;  "  and 
nothing  but  these  is  its  object.  "To 
Christians  " — that  is,  baptised  persons 
are  the  subject  of  canon  law  ;  and  that 
without  reference  to  the  question  whether 


they  are  or  are  not  obedient  to  the  Churcb 
and  within  her  pale.  For  theologian* 
teach  that  the  character  imprinted  by 
baptism  on  the  soul  is  ineffiiceable ;  and 
in  virtue  of  this  character  the  baptised  are 
Christ's  soldiers,  and  subiect  of  right  tO' 
those  whom  He  appointed  to  rule  in  His 
fold.  The  unbaptised  (Turks,  Pagans, 
&c.),  speaking  generally,  are  not  the  sul> 
ji'cts  (if  canon  law.  Yet  it  must  not  be 
supposed  that  the  Church  has  no  rights 
and  no  duties  in  refzard  to  such  persons ; 
by  the  commission  of  Christ  she  has  the- 
right  of  visitmg,  teaching,  and  then  bap- 
tising them  ("  euntes  docete  omnes  gentes, 
baptizaudo,"  &c.).  "Propounded" — for 
some  of  these  rules  belong  to  the  natural 
or  to  the  divine  law,  and  as  such  are  not 
originally  imposed  by  the  Church,  but 
proposed  and  explained  by  her.  "  By^ 
ecclesiastical  authority" — hence  canon, 
law  is  distinguished  from  systems  of  law 
imposed  by  the  civil  authority  of  States,, 
as  being  prescribed  by  the  power  with 
which  Jesus  Christ  endowed  the  Church 
which  He  founded  ("qui  vos  audit,  me 

audit  ;  ]i;i>re  ovcs  lii-as,"  &C.). 

IhI'.uv  |)rMir,il  to  give  a  brief 
sketch  111'  tlie  lii-l.iry  of  Canon  law,  to 
notice  its  jiarts,  ascertain  its  sources,  and 
describe  its  principal  collections,  a  pre- 
liminary 'ilijeetion,  striking  at  the  root  of 
its  auth(u-it y,  and  aliiio^t  at  its  existence, 
must  be  e\aniiiied.  It  is,  that  the  con- 
sent of  the  civil  po«-er  in  any  country  is 
necessary  to  give  validity  to  the  deter- 
minations of  the  canon  law  in  that 
country.  This  is  the  doctrine  of  the 
"placitum  regium,"  os  "royal  assent;" 
it  implies,  whatever  may  be  the  form  of 
the  government,  that  State  authorisation 
is  necessary  before  it  can  become  the  duty 
of  a  Christian  to  obey  the  ecclesiastical 
authority.  On  this  Cardinal  Soglia 
writes  as  follows  :— "  If  we  inquire  into- 
the  origin  of  the  '  placitum,'  we  shall 
find  it  in  the  terrible  and  prolonged 
schism  which  lasted  from  the  election  of 
Urban  VI.  to  the  Council  of  Constance. 
For  Urban,  lest  the  schism  should  give 
occasion  to  an  improper  use  of  Papal 
authority,  granted  to  certain  prelates  that 
there  should  be  no  execution  of  any 
apostolic  letters  in  their  cities  and  dio- 
ceses, unless  su(di  letters  \\  .  ic  lir>t  -liown 
to  and  approved  by  those  prelates,  or 
their  officials.  The  rulers  of  European 
States  also  began  carefully  to  examine  all 
bulls  and  constitutions,  in  order  that  their 
subjects  might  not  be  deceived  by  pseudo- 
pontiifs.    But  these  measures,  it  is  evi- 


CAKON  LAW 


CANON  LAW 


113 


dent,  were  of  a  precautionary  and  tem- 
porary character.  However,  when  the 
cause  ceased,  the  effect  did  not  also  cease ; 
on  the  extinction  of  the  schism,  the 
Placitum  did  not  disapi)ear,  but  was  re- 
tained by  the  civil  power  in  many  coun- 
tries, and  gradually  extended.  At  first, 
says  Oliva,  the  Phicitum  was  applied  to 
PH})al  rescripts  of  grace  and  justice  given 
to  individuals ;  afterwards  it  was  ex- 
tended to  decrees  of  discipline,  and  in  the 
end  even  to  dogmatic  bulls."  The  Cardi- 
nal explains  in  what  sense  the  celebrated 
canonist  Van  Espen,  who  was  prone  un- 
duly to  magnify  the  civil  power,  under- 
stood the  application  of  the  Placitum  to 
dogmatic  rescripts,  and  proceeds: — "It 
is  evident  that  this  theory  "  (of  possible 
danger  or  inconvenience  to  the  State  if 
Papal  bulls  were  published  without  re- 
straint) "arose  out  of  the  suggestions  of 
statesmen  and  politicians,  who,  as  Zall- 
wein  says,  out  of  a  wish  to  flatter  and 
please  the  princes  whom  they  serve,  and 
to  enlarge  their  own  and  their  masters' 
jurisdiction,  as  well  as  out  of  the  hatred  of 
the  ecclesiastical  power  by  which  they 
are  often  animated,  invent  all  kinds  of 
dangers,  harms,  and  losses,  by  which  they 
pretend  the  public  welfare  is  threatened, 
and  artfully  bring  these  views  under  the 
notice  of  tlieir  masters.  .  .  .  '  If,'  pro- 
ceeds the  same  Zallwein,  'the  ecclesiasti- 
cal sovereigns  whom  Christ  hath  set  to 
rule  over  the  Church  of  God,  were  to 
urge  their  "  placitum  "  also,  whenever 
political  edicts  are  issued  which,  as 
often  happens,  are  prejudicial  to  the  eccle- 
siastical state,  hostile  to  ecclesiastical 
liberties,  opposed  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Pontiff  and  bishops,  and  aggressive 
against  the  very  holy  of  holies,  what 
^\•ould  the  civil  rulers  say  ? '  Following 
u])  the  argiiment,  Govart  says,  '  If  a 
prince  could  not  be  said  to  have  full 
power  and  j\irisdiction  in  temporals,  were 
his  edicts  to  depend  on  the  "placitum"  of 
the  Pope  and  bishops,  and  could  their 
publication  be  hindered  by  others  ;  so 
neither  would  the  Pope  have  full  power 
in  spirituals,  if  his  constitutions  depended 
on  the  "  placitum  "  of  princes,  and  could 
be  suppressed  by  them.  "Wherefore,  if,  in 
the  former  case,  whoever  should  maintain 
the  affirmative  might  justly  be  said  to 
in)]iugn  the  authority  of  the  prince,  so 
aiid  n  fortiori  in  the  second  case  must 
the  supporter  of  such  an  opinion  be  said 
to  undermine  with  sinister  intention  the 
Papal  authority,  or  rather  to  destroy  it 
altogether.'    The  sum  of  the  argument  is, 


that  '  by  the  "  placitum  regium  "  the 
liberty  of  the  ecclesiastical  "magisterium" 
and  government  divinely  entrusted  to  the 
Church  is  seriously  impaired,  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  divinely  appointed  pri- 
macy destroyed,  and  the  mutual  inter- 
course between  the  head  and  the  memliers 
intercepted.  Therefore,  if  the  Church,  to 
guard  against  still  greater  evils,  endures 
and  puts  up  with  the  "placitum,"  slie 
never  consents  to  or  approves  nf  it.'  " 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  interest 
of  the  laity,  and  the  Christian  people 
generally,  it  is  obvious  that  the  lovers  of 
true  liberty  must  disapprove  of  the  "placi- 
tum." It  is  impossible  that  the  Church, 
or  the  Roman  Pontifi  as  the  mouth-piece 
of  the  Church,  should  issue  any  decree  or 
have  any  interest  inimical  to  the  welfare 
of  the  general  Christian  pdpulation  in 
any  State.  Any  obstacles,  therefore, 
which  governments  may  interpose  to  the 
free  publication  and  execution  of  ecclesi- 
astical rescripts  cannot  arise  from  solici- 
tude for  the  public  welfare.  AMience, 
then,  do  they  arise,  or  have  they  arisen  ? 
Evidently  from  the  arbitrarv"  temper  of 
!  kings,  the  jealousies  of  nobles,  and  the 
desire  of  "bureaucrats  to  extend  their 
j  power.  These  two  latter  classes,  at  least 
!  all  but  the  noblest  individuals  among 
them,  are  usually  predisposed  to  hamper 
the  action  of  the  Church  and  the  clergy, 
lest  their  own  social  influence  sliould  be 
diminished  relatively  to  that  of  the  latter. 
This  is  no  interest  which  deserves  to  en- 
I  gage  popular  sympathies,  but  rather  the 
'  contrary. 

Hit'torical. — Jurisdiction   is  implied 
in  the  terms  of  the  commission  of  bind- 
ing and  loosing  which  Christ  gave  to 
!  the  Apostles,  and  e.specially  to  Peter. 
While  Christians  were  few  and  apostles 
and  others  who  had  "seen  the  Lord" 
were  still  alive,  the  apostolic  authority 
coiild  be  exercised  with  little  help  from 
written  documents  or  rigid  rules.  As 
these  early  conditions  passed  away,  the 
necessity  of  a  system  of  law,  in  order  to 
ensureuniformity,  equity,  and  perspicuity 
in  the  exercise  of  the  Church  s  jurisdic- 
tion, could  not  but  become  increasingly 
,  manifest.    After  the  Apostles  had  passed 
away,  having  devolved  upon  the  bishops 
all  of  their  authority  which  was  not 
limited  to  them  in  their  apostolic  charac- 
ter, each  bishop  became  a  centre  of  juris- 
,  diction.  In  deciding  any  cases  that  might 
1  be  brought  before  him,  he  had  three 
I  things  to  guide  him — Scripture,  tradition, 
[  and  the  "  holy  canons  " — that  is,  the  dis- 
I 


114 


CANON  LAW 


CANON  LAW 


cii)linarj'  rules  -wLicli  CLuxch  synods, 
Iji'Lj  iiining- with  the  Council  of  Jerusalem, 
had  established.  Many  of  these  primitive 
canmis  are  still  preserved  for  us  in  the 
collect  ion  known  as  the  Apostolical 
■Canons  [see  that  article],  although,  taken 
as  a  whole,  they  are  of  no  authority. 
Till  Christianity  conquered  the  imperial 
throne,  questions  of  jurisdiction  and  law 
did  not  come  into  prominence;  after 
Constantine  the  case  was  very  different. 
The  Council  of  Nice,  besides  its  dogmatic 
utti  iiiiires,  framed  a  quantity  of  canons 
fur  I  he  regulation  of  Church  discipline, 
which,  ahing  with  those  of  Sardica,  were 
soon  translated  into  I^atin,  and  widi  ly 
circulated  in  the  West.  An  important 
step  towards  codification  and  uniformit}' 
of  procedure  was  taken  at  the  end  of  the 
fifth  or  early  in  the  sixth  centurj',  when 
Dionysius  Exiguus,  under  the  direction 
of  Popes  Anastasius  and  Symmachus, 
made  a  lai'ge  compilation  of  canons  for 
the  use  of  the  Latin  Church.  In  this  he 
included  fifty  of  the  Apostolic  canons, 
translated  from  the  Greek,  considering 
the  rest  to  be  of  doubtful  authority;  the 
canons  of  Chalcedon,  with  those  of  which 
1  hat  council  had  made  use ;  the  canons  of 
8Mrdica,and  a  large  num])er  promulgated 
Ijy  African  cnuncils;  lastly,  the  decretal 
letters  of  the  Popes  from  Siricius  to  Ana- 
stasius II.  The  next  collection  is  that 
supi)osed  to  have  been  made  by  St.  Isidore 
of  Seville,  early  in  the  seventh  century. 
About  A.D.  850,  a  collection  of  canons  and 
tlecretals  appeared,  seemingly  at  Mayence, 
which  were  ostensibly  the  compilation  of 
Isidore  of  Seville.  In  an  age  of  great 
ignorance,  when  criticism  was  neither  in 
favour  nor  provided  with  means,  it  is  not 
wonihnlul  that  this  collection,  which 
invested  with  the  spurious  authority  of 
recorded  decisions  a  system  of  things 
existing  traditionally,  indeed,  but  liable 
to  constant  opposition,  passed  speedily 
into  general  recognition  and  acceptance. 
Six  centuries  passed  before  it  was  dis- 
covered that  these  pseudo-Isidorian  or 
]*'!ilsi>  Decretals,  as  they  are  now  called, 
wei''  to  a  ^reat  extent  aforgery.  [False 
l)i,i  i:m  \  I  s.  Nevertheless,  as  Cardinal 
Sou  i  ill  I  '  lii.irlvs,  the  collection  contains  in 
it  iioilung  contrary  to  faith  or  sound 
morals  ;  otherwise  its  long  reception 
would  have  been  impossible ;  nor  does 
the  disci])line  which  it  enjoins  depend  for 
its  aiithority  upon  this  collection,  but 
either  upon  constitutions  of  earlier  and 
later  date,  or  upon  custom,  "  quEB  in  rebus 
disciplinaribus  multum  valet. ' 


I  Many  collections  of  canons  were  made 
and  used  in  national  churches  between 

I  the  date  of  Dionysius  Exiguus  and  that  of 
the  author  of  the  "  Decretum."  In  Africa 
tliere  was  the  Codex  Africanus  (547)  and 
the  "  Concordantia  Canonum  "  of  Bishop 
Cresconius  (697) ;  in  Spain  the  chapters 
of  Martin,  bishop  of  Braga  (572),  besides 
the  work  of  Isidore  of  Seville  already 
mentioned;  in  France, a Codex  Canonum, 
besides  the  capitularies  of  the  Merovingian 
and  Carlovingian  kings.  [Capitulary.] 
Passing  over  these,  we  come  to  the  cele- 
brated compilation  by  Gratian,  a  Bene- 
dictine monk  (1151),  which  the  compiler, 
who-e  main  purpose  was  to  reconcile  the 
inconsistencies  among  canons  of  different 
age  and  authorship  bearing  on  the  same 
subject,  entitled  "  Concordantia  discor- 
dantium  Canonum,"  but  which  is  generally 
known  as  the  "  Decretum  of  Gratian." 
Having  brought  our  historical  sketch  to 
the  point  where  ecclesiastical  law,  no 
longer  perplexed  by  the  multiplicity  of 
canons  of  various  date  and  place  and 
more  or  less  limited  application,  begins 
to  provide  herself  with  a  general  code — 
a  "  corpus  juris  " — applicable  to  the  whole 
Catholic  world,  we  drop  the  historical 
method  and  turn  to  the  remaining  heads 
of  the  inquiry. 

Canon  law  consists  of  precepts  of 
different  kinds.  Hence  it  is  divided  into 
four  ^(7 precepts  of  the  natural  law, 
positive  divine  precepts,  directions  left  by 
the  Apostles,  and  ecclesiastical  consti- 
tutions. Upon  each  of  these  Cardinal 
Soglia  discourses  solidly  and  lucidly  in 
the  second  chapter  of  his  Prolegomena. 

With  regard  to  the  sources  whence 
these  precepts  flow,  they  might,  strictly 
speaking,  be  reduced  to  three — God,  who 
impresses  the  natural  law  upon  the  con- 
science, and  reveals  the  truths  which 
men  are  to  believe ;  the  Apostles  ;  and 
the  Supreme  Pontiffs,  either  alone  or  in 
conjunction  with  the  bishops  in  general 
councils.  Canonists,  however,  find  it 
more  convenient  to  define  the  sources  of 
canon  law  in  the  following  manner: 
1.  Holy  Scripture;  2.  Ecclesiastical  tra- 
dition; 3.  The  decrees  of  cotmcils;  4. 
Papal  constitutions  and  rescripts ;  5.  The 
writings  of  the  Fathers ;  6.  The  civil 
law.  On  this  last  head  Soglia  remarks 
that  "many  things  relating  to  the  ex- 
ternal polity  of  the  Church  have  been 
borrowed  from  the  imperial  enactments 
of  Rome,  and  incorporated  in  the  canon 
law." 

The  Collections  oi  canon  law,  consider- 


CANON  LAW 


CANON  OF  THE  MASS  115 


ing  it  as  a  system  in  present  force  and 
obligation,  commence  with  the  "  Decre- 
tum  of  Gratian  "  already  mentioned.  This 
great  work  is  divided  into  three  parts.  The 
first  part,  in  101  "Distinctions,"  treats 
of  ecclesiastical  law,  its  origin,  principles, 
and  authority,  and  then  of  the  diflFerent 
ranks  and  duties  of  the  clergy.  The 
second  part,  in  thirty-six  "  Causes,"  treats 
of  ecclesiastical  coui-ts,  and  their  forms  of 
procedure.  The  third  part,  usually  called 
"  De  Consecratione,"  treats  of  thiugs  and 
rites  employed  in  the  service  of  religion. 
From  its  lirst  appearance  the  Decretum 
obtained  a  wide  popularity,  but  it  was 
soon  discovered  that  it  contained  numer- 
ous errors,  which  were  corrected  under 
the  directions  of  successive  Popes  down 
to  Gregory  XIII.  Nor,  although  every 
subsquent  generation  has  resorted  to  its 
pages,  is  the  Decretum  an  authority  to 
this  day — that  is,  whatever  canons  or 
maxims  of  law  are  found  in  it  possess 
only  that  degree  of  legality  which  they 
would  possess  if  they  existed  separately  ; 
their  being  in  the  Decretum  gives  them 
no  binding  force.  In  the  century  after 
Gratian  several  supplementarj-  collections 
of  Decretals  appeared.  These,  with  many 
of  his  own,  were  collected  by  the  orders 
of  Gregory  IX. — who  employed  in  the 
work  the  extraordinary  learning  and 
acumen  of  St.  Raymond  of  Pennafort — 
into  five  books,  known  as  the  Decretals 
of  Gregory  IX.  These  are  in  the  fullest 
sense  authoritative,  having  been  delibe- 
rately ratified  and  published  by  that  Pope 
(1234).  The  Sext,  or  sixth  book  of  the 
Decretals,  was  added  by  Boniface  VIII. 
(1289).  The  Clementines  are  named  after 
Clement  V.,  who  compiled  them  out  of 
the  canons  of  the  Council  of  Vienne 
(1316)  and  some  of  his  own  constitutions. 
The  Extravagantes  of  John  XXII.,  who 
succeeded  Clement  V.,  and  the  JE.i  ti-ava- 
ffantes  Communes,  containing  the  Decre- 
tals of  twenty-five  Popes  ending  with 
Sixtus  IV.  (1484),  complete  the  list.  Of 
these  five  collections — namely,  the  De- 
cretals, the  Sext,  the  Clementines,  the 
Extravagants  of  John  XXII.,  and  the 
Extravagants  Common  —  the  "  Corpus 
Juris  Ecclesiastici "  is  made  up. 

To  these  a  very  important  addition 
has  to  be  made  in  "Jus  novissimimi" — 
modem  law.  Under  this  head  are  com- 
prised the  canons  of  general  councils 
since  that  of  Vienne,  contained  in  great 
compilations  such  as  those  of  Labbe  and 
Harduin,  and  the  Decretal  Letters  of 
Popes,  published  in  the  form  of  Bullaria, 


and  coming  down  (in  the  case  of  the  great 
Turin  Bvllarium  of  1857)  to  the  ponti- 
ficate of  Pius  IX.  The  det■i^i<in^  of 
Roman  congi-egations  and  of  the  tribunal 
of  the  Rota  [Rota]  also  form  part  of  this 
modern  law.  The  rules  of  the  Roman 
Chancery,  first  formulated  by  John  XXII. 
and  now  numbering  seventy-two,  are 
everj-where  of  authority,  provided  that 
they  do  not  conflict  with  a  contrary  law, 

■  a  clause  in  a  Concordat,  or  a  legitimate 
custom.     Lastly,    the    Concordats,  or 

j  treaties  entered  into  by  the  Holy  See 
with  various  countries  for  the  regulation 
of  ecclesiastical  aflfairs,  constitute  special 
systems  of  law  for  those  countries.  \  Coy- 

COEDAT.] 

In  England,  as  in  other  European 
countries,  the  canon  and  civil  law  were 
studied  together  before  the  Reformation, 
and  formed  a  code,  applicable  not  only  to 
spiritual  suits  but  to  the  large  class  of 
mixed  cases,  which  was  enforced  in  the 
Church  courts.  Provincial  constitutions 
were  passed  from  time  to  time  by  different 
archbishops  of  Canterbury,  but  from  their 
increasing  number  and  the  want  of  a 
methodical  arrangement,  many  of  them 
were  gradually  forgotten  or  neglected.  A 

I  great  service,  therefore,  was  rendered  to 
the  English  Church  of  his  day  by  William 

I  Lyndewode,  chaplain  to  Archbishop 
Chicheley  and  niticial  of  the  Court  of 

[  Arches,  who  collected  and  arranged 
(about  1425),  under  the  title  of  "Pro- 
vinciale,"  the  constitutions  of  fourteen 
archbishops  of  Canterbury,  from  Stephen 
Langton  to  Chicheley,  classifying  them 
according  to  their  subjects  in  five  books, 
in  imitation  of  the  Decretals  of  Gregory 
IX.  To  this  collection  the  constitutious 
of  the  legates  Otho  (12.37)  and  Othobon 
(1262)  were  subsequently  appended. 
These  English  constitutions,  and  canon 
law  generally  (except  so  far  as  modified 
by  the  statutes  and  canons  which  con- 
summated the  Anghcan  schism,  and 
raised  the  reigning  sovereign — being  an 
Anglican  Protestant,  1702 — to  the  head- 
ship of  the  national  church),  are  still 
recognised  as  authoritative  in  Anglican 
ecclesiastical  courts. 

CAXTOIO'  or  THE  MASS.  That 
part  of  the  jMass  which  begins  after  the 
"  Sanct  us  "  with  the  prayer  "  Te  igi  t  ur,"  a  nd 
ends,  according  to  some,  just  before  the 
"Pater  noster," according  to  others,  with 
the  consimiption  of  the  Sacred  Species. 
The  name  Canon  is  given  to  this  part  of 
the  Mass  because  it  contains  the  fixed  rule 
according  to  which  the  Sacrifice  of  the- 


116   CANON  OF  THE  SCRIPTURE 


CANON  OF  THE  SCRIPTURE 


New  Testnment  is  to  be  oifered.  Other 
iijinies  are  given  to  it  by  early  writers. 
Thus  St.  Gregory  calls  it  "the  prayer;" 
Yigilius,  "  the  text  of  the  canonical 
prayer ; "  Walafrid  and  others,  "  the  ac- 
tion," the  last  of  these  names  being  still 
used  in  the  Missal,  as  well  as  tlie  word 
Canon.  The  Canon  consists,  according  to 
the  Council  of  Trent,  "of  our  Lord's  very 
words,  and  of  prayers  received  from 
apostolical  tradition  or  ])iously  ordained 
by  lioly  Pont  ifl's.' '  That  the  Canon  of  the 
Roman  Mass  comes  in  its  substance  from 
very  ancient  times  is  clearly  shown,  (1) 
by  the  fact  that  Pope  Vigilius,  in  the 
sixth  century,  attributes  it  to  the  tradition 
of  the  Apostles;  (2)  because  the  words  of 
consecration,  with  those  which  imme- 
diately precede  them,  do  not  exactly  corre- 
spond to  the  Scriptural  narrative,  and  seem 
to  represent  an  independent  apostolical 
t  radi  t  i  on ;  (3)  beca  use  the  list  of  sa  in  ts  men- 
tioned  consists  merely  of  Apostles  and 
martyrs,  a  mark  that  the  Canon  is  earlier 
than  the  fourth  century,  coming  from  an 
age  before  the  cultus  of  confessors  had 
been  introduced  in  addition  to  the  earlier 
cultus  of  martyrs. 

The  words  "  a  holy  sacrifice,  a  spot- 
less victim,"  were  added  by  St.  Leo  the 
Great.  Pope  St.  Gregory  the  Great 
added  the  words  "and  dispose  our  days 
in  thy  peace,  and  bid  us  be  saved  from 
eternal  damnation,  and  to  be  numbered 
in  the  flock  of  thy  elect."  Since  Gre- 
gory's time  no  change  has  been  made  in 
the"  Canon.  (Benedict  XIV.  "De  Miss." 
11,  12.) 

CAirOH-  OF  THE  SCRIPTURE. 

The  word  canon  (Kapwv)  signifies  a  rod, 
and  then  specially  a  measuring-rule.  It 
^^•as  used  by  a  natural  metaphor  for  a  rule 
in  ethics,  art,  &c.,  and  by  the  Alexandrian 
writers  it  was  applied  to  the  standard  or 
classical  authors  who  furnished  the  model 
or  rule  of  con-ect  writing.  In  Gal.  vi.  10, 
2  Cor.  X.  13-16,  the  word  bears  the  gene- 
ral sense  (1)  of  a  rule  by  which  Christians 
should  walk ;  (2)  of  a  measure  of  attain- 
ments assigned  or  permitted  to  an  indivi- 
dual. 

As  applied  to  Scripture,  the  original 
sense  of  the  word  is  hard  to  determine. 
"We  first  find  the  derivatives  of  Canon  used 
with  regard  to  the  Bible.  Thus  Origen 
speaks  of  "canonical  scriptures,"  "  canon- 
ised books."  The  actual  word  canon,  ac- 
cording to  Credner,^  first  occurs  after  the 

1  Sess.  xxii.  cap.  4,  De  Sacrific.  Miss. 

2  Geschichte  del  N.  T,  Kanon,  Volkraar'a 
ed.  1863,  p.  103. 


middle  of  the  fourth  century.'  It  may, 
as  Credner  thinks,  liave  been  given  to  the 
list  of  Scriptural  Ijooks  because  they  were 
a  rule  for  the  faith,  or,  again,  as  Dr. 
West  cott  argues  with  great  show  of  reason , 
it  may  mean  that  these  books  were  "  ad- 
mitted by  the  rule"  of  the  Church.  In 
other  words,  the  canon  of  Scripture  may 
have  an  active  or  a  passive  sense. 

The  object  of  this  article  is  to  sketch 
the  history  of  the  canon  or  list  of  sacred 
books,  among  Jews  and  Christians,  and 
then  to  explain  Catholic  as  contrasted 
with  heretical  principles  on  this  matter. 

I.  The  Canonof  the  Old  Testament. — ■ 
For  the  sake  of  clearness  we  begin  with 
the  list  of  Old  Testament  books  as  given 
by  the  Council  of  Trent,  "  lest  any  doubt 
might  arise  concerning  those  that  are  ap- 
proved of"  as  inspired  Scripture.  They 
are  the  following: — Genesis,  Exodus,  Le- 
viticus, Numbers,  Deuteronomy,  Josue, 
Judges,  Ruth,  four  books  of  Kings  (the 
first  two  being  also  known  as  1  and 
2  Samuel),  1  and  2  Paralipomenon  (or 
Chronicles),  1  and  2  Esdras  (the  second 
being  otherwise  called  Nehemias),  Tobias, 
Judith,  Esther,  Job,  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  Canticles,  Wisdom,  Ecrlesias- 
ticus,  Isaias,  Jeremias  with  Baruch,  Eze- 
chiel,  Daniel,  the  twelve  minor  prophets, 
1  and  2  Machabees.  The  books  marked 
in  italics  are  generally  known  among 
Catholic  critics  as  deutero-cauonical,^  not 
because  their  authority  is  at  aU  inferior  to 
that  of  the  other  Scriptures,  but  because 
their  place  in  the  canon  was  established 
after  that  of  the  other  books.  We  shall 
call  them  henceforth,  then,  by  this  name. 
Their  inspiration  is  denied  by  the  Protes- 
tant churches,  and  the  cliargc  of  ]i;iving 
I  added  apocryphal  books  to  the  Bible  is 
i  often  brought  against  the  Church.  Hence 
I  special  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  his- 
tory of  their  reception  among  Jews  and 
Christians.  We  may  now  proceed  to 
consider  the  history  of  the  canon  of  the 
Old  Testament. 

(a)  Ainonf/  the  Jeios. 

"This  part  of  the  subject  is  wrapped  in 

I  It  occurs,  indeed,  in  Origen,  but  only  in 
the  Latin  version. 

-  If  we  look  at  the  reception  of  the  Old 
Testament  book.s  amons  Christians,  Esther 
should  be  reckoned  as  deutero-canoniual,  for  in 
the  time  of  St.  Athiinasius.  and  even  as  late  as 
the  sixth  century,  its  canonicitv  was  still  an 
open  question  in  the  Church.  As,  however,  it 
was  probably  always  received  by  the  .Jews 
Csee  the  introduction  to  Keil's  G.mmentari/  on 
Esther),  and  has  been  Rf'iir'rally  acknowledged 
by  the  Protestant  Churches,  it  is  counted  here 
as  proto-canonical. 


CANON  OF  THE  SCRIPTURE 


CANON  OF  THE  SCRIPTURE  117 


great  obscurity-  At  present,  indeed,  the 
Jews  accept  only  suck  books  as  actually 
exist  in  Hebrew  and  Chaldee,  and  are 
bound  up  in  the  modern  Hebrew  Bibles, 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  the  deutero-eau- 
•onical  books.  It  has  nt'ti'ii  ln-fii  asserted 
that  this  canon,  as  at  pi  r.-mt  rocngnised 
by  them,  was  fixed  piobably  by  Esdras, 
and  in  any  case  long  before  our  Lord's 
time  ;  that  it  was  recognised  by  Him  and 
by  His  apostles,  so  that  Catholics  in  main- 
taining the  authority  of  the  deutero- 
■canonical  books  are  guilty  of  innovation. 
We  shall  see  that  each  one  of  these  state- 
ments is  contrary  to  fact. 

The  Jewish  collection  seems  to  have 
begun  with  the  five  books  of  Moses. 
They  were  placed  "  in  the  side  of  the  ark 
of  the  covenant."  '  A  collection  of  Solo- 
mon's proverbs  copied  out  by  the  men  of 
Ezechias  is  mentioned  in  Proverbs  xxv.  1. 
Daniel  ix.  2  mentions  "  the  books  "  (not 
"books"  as  in  the  Douay  trau.-lation)  in 
which  he  observed  the  seventy  years  of 
desolation  pi-ophesied  by  Jeremias. 
Daniel  may  refer  here  to  some  collection 
of  prophetic  writings  already  made  ;  and 
Zacharias  vii.  12  puts  the  "former  pro- 
phets" in  juxta[)osition  with  the  law. 
With  regard  to  the  popular  opinion  that 
Esdi-as  collected  the  sacred  books  and 
closed  the  Jewish  canon,  it  is  to  be  observed 
that  this  supjxjsed  fact  rests  upon  the 
authority  of  a  chapter  in  the  Mishna  (viz. 
Pirke  Avoth),  and  that  the  tradition  is  ad- 
mitted by  all  modern  scholars  to  contain 
fabulous  details.  It  may  contain  this  ele- 
ment of  truth,  that  Esdras  did  collect  the 
Scriptural  books  written  up  to  his  day, 
but  as  to  closing  the  Scriptural  canon, 
nothing  like  historical  proof  can  be  ad- 
duced for  it,  and  it  is  itself  utterly  im- 
probable. "  We  do  not  even  kuow,"  writes 
&  learned  Protestant,  "whether  Esdras 
died  before  or  after  the  last  prophet.  But 
bow  could  he  close  the  canon  unless  he 
Imew  for  certain  that  the  spirit  of  prophecy 
was  extinct  P  Even  if  Malacliias  did  die 
before  Esdras,  how  did  Iv-dras  kuow  that 
the  Lord  would  never  raise  upanother  ai'lji) 
dfOTTt'evaros  to  his  people  ? " In  '2 
Mach.  ii.  13,  Nehemias  is  recorded  to  have 
founded  a  library  "  and  gathered  into  it 
the  ^writings]  about  the  kings  and  pro- 
phets and  the  [writings]  of  David  and 
letters  of  kings  concerning  oflTerings."  The 
passage  is  most  obscure,  and  in  any  case 
says  nothing  about  the  completion  of  the 

'  Dcut.  xxxi.  25  seq. 

•  Naselsbacli  in  llcrzo;c's  Encyclopeedia  of 
J'rot.  Theology,  quoted  by  Reusch. 


canon.  In  the  later  times,  however,  of 
the  Jewish  commonwealth,  a  distinct 
step  in  advance  seems  to  have  been  iiia<le. 
We  find  the  sacred  hooV-.  iv-.inlcd  a 
whole  with  certain  recoguisril  du  i.^ions. 
In  the  prologue  to  the  book  of  JLcc  lc.^ias- 
ticus  mention  is  made  of  "the  law,  the 
prophets,  and  the  rest  of  the  books;"  and 
a  similar  division  into  the  law,  pi-ophcts, 
and  psalms,  appears  in  Luke  x.xiv.  44. 

A  little  later  we  meet  with  what  may 
fairly  be  taken  as  proof  for  the  existence  of 
a  Hebrew  canon.  Josephus  enunieraffs 
twenty-two  books  of  the  Hebrew  canon  : 
viz.  five  books  of  the  law,  thirteen  boolis 
of  the  prophets,  and  four  which  contain 
hymns  and  moral  precepts.  We  cannot 
be  quite  certain  what  the  books  are  to 
which  Josephus  refers,  but  undoubtedly 
the  list  which  he  received  is  almost,  and 
probably  it  is  quite,  the  same  as  that  con- 
tained in  our  present  Hebrew  Bibles  and 
accepted  by  Protestants.  Reusch  sug- 
gests the  following  as  the  list  of  books 
intended : — five  books  of  Moses,  thirteen 
books  of  the  prophets  [viz.:  (1)  Josue, 
(2)  Judges  and  Ruth,  (3)  Samuel,  (4) 
Kmgs,  (5)  Chronicles,  (6)  Esdras  and 
Nehemias,  (7)  Esther,  (8)  Job,  (9)  Isaias, 
(10)  Jeremias  with  Lamentations,  (11) 
Ezechiel,  (12)  Daniel,  (13)  the  minor 
prophets],  and,  lastly.  Psalms,  Proverljs, 
Canticles,  and  Ecclesiastes.  Melito  (c 
179)  made  inquiries  about  the  books  re- 
ceived in  the  Ilebrew  canon,  and  his  list 
corresponds  to  that  conjecturally  attri- 
buted to  Josephus,  except  that  he  omits 
Esther.  In  the  next  century,  Origen,  in 
enumerating  the  twenty-two  books  which 
the  Hebrews  hand  down,  mentions  not 
only  the  Lamentations,  but  also  the 
letter  of  the  prophet  under  the  one  head 
Jeremias. 

So  far  Jewish  tradition  seems  to  agree, 
at  least  very  nearly,  with  the  Protestant 
canon  of  the  Old  Testament ;  but  it  only 
seems.  Up  to  this  point  we  have  given 
no  more  than  the  tradition  of  the  Pales- 
tinian Jews.  The  Alexandrian  Jews — or, 
as  it  would  perhaps  be  more  correct  to  say, 
the  Hellenistic  Jews — possessed  Greek 
copies  of  the  Scriptures  known  as  the 
LXX,  and  these  copies  contained  all  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  which  Catho- 
lics acknowledge.  Obviously  it  cannot 
have  been  without  strong  reason  that  such 
a  book  as  that  of  Wisdom  or  Ecclesias- 
ticus  was  put  in  the  same  volume  witli  Jo)) 
or  Proverbs.  Among  the  Jews  of  Alexar- 
dria,  as  Dr.  Westcott,  one  of  the  highest 
Protestant  authorities  on  the  subject  ad- 


118   CANON  OF  THE  SCRIPTURE 


CANON  OF  THE  SCRIPTURE 


mits,  translations-were  madeof  later  books 
(1  Machab.  Ecclus.  Barucb,  &c.),and  new 
ones  were  written  (Wisdom  and  2  Much.), 
and  these  "were  reckoned  in  the  sum  of 
their  religious  literature  and  probably 
placed  on  an  equal  footing  with  the 
Ilagiographa  (i.e.  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job, 
&c.)  in  common  esteem."'  Nor  is  this  all. 
As  many  Jews  went  beyond  the  Palesti- 
nian and  Babylonish  canon,  so  some  great 
and  orthodox  Jewish  teachers  fell  short 
of  it.  During  the  first  century  a.d. 
the  canonicity  of  Canticles  and  Ecclesi- 
astes  was  still  disputed  in  the  Jewish 
schools.  The  school  of  Schammai  denied 
the  canonicity  of  the  latter,  and  in  a 
Jewish  council  about  the  year  90  a.d. 
discussed  freely  the  canonicity  of  each  of 
these  books,  and  finally  decided  it  in  the 
affirmative.^  If  the  Jews  did  at  last  de- 
cidedly reject  the  books  which  they  did 
not  tind  in  their  Hebrew  Bible,  but  which 
were  contained  in  the  LXX,  this  may  rea- 
sonably be  attributed  to  the  growing  aver- 
sion which  they  felt  to  Greek  literature 
in  general  and  to  the  LXX  in  particular. 
In  any  case,  the  Christian  Church  never 
received  the  canon  of  Scripture  from  the 
Jews,  because  till  long  after  the  Jews  had 
rejected  Christ  they  had  no  fi.xed  canon. 
Nor  can  any  Protestant  consistently  ac- 
cept the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  on 
Jewish  authority,  unless  he  attributes  in- 
i'allibility  to  the  bitterest  enemies  of  the 
Christian  name.^  The  Palestinian  canon, 
so  far  as  it  can  be  said  to  have  existed  in 
the  time  of  Christ  and  His  Apostles,  did 
not  receive  any  distinct  approval  from 
them.  No  doubt  the  deutero-canonical 
books  (Wisdom,  Machabees,  &c.),  are  not 
expressly  quoted  as  Scripture  in  the  New 
Testament,  though  the  New  Testament 
does  contain  a  good  many  allusions  to 
them ;  but  precisely  the  same  may  be  said 
of  several  Old  Testament  books  accepted 
by  Protestants — e.g.  of  Judges,  Ecclesias- 

■  Article  "  Canon  "  in  Smith's  Bib/e  Dic- 
tinnavii. 

■  See  Delitzsch,  introduction  to  Commentary 
on  Cuntivlrs.  p.  14  ;  to  Ecclesiastes,  p.  19G. 

5  Pnif.  liobertson  Smith,  in  his  recent  lec- 
tures on  tlie  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish 
church,  admits  tliat  the  Jewish  canon  was  not 
detinitely  fi.xed  in  Christ's  time,  but  tries  to 
justify  the  Protestant  rejection  of  the  deutero- 
canoiiical  books  on  the  ground  that  these  l)Ooks 
do  not  contribute  to  the  development  of  revela- 
tion. But,  in  fact,  the  book  of  Wisdom  does 
develop  the  religions  ideas  of  Israel,  and  pre- 
pare the  way  for  New  Testament  doctrine  on 
the  A<^7oy,  and  this  has  been  repeatedly  urged 
by  theologians,  in  defence  of  the  Catholic 
canon. 


'  tes,  Canticles.  Moivover,  out  of.  Say, 
350  quotations  uf  the  Old  Testament  in 
the  New,  about  300  are  from  the  LXX, 
which  contain  the  deutero-canonical 
books ;  so  that  Augustine  speaks  of  the 
LXX  as  "  approved  by  the  Apostles." ' 
0)  In  the  Christian  Church. 
We  have  seen  that  when  Christianity 
began  to  be,  a  definite  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament  was  not  yet  established  among 
the  Jews,  and  further  that  the  New 
Testament  does  not  furnish  any  list  of 
Old  Testament  books  received  by  Christ 
and  His  Apostles.  It  can,  however,  be 
proved  from  tradition,  that  the  full  list  of 
Old  Testament  books  (including  Wisdom, 
Machabees,  &c.)  was  authorised  by  the 
Apostles.  The  testimony  of  the  Chris- 
tian writers  during  the  first  three  cen- 
turies is  unanimous  on  this  point.  We 

j  can  trace  the  reception  of  the.se  books 

'  from  the   very  time  of  the  Apostles. 

j  Clement  of  Rome,  Polycarp,  Irenseus, 
Tertullian,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and 
others  quote  them,  and  many  early 
A^'riters  quote  them  as  Scriptui-e.  To  this 
unanimity  among  the  Christians  of  the 
first  three  cent  uries  there  is  one  exception 
and  only  one.  Julius  Africanus,  in  a 
letter  to  Origen,  refused  to  accept  the 
history  of  Susanna  as  canonical.  But  this 
exception  proves  how  strong  was  the  tra- 
dition of  the  Church ;  for  Julius  Africanus 
objects  to  the  history  of  Susanna  merely 
on  critical  grounds,  and  Origen  expressly 
receives  it  (although  well  aware  that  it 
was  not  to  be  found  in  the  Hebrew  text 
of  Daniel)  because  it  was  held  as  canoni- 
cal in  the  churches — "quia  in  ecclesiis 
tenetur."  Nothing,  then,  can  be  more 
com])k'te  than  the  Ante-Nicene  tradition 
for  the  Catholic  canon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. For  the  deutero-canonical  books, 
we  have  the  witness  of  Father  after 
Father;  we  find  them  placed  in  every 
MS.  of  the  LXX,  translated  in  the  old 
Latin  version,'^  and  quoted  in  controversy 
against  heretics. 

Still,  among  the  Fathers  of  the  fourth 
century  there  was  serious  doubt  concern- 
ing the  authority  of  the  deutero-canonical 
books.  Jerome  and  Rufinus  follow  the 
canon  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  and  declare 

1  August.  Ep.  28,  apud  Reusch. 
Clom.  Rom.  (1  Cor.  iii.  27,  .55),  Polyc. 
(^Ep.  10),  quote  deutero-canonical  books  of  Old 
Testament;  Iren.  (iv.  .5,  2  ;  iv.  20.  ?,).  TertuU. 
Prescript.  7  ;  Scorp.  8),  Clem.  AI.  ( Sfmm.  iv. 
3,  &c.),  quote  them  as  Scripture.  'I'lie  letter 
of  Julius  Africanus  is  edited  by  Ruuth,  Belt. 
Sncr.  torn.  ii.  The  opinion  of  Origeu  is  given 
in  his  Comm.  in  Matth.  61,  apud  Reusch. 


CANON  OF  THE  SCRIPTURE      CANON  OF  THE  SC'RITTURE  119 


that  the  deutero-canonical  books  are  not 
"canonical,"  but  "ecclesiastical" — i.e. 
they  were  read  in  church,  but  did  not 
possess  full,  dogmatic  authority.  St. 
Athanasius  excludes  Esther  from  the 
canon  and  all  the  deutero-canonical  books 
except  Baruch  and  the  letter  of  Jeremias. 
With  him  agi-ees  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
except  that  he  does  not  exclude  Esther. 
Gregory  Nazianzen  and  Amphilochius  ex- 
clude all  the  deutero-canonical  books  and 
also  Esther,  though  the  latter  speaks 
doubtfully  about  Esther.  On  the  other 
hand,  St.  Augustine  gives  a  list  of  the 
canonical  books  which  is  precisely  the 
same  as  that  now  accepted  in  the  Church. 
A  multitude  of  Fathers — Basil,  Chryso- 
stom,  Ambrose,  Leo,  &c.  —  quote  the 
deutero-canonical  books  just  as  they 
quote  the  other  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Nay,  so  strong  was  the  feeling 
within  the  Church  in  favour  of  the  ex- 
tended canon,  that  even  Fathers  who  in 
theory  rejected  the  deutero-canonical 
books,  in  practice  quote  them  as  Scrip- 
ture. Thus  the  witness  of  the  Church 
in  the  fourth  century,  though  less  strong 
than  that  of  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  is 
still  strong  in  favour  of  the  deutero- 
canonical  books.  The  Church  as  a  whole 
received  them,  though  individual  Fathers 
of  great  name  rejected  them. 

It  was  probably  this  divergence  of 
opinion  which  had  arisen  which  led  to 
conciliar  decisions ;  and  here,  too,  we 
see  the  greater  weight  of  authority  and 
tradition  enlisted  on  the  side  of  the 
deutero-canonical  books.  There  is  no 
reason  to  believe  that  the  Council  of 
Nicsea  made  any  hst  of  canonical  books, 
though  St.  Jerome  says  he  had  read  that 
that  council  "reckoned  Judith  "  as  part 
of  Scripture.'  A  little  later,  however, 
the  Council  of  Laodicea  (between  343 
and  381),  canon  60,  rejected  all  the  deu- 
tero-canonical books  except  Baruch.- 
But  in  393  all  these  books  were  accepted 
by  the  Council  of  Hippo,  and  again  ap- 
proved as  canonical  in  a  letter  of  Pope 
Innocent  to  Exsuperius  of  Toulouse. 
From  this  time  the  reception  of  the 
deutero-canonical  books  became  more 
and  more  established,  though  as  yet  j 
there  was  no  binding  decision  of  the 
Church  upon  the  point.  Even  late  in 
the  middle  ages,  the  authority  of  Jerome, 
whose  "Prologus  Galeatus"was  widely 
known,  made  even  orthodox  teachers  \ 
speak  doubtfully  about  the  canonicity  of  ' 
»  Hefele,  Concil.  i.  p.  371.  I 
»  76i<i.  i.  p.  775.  I 


I  Judith,  Sic.  In  1J42  the  matter  came 
i  before  the  General  Council  of  Florence, 
which  rf])resented  the  East  as  well  as 
the  West,  and  in  the  decree  of  iniion  for 
the  Jacobites  the  full  list  of  Old  Testa- 
ment books  was  approved.'  Finally,  the 
Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  iv.  Decret.  de 
'  Canon.  Scriptur.)  gives  the  list  of  Old 
Testament  books  with  which  we  began, 
defining  under  anathema  that  all  of 
them,  with  all  their  parts,  as  contained 
in  the  Vulgate  translation,  were  "  sacred 
and  canonical." 

A  few  words  may  now  be  added  on 
the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  outside 
the  Church.  The  schisniatical  (Ireeks- 
appear  to  have  followed  faithfully  their 
I  ancient  traditions  and  the  teaching  of 
Florence.  The  schismatical  Council  of 
Jerusalem,  which  met  in  1G72,  gives  a. 
list  nf  sat-rcd  bnoks  which  agrees  with 
that  of  Tri'ut,  and  accepts  the  deutero- 
canonical  bonks  on  the  authority  of  tra- 
dition, and  the  Church.  With  Protes- 
tants it  has  been  otherwise.  All  Pro- 
testant sects,  so  far  as  we  know,  reject 
the  Ciinonical  authority  of  the  deutero- 
canonical  books.  Some,  however,  are 
more  peremptory  in  their  rejection  than 
others.  Lutherans  and  Anglicans  treat 
these  books  with  a  certain  special  rever- 
ence, and  as  a  matter  of  fact  they  have 
been  retained  in  almost  all  Protestant 
translatinii>  of  the  Bible.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Sioteli  Presbyterians  in  their 
Confession  nf  Faitli  ])lace  the  deutero- 
canonical  book~  oil  a  le\el  with  any  other 
human  writings,  and  since  1825  there 
have  been  in  Germany  and  elsewhere 
fierce  discussions,  whether  or  no  the 
"  Apocrypha "  should  still  be  bound  up 
with  the  Bible  (or,  as  a  Catholic  would 
say,  with  the  rest  of  the  Bible).  The 
question,  however,  is  no  longer  so  impor- 
tant to  Protestants  as  it  used  to  be. 
The  denial  of  all  supernatural  inspiration 
has  become  common  among  their  theo- 
logians, so  that  for  this  large  and  influ- 
ential section  of  Protestants,  discussion 
about  the  list  of  inspired  books  is  alto- 
gether idle  or  can  have  at  most  only  an 
historical  value. 

II.  Canon  of  the  New  Testament. — 
Like  the  Old,  the  New  Testament  contains 
a  certain  number  of  deutero-canonical 
books,  though  the  fact  for  long  received 
comparatively  very  little  attention  in, 
modem  times,  because  the  Protestant 
confessional  standards,  while  they  reject 
the  deutero-canonical  books  of  the  Old 
1  Hefele,  Concil.  vii.  p.  796. 


120   CANON  OF  THE  SCRIPTURE 


CANON  OF  THE  SCRIPTURE 


Testament,  incoiisisteiitlv  enough  accept 
those  of  the  New.  The  I'mineil  (.)f  Trent 
gives  the  folknving  hst  of  New  'rcstniiicnt 
books  (those  which  are  ili'iiteiM-cimnnu  ul 
are  printed  in  itahcs): — four  Go>iirl>,  i  lie 
Acts,  the  Epistk's  of  St.  Paul  (viz.  to  the 
Romans,  two  to  the  Corinthians,  to  the 
Gahitians,  to  the  Ephesians,  to  the  Philip- 
pians,  to  the  Colossians,  two  to  Timothy, 
to  Titus,  to  Philemon,  to  the  Hebrews), 
first  and  second  Epistles  of  St.  Peter,  first, 
second,  and  third  Epistles  of  St.  John,  the 
E2)i^tle  of  St.  James,  the  Epistle  of  St. 
Jude.  the  Apiicalypse  of  St  John. 

AVith  regard  to  all  these  books,  except 
such  as  are  deutero-canonical,  there  is  no 
reason  to  believe  that  their  authority  was 
ever  doubted  in  the  Church,  although  the 
distinct  reference  to  New  Testament 
Scriptures  becomes  much  marked  and 
frequent  in  Christian  writers  only  after 
the  immediate  disciples  of  the  Apostles 
had  passed  awaj-  and  the  need  of  written 
records  became  more  urgent.  Still,  from 
very  early  times  we  obtain  testimonies  to 
the  existence  of  Scriptures  besides  those 
which  the  Christian  inherited  from  the 
Jewish  Church.  Thus  St.  Peter  classes 
St.  Paul's  letters  with  "the  rest  of  the 
Scriptures,"  and  the  epistle  which  is  as- 
cribed to  St.  Barnabas,  and  which  belongs 
to  a  very  early  period,  uuikes  a  quotation 
from  St.  Matthew,  with  the  formula  "  it 
is  written."  About  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  Justin  Martp-  tells  us  that 
"  Memoirs  "  written  "  by  the  Apostles  and 
by  those  who  followed  them"  were  read  in 
the  religious  assemblies  of  the  Christians. 
The  description  which  Justin  gives  of  his 
"Memoirs"  answers  exactly  to  our  four 
Gospels,  and  he  mentions  the  Apocalypse 
by  name.  Shortly  after  Justin's  time 
(about  180),  the  famous  Muratorian  Canon 
ofi'ers  the  earliest  formal  list  of  New- 
Testament  books.  This  precious  relic 
exists  only  in  a  mutilated  form  and  in  a 
text  which  is  often  so  corrupt  that  it  is 
difiicult  to  divine  its  meaning.  Accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Westcott,  the  Muratorian 
Canon  contained  all  the  New  Testament 
books  at  present  received,  except  "the 
Epistle  of  James,  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, and  2  Peter,  while  it  notices  the 
partial  reception  of  the  [spimous]  Apo- 
calypse of  Peter,"  and  his  words  express 
the  general  opinion  of  scholars  except 
that  many  with  very  strong  reasons  add 
1  Peter  aiso  to  the  list  of  omitted  books.' 
The  Peshito  or  Syriac  translation,  which 
fcelongs  to  the  third  century,  omits  Jude, 
1  Hilgenfeld,  Kanon  des  y.  T.  p.  43. 


I  2  Peter,  2  and  3  John,  and  the  Apocu- 
I  lypse.  Eusebius  sums  up  the  opinions 
which  ](revailed  in  the  Ante-Nicene  age 
as  follows:  he  divides  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament  into  such  as  are  "ac- 
knowledged "  (o^oXoyovfif I'o),  viz.  the 
four  Gospels,  Acts,  &c.,  and  those  which 
were  "  disputed"  (dvTiXcyotieva)  embracing 
the  deutero-canonical  books.  He  him- 
self was  evidently  accustomed  to  see  the 
'  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  treat(-ilas  cauon- 
'  ical,  but,  he  says,  "Som:'  h-.m-  (l.'nifd  its 
authority,  asserting  that  it  i-  ili-puinl  Ijy 
the  Roman  Church  as  not  ^.•lll^  t  li.^  Ajio- 
stle's  work."  Unally,  it  is  clear  froiii  Hn>e- 
bius  that  there  were  certain  uninspired  and 
unapostolic  books  which  he  himself  jiro- 
nounces  spurious,  but  which  were  not  yet 
clearly  separated  from  those  in  the  canon.' 

From  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century 
the  canon  of  the  New  T.'st.iment  gradu- 
ally became  mon'  -(ttl.'d.  True,  the 
Syrian  church  still  clunu  to  the  canon  of 
the  Peshito,  but  in  the  Church  at  large 
the  whole  of  the  New  Testament  was 
received.  Two  books,  however,  were  still 
'  regarded  with  partial  suspicion.  In  the 
East,  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem,  Gregory  Nazian/.en,  de  finitely 
exclude  or  pass  over  in  silence  the  Apo- 
calypse of  St.  John  ;  Amphilochius  and 
Epiphanius  mention  the  doubts  enter- 
tained with  regard  to  it.  In  the  AVest, 
although  the  Council  of  Carthag"  in  31)7 
and  Pope  Innocent  ratified  the  full  list  of 
New  Testament  books,  still  even  to  a 
late  period  doubts  existed  in  some  parts 
of  the  Church  as  to  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews.  Even  St.  Isidore  of  Seville, 
writing  early  in  the  seventh  century,  says 
that  most  Latins  were  uncertain  whether 
it  was  St.  Paul's,  "because  of  the  dis- 
crepancy in  the  style."  ^ 

All  doubts  as  to  the  canonical  books 
of  the  New  Testament  were  finally  set  at 
rest  for  Catholics  by  the  Councils  of 
Florence  and  Trent.  Protestants,  on  the 
contrary,  on  their  revolt  from  the  Church, 
were  utterly  unable  to  find  any  i-ational 
principle  on  which  they  could  determine 
the  list  of  New  Testament  books.  Luther 

1  The  statement  in  the  text  is  suhstantinlly 
truP.  but(l)  the  disputed  books  are  snbilivi.lpd 
"generally  known"  and  "spurious;"  (2)  the 

I  Apocalypse  is  placed  accordiuf;  to  one  opiiiiou 
1  given,  "among  the  "acknowledged,"  acconliiifr 

to  another  among  the  "  spurious."  Euseb.  H.  /.\ 

iii.  25. 

2  Apud  Credner.  p.  293.  In  the  mi  Idl." 
ages  the  spurious  Epistle  to  the  Laodiceans 

I  found  wide  acceptance,  especially  in  the  Frauk- 
1  ish  and  English  churches  (Credner,  p.  299). 


CANON  OF  THE  SCKIPTURE        CANON  OF  THE  SCllIITURE  121 


accepted  or  rejected  New  Testament 
books,  according  as  he  found  or  did  not 
find  the  "Gospel"  in  them.  He  called 
the  Epistle  of  St.  James  "  a  letter  of 
straw,"  which  "  attributes  righteousness 
to  works,  dead  against  St.  Paul."  It  was 
reason  enough,  he  said,  for  him  not  to 
think  highly  of  the  Apocalypse  "that 
Christ  therein  is  neitlier  taught  nor  ac- 
knowledged, although  this  above  all  was 
an  Apostle's  business "  !  ^  He  partly 
liked  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  because 
it  enforced  belief  in  the  priesthood  of 
Ciirist ;  partly  disliked  it,  because  of  the 
doctrine  contained  in  capp.  6  and  10.'- 
This  breach  with  tradition  on  the  Scrip- 
tures of  the  New  Testament  as  well  as  on 
the  doctrine  was  healed  for  a  time  among 
Prote.stants,  and  for  a  long  time  the 
entire  canon  of  the  New  Testament  was 
generally  accepted  amongst  them,  al- 
though the  Westminster  Confession  of 
1 648  contains  the  only  list  of  New  Testa- 
ment writings  drawn  up  by  any  of  the 
older  Protestant  authorities.  Of  modern 
Protestant  critics  little  need  be  said. 
The  remarks  made  above  on  their  treat- 
ment of  the  Old  fully  apply  to  their 
treatment  of  the  New  Testament.  This 
method  is  widely  different  from  that  of 
Luther,  but  it  is  not  without  reason  that 
they  claim  to  inherit  his  spirit. 

III.  The  Principles  on  which  the 
Canon  of  Scripture  rests. — Catholics,  be- 
lieving in  the  iufalli))le  authority  of  the 
Church,  have  full  security  that  the  books 
of  the  Catholic  Bible  are  all  true  and  in- 
spired Scripture.  Before  the  Scripture 
was  written,  or,  again,  the  canon  of 
Scripture  was  fixed,  the  faithful  were 
guided  by  the  infallible  teaching  of  their 
pastors,  and  from  this  same  teaching  they 
receive  with  perfect  confidence  the 
written  word  of  God  in  all  its  books  and 
in  all  its  parts.  There  are  two  other 
principles  put  forward  as  suflicient  to 
determine  the  canon  of  Scripture — both 
of  them,  as  may  be  briefly  shewn,  utterly 
inadequate. 

According  to  a  theory  once  popular 
among  Protestants,  Scripture  attests  itself 
by  a  "  self-evidencing  light."  In  other 
words,  a  pious  person  who  peruses  the 
Bible  knows  by  the  effect  produced  upon 
his  conscience  and  feeling  that  the  book 
he  reads  is  the  inspired  word  of  God. 
This  theory  is  abundantly  refuted  by  the 
most  obvious  facts  of  history.  The  Fathers 
of  the  Church  were  not  at  one  as  to  the 
»  Hilgenfeld,  p.  91. 
»  Ibid,  p.  93. 


canon,  yet  in  charity  we  may  believe  that 
they  read  the  books  of  the  New  Testament 
with  pious  feelings.  Nay,  the  Reformers 
who  are  said  to  have  restored  ''the  Gospel" 
were  not  at  one  with  regard  to  the  books 
which  make  up  the  the  New  Testament. 
Besides,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  the 
moral  good  which  we  get  or  think  we  can 
get  from  a  book  cannot  possibly  assure 
us  that  it  was  aU  writteu  mider  the  inspi- 
ration of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  contains 
nothing  but  the  truth  of  God.  Indeed, 
the  bare  statement  of  this  theory  sufiices 
for  its  refutation. 

Another  theory,  which  we  may  call 
the  literary,  bases  the  authority  of  the 
Scriptural  books  and  their  title  to  a  place 
in  the  canon,  on  a  critical  investigation  of 
the  internal  and  external  evidence  which 
can  be  produced  in  their  behalf.  This 
method  is  pursued  by  almost  every  learned 
Protestant  at  the  present  day — by  extreme 
sceptics  like  Hilgeufeld  and  Keim,  who 
examine  tradition  to  undermine  the  auth- 
enticity of  Scripture ;  and  by  sober  and 
patient  investigators  like  Dr.  Westcott, 
who  is  a  devout  believer  in  the  authority 
of  Scripture.  But  to  base  the  canon  on 
critical  investigations,  however  accurate 
and  thorough,  involves  a  misconception  of 
the  object  for  which  Scripture  was  given. 
Scripture  is  given  to  the  whole  Church  :  it 
is  meant  for  the  guidance  of  all  the  faith- 
ful, and  aU,  either  directly,  by  reading  it 
themselves,  or  indirectly,  by  hearing  por- 
tions of  it  read  or  expounded  by  their 
pastors,  have  tlie  right  to  benefit  by  its 
salutary  lessons.  Indeed,  the  argument 
tells  yet  more  strongly  against  Protestants. 
If,  as  they  hold.  Scripture  is  the  sole  rule  of 
faith,  and  if  learning  and  critical  training 
are  needed  to  ascertain  what  the  Scripture 
is,  then  one  of  two  consequences  necessa- 
rily follows.  All,  except  an  infinitesimal 
fraction  of  mankind  must  give  up  the 
attempt  to  secure  a  right  rule  of  foith 
altogether,  or  else,  instead  of  the  infalli- 
bility of  the  Church,  they  must  accept 
the  infallibility  of  some  particular  school 
among  learned  men. 

Protestants,  when  they  appeal  to  Scrip- 
ture against  the  Church,  forget  that  it  is 
only  from  this  very  Church,  and  on  her 
authority,  that  Scripture  is  received;  and 
we  may  conclude  with  the  words  of  a 
Protestant  scholar  who  has  done  more 
than  any  other  to  illustrate  the  history  of 
the  canon.  Protestants,  he  says,  have 
built  a  new  Church  on  the  foundation  of 
Scripture,  first  without  understanding;, 
then  without  the  will  to  understand,  that 


122     CANON  PENITENTIARY 


CANONISATION 


Scripture  itself  rests  on  nntliing-but  tradi- 
tion.^ 

CANOir  PENZTENTZART.  The 

Council  of  Trejit  ordered  -  that  in  every 
cathedral  church,  if  possible,  a  penitenti- 
ary, with  a  claim  to  hold  the  next  vacant 
prebend  should  be  appointed  by  the 
bishop  ;  he  was  to  be  forty  years  of  age, 
and  either  a  master  of  arts,  or  doctor,  or 
a  licentiate  in  theology  or  canon  law. 
His  duty  was  to  hear  confessions,  and  by 
so  doing  he  was  considered  to  perform 
his  choral  duties. 

CAHOtr,  PRZVZXiEGE  OF.  [See 
Immunity.] 

CAUOH  THEOX.OGZAIir.  The 
Council  of  Trent  directed^  that  in  all 
churches  where  a  prebendal  provision 
was  already  made  for  lectures  on  Theo- 
logy and  Holy  Scripture,  the  bishops  I 
sliould  see  that  the  foundation  was  not 
defeated  of  its  purpose  ;  and  also  that  for 
the  future,  in  all  cathedral  churches,  or 
even  collegiate  churches,  existing  in  large 
towns,  and  having  a  numerous  body  of 
clergy,  a  theologian  with  the  above-men- 
tioned duties  should  be  appointed,  and 
competently  provided  for  out  of  the 
chapter  funds.  The  office  was  usually 
conferred  upon  a  member  of  the  chapter, 
whence  the  name  Canon  Theologian.  In 
England  the  theologian  must  be  a  canon. 

CAxroirs  of  the  apostx.es. 
[See  Apostolic  Canons.] 

CAiroXTESS.  Chapters  of  Canonesses 
are  mentioned  in  the  capitularies  of  Louis 
le  D^bonnaire,  which  allow  them  to  pos-  \ 
■sess  property,  both  common  and  private,  ' 
and  only  require  that  they  should  take 
the  vows  of  chastity  and  obedience.  In 
the  following  centuries  these  chapters, 
especially  in  France  and  Germany,  became 
very  numerous.  They  were  distinguished 
from  nunneries  by  the  permission  to  the 
members  to  hold  private  property.  The 
duties  of  the  Canonesses  were,  to  teach 
young  girls,  work  at  church  embroidery, 
copy  and  illuminate  service-books,  &c. 
The  right  of  holding  property  nuturnlly 
introduced  much  laxity,  and  introduced 
into  the  order  of  Canonesses  a  class  of 
wealthy  and  titled  ladies,  who  were  in- 
disposed to  submit  to  any  severity  of  dis- 
cipline. Hence  a  crisis  arrived  in  the 
history  of  these  chapters,  similar  to  that 
which  we  have  described  with  reference 
to  Canons;  and  Regular  Canonesses, 
bound  by  the  vow  of  poverty  and  observ- 

'  Credner,  Zur  Geschichte  des  Canons. 
2  Sess.  xxiv.  De  Reform,  cap.  8. 
'  Sess.  V.  De  Reform,  cap.  1. 


ing  a  strict  rul.>  nf  life,  existed  side  by 
side  with  Srcular  Caiioiu'sses,  to  whom 
the  rha])tcr  was  little  iiii>r.'  than  an 
agreeable  retreat,  enaliliufi  ladies  wlio  did 
not  wish  to  marry,  nr  had  iiutlived  their 
cliarnis,  to  live  in  the  society  of  persons 
of  their  own  rank,  much  as  tliey  would 
have  done  in  the  world.  At  the  Reform- 
ation, such  being  the  character  of  these 
chapters,  it  caused  no  surprise  that  the 
members  of  several  of  them — ladies  of 
princely  or  noble  rank — followed  the  ex- 
ample of  their  male  relatives  and  re- 
pudiated the  Catholic  faith.  Some  of 
these  still  exist:  at  Gandersheim,  Her- 
ford,  &c.  Wilhelmina,  sister  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  "Abbess  of  Quedlinburg," 
was  the  head  of  one  of  these  Protestant 
chapters.  If  any  of  the  Canonesses  wish 
I  to  marry,  she  mu.st  resign  her  canonrv. 
CASTOXrzSATZON-.  To  pay  honour 
to  the  dead  whom  the  general  voice  de- 
clares to  have  lived  well  is  an  instinct 
of  human  nature.  Roman  citizens  brought 
the  images  of  their  distinguished  ances- 
tors into  their  villas ;  under  the  empire 
they  recognised  the  far-reaching  power 
and  august  majesty — sometimes  the 
beneficence — of  their  rulers  by  deifying 
them  after  death ;  in  China,  the  worship 
of  ancestors  is  to  this  day  the  most  living 
portion  of  the  popular  religion;  among 
ourselves,  the  number  of  monuments  in 
our  public  places  everywhere,  though  in 
many  cases  rather  attesting  the  vanity  of 
the  living  than  the  merits  of  the  dead, 
i  prove  the  universality  of  the  impulse.  A 
'  modern writerof  note '  has  said  that  every- 
thing depends  on  how  a  people  "  does  its 
Hero-worship."  The  Church,  divinely 
founded  and  divinely  guided  as  she  is,  so 
far  recognises  this  view  that  she  en- 
courages us  to  distinguish  with  singular 
honour  certain  of  her  children  who  have 
gone  before  us  in  the  Christian  warfare, 
bids  us  reserve  this  honour  for  those  whose 
virtue  reached  the  "  heroic  "  level,  and,  that 
we  may  not  be  deceived,  establishes  a  care- 
ful and  deliberate  process  whereby  to  test 
the  truth  of  facts  and  probe  the  moral 
significance  of  actions.  Her  judgments 
and  her  processes  need  not  fear  a  com- 
pai'ison  with  those  of  public  opinion. 
The  State, which  modern  irrreligion  invites 
us  to  regard  as  a  moral  agency  the  fiat  of 
which  is  not  to  be  appealed  against,  has 
also  modes  of  conferring  honour,  and  does 
not  wait  for  their  death  before  it  rewards 
its  servants.  It  has  peerages,  baronetcies, 
orders,  stars,  money,  and  offices.  If  w& 
1  Mr.  Carlyle. 


CANONISATION 


CANONISATION  123 


examine  on  -w-Liit  grounds  tlie.se  distinc- 
tions are  dispensed,  we  find  that  it  is  for 
rare  intellectual  ability — usuallyattended 
by  the  gift  of  expression — for  the  capacity 
of  amassing  money,  for  courage  with 
direction,  and  for  simple  courage  ;  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  patriotic  devotion  being 
supposed  to  be  present  in  each  case.  In 
this  way,  and  on  these  grounds,  the 
modem  State  honours  its  heroes.  To  the 
Church,  the  more  or  less  of  ability  pos- 
sessed by  those  whom  she  recommends 
for  our  veneration  is  a  matter  of  no  con- 
cern. She  is  as  willing  to  raise  a  St. 
Isidore,  the  gardener  of  Madrid,  to  the 
ranks  of  the  lilessed,  as  an  Augustine  of  i 
Ilijipo  or  a  Thomas  Aquinas.  The  proof 
of  eminent  virtue  is  all  that  she  demands, 
and  as  a  conclusive  and  compendious  test  i 
of  the  presence  of  this  high  order  of  vir- 
tue, she  requires  the  authentication  of 
miracles  wrought  by,  or  through  the  ' 
intercession  of,  the  person  whose  vir-  j 
tues  are  under  debate.  Such  are,  in  her 
estimate,  the  only  sound  bases  of  a  j 
popular  cultus,  and  when  these  condi- 
tions have  been  complied  with,  such  a 
cultus  has  been  never  known  to  be  dis- 
credited. 

The  possession  of  virtue  rising  to  the 
heroic  level,  and  the  illustration  of  that 
virtue  by  miracles,  are  matters  of  fact, 
which  must  of  course  be  established  by 
testimony.  The  witnesses,  in  most  cases, 
can  be  no  other  than  the  countrymen  and 
countrywomen  of  the  reputed  saint,  for 
only  they  can  have  seen  his  life  from  so 
near  at  hand  as  to  be  competent  to  speak 
with  certitude  respecting  it.  In  the  early 
times,  individual  bishops,  and  afterwards 
metropolitans,  acting  upon  this  local 
testimony,  and  sifting  it  m  the  best  way 
they  could,  declared  the  blessedness  of 
certain  persons,  and  proposed  their  me- 
mories for  the  veneration  of  the  faithful. 
But  it  is  notorious  that  local  testimony  is 
rarely  free  from  bias,  that  national  and 
provincial  sympathies,  or  even  antipathies, 
are  apt  to  disturb  the  judgment,  and  that 
for  this  reason  the  universal  Church 
could  not  safely  endorse  without  inquiry 
even  the  unanimous  judgment  of  his  own 
countrymen  on  the  virtues  of  a  reputed 
saint.  Earl  Waltheof,  put  to  death  by 
"William  the  Conqueror,  was  regarded  by 
the  English  as  a  martyr,  and  miracles 
were  said  to  be  worked  at  his  tomb;  the 
same  thing  liii]i])iMied  in  the  case  of  Simon 
de  Montfort ;  but  it  may  reasonably  be 
doubted  whether  antipathy  to  the  Nor- 
man and  the  foreigner  was  not  a  sub- 


stantial factor  in  these  reputations  for 
sanctity.  Considerations  of  this  kind 
prevailed,  many  centuries  ago,  to  cause 
the  inquiry  into  reputed  sanctity  to  be 
reserved  to  the  central  autlidritv  in  tlie 
Cliurch,  the  Holy  See,  and  t<>  n.c('.nnn.'n<l 
the  wisdom  and  necessity  of  tlif  di'i  i-inn 
that  without  the  sanction  of  that  m  .-  hd 
religious  cultus  may  lawfully  be  paid  to 
the  memory  of  any  holy  person,  however 
eminent  for  virtue  or  notorious  for  mira- 
cles. As  early  as  the  fourth  century,  in 
the  case  of  Vigilius,  bishop  of  Trent,  we 
find  the  authority  of  Rome  invoked  to 
recognise  a  martyr  or  confessor  as  such, 
and  sanction  his  being  honoured  in  the 
liturgy.  The  procedure  to  be  ob.served 
was  gTadually  regularised,  defects  re- 
medied, and  safeguards  supplied ;  and  in 
the  tenth  century  we  meet  with  the  com- 
plete process  of  a  canonisation,  of  which 
the  object  was  St.  Ulrich,  bishop  of 
Augsburg.  Still,  however,  through  the 
inordinate  fondness  with  which  those  of 
a  particular  country  or  religious  order 
regarded  holy  persons  of  their  own  blood 
or  profession,  instances  of  abusive  cultus 
sometimes  occurred ;  and  accordingly  we 
find  Alexander  III.,  in  1170,  publishing  a 
decree  in  which  it  is  declared  unlaw^'ul  to 
honour  any  ])erson  publicly  as  a  saint, 
however  celebrated  for  miracles,  without 
the  consent  of  the  Roman  Church.  Still 
more  important  is  the  bull  of  Urban  VIII. 
(1634),  in  which  the  form  of  procedure 
in  cases  of  canonisation  is  minutely  pre- 
scribed, and  variotis  abuses  condemned. 
In  this  bull,  however,  the  Pope  declared 
"that  he  did  not  wish  to  prejudice  the 
case  of  those  [servants  of  God]  who  wei-e 
the  objects  of  a  cultus  arising  either  out 
of  the  general  consent  of  the  Church,  or 
a  custom  of  which  the  memory  of  mail 
ran  not  to  the  contrary,  or  the  writings 
of  the  Fathers,  or  the  long  and  inten- 
tional tolerance  of  the  Apostolic  See  or 
the  Ordinary."  (Ferraris,  Cultus  Sancto- 
rmn.) 

It  remains  briefly  to  explain  in  what 
manner  the  duty,  thus  reserved  to  the 
Holy  See,  of  testing  the  evidence  offered 
in  proof  of  sanctity  is  discharged.  The 
celebrated  treatise  of  Pope  Benedict  XIV. 
on  Heroic  Virtue  (of  which  a  transla- 
tion was  published  some  years  ago  by 
the  English  Oratorians)  is  the  standard 
authority  on  the  subject.  There  are 
properly  only  two  recognised  degrees  of 
sanctity — that  of  Blessed,  and  that  of 
Saint.  The  title  Venerable  is  given  to 
those  whose  case  has  passed  through  the 


124  CAXOXTSATIOX 


CANONISATION 


preliminary  processes  and  has  reached 
the  stage  called  "  the  introduction  of  the 
Apostolic  process,"  as  will  be  described 
below.'  At  the  present  time,  Beatifica- 
tion is  nearly  always  a  stage  on  the  road 
to  Canonisation;  the  same  rigorous  proof 
of  eminent  virtue  and  the  working  of 
miracles  is  demanded  in  one  case  as  in 
the  other.  But  whereas  the  cultus  of  a 
canonised  Saint  belongs  to  the  imiversal 
Church,  and  churches  and  altars  can  be 
freely  erected  in  his  or  her  honour,  and 
images,  pictures,  or  statues  of  him  or  her 
displayed  without  special  permission,  in 
the  case  of  one  of  the  Blessed  it  is  other- 
wise. The  honour  and  veneration  which 
are  authorised  in  their  regard  are  limited 
and  partial ;  and  because  the  cultus  of 
one  of  them  is  permitted  to  one  country, 
or  city,  or  order,  or  branch  of  an  order,  it 
does  not  follow  that  it  should  be  practised 
elsewhere  ;  and  the  attempt  to  extend  it 
without  special  permission  is  condemned. 
Nor  is  it  lawful,  without  such  permission, 
to  display  their  pictures  or  images  in 
churches,  nor,  under  any  circumstances, 
can  Mass  be  said  or  the  breviary  recited 
in  their  honour. 

Beatification. — Thirteen  or  fourteen 
dift'erent  steps  may  be  distinguished  in 
the  process  of  Beatification ;  the  general 
object  of  all  these  slow  and  lengthy  in- 
quiries— extending  always  over  many 
years,  and  sometimes  from  one  century  to 
another — being  to  unite  the  credibility 
and  authenticity  which  can  only  be 
founded  on  the  reports  of  witnesses  locally 
and  personally  cognisant  of  the  facts  to 
the  authority  of  a  juridical  investigation 
conducted  by  trained  and  impartial  in- 
tellects. It  must  be  remembered  that 
the  character  and  behaviour  of  the  re- 
puted saint  are  subjected  to  the  severest 
possible  strain;  that  the  "fierce  light 
which  beats  upon  a  throne  "  is  nothing  to 
that  which  so  minute  and  protracted  an 
inquiry  turns  upon  the  everyday  life  of 
the  person  submitted  to  it.  "  The  person 
who  is  to  be  beatified  must  have  prac- 
tised in  the  heroic  degree  chiefly  the 
three  theological  virtues.  Faith,  Hope 
and  Charity,  and  the  four  cardinal  virtues. 
Prudence,  Justice,  Courage  and  Temper- 

>  Venerable  Bede  is  a  canonised  saint.  The 
lessons  from  his  writings  which  are  read  in  tlie 
breviary  are,  however,  always  headed  "  De 
Sermone  Venerai/ilis  BedfB."  ic.  This  peculi- 
arity is  said  to  have  arisen  from  the  fact  that 
his  homilies  were  read  in  the  office  during  his 
lifetime  ;  and  as  he  could  not  then  be  styled 
"  Saint,"  the  title  "  Venerable  "  was  used." 


I  ance,  with  all  that  these  suppose  and  in- 
volve ;  nor  is  it  enough  to  show  that  these 
have  been  practised  to  thisdegreeofperfec- 
I  tion  under  certain  circumstances :  numer- 
ous acts,  a  permanent  and  habitual  prac- 
I  tice,  principally  of  charity,  are  required ; 
j  and,  with  regard  to  the  cardinal  virtues, 
I  the  habit  of  that  virtue  which  was  the 
j  proper  and  distinguishing  excellence  of 
I  the  person's  calling.  Thus  justice  and 
j  temperance  are  required  in  statesmen  and 
prelates ;  in  Popes,  zeal  for  the  defence 
and  propagation  of  the  Catholic  faith  ;  in 
kings,  loyal  attachment  to  the  Church 
and  the  Holy  See ;  in  married  women, 
gentleness  and  devotion  ;  "  &c.' 

The  first  step  of  the  process  is  a  formal 
inquiry  instituted  by  the  bishop  of  the 
diocese  as  to  the  fact  of  the  reputation 
of  the  person  whose  beatification  is  de- 
manded for  virtue  and  miraculous  power. 
This  being  accomplished,  either  the  same 
bishop  or  a  Roman  oflicial  inquires  into 
the  fact  of  non-cultus — that  is,  whether 
the  bull  of  Urban  VIIL  (supposing  the 
case  not  to  be  included  among  the  excep- 
tions therein  specified)  has  been  hitherto 
scrupulously  complied  with.  Thirdly, 
the  acts  or  minutes  resulting  from  these 
two  inquiries  are  sent  to  Rome,  to  the 
secretary  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites. 
[Congregations,  Roman.]  Before  this 
body  the  process  is  now  opened,  at  the 
request  of  the  postulators,  or  supporters 
of  the  beatification.  The  fifth  step  is  the 
nomination  of  a  promotoi- fidei  (called  in 
popular  language  the  "  devil's  advocate"), 
whose  duty  it  is  to  point  out  any  flaws  or 
weak  points  in  the  evidence  adduced,  and 
raise  all  kinds  of  objections.  Sixthly,  the 
Congregation  examines,  if  the  person 
were  an  author,  all  the  works,  printed  or 
in  manuscript,  which  were  ascertained  to 
be  of  his  composition,  and  draws  up  a 
formal  report  on  them.  If  this  be  favour- 
able, the  seventh  stage  is  reached,  that  of 
the  introduction  of  the  Apostolic  process ; 
for  Rome,  so  to  speak,  now  makes  the 
cause  its  own,  and  gives  a  commission  to 
the  Congregation  of  Rites  to  try  it,  in- 
vestigating, not  only  the  notoriety,  but 
the  reality  and  nature  of  the  virtues  and 
miracles  ascribed  to  the  beat ificnndu^. 
This  commission,  without  a  special  Papal 
dispensation,  is  never  issued  till  at  least 
ten  years  have  passed  since  the  first  trans- 
mission of  the  acts  to  the  Secretary  of 
the  Congregation.  The  holy  person  may 
now  be  styled  "  Venerable."  The  next 
step  is  the  a]>pointment  by  the  Congrega- 
De  M(iy,  in  Wetzer  and  Welte. 


a'^0>'ISAT10N 


CANONISATION 


126 


tion,  under  vrhat  are  called  littera  re-  I 
musionales,    of  a   delegation   of  three 
bishops,  or  other  high  fuiictlonarie!:,  to 
deal  with  the  case  systematically,  and 
examine  witnesses  in  respect  of  the  re- 
puted virtues  and  miracles.    The  acts  of 
this  delegation,  which  are  often  extremely 
voluminous,  are,  as  the  ninth  stage,  sent 
to  the  Congregation,  by  which  they  are 
examined,  and  arguments  heard,  pro  and 
contra,  from  the  postulators  and  the  pro- 
moturfidci.    If  the  result  is  favourable 
to  the  beatificandm,  a  second  and  still  : 
more  searching  inquiry  into  the  real  and 
inmost  nature  of  all  that  has  been  deposed 
respecting  him  is  committed  to  a  new  de- 
legation: this  is  the  tenth  stage.  The 
process,  being  returned  to  the  Congrega- 
tion, is  finally  considered  by  them,  both 
as  to  its  form  and  as  to  its  substance ; 
and  the  virtues  and  miracles  are  separately 
the  subject  of  debate  in  three  successive 
assemblies  or  congregations,  at  the  last  of 
which  the  Pope  himself  is  present.  After 
having  sought  to  know  the  will  of  God 
by  prayer,  the  Pope  makes  known  his 
judgment  to  the  secretary  of  the  Congre- 
gation.   A  new  general  congregation  is 
then  held,  at   which  it  is   considered  I 
whether  the  beatification   may  be  pro-  ! 
ceeded  with  without  further  delay ;  if  ; 
the  decision  be  favourable,  the  Pope  ap-  \ 
points  a  day  for  the  ceremony,  and  orders  , 
a  brief,  setting  forth  the  Apostolic  sen-  | 
tence,  to  be  prepared.    The  final  stage  of 
this  long  process,  the  beatification  itself  ; 
takes  place  in  the  Vatican  church ;  it  in- 
eludes  the  public  reading  of  the  brief,  the  ! 
chanting  of  the  Te  Ueum,  the  unveiling 
of  the  image  or  picture  of  the  newly- 
beatified  on  the  altar,  the  incensing  of  the 
image,  the  reading  of  the  new  collect,  &c. 

By  an  "equipollent  beatification"  is 
meant  the  Papal  authorisation  of  the 
public  cultus  of  a  confessor  or  martyr, 
founded  on  the  proof  of  one  or  more  of 
the  exceptional  conditions  stated  in  the 
bull  of  T-rbnn  VIII. 

Canoiiimtion. — Before  proceeding  to 
canonisation,  it  must  be  proved  that  at 
least  two  miracles  have  been  wrought 
through  the  intercession  of  the  "  Blessed" 
ptTson  since  the  beatification.  This  proof 
is  attended  with  the  same  formalities, 
and  surrounded  by  the  same  rigorous 
conditions,  as  in  the  case  of  the  miracles 
proved  before  beatification.  After  it  has 
been  established,  the  three  congregations 
(of  which  the  last  is  public  and  in  the 
presence  of  the  Pope),  which  were  re- 
quisite before  beatification,  are  again  con- 


vened; and  upon  the  direction  of  the 
Pope,  after  the  last  congregation,  the 
promoter  of  the  faith  and  the  secretary 
of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  agree  to  a 
form  of  decree,  declaring  that  no  doubt 
exists  relative  to  the  miracles  in  ques- 
tion, and  that  there  is  no  reason  wliy  the 
canonisation  should  not  be  proceeded 
with.  This  then  takes  place,  usually  in 
St.  Peter's.  After  various  ceremonies, 
the  postulator  of  the  cause  (who  is 
usually  a  person  of  high  rank  or  distinc- 
tion in  the  country  or  order  to  which  the 
saint  belonged)  asks  twice  that  the  name 
of  the  servant  of  God  whose  cause  he 
pleads  may  be  enrolled  in  the  catalogue 
of  the  Saints  ;  the  Pope  replies  each  time 
that  it  is  best  to  explore  the  will  of  God 
still  further  by  prayer ;  litanies  and  the 
"  Veni  Creator "  are  chanted ;  at  the 
third  request  the  Pope  declares  and  or- 
dains, "in  honour  of  the  Holy  Trinity, 
for  the  glory  of  the  Catholic  faith  and 
the  progi-ess  of  the  Christian  religion,  in 
virtue  of  the  authority  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  of  the  Holy  Apostles  Peter  and 
Paul,  and  of  his  own  plenary  and  proper 
authority,"  that  the  servant  of  God  in 
question  shall  be  inscribed  on  the  register 
of  the  Saints  ("  Canon  Sanctorum  "),  and 
that  his  (or  her)  memory  shall  be  cele- 
brated on  a  given  day,  in  every  part  of 
the  Church.  A  solemn  Mass,  in  which 
the  Pope  himself,  unless  disqualified  by 
illness  or  old  age,  officiates,  is  then  cele- 
brated, in  honour  of  the  new  Saint. 

The  actual  procedure  will  be  more 
clearly  uuderstood  if  we  describe  and 
partly  translate  some  Papal  Bull  of 
Canonisation  ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  we 
will  take  the  Bull  of  Alexander  VII. 
concerning  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  dated 
April  19,  KiGo.  Al^er  a  brief  sketch  of 
his  life,  a  specification  of  seven  miracles 
proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  Kites,  a  reference  to  his  beati- 
fication in  1661,  and  a  mention  of  the 
princes  and  others  (including  Henrietta 
Maria,  Queen  of  England)  by  whom  the 
cause  had  been  zealously  promoted,  the 
bull  proceeds : — 

"At  length,  deeming  it  to  be  just  and 
due  that  we  should  give  glory,  praise, 
and  honour  on  earth  to  those  whom  God 
honours  in  heaven,  we,  with  the  cardinals 
of  the  holy  Roman  Church,  the  patriarchs, 
archbishops  and  bishops,  our  beloved  sons 
the  prelates  of  the  Roman  Curia,  our  ofll- 
cials  and  ,-uite,  tlie  secular  and  regular 
clergy,  and  an  immense  multitude  of 
people,  have  this  day  met  together  in  the 


12G 


CANT ATE  SUNDAY 


CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT 


holy  Vatican  basilica;  and  after  three 
petitions  for  the  decree  of  canonisation, 
prt'seiited  to  us  on  the  part  of  the  Most 
Christ ian  King  by  our  beloved  son,  the 
ilhistrious  Charles,  Duke  of  Cr^quy, 
anil)assador  from  the  said  king;  after 
sat-red  hymns,  litanies,  and  other  prayers, 
duly  imploring  the  grace  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  :— 

"  In  honour  of  the  most  holy  and  un- 
divided Trinity,  for  the  exaltation  of  the 
Catholic  faith  and  the  increase  of  the 
Christian  religion,  by  the  authority  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  blessed 
Apostles  Peter  and  Paul,  and  ourselves, 
after  mature  deliberation,  and  having 
many  times  implored  the  divine  aid,  by 
the  counsel  of  our  venerable  brothers, 
the  cardinals  of  the  holy  Roman  Church, 
and  of  the  patriarchs,  archbishops,  and 
bishops  met  together  in  the  city,  we  have 
decided  and  defined  the  Blessed  Francis 
de  Sales,  Bishop  of  Geneva,  to  be  a  Saint, 
and  have  inscribed  him  on  the  catalogue 
of  the  Saints,  as,  by  the  tenor  of  these 
presents,  we  do  decide,  define,  and  in- 
scribe him ;  appointing  that  his  memory 
shall  be  cherished  and  honoured  with 
pious  devotion  by  the  universal  Church, 
as  a  holy  confessor  and  bishop,  on  the 
29th  day  of  January  in  each  year.  In 
the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son, 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Amen."  A 
grant  of  indulgences  on  the  usual  con- 
ditions to  those  who  shall  visit  the 
Saint's  tomb  on  his  festival,  follows :  a 
plenary  indulgence  to  all  present  at  tln' 
canonisation  is  announced ;  and  then  the 
bull  proceeds  :  —  "  We  therefore  bless 
God,  who  is  wonderful  in  his  saints,  be- 
cause we  have  received  mercy  in  the 
midst  of  his  temple,  in  that  He  hath 
granted  to  us  in  the  Church  a  new  pat- 
ron and  intercessor  with  His  divine 
Majesty,  for  the  greater  tranquillity  of 
the  same  Church,  the  spread  of  the 
Catholic  faith,  and  the  enlightenment 
and  conversion  of  heretics  and  all  who 
wander  from  the  ])ath  of  salvation." 
After  clauses  relating  to  the  ])ublication 
of  the  bull,  and  forljiddiiig  any  infrac- 
tion of  it,  the  instruuieut  ends  with  the 
dati^,  and  the  signatures  of  the  Pope  and 
thirty-eight  cardinals. 

CAXTTATE  SUNDAY.  A  name 
given  to  the  fourth  Sunday  after  Easter, 
from  the  introit  of  the  Mass,  which  be- 
gins with  the  words  "Sing  to  the  Lord  a 
new  song."  The  name  "  Cantate  Sunday  " 
often  appears  during  the  middle  ages  as 
well  known,  and  was  used  to  mark  the 


date,  even  in  ordinary  life.  The  name  is 
probably  as  old  as  the  twelfth  century. 
CAirTXCX.ES.  [See  Htmns  ] 
CAWTOR,  also  called  "  episcopua 
chori,"  "  chori  regens,"  was  the  official 
in  a  cathedral  or  collegiate  church  who 
instructed  the  choristers  and  younger 
clerics  in  music,  and  directed  the  singing 
of  the  office,  &c.  In  many  foundations, 
the  office  of  cantor  was  raised  to  a  dignity, 
in  the  canonical  sense,  and  had  a  prebend 
of  considerable  vahie  attached  to  it.  A 
cantor  thus  provided  for  often  appointed 
sulvcantors  (s accentor es),  who  were  se- 
lected from  the  choral-vicars,  and  en- 
trusted with  the  teaching  of  the  eccle- 
siastical chant,  while  the  cantor  himself 
exercised  control  over  the  choral-vicars 
and  superintended  the  performance  of  the 
divine  offices.    [See  Precentor.] 

CAPITA!.  PVXrXSHiaEM-T.  It  is 
cei"tain  from  Scripture  that  the  magistrate 
may  lawfully  put  malefactors  to  death. 
Capital  punishment  was  enacted  for  certain 
grievous  crimes  in  the  old  law,  and  the 
Christian  dispensation  made  no  essential 
change  in  this  respect,  for  St.  Paul,  in 
Rom.  xiii.  4,  expressly  says  that  the 
magistrate  "  beareth  not  the  sword  in 
vain;  for  he  is  a  minister  of  God,  an 
avenger  to  execute  wrath  upon  him  that 
doeth  evil."  The  unanimous  opinion  of 
theologians  is  in  favour  of  the  lawfulness 
of  capital  punishment ;  and  if  the  Church 
has  given  no  formal  decision  on  the  matter, 
this  probably  is  only  because  the  question 
has  never  till  of  late  years  assumed  any 
great  importance.  Argentr(5,  however,  in 
his  "Collectio  de  Novis  Erroribus,"  i.  86, 
mentions  an  en'oneous  proposition  of  the 
Waldenses,  denying  the  lawfulness  of 
capital  punishment.  The  theologians  of 
that  time,  a  number  of  whom  are  quoted 
by  Argentr6,  treated  the  proposition  as 
heretical. 

St.  Thomas  defends  the  lawfulness 
of  capital  punishment  on  the  following 
principle.  The  State,  he  argues,  is  like 
a  body,  composed  of  many  members,  and 
as  a  surgeon  may  cut  oft'  one  corrupt 
limb  to  save  the  others,  so  the  magistrate 
may  lawfully  put  a  malefactor  to  death 
;ind  thus  provide  for  the  common  good. 

It  is  only  the  magistrate  who  can 
inflict  the  penalty  of  death,  because  as 
the  justification  of  the  penalty  is  the  com- 
mon good,  it  can  be  imposed  by  him  alone 
to  whom  the  care  of  the  common  good 
belongs — viz.  by  the  magistrate. 

A  parent  has  the  power  to  impose 
remedial  chastisements,  but  not  to  kill. 


CAPITAL  SINS 


CAPITULARY  127 


A  private  person  may  of  course  work  for 
the  common  good,  but  if  the  good  he 
would  do  involves  the  injury,  above  all  if 
it  involves  the  death,  of  another,  he  has 
no  authority  to  decide  that  any  member 
of  the  State  is  to  be  exterminated  for  the 
good  of  the  whole. 

As  to  outlaws,  who  may  in  certain 
cases  be  put  to  death  by  private  persons, 
the  sentence  is  really  passed  by  the  State, 
the  individual  who  slays  them  being  the 
mere  executioner. 

The  magistrate  derives  this  authority 
■from  God,  and  it  is  conveyed,  not  only  by 
the  positive  Inw  of  God  in  Scripture,  but 
also  by  the  natural  law  written  on  the 
heart.  The  number  of  capital  offences 
must  be  determined  by  the  good  of  the 
community  ;  so  that  lawj  are  rightly  m^re 
severe  at  one  time  or  in  one  place  than  in 
another.  The  strange  theory  of  Scotus 
that  the  positive  law  of  God  forbids 
homicide,  and  that  therefore  a  magistrate 
can  only  put  to  death  where  God  Himself 
has  dispensed  him  from  the  observance  of 
the  law — viz.  for  murder,  adultery,  blas- 
phemy, &c.  and  the  other  eases  ])i'ovided 
for  in  the  Pentateuch — is  generally  re- 
jected. This  opinion  errs  in  taking  for 
granted  that  the  magistrate's  authority 
to  slay  is  conveyed  only  tliroiifili  the 
positive  law,  and  in  assuming  that  the 
judicial  precepts  of  the  Jewish  code  are 
in  force  among  Christians. 

li"  a  capital  offence  has  been  com- 
mitted, the  prince,  even  if  certahi  of  the 
prisoner's  guilt,  must  not  comlemn  him 
without  fair  trial,  although  here  an  excep- 
tion may  be  made  if  the  guilt  is  notorinus 
and  great  evils  would  ensue  from  delay 
of  execution.  Time  must  be  allowed  the 
prisoner  to  prepare  for  death  and  receive 
the  sacraments,  and  this  time  must  be 
given  even  if  there  is  danger  of  his 
escaping.  Finally,  the  canon  law  strictly 
forbids  ecclesiastics,  even  if  they  lii>ld 
temporal  jurisdiction,  to  take  any  jiart  in 
passing  or  executing  sentence  of  .leath. 
(St.  Thomas,  2  2n(liE,  lxiv.:  Billuart,  "  De 
Justit.''  diss.  X.;  St.  Liguori,  "Theol. 
Moral."  lib.  iv.  tract,  iv.  cap.  1.  dub.  2.) 

CAPZTA.I.  SXKTS  (in  English  called 
deadly  sins),  so  named  because  they  are 
the  fountain-heads  from  which  all  other 
sins  proceed.  St.  Thomas,  filldwing  St. 
Gregory  the  Great,  enumerates  seven — 
viz.  vainglory,  envy,  anger,  avarice,  sloth 
(which  he  calls  IrisHtia,  "sadness,"  or 
distaste  for  labour  in  God's  service,  but 
which  is  generally  known  as  acedia), 
gluttony,  lust.    Other  writers  substitute 


pride  for  vainglory ;  others,  again,  like 
Cassian,  count  both  pride  and  vainglory, 
and  so  make  eight  capital  sins.  St  Thoinas 
divides  them  as  follows.  "  Man,"  lie  >.iys, 
"is  led  to  sin  by  seeking  that  which  is 
good  inordinately,  or  by  an  unreasonable 
aversion  from  that  which  is  good,  because 
of  incidental  evil  which  is  joined,  or 
thought  to  be  joined,  with  it.  Man  seeks 
inordinately  the  goods  of  the  soul  (pride), 
or  of  the  body  (gluttony  and  lust),  or, 
lastly,  external  goods  (avarice),  lie  has 
an  unreasonable  aversion  to  bis  own  good, 
because  of  the  labour  needed  to  secure  it 
(sloth),  or  to  another's  good,  because  it 
seems  to  detract  from  his  own  (envy  and 
anger)."    (1  2nd;e,  Ixx.xiv.  4.) 

CAPZTVX.ART.  A  set  of  crqntula, 
or  chapters,  each  of  which  was  a  special 
law,  like  the  "  chapters "  in  the  annual 
volume  of  statutes  passed  by  the  British 
Parliament.  The  wonl  has  Ijeen  extended 
to  the  ecclesiastical  canons  passed  in  pro- 
vincial councils — e.g.  to  the  chapters  of 
Martin  of  Duma,  passed  at  IJraga  in  572 — 
but  it  is  usually  restricted  to  the  legisla- 
tion of  the  Prankish  kings  of  the  first  and 
second  dynasties. 

These  Capitularies  have  beenpublkshed 
by  Baluze,  and  more  recently  by  Pertz  ; 
they  have  been  carefully  analysed  by 
M.  Guizot  in  his  "Hist,  de  la  CiVilis.  en 
France." 

I.  The  Capitularies  of  the  Merovingian 
kings  begin  with  Childebert  (554).  Com- 
piled as  they  were  so  soon  after  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Salian  Franks  to  Christianity, 
it  is  needless  to  say  that  ecclesiastical  in- 
fluence is  apparent  in  every  part  of  them. 
Among  the  more  prominent  matters  of 
which  they  treat,  are  the  right  of  sanc- 
tuarj-,  the  observance  of  the  Sunday,  the 
right  to  grant  lands  to  the  Church,  &c. 

II.  The  Capitularies  of  Pepin  le  Bref, 
the  father  of  Charlemagne,  are  five  in 
number,  but  only  one  of  them  can  be 
called  in  the  fullest  sense  a  work  of  legis- 
lation, as  having  been  framed  "  in  generali 
populi  conventu."  They  are  much  occu- 
pied with  clerical  discipline  and  the  rt'gu- 
lation  of  marriage. 

III.  The  Capitularies  of  Charlemagne, 
sixty-five  in  number,  conta  in  1 , 1 50  separate 
chapters.  Tliev  rang(>  in  date  from  709 
to  803.  They  are  clas-itied  l.y  M.  Gui/.ot, 
according  to  their  .-ulijeris,  iiilo  jmiiiicrd 
(273),  moral  (87  ),  />?««/(  1  .'iO).  vidl  (1 10), 
religious  (So),  canonical  (2!ll),  dommfic 
(73),  and  viisccUaneous  or  occasional  (12). 
A  large  proportion  of  them  can  in  no 
sense  be  called  laivs  ;  so  far  from  it  that 


128 


CAPrA  MAGNA 


CAPUCHINS 


M.  Guizot  distinguishes  them  into  docu- 
ments of  twelve  different  kinds.  These 
twelve  classes  include  new  laws  (properly 
j-o  called),  ancient  laws  revived,  instruc- 
tions to  tiie  missi Dotmntci,  circulars  to  the 
bishops  and  counts  convejnng  admonitions 
or  inviting  opinions,  answers  of  the  emperor 
to  questions  put  to  him,  judicial  decrees, 
memoranda,  &c.  &c.  In  fact,  this  un- 
wieldy collection  faithfully  represents  the 
imperial  system  itself,  which  was  a  sort 
of  hodge-podge  of  paternal  government, 
flexible  administration,  and  rigid  law; 
each  of  these  three  being  so  far  pressed  as 
the  Emperor,  under  the  circumstances  of 
each  case,  judged  to  be  expedient. 

IV.  The  Capitularies  of  Louis  le  D^- 
bonnaire,  twenty  in  ntunber,  were  added 
to  those  of  Charlemagne,  and  the  whole 
collection,  digested  into  seven  books, 
published  between  820  and  842,  by  Anse- 
aisus.  Abbot  of  Fontenelle,  and  Benedict 
of  Mayence — the  same  to  whom  many 
writers  ascribe  the  fabrication  of  the 
False  Decretals.  Charles  the  Bald  added 
tifty-two,  and  the  succeeding  Carlovingian 
kings,  down  to  Charles  the  Simple  inclu- 
f^ive,  some  ten  or  eleven  more.  After 
Charles  the  Simple,  the  laws  of  France 
ceased  to  be  called  Capitularies. 

CAPPA  MACITA..  The  barbarous 
word  "cappa,"  said  to  be  derived  from 
capere  (quia  cnjnf.  totum  hominem,  "  be- 
cause it  covers  the  whole  person "),  was 
iiriginally  used  by  ecclesiastical  writers 
to  denote  the  pluviale,  or  cope,  as  appears 
from  Durandus  and  Honorius.  The  cappa 
magna  is  a  long  vestment,  the  hood  of 
which  is  lined  with  silk  or  with  fur,  ac- 
cording to  the  season  of  the  year  at  which 
it  is  to  be  worn.  It  is  used  by  cardinals, 
bishops,  and,  in  many  churches,  also  by 
canons.  It  seems  to  have  been  at  first 
the  choir  vestment  of  canons  regular. 
(From  Gavant.  with  Merati's  notes.) 

CAPUCIIIN-S.  A  reform  of  the 
Franciscan  order  instituted  by  Matteo  di 
Bassi  of  Urbino,  who,  being  an  Obser- 
vantine  Franciscan  at  Monte  Falco,  and 
having  convinced  himself  tha  t  the  capuc/ie 
or  cowl  worn  by  St.  Francis  was  different 
in  shape  from  that  worn  by  the  friars  of 
his  own  time,  adopted  a  long  pointed 
cowl,  according  to  what  he  conceived  to 
be  the  original  form.  In  1526  he  obtained 
the  consent  of  Pope  Clement  VI] .  to  the 
wearing  of  this  habit  by  himself  and  his 
companions,  with  the  further  permission 
to  live  the  life  of  hermits,  and  preach  the 
gospel  in  every  country,  on  condition  that 
once  in  each  year  they  should  present 


themselves    at    the    general  chapter, 
wherever  it  might  be  held,  of  the  Obser- 
vantine  friars.    Matteo  began  hereupon 
to  preach  publicly  in  the  March  of  Ancona 
but  the  provincial  of  the  Observantines,. 
hearing  of  it,  treated  him  as  an  apostate 
friar  [Apostasy]  and  threw  him  intO' 
prison.    He  was  released  through  the 
interference  of  the  Duchess  of  Camerino,^ 
the  Pope's  niece  ;  and  he,  with  two  zfalous 
followers,  Louis  and  Raphael  of  Fossom- 
brone,  took  refuge  for  a  time  witli  the- 
Camaldules  in  their  convent  at  Mnss^uccio. 
They  were  also  kindly  treated  by  the 
j  Conventual  branch  of  their  order  [Fkan- 
j  ciscANs],  and  a  bull  was  finally  obtained 
from  the  Pope  in  1528,  authorising  the 
union  which  Matteo  and  his  companions 
had  entered  into  with  the  Conventuals,, 
sanctioning  for  them  the  hermit  life,  and 
allowing  them  to  wear  beards  and  to  use 
the  long-pointed  errjOMc^e  from  which  they 
have  derived  their  name.    After  this  the- 
order  grew  with  great  rapidity,  and  it  has 
I  produced  down  to  the  present  time  numbers 
t  of  men  eminent  for  every  Christian  virtue,, 
great  preachers,  and  accomplished  scholars  ,- 
yet,  strange  to  say,  the  first  projectors  of 
the  institute,  unlike  the  great  majority  of 
founders  of  orders,  did  not  persevei'e  in 
the  observance  of  its  statutes.  Matteo- 
di  Bassi,  for  whom  independence  of  exter- 
}  nal  control  seems  to  have  possessed  an 
extraordinary  attraction,  finding  that  the 
[  Pope  had  forbidden  Capuchins  who  did 
!  not  remain  in  their  monasteries  and  obey 
the  vicar-general  to  wear  the  pointed 
'  cowl,  immediately  cut  oft'  the  half  of  his, 
i  and  quitted  the  order.    Louis  of  Fossom- 
I  brone  was  expelled  from  it  on  account  of 
the  violence  of  his  language,  when,  by  the 
Papal  confirmation  of  another  friar  as 
vicar-general  in  1536,  his  ambitious  desire 
to  be  continued  in  the  office  was  frus- 
trated. 

The  statutes  of  the  order  were  drawn 
up  in  1529.  The  government  was  placed 
in  the  hands  of  a  vicar-general,  for  they 
were  at  first  subject  to  the  general  of  the 
Conventuals,  and  only  obtained  exemp- 
tion from  this  obedience  in  1617.  Matins 
were  to  be  said  at  midnight,  and  the 
other  canonical  hours  at  the  times  origi- 
nally assigned  to  them ;  hours  for  mental 
prayer,  for  silence,  and  for  taking  the 
discipline,  were  prescribed.  They  were 
to  have  no  revenues,  but  to  live  by 
begging ;  everything  about  their  churches 
and  convents  was  to  be  poor  and  mean ; 
the  very  chalices  were  to  be  of  pewter, 
and  in  the  decorations  of  the  altars,  gold. 


CAPUCHINS 

silver,  and  silk  were  excluded.  They 
miprht  eat  one  kind  of  meat  in  refectory, 
and  wine  was  allowed ;  but  if  any  Ca- 
puchin wished  to  diet  himself  more 
rigorously  he  was  not  to  be  prevented. 
In  their  begging  rounds  the  friars  were 
not  to  ask  for  either  meat,  eggs,  or  cheese, 
though  they  might  accept  them  if  ofl'ered. 
One  of  the  most  illustrious  names  in  this 
order  is  that  of  St.  Fidelis  of  Sigmaringen, 
a  zealous  and  powerful  preacher,  martyred 
by  the  Calvinists  of  the  Grisons  in  1622 
(see  Alban  Butler,  April  24). 

The  third  vicar-general,  Bernardino 
Ochino,  attained  an  unhappy  notoriety 
throughhaving  adopted  Lutheran  opinions 
and  married  a  young  girl  from  Lucca.  This 
was  at  Geneva,  where  he  established  him- 
self in  1542.  Ochino  afterwards  went  to 
England,  while  Edward  VI.  was  on  the 
throne,  and  after  having  travelled  through 
many  parts  of  Germany,  and  become 
known  as  a  gifted  preacher  of  the  new 
opinions,  he  settled  at  Zurich.  But,  like 
the  late  Rev.  Blanco  White,  who  deserted 
the  Church  for  Anglicanism,  but  could 
not  stop  there,  Ochino  was  compelled 
after  a  while  by  internal  restlessness, 
against  his  own  manifest  interest,  to 
seek  to  imdermine  the  Lutheranism  which 
he  had  embraced.  In  1563  he  printed  a 
book  called  "Triginta  Dialogi,"  in  which 
it  is  intimated  that  if  a  man  has  an  un- 
suitable wife,  and  feels  quite  certain  that 
the  impulse  which  moves  him  is  from 
God,  he  may  without  sin  take  to  himself 
a  second  wife.  The  leaders  of  the  Re- 
formed party  at  Zurich,  such  as  BuUin- 
ger  and  Wolf,  were  scandalised  at  this 
apparent  vindication  of  polvgamv,  and 
Ocl  lino  was  driven  bv  his  Protestant 
friends  out  of  Switzerland  and  sought 
refuge  in  Poland.  Even  here  he  was  not 
suflered  to  rest,  and  on  the  forced  journey 
to  Moravia,  where  he  hn])fd  to  find  sliel- 
ter,  after  losing  three  cut  nf  his  four 
children  by  the  plague,  he  died  at 
Schlackau  before  the  end  of  1564,  hut  in 
such  isolation  and  obscurity  that  no 
jiarticulars  of  his  death  were  ever  ascer- 
tained. 

At  the  time  when  H^lyot  wrote,  near 
the  beginning  of  the  last  centurj',  the 
order  of  Capuchins  was  divided  into  more 
than  fifty  provinces  and  three  "custodies,',' 
numbering  sixteen  hundred  convents  and 
twenty-five  thousand  friars,  besides  their 
missions  in  Brazil  and  various  parts  of 
Africa.  The  French  Revolution— though 
there  were  a  few  who  yielded — tempted 
with  no  other  result  than  illustrating  the 


CARDINAL  129 

serene  and  stable  virtue  of  the  great 
majority  of  the  Capuchins.  When  Bel- 
gium was  annexed  to  France  in  1797, 
and  soldiers  were  sent  to  turn  out  the 
friars  at  Louvain  into  the  street,  the 
guardian  thus  expelled  cried  out,  "  I  pro- 
test in  the  sight  of  Heaven  that  it  is  only 
force  which  makes  us  go  out  of  our  house; 
that  I  and  my  brothers  remain  Capu- 
chins ;  that  we  are  suffering  for  religion, 
and  are  ready,  if  need  be,  to  be  martyrs 
in  its  cause."  A  large  number  of  their 
convents  were  suppressed  during  the  re- 
volutionary troubles ;  in  France,  however, 
they  had  revived  again  to  a  considerable 
extent,  but  the  persecuting  "  Liberalism  " 
of  the  Third  Republic  ejected  them  anew 
from  their  convents  (1880).  They  are  at 
present  most  numerous  in  Austria ;  in 
Switzerland  also  there  are  many,  and 
altogether  they  are  said  still  to  number 
several  thousands.  They  are  at  present 
eight  Capuchin  convents  in  England  and 
Wales  —  at  Peckham,  East  Dulwich, 
Erith,  Crawley,  Chester,  Pantasnpli, 
Olton,  and  Pontypool  —  and  three  in 
Ireland — one  at  Kilkenny,  and  two  (of 
which  one  is  the  noviciate)  at  Cork. 
(H6lyot ;  "  Bernardino  Ochino,"  by  Ben- 
rath,  1875;  English  and  Irish  "Cathohc 
Directories.") 

CARSZlTAli  {cnrdo,  a  hinge).  Like 
most  arrangements  wliicli,  though  made 
by  man,  carry  out  the  Divine  ptii-pnse, 
CoiTespond  to  tlie  wants  nf  human  society, 
and  are  destined  to  live,  grow  aiid  endure, 
the  great  institutioii  nf  tlie  Cardinalate 
sprang  from  small  and  iilninst  luiunticed 
beginnings.  The  words  cardi/ialis,  eardi- 
nare,  incardinare,  are  found  in  ante-Xicene 
ecclesiastical  writers,  and  are  used  to 

j  designate  the  fixed  permanent  clergy  of 
any  church — those  who  were  so  built 
into  it  and  necessary  to  its  beiiig  that 
it  might  be  said  to  revolve  round  tliera 
as  a  door  round  its  hinge. ^  Thin'  are 
tlius  distinguished  from  those  bisliops,  or 
prii'sts,  or  dfaoons,  whose  coiinectimi  with 
a  eliurcliwiis  Innse  nr  tempnrary.  In  the 
lidiuan  Church  parish  churches  or  Titles 
seem  tn  have  been  first  instituted  in  tlie 

.  time  of  Pope  MarceHus  (.'iOl),  and  the 
priests  to  whose  chargi'  tliey  were  ])er- 
manently  committed  were  styled  cardinal 
priests.     The  deacons  of  the  Roman 

I  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  the  use  of 
this  metaphor  dates  from  the  remotest  antiquity. 
The  five  piinces  of  the  I'hilistines  were  called 
D'3^p,  literally  "axles"  or  "hinges"  of  the 
people.    See  Josue  xiii.  3  ;  Judges  iii.  3. 


130 


CARDIN.\L 


CARDINAL 


Church,  as  of  many  other  important 
Churches,  were  at  first  seven  in  number, 
in  imitation  of  the  original  Apostolic 
institution.  They  were  not  at  first  as- 
signed to  particular  districts ;  but  as  time 
went  on,  and  various  charitable  institu- 
tions for  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  poor, 
with  chapels  attached  to  them,  arose  here 
and  there  throughout  the  fourteen  "  re- 
gions "  into  which  the  city  was  divided 
under  Augustus,  each  deacon  came  to 
have  one  or  more  regions,  with  the  insti- 
tutions locally  contained  in  it,  assigned 
to  his  care ;  and  from  the  fixed  character 
of  their  charge,  they  were  called  cardinal 
demons.  For  a  long  time  there  was  no 
such  tiling  as  a  cardinal  bishop,  because 
the  Roman  Pontiff  himself  presided  in 
the  see  in  that  capacity.  But  there  were 
several  bishoprics  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  Rome — namely,  Portus  (at 
the  mouth  of  the  Tiber),  Ostia  (on  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  river),  Prjeneste,  Sabina, 
Tusculum,  Al))aiio,  and  St.  Rufina — the 
bishops  of  which  appear  from  very  early 
times  to  have  sat  in  synod  with  the  Bishop 
of  Rome  :  a  relation  which,  with  increas- 
ing exercise  and  deepening  comprehension 
of  the  Papal  prerogatives,  was  naturally 
developed  by  degrees  into  a  closer  con- 
nection. Histoi-y  does  not  enable  us  to 
describe  or  date  the  stages  of  this  change. 
In  the  eleventh  century  we  find  all  the 
abnve-iiiimed  sees  (reduced  now  to  six, 
for  St.  Rufina  had  been  united  to  Portus) 
incorporated  in  the  Roman  Church,  and 
their  occupants  holding  their  appoint- 
ments directly  and  solely  from  the  Pope. 
This  is  the  picture  which  we  derive 
from  the  writings  of  St.  Peter  Damian 
(d.  1071),  who  was  himself  Cardinal 
Bishop  of  Ostia.  The  council  held  at 
Rome  in  105i),  under  Nicholas  II.,  decreed 
that  Pojies  should  thenceforth  be  elected 
on  the  jiidfpncnt.  of  the  six  cardinal  bishops, 
with  till'  ansmt  of  the  Roman  clergy,  the 
ap])linisi'  of  the  people,  and  the  ratification 
of  tlie  Kniperor.  t)f  the  Roman  clergy, 
the  cardinal  priests  and  deacons  were  the 
most  ]iidniiiient  and  influential  portion. 
Hence  it  is  easy  to  niulerstand,  consider- 
ing till'  instability  of  ]io])ular  opinion, 
and  tlie  ti-ansitni'v  chai-acter  of  human 
sovereignty,  that  the  election  of  the  Pope 
gradually  came  to  be  vested  in  the  csir- 
dinals  exclusively,  who,  in  their  grades 
of  bisho]),  priest,  and  deacon,  represented 
the  ancient  "])rosbyterium  "  of  the  Roman 
Church  in  the  fullest  and  most  satisfac- 
tory manner. 

In  the  twelfth  century  the  number  of 


the  cardinal  bishops,  as  already  stated, 
was  six ;  that  of  the  cardinal  priests, 
twenty-eight;  and  about  this  time  the 
number  of  the  cardinal  deacons  was  raised 
from  seven  to  fourteen,  one  for  each 
region,  whence  they  were  called  "  region- 
ary  "  deacons.  The  dignity  of  their  office 
grew,  while  its  functions  either  dwindled 
or  were  otherwise  discharged  ;  and  in 
process  of  time  the  cardinal  deacons,  still 
deriving  their  titles  from  the  chapels 
formerly  attached  to  the  charitable  in- 
stitutions of  which  they  had  the  charge 
(St.  Hadrian,  St.  Theodore,  &c.),  ceased 
to  have  local  duties,  and,  like  the  cardinals 
of  higher  rank,  were  drawn  into  the 
august  circle  of  the  immediate  counsellors 
and  assistants  of  the  Roman  Pontifis.  In 
the  course  of  the  twelfth  century  their 
niunber  was  further  raised  to  eighteen, 

I  making  a  total  of  fifty-three  cardinals ; 

I  and  this  number  remained  fixed  for  a 
considerable  time.  Then  a  period  of 
fluctuation  ensued,  during  which  the 
Sacred  College  was  sometimes  reduced  to 
a  mere  handful  of  persons.  The  Council 
of  Basle  ordered  that  the  number  of 
cardinals  should  be  fixed  at  twenty-four  ; 
but  the  decree  was  not  ratified  by  the 

[  Pope,  and  no  attention  was  paid  to  it. 
Leo  X.  raised  the  number  to  sixty-five. 
The  final  regulation,  which  prevails  to 
this  day,  was  contained  in  the  constitution 
Fostquam  vetics  of  Sixtus  Y.,  published  in 
1586.  By  this  it  was  ordered  that  the 
number  of  cardinals  should  never  exceed 
seventy,  thus  composed :  six  of  episcopal 
rank,  holding  the  old  suburban  sees  before 
mentioned;  fifty  described  as  priests,  hold- 
ing a  corresponding  number  of  "  Titles " 
or  parishes  in  Rome;  and  fourteen  de- 
scribed as  deacons.   By  a  Constitution  of 

;  St.  Pius  V.  (15G7),  all  customs  or  privi- 
leges in  virtue  of  which  the  name  of 
Cardinal  had  been  assumed  by  the  clergy 
of  any  other  church  (e.g.  by  the  canons  of 
Compostella,  Milan,  &c.)  were  abrogated, 
and  it  was  forbidden  to  apply  it  in  future  to 
any  but  the  senators  of  the  Roman  Church. 

The  cardinals  owe  their  appointment 
solely  to  the  Pope.  They  have  for  many 
centuries  been  taken  in  part  from  all  the 
great  Christian  nations  of  Europe,  though 
the  number  of  Italian  cardinals  has  always 
preponderated.  Tlie  appointment  of  a 
future  cardinal  is  announced  by  the  Pope 
in  consistory,  but  tlie  name  is  reserved  in 
petto.  At  a  subsequent  consistory  it  is 
made  public.  The  actual  appointment,  in 
the  case  of  ecclesiastics  residing  in  Rome, 

I  proceeds  as  follows :  On  a  day  named, 


CARDINAL 


CARDINAL  VIRTUES  131 


the  candidate  goes  to  the  Papal  palace, 
and  receives  from  the  Pope  the  red  biretta; 
afterwards,  in  a  public  consistory,  at  the 
dose  of  an  imposing  ceremonial,  the  Pope 
places  upon  his  head  the  famous  red  hat. 
In  a  second  consistory  he  "closes  his 
mouth  "  {os  clfiud{t)—th&t  is,  forbids  him 
for  the  present  to  speak  at  meetings  of 
cardinals ;  in  a  third,  he  "  opens  his 
mouth" — that  is,  lie  removes  the  former 
prohibition,  giving  him  at  the  same  time 
a  ring,  and  assigning  to  him  his  "  Title." 
If  the  candidate  is  absent,  being  prevented 
by  just  cause  from  visiting  Rome  at  that 
time,  the  red  biretta  is  sent  to  him,  and 
on  receiving  it  he  is  bound  to  make  oath 
that  he  will  within  a  year  visit  the  tombs 
of  the  Apostles. 

The  duties  of  cardinals  are  of  two 
kinds — those  which  devolve  on  them  while 
the  Pope  is  living,  and  those  which  they 
have  to  discharge  when  the  Holy  See  is 
vacant.  As  to  the  first,  it  may  be  briefly 
said  that  they  consist  in  taking  an  active 
part  in  the  gnveriiment  of  the  universal 
Church;  for  although  the  Pope  is  in  no 
way  bound  to  defer  to  the  opinions  of  the 
Sacred  College,  in  practice  he  seldom,  if 
ever,  takes  an  imjiortant  step  without 
their  counsel  and  concurrence.  Such  a 
school  in  the  science  and  art  of  govern- 
ment in  all  its  forms  as  the  College  of 
Cardinals  exists  nowhere  else  in  the  world. 
They  are  brought  into  immediate  contact 
with  the  various  peculiarities  of  national 
character,  the  prejudices  and  cherished 
aims  of  dynasties,  the  conservatism  that 
with  more  or  less  intelliizeiice  supports, 
and  the  commiuiism  that  with  more  or 
less  wickedness  undermines,  the  fabric  of 
Christian  society.  In  consistory,  where 
the  cardinals  all  meet  in  a  kind  of  senate 
under  the  presidency  of  the  Pope,  and 
discuss  affairs  "exclusa  omni  forma  judi- 
ciali,"  the  powers  of  statement  and  reply 
are  cultivated ;  in  the  various  Congre- 
gations [see  CoNGREGATiox,  Roman],  they 
learn  to  manage  in  detail  the  vast  and 
comphcated  concerns  of  a  communion 
which  with  its  one  faith  and,  substan- 
tially, one  ritual,  is  found  congenial  to 
pver^-  people  and  at  home  in  every  climate. 
Hence  flow  that  largeness  of  temper,  that 
breadth  of  view,  that  readiness  to  drop 
the  accidental  if  only  the  essential  be 
maintained,  that  conciliatory  bearing,  and 
that  antique  courtesy,  by  which  the  finest 
specimens  of  cardinal  ambassadors  have 
always  been  distinguished.  History  can 
show  few  nobler  pictures  than  that  of 
Cardinal  Consalvi  confronting  the  force 


and  cunning  of  the  First  Napoleon  in  the 
zenith  of  his  power,  and  compelling  the 
drafting  of  the  Concordat  in  the  form 
that  the  Pope,  not  the  First  Consul, 
required. 

All  the  cardinals  now  take  precedence 
of  bishops,  archbishops,  and  even  patri- 
archs. This  was  not  so  formerly;  the 
change  was  gradually  introduced.  They 
have  many  other  privileges,  which  canon- 
ists— who  generally  hold  that  the  rank  of 
cardinal,  in  its  temporal  aspect,  is  equiva- 
lent to  that  of  a  reigning  prince — have 
elaborately  defined  in  their  treatises.  On 
their  seals  they  have  their  own  arms,  with 
the  red  hat  as  crest ;  the}'  are  styled 
EminetUiissimi  and  Beverendissimi. 

At  a  vacancy  of  the  Holy  See,  the 
duties  of  the  cardinals  become  confined  to 
protecting  the  Church  and  maintaining  all 
things  in  their  due  order,  till  a  Conclave 
can  be  assembled  for  the  election  of  a  new 
Pope.  [COITCLATII.] 

There  are  two  English  cardinals  at 
the  present  time — Herbert  Vaughan, 
Archbishop  of  Westminster,  and  Mi- 
chael Logue,  Archbishop  of  Armagh, 
Primate  of  all  Ireland.  The  present 
archbishops  of  Sydney,  Quebec,  and 
Baltimore,  are  also  cardinals.  James 
Gibbons,  Archbishop  of  Baltimore,  is 
the  only  American  cardinal. 

The  Sacred  College  numbers  at  pres- 
ent about  sixty-four  members. 

CABSIXTAX.  XECATE.  [See  LE- 
GATE.] 

CARDZXTAI.    PROTECTOS.  A 

member  of  the  Sacred  College,  belonging 
by  birth  to  one  of  the  more  considerable 
Catholic  nations,  who  has  received  the 
purple  partly  on  that  account.  His  local 
knowledge  of  his  own  people  and  their 
ways,  through  being  "to  the  manner 
bom,"  quahfy  him  to  be  a  trusted  referee 
when  any  questions  afl'ecting  the  interests 
j  of  the  nation  to  which  he  belongs,  or  of 
individuals  of  that  nation,  are  brought 
forward  at  Rome,  and  the  name  of  "Car- 
I  dinal  Protector"  has  hence  naturally  bet^n 
I  assigned  to  him.   A  remarkable  instance, 
illustrating   the   representative  weii;ht 
i  which  such  cardinals  often  enjoy  in  the 
j  Sacred  College,  was  that  of  the  French 
Cardinal  Maury,  described  by  Consalvi  in 
his  powerful  narrative  of  the  Conclave 
which  preceded  the  election  ot  Pius  VII. 
,  There  are  also  Cardinal  Protectors  of 

religious  orders,  of  colleges,  &c. 
I        CARSZIO'AX.  VZBTXrSS.     St.  Am- 
I  brose("In  Luc. ''cap.  vi.  1.  o)  issaid  tohave 
I  been  the  first  to  caJl  the  four  great  moral 
s.  2  ■ 


132    CARMELITES,  OEDER  OF 


CARMELITES,  ORDER  OF 


virtues  (prudence,  justice,  fortitude,  and 
temperance)  the cardinal "  virtues.  They 
are  so  named,  according  to  St.  Thomas, 
on  account  of  their  generality  and  import- 
ance. Prudence  enables  us  to  know  what 
to  desire  or  avoid  ;  justice  gives  everyone 
his  due;  fortitude  urges  us  on  when 
difficulty  stands  in  the  way  of  our  duty  ; 
temperance  restrains  us  when  passion 
excites  us  to  what  is  wrong.  All  the 
moral  virtues  may  be  reduced  to  one  or 
other  of  these  headings.  Thus  religion 
belongs  to  justice  because  it  gives  God 
His  due ;  chastity  comes  under  temper- 
ance because  it  puts  a  restraint  on  certain 
passions  [See  Viettte,  Justice,  Tempee- 
axceJ.  (St.  Thomas,  1»  2»,  qu.  Ixi.  for 
the  cardinal  virtues  generally  ;  and  2*  2% 
qq.  xlvii.-clxx.  for  the  treatment  of  them 
in  detail.) 

CAitnxz:i.zTES,  orber  of.  In 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  a  cru- 
sader named  Berthold  vowed  at  the  com- 
mencement of  a  battle  that  if  by  the 
mercy  of  God  his  side  was  victorious,  he 
would  embrace  the  religious  life.  The 
victory  was  won,  and  Berthold  became  a 
monk  in  Calabria.  Soon  after,  the  prophet 
Elias  is  said  to  have  appeared  to  him  and 
revealed  something  to  him  inconsequence 
■of  which  Berthold  left  Italy,  and  repair- 
ing to  Mount  Carmel  (1156) — that  moun- 
tain, so  conspicuous  and  so  beautiful, 
which  juts  out  into  the  sea  to  the  south 
of  Acre — took  up  his  abode  there.  Every- 
one knows  the  connection  of  Carmel  with 
some  of  the  leading  incidents  of  the  pro- 
l)het's  life  (3  Kings  xviii ;  4  Kings  iv). 
A  cavern  near  tlie  summit  was  then 
shown  as  the  habitation  of  Elias,  and  the 
ruins  of  a  spacious  monastery,  the  history 
of  which  is  iinknown,  covcnMl  the  ground. 
An  eyewitness,  John  I'hot-as,  who  visited 
the  holy  places  in  lis."),  thus  writes: — 
"Some  years  ago  a  white-liuii'ed  monk, 
who  was  also  a  priest,  came  from  Cala- 
bria, and  tbrongli  a  revelation  from  the 
prophet  Elias,  (established  himself  in  this 
place.  He  enclosed  a  small  portion  of 
the  ruins  of  the  monastery,  and  built  a 
tower  and  a  little  church,  assembling 
in  it  about  ten  brothers,  who,  with  liim, 
inhabit  at  present  this  holy  place."  Ber- 
thold, therefore,  may  in  one  sense  be  con- 
sidered as  the  founder  of  the  Carmelite 
order,  and  its  first  general.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  cannot  be  questioned  that  Ber- 
thold found  hermits  living  on  the  moun- 
tain when  he  arrived  there,  attracted  by 
the  peculiar  sanctity  which  the  residence 
of  the  great  prophet  had  conferred  on 


the  spot;  these  appear  to  have  joined 
him,  and  to  have  accepted  along  witri  him 
and  his  immediate  followers  the  rule 
which  was  framed  for  them  in  1209  by 
Albert,  patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  These 
hermits  may  have  had  a  long  line  of  pre- 
decessors, nor  is  there  any  historical  or 
moral  impossibility  in  the  assumption 
that  holy  men  had  lived  on  the  mountain 
without  interruption  since  the  days  of 
Elias,  although  positive  evidence  is  want- 
ing. This  belief  in  the  possible  succes- 
sion of  a  long  line  of  samtly  anchorites 
was  gradually  merged  in  the  fixed  per- 
suasion that  the  very  order  of  Our  Lady 
of  Mount  Carmel,  such  as  it  was  in  the 
thirteenth  and  following  centuries,  had 
existed  there  in  xmbroken  continuity, 
keeping  the  three  vows,  and  with  here- 
ditary succession,  from  the  time  of  Elias. 
It  was  in  this  extreme  form  that  the 
Carmelite  view  of  the  antiquity  of  their 
order  was  combated  in  the  seventeenth 
century  by  the  learned  Papebroke,  the 
BoUandist,  who  in  the  volumes  of  the 
"Acta  Sanctorum"  for  March  gave  Lives 
of  Berthold  and  Cyril,  in  which  it  was 
assumed  that  the  former  was  the  Ji'rsf, 
and  the  latter  the  third,  general  of  the 
order.  A  violent  controversy  arose ; 
several  Carmelite  writers  published  large 
treatises;  other  Jesiiits  came  to  the  assis- 
tance of  Papebroke ;  the  Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion was  induced  to  issue  a  decree  censur- 
ing the  published  volumes  of  the  "  Acta 
Sanctorum;"  and  Rome,  while  refusing 
to  adopt  or  ratify  this  censure,  thought  it 
expedient  to  impose  silence  on  the  dis- 
putants (16i)8). 

The  rule  given  to  the  order  by  the 
patriarch  Albert  was  in  sixteen  articles. 
It  forbade  the  possession  of  property; 
ordered  that  each  hermit  should  live  in  a 
cell  by  himself;  interdicted  meat  alto- 
gether; recommended  manual  labour  and 
silence;  and  imposed  a  strict  fast  from 
the  Exaltation  of  the  Cross  (Srpt.  14)  to 
Easter,  Sundays  being  excepted. 

The  progress  of  the  Mohammedan 
power  in  Palestine,  after  the  illusory 
treaty  entered  into  by  the  Emperor 
Frederic  II.  in  1229  with  the  Sultan 
Kameel,  made  it  more  and  more  difficidt 
for  Christians  to  live  there  in  peace;  and 
under  their  fifth  general,  Alan  of  Brit- 
tany, they  abandoned  Carmel  and  es- 
tablished themselves  in  Cyi)rus  (12."i8) 
and  other  places.  They  held  their  first 
chapter  at  Aylesford  in  Hampshire,  in 
;  1245,  and  elected  our  countryman,  St. 
j  Simon  Stock,  to  the  generalship.  Under 


CARMELITES,  ORDER  OF 


CARMELITES,  ORDER  OF  13S 


Lim  the  order  was  greatly  extended,  and 
entered  upon  a  flourishing  period.  To 
this  Saint  Our  Lady  is  said  to  have  shown 
the  Scapular  in  a  vision.  [See  Scapulae.] 
After  passing  into  Europe  they  found  it 
necessary  to  live  in  common,  and  no 
longer  as  hermits.  This,  with  other 
mitigations  of  the  primitive  rule,  was 
sanctioned  by  Innocent  IV.,  who  con- 
firmed them  in  1247  under  the  title  of 
Friars  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel. 
Their  habit  was  originally  striped,  but 
xiltimately  the  dress  by  which  they  are 
60  well  known,  the  brown  habit  with 
white  cloak  and  scapular,  was  adopted. 
They  were  recognised  as  one  of  the 
mendicant  orders ;  our  ancestors  knew 
them  as  "  the  \Miite  Friars."  Many  dis- 
tinguished men  and  eminent  ecclesiastics 
have  worn  their  habit.  In  our  own 
country  we  can  point  to  the  vast  and 
sohd  capacity  of  Thomas  of  Walden, 
confessor  to  Henry  V.,  and  one  of  the 
theologians  at  the  Council  of  Constance, 
who  in  a  work  of  profound  learning  and 
great  eloquence,  the  "  Doctrinale  Fidei," 
confuted  the  sophistries  advanced  by 
"Wyclif  against  the  faith  and  discipline  of 
the  Church. 

The  Papal  schism  led  to  much  confu- 
sion avA  relaxation  of  discipline,  a  portion 
of  the  order  siding  with  the  Avignon 
Pope  and  electing  a  different  general. 
England  remained  true  to  Urban  \T.  To 
put  an  end  to  the  dissimilarity  of  practice 
which  prevailed,  Eugenius  TV.  issued  a 
bull  in  14:31,  in  which  permission  was 
given  to  eat  meat  three  times  a  week, 
with  other  indulgences.  But  these  were 
not  accepted  in  all  the  convents.  Gradu- 
ally the  names  of  Observantines  and 
Conventuals  crept  in,  to  distinguish  tlie 
Carmelites  who  observed  the  rule  as 
ratified  by  Innocent  TV.  from  tliose  wlio 
accepted  the  mitigations  of  Eugenius. 
Special  congregations  aiming  at  a  strict 
observance  of  the  rule  arose  in  Italy  and 
France ;  among  these  was  the  congrega- 
tion of  Mantua,  founded  by  the  unliap])v 
Thomas  Connecte,  who  is  noticed  by 
Addison  in  the  "Spectator."  In  England 
at  the  time  of  the  dissolution  of  the 
monasteries,  the  Carmelites  were  in  a 
very  flourishing  condition.  Impartial 
witnesses  declare  that  in  no  country  of 
Europe  did  the  glory  of  their  institute 
shine  out  with  greater  lustre  than  in 
England.    They  had  fifty-two  houses.* 

1  Xamely  at — 

Appleby  Berwick 
Aylesford  Blakeney 


In  London  the  library  of  the  White 
Friars  was  the  best  to  be  found  in  the 
city ;  the  books  bestowed  on  it  by  Thomas 
Walden  alone  were  valued  at  two  thou- 
sand gold  pieces.  AH  these  were  de- 
stroyed or  dispersed  at  the  dissolution.' 

The  later  glories  of  the  order  belong 
chiefly  to  Spain,  and  are  due  to  the  heroic 
virtue  of  a  woman,  St.  Teresa.  Carme- 
lite nuns  had  first  been  instituted  by  John 
Soreth,  general  of  the  order  in.  the  fif- 
teenth century.  Relaxations  of  the  rule 
had  crept  into  their  convents  as  into  those 
i  of  the  friars.  St.  Teresa  lived  for  many 
!  years  in  the  convent  of  Avila,  which  was 
under  the  mitigated  observance.  Amidst 
j  great  obstacles,  and  in  the  teeth  of  much 
I  persecution,  she  carried  out  her  object  of 
[  introducing  a  reform  among  the  nuns  by 
returning  to  the  ancient  rigour  of  the 
rule.  She  thus  became  the  founder  of 
the  Discalced  Carmelite  nuns.  Nor  did 
her  zeal  stop  here,  but  extended  itself  to 
a  reformation  of  the  friars,  in  which 
also,  aided  by  the  counsel  of  St.  Peter  of 
Alcantara,  and  the  labours  and  sufferings 
of  St.  John  of  the  Cross,  who  joined  the 
new  order,  she  was  completely  successful. 
At  the  time  of  her  death,  in  1583,  she  had 
assisted  in  the  foundation  of  seventeen 
reformed  convents  for  women  and  fifteen 
for  men.  These  Discalced  Carmelites, 
whose  institute  rapidly  spread  to  all  the 
Catholic  countries  of  Europe,  and  to  the 
Spanish  colonies,  were  at  tirst  suliject  to 
the  government  of  the  unre formed  order; 
but  Clement  VIII.,  in  1593,  gave  them  a 
general  of  their  own.    Several  other  r&- 


Bolton  (York) 

Marlborough 

Boston 

Xewcastle 

Bristol 

Northallerton 

Burnham 

Northampton 

Cambridge 

Norwich 

Cardiff 

Nottingham 

Chester 

Oxford 

Coveiitrv 

Plymouth 

IViihi-li 

Pontpfrac*: 

Dunoaster 

R^ol  ni  .nd 

Uravton 

Ruthin 

Gloucester 

Sandwich 

Hitihin 

Scarborough 

Hulm   (near  Aln 

S-alp 

wick) 

Shenp 

Hull 

Shoreliam 

Ipswich 

Shreusiiury 

Leutoii  (Xotts) 

Stamford 

Lincoln 

Sutton  (York) 

London 

Taunton 

Lospnham 

Warwick 

Ludlow 

Winchester 

Lyme  Regis 

Yarmouth 

Lynn 

York 

Maldon 

'  Bibliotheca  OirmeUtana.  Orleans,  17.52. 


134 


CARXIV.VL 


OARTIIURTANS,  ORDER  OF 


forms  have  been  introduced  since  tliat  nt' 
St.  Teresa  in  various  countries,  whicli  we 
Lave  not  space  here  to  notice.  At  present, 
in  spite  of  the  devastation  wrought  durinfj 
the  revolutionary  epoch,  and  the  spirit  of 
\mbelief  which  engenders  and  is  encour- 
aged by  revolutions,  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  Carmelite  monasteries  still  exists. 
In  France,  though  they  were  swept  away 
at  the  first  revolution,  they  had  been 
re-introduced,  and  till  lately  possessed 
some  sixty  houses.  But  the  iniquitous 
decree  of  March  29,  1880,  issued  by  the 
Republican  Government  of  France,  has 
resulted  in  the  violent  seizure  of  all  the 
houses  of  men,  and  in  turning  the  friars 
adrift.  In  Spain,  we  believe,  they  are  at 
present  numerous. 

In  England  there  are  two  houses  of 
Discalced  Carmelite  friars  (at  Kensing- 
ton and  Wincanton),  and  six  nunneries 
—at  Fulham,  Notting  Hill,  Chichester, 
Wells,  Lanherne,  and  Darlington.  In 
Ireland  there  appear  to  be  seven  or  eight 
Carmelite  friaries,  calced  and  discalced 
(beginning  witli  the  well-known  convent 
in  Whitefriar  Street,  Dublin,  which  stands 
on  the  site  of  an  ancient  Carmelite  house 
founded  in  1274),  and  eight  or  nine 
nunneries.  (Il^lyot ;  "Bibliotheca  Car- 
melitana";  Tanner;  Dngdale.) 

CARXTZVAIL  (from  caro,  vale,  the 
time  when  we  are  about  to  say  farewell 
tf)  flesh-meat;  or  uhi  caro  valet — in  allu- 
sion to  the  indulgence  of  the  flesh  in  the 
days  whifli  jirecede  the  fast),  the  three 
da>  s  lirlorc  Lent,  though  the  name  some- 
times includt's  the  whole  period  between 
February  ;i,  the  feast  of  St.  Blasius,  and 
Ash-Wednesday.  The  Carnival  in  Catho- 
lic countries,  and  in  Rome  itself,  is  a 
special  season  for  feasting,  dancing,  mas- 
querading and  mirth  of  all  sorts.  In 
itself  this  custom  is  innocent,  although 
the  Church  from  Septnagesima  onwards 
assumes  the  garb  of  penance,  and  pro- 
pares  her  children,  by  the  saddened  tone 
of  her  office,  for  the  Lenten  season.  But 
the  pleasures  of  the  Carnival  easily  de- 
generate into  riot,  and  the  Church  there- 
fore specially  encourages  pious  exercises 
at  this  time.  In  15.56  the  Jesuits  at 
Macerati  introduced  the  custom  of  ex- 
posing the  Blessed  Sacrament  through 
the  Carnival.  This  devotion  spread 
through  the  Church,  and  Clement  XIII., 
in  1705,  granted  a  plenarj^  indulgence  on 
certain  conditions  to  those  who  take  part 
in  it. 

CARTHirSXANS,     ORDER  OF. 

The  founder  of  this  celebrated  order  was 


j  St.  Bruno,  in  the  eleventh  centuiy.  A 
well-known  story,  once  inserted  in  the 

I  Itonian  l>reviary,  ascribes  his  retirement 
from  the  world  to  the  marvellous  resusci- 
tation of  a  not  ed  Paris  doctor,  as  his  body 
was  being  carried  to  the  grave.  But  there 
is  no  contemporary  evidence  to  sustain 
the  story,  and  it  was,  probably  on  this 
account,  left  out  of  the  Breviary  by 
Urban  VIII.  Bruno  was  a  native  of 
Cologne,  and  gave  proof  of  more  than 
common  piety,  recollection,  and  mortifica- 
tion even  from  his  tender  years.  When 
he  was  grown  up,  he  was  at  first  entered 
among  the  clergy  of  St.  Cunibert's  at 
Cologne,  whence  he  passed  to  Rheims,  a 
city  then  celebrated  for  its  episcopal 
school.  Bruno  made  here  great  progress 
in  learning,  and  was  appointed  "  scholas- 
ticus"  (Fr.  Scoldtre);  many  of  the  leading 
men  of  the  age  were  his  pupils.  He  had 
much  to  suffer  from  the  conduct  of  the 
unworthy  Archbishop  of  Rheims,  Man- 
asses,  suspended  in  1077  ;  and  the  reso- 
lution to  quit  the  world  seems  to  have 
arisen  in  him  about  this  time,  and  grew 
in  strength  continually.  Leaving  Rheims, 
uncertain  in  what  way  God  willed  him  to 
carry  out  his  clearlv-seen  vocation,  he 
repaired  to  St.  Robert  of  Molesme,  the 
founder  of  the  Cistercian  order,  by  whom 
he  was  referred  to  St.  Hugh,  Bishop  of 
Grenoble.  With  six  companions,  Bruno 
presented  himself  to  the  bishop,  and 
opened  to  him  their  desire  to  found  an 
institute  in  which  the  glory  of  God  and 
the  good  of  man  should  be  sought  on  a 
foundation  of  rigorous  austerity  and  self- 

I  disci])llne.  The  ffood  liislio])  was  over- 
joyed at  serin-  th.-m  :  in  tlir.r  rr(|iie>t  he 
saw  the  lietiiiiniiiii-  of  llie  liiUihneiit  of  a 
wonileri'ul  (Irrani  which  he  had  had  the 
night  bcl'ori'.  Soon  afterwards  he  led 
them  to  the  desert  of  the  Chartreuse,  an 
upland  vallev  in  the  Aljis  to  the  north  of 
Grenoble,  more  than  l.dOO  fret  ;il,ove  the 
sea,  and  only  to  he  nMch.d  l,v  thi-.  nding 
a  gloomy  and  diilieult  ravine.  High 
crags  surround  the  valley  on  all  sides; 
the  soil  is  poor,  the  cold  extreme — snow 
lies  there  most  of  the  year-  and  the  air 
is  charged  with  fog.  riruim  ,icic]itf>d 
this  site  with  joy,  and  he  and  Ins  com- 
panions immediately  linilt  an  oratory 
there,  and  small  se]iara(c  cells,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  ancient  Jjanras  of  I'ah'stine. 
This  was  in  1080,  and  the  origin  of  the 
Carthusian  order,  which  takes  its  name 
from  Chartreuse,  is  dated  from  this 
foundation. 

St.  Bruno,  when  he  had  been  only  twn- 


CAKTIIUSIANS,  ORDER  OF         CARTHUSIANS,  ORDER  OF  135 


or  three  years  at  the  Chartreuse,  was  sum- 
moned to  Rome  by  an  imperative  man- 
date from  Urban  11.,  -who  had  been  his 
pupil.  With  grief  he  left  his  beloved 
companions,  the  most  prudent  and  de- 
voted of  whom,  Landwin,  he  appointed 
prior  in  his  room,  and,  recommending  the 
monastery  to  the  protection  of  the  Abbot 
of  Chaise  Dieu,  departed  for  Italy.  He 
was  never  able  to  return,  but  after  foimd- 
ing  convents  at  Squillace  and  La  Torre 
in  Calabria,  died  at  the  last-named  place 
in  1101.  The  celebrated  Abbot  of  Cluny, 
Peter  the  Venerable,  writing  about  forty 
years  after  St.  Bruno,  describes  in  few 
words  the  manner  of  life  which  the  saint 
instituted,  and  to  which  his  monks — the 
only  ancient  order  in  the  Church  which 
Las  never  been  reformed  and  never  needed 
refoi-m — have  always  faithfully  adhered. 
"  Their  dress,"  he  writes,  "  is  meaner  and 
poorer  than  that  of  other  monks ;  so  short 
and  scanty,  and  so  rough,  that  the  very 
sight  affrights  one.  They  wear  coarse 
hair-shirts  next  their  skin;  fast  almost 
perpetually ;  eat  only  bran  bread ;  never 
touch  flesh,  either  sick  or  well ;  never 
buy  fish,  but  eat  it  if  given  them  as  an 
alms :  eat  eggs  and  cheese  on  Sundays  j 
and  Thursdays  ;  on  Tuesdays  and  Satur- 
days their  fare  is  pulse  or  herbs  boiled  ; 
on  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays 
they  take  nothing  but  bread  and  water; 
and  they  have  only  one  meal  a  dav,  ex- 
cept within  the  octaves  of  Christmas,  ' 
Easter,  "\Miitsuntide,  Epiphany,  and  some 
other  festivals.  Their  constant  occupa-  | 
tion  is  praying,  reading,  and  manual 
labour,  which  consists  chiefly  in  tran- 
scribing books.  They  say  the  lesser  | 
hours  of  the  divine  oHice  in  their  cells  at 
the  time  when  the  bell  rings,  but  meet 
together  at  vespers  and  matins  with  won- 
derful recollection."  This  maimer  of  life 
they  seem  to  have  followed  for  some  time 
without  any  written  rule.  Guigo,  the 
fifth  prior  of  the  Chartreuse  (1^28),  made 
a  collection  of  their  customs;  and  in  later 
times  .several  other  compilations  of  their 
statutes  were  framed,  of  which  a  com- 
plete code  was  arranged  in  1581,  and  aj)- 
proved  of  by  Innocent  XI.  in  1688.  The 
glorious  difficulty  of  the  very  perfect  life 
aimed  at  by  the  Carthusians  is  recognised 
by  the  Church,  which  "allows  religious 
men  of  any  of  the  mendicant  orders  to 
exchange  their  order  for  that  of  the  Car- 
thusians, as  a  state  of  greater  austeritv 
and  perfection ;  but  no  one  can  pass  from 
the  Carthusians  to  any  other  order,  as 
Fagnanus,  the  learned  canonist,  proves  at 


I  large."  '  The  name  of  Chartreuse  was 
given  to  each  of  their  monasteries ;  this 
was  corrupted  in  England  into  Charter- 
house. Among  their  original  customs 
was  that  of  taking  a  walk,  which  they 
called  gpatianient  (from  the  Latin  spn- 
tiari),  within  the  bounds  of  their  desert; 
and  to  this  day  the  monk  of  the  Grande 
Chartreuse  takes  his  daily  "  spaciment." 
The  ordinary  dress  is  entirely  white  ;  but 
outside  the  boundaries  of  his  monastery 
the  Carthusian  wears  a  long  black  cloak 
and  bood.  In  1391  Boniface  IX.  formally 
renewed  the  exemption  of  the  order  from 
episcopal  control ;  and  in  1508  Julius  II. 
ordained  that  their  monasteries  in  eveiy 
part  of  the  world  should  obey  the  prior 
of  the  Grande  Chartreuse  and  the  chapter 
general  of  the  order. 

Among  the  distinguished  men  who 
have  borne  the  Carthusian  habit  are 
St.  iriit:li,  Bishop  of  Lincoln;  Cardinal 
d'AllitTuuti ;  the  learufd  and  holv  Denis 
Puck.-l.  commonly  called  Denis  th..  Car- 
thusian :  and  Wuit.  r  Hilton  (148;:?),  whose 
"  Ladd.T  of  Perfection."  a  work  of  mysti- 
cal theology,  was  published  by  Abraham 
AVoodhcad  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  Chartreuses  or  Charterhouses  in 
England  at  the  time  of  the  dissolution 
were  nine  in  number.-  A  large  proportion 
of  the  monks  and  friars  then  in  England, 
like  the  secular  cleriiy,  accepted,  in  words 
at  any  rate,  the  new  doctrine  of  the  royal 
su])remacy ;  but  the  Carthusians  stood 
firm.  Even  Mr.  Froude,  the  thorough- 
going apologist  of  Tudor  tyranny,  ac- 
knowledges that  the  Londi  ui  Carthusians 
met  death  like  heroes.  Ilaughton,  their 
prior,  and  several  of  the  monks,  were 
hanged  in  15.v5;  one.  Maurice  Chauncey, 
accepting  the  supremacy,  was  allowed  to 
leave  England,  but  bitterly  re]iente,l  liis 
weakness,  was  reconciled  to  the  Church, 
and  wrote  an  interesting  and  touching 
narrative  of  the  whole  tragedy.  The  re- 
maining eight  monks  of  the  London  house 
])(>rished  of  jail-fever,  fold  air,  and  starva- 
tion, after  being  ini])risoned  some  months 
in  Newgate,  The  Carthusians  of  Skene, 
in  Surrey,  fifteen  in  number,  withdrew  to 
Flanders  on  the  death  of  Queen  ^laiy, 
aiul  abode  in  various  places  ;  at  the  time 
when  Alban  Butler  wrote  they  were 
'  Alb.-m  Butler,  Life  of  St.  Bruno,  Oct.  6. 
-  Namely  at — 
Be.auvale "  ( Notts)  Mount  Grace  (  York.), 
Coventry  Sliene 
Epwortii  (Line.)  \Vitham  ( Line.)  ; 
Hinton  (^Sorn.)  ami  two  cells,  at 

Hull  Mendip  (So.ii.) 

London  Shapwick  (Dors.> 


136 


CASSOCK 


CATACOMBS 


settled  at  Nieuport,  and  were,  ■with  the 
Brigittine  nuns  of  Sion  [Bkigittines], 
"the  only  two  English  orders  which 
were  never  dispersed." 

'WTien  H^lyot  -wrote,  early  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  there  were  172  Car- 
thusian houses  altogether,  of  which  five 
were  nunneries;  about  seventy-five  out 
of  the  whole  number  were  in  France. 
These  were  all  swept  away  at  the  Revo- 
lution. The  Jacobin  government  tried  to 
sell  the  Grande  Chartreuse,  but  no  one 
would  bid  for  it,  on  account  of  the  poverty 
of  the  soil.  After  the  Restoration  some 
of  the  monks  returning  from  abroad  were 
allowed  to  reoccupy  it ;  amongst  these 
was  the  general,  Dom  ^loissonuier,  who, 
like  another  Simeon,  died  in  peace  eleven 
days  after  his  re-entry  into  the  beloved 
solitude.  For  a  long  time  the  monks 
were  very  poor,  having  to  pay  rent  for 
their  own  barren  lands  to  the  goverimient ; 
but  since  they  invented  the  famous  liqueur 
named  after  the  monastery,  the  revenue 
from  the  sale  of  which  is  considerable, 
they  have  been  fairly  Avell  oft".  In  1&70 
they  numbered  about  forty,  with  twenty 
lay  brothers,  and  sixty  servants. 

In  England,  a  large  Carthusian  mon- 
astery has  been  founded  among  the  Sus- 
sex hills,  near  Steyning.  (H^lyot ;  Alban 
Butler,  Oct.  6;  Tanner's  "Notitia.") 

CASSOCK  {ve-stis  talaris,  toya  sub- 
tanea,  soutarie).  A  close-fitting  ganuent 
reaching  to  the  heels  (usque  ad  talos), 
which  is  the  distinctive  dress  of  clerics. 
The  cassock  of  sinijilo  priests  is  black; 
that  of  bishops  and  (jtln-r  ])relates,  purj)le  ; 
that  of  cardinals,  red  ;  tliut  nf  the  Pope, 
white.  Originally  the  cassoclc  was  the 
(irdinary  dress  common  to  laymen  ;  its 
use  was  continued  by  the  clergy  -while 
lay  people,  after  the  immigration  of  the 
I^I^orthern  nations,  began  to  wear  shorter 
clothes,  and  thus  it  became  associated 
with  the  ecclesiastical  state.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  De  Reform,  cap.  6,  requires 
all  clerics,  if  in  sacred  orders,  or  if  they 
hold  a  benefice,  to  wear  the  clerical  dress ; 
although  in  Protestant  countries  clerics 
are  e.xcused  from  doing  so  in  public,  on 
account  of  the  inconveniences  likely  to 
arise. 

CASVXSTRY.  The  science  which 
deals  with  cases  of  conscience.  [See 
MoEAL  Theology.] 

CASUS.  A  name  given  to  real  or 
imaginary  cases  in  canon  law,  moral  the- 
ology, or  ritual,  collected  together  in 
order  to  illustrate  difficult  points  in  these 
branches  of  learning.    Such  a  collection 


of  cases  to  illustrate  the  "  Decretum  of 
Gratian"  was  made  about  1200  by 
Benincasa  Senensis ;  about  1245  Bernard 
of  Bologna,  afterwards  Archdeacon  of 
Compostella,  made  a  similar  collection 
to  aid  in  the  study  of  Gregory  IX.'s  De- 
cretals. Since  that  time,  collections  of 
this  kind  without  number,  in  all  these 
three  branches  of  learning,  have  appeared. 
At  conferences  of  the  clergy,  "  cases of 
this  kind  are  generally  discussed. 

CAS1TS  RESERVATZ.  [See  RE- 
SERVED Cases.] 

CATACOMBS.  A  sketch  of  the 
present  state  of  knowledge  about  the 
Roman  Catacombs,  considering  the  high 
religious  interest  of  the  subject,  may 
fairly  be  expected  in  a  work  like  the  pre- 
sent. We  shall  briefly  describe  their 
position,  explain  their  origin,  and  trace 
their  history ;  then,  after  describing  the 
catacomb  of  San  Calhsto,  as  a  model  of 
the  rest,  we  shall  show,  so  far  as  our 
limits  will  allow,  what  a  powerful  light 
the  monuments  of  the  catacombs  supply 
in  illustration  of  the  life,  and  in  evidence 
of  the  faith,  of  Christians  in  the  primi- 
tive ages. 

The  word  "  catacomb  "  had  originally 
no  such  connotation  as  is  now  attached 
to  it ;  the  earUest  form,  catacumbce  (xara, 
and  Kvfxfir),  a  hollow) — probably  suggested 
by  the  natural  configuration  of  the  ground 
— was  the  name  given  to  the  district 
round  the  tomb  of  Caecilia  Metella  and 
the  Circus  Romuh  on  the  Ap])ian  Way. 
All  through  the  middle  ages  "  ad  cata- 
cumbas  "  meant  the  subterranean  ceme- 
tery adjacent  to  the  far-famed  basiUca  of 
St.  Sebastian,  in  the  region  al)ove-men- 
tioned ;  afterwards,  the  signification  of 
the  term  was  gradually  extended,  and 
applied  to  all  the  ancient  midergi-ound 
cemeteries  near  Rome,  and  even  to  similar 
cemeteries  in  other  places,  at  Paris,  for 
instance.  The  bodies  of  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul  were  believed  to  have  rested 
here  nearly  from  the  date  of  their  martyr- 
dom to  the  time  of  Pope  C'U-nelius,  who 
translated  them  to  where  they  are  now 
(Bed.  "De  Sex  .Et.  Mundi : "  "corpora 
apostolorum  de  catacumbis  levavit  noctu"); 
it  was  therefore  most  natural,  apart  from 
the  sacred  associations  which  the  memor- 
ials of  other  martyrs  aroused,  that  for 
this  reason  alone  pilgrims  should  eagerly 
visit  this  cemetery. 

I.  Some  twenty-five  Christian  ceme- 
teries are  known,  and  have  been  more  or 
less  carefully  examined  :  but  there  are 
many  others,  which,  either  from  their 


CATACOMBS 


CATACOMBS 


137 


Laving  fallen  into  ruin,  or  being  blocked 
up  with  earth  and  rubbish,  remain  unex- 
plored. Those  that  are  kno-svn  and  acces- 
sible are  found  on  every  side  of  Rome, 
but  they  are  clustered  most  thickly  at  tlie 
south-east  comer  of  the  city,  near  the 
Via  Appia  and  the  Via  Ardeatina.  The 
most  noteworthy  of  all,  the  cemetery  of 
San  CaUisto,  is  close  to  the  Appian  Way  ; 
near  it  are  those  of  St.  Praetextatus,  St. 
Sebastian,  and  St.  Soteris.  Passing  on 
round  the  city  by  the  east  and  north,  we 
find  the  cemetery  of  Santi  Quattro,  near 
tlie  Via  Appia  Nova,  that  of  St.  Ciriaca 
on  the  road  to  Tivoh,  the  extremely  in- 
teresting catacomb  of  St.  Agnes  on  the 
Via  Nomentana,and  that  of  St.  Alexander, 
farther  out  from  Rome  on  the  same  road. 
Next  comes  the  cemetery  of  St.  Priscilla, 
on  the  Via  Salaria.  Continuing  on,  past 
the  Villa  Borghese,  we  come  upon  the 
valley  of  the  Tiber,  beyond  which,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river,  we  find  in  succes- 
sion the  cemeteries  of  Calepodius  and 
Generosa.  Crossing  again  to  the  left 
bank,  we  come  upon  the  cemetery  of  St. 
Lucina  on  the  Via  Ostiensis,  that  of  SS. 
Nereoed  Achilleo  (known  also  by  the  name 
of  S.  Domitilla)  on  the  Via  Ardeatina, 
and,  finally,  that  of  St.  Balbina  between 
the  last-named  road  and  the  Appian  Way. 

II.  The  origin  of  the  catacombs  is 
now  thoroughly  understood.    It  was  long 
believed  that  they  were  originally  mere 
sand-pits,  arenaria,  out  of  which  sand  was 
dug  for  building  puiijoses,  and  to  which  | 
the  Christians  resorted,  partly  for  the  sake  j 
of  concealment,  partly  becaiise  the  soft-  | 
ness  of  the  material  lent  itself  to  any  sort  [ 
of  excavation.     This  was  the  view  of 
Baronius  and  of  scholars  in  general  down  j 
to  the  present  century,  when  the  learned  : 
Jesuit,  F.  Marchi,  took  the  subject  in  | 
hand.    He  made  personal  researches  in 
the  catacomb  of  St.  Agnes,  and  gradually 
the  true  origin  and  mode  of  construction 
of  these  cemeteries  broke  upon  his  mind. 
His  more celebrat(^dpupi],  the  Commenda- 
tore  de  Rossi,  aided  l)y  his  brothers,  con- 
tinued his  explorations,  and  has  given  to 
the  woi-ld  a  colossal  work  on  the  Roman 
Catacombs,  which  Dr.  Northcote  and  Mr. 
Brownlow  made  the  foundation  of  their 
interesting  book,  "  Roma  Sotterranea." 
Padre  Marchi  drew  attention  to  the  fact 
that  among  the  volcanic  strata  of  the 
Roman  Campagna,  three   deposits  are 
especially  noticeable — a   hard  building 
stone,  called  the  tufa  litoide;  a  soft  stone, 
t\i&  tufa  granolare-.  and  a  sandstone  of 
scarcely  any  coherency,  called  pozzolana. 


The  sandpits,  arenarice,  of  course  occur 
in  beds  of  this  pozzolana ;  and  if  they  had 
been  the  origin  of  the  catacombs,  the 
latter  would  have  been  wholly  or  chiefly 
excavated  in  the  same  beds.  But  in 
point  of  fact  the  catacombs  are  almost 
entirely  foxmd  in  the  tufa  granolare, 
which  exactly  suited  the  purposes  which 
the  early  Christians  had  in  view.  In  the 
first  place,  they  were  obliged  by  the  im- 
perial laws  to  bury  their  dead  outside  the 
walls  of  the  city.  Secondly,  they  natur- 
ally would  not  place  the  cemeteries  at  a 
greater  distance  than  they  could  help; 
and  in  fact  all  the  catacombs  above  named, 
except  that  of  St.  Alexander,  are  within 
two  miles  and  a  half  of  the  city  walls.' 
Thirdly,  the  tufa  granolare,  being  softer 
than  the  tufa  litoide,  the  necessary  gal- 
leries, chambers,  and  loculi  (receptacles 
for  the  dead)  could  more  easily  be  worked 
in  it,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  was 
sufiiciently  coherent  to  allow  of  its  being 
excavated  freely  without  danger  of  the 
roof  and  sides  of  the  excavations  falHng 
in  or  crumbling  away.  The  pozzolana 
was  softer,  but  from  its  crumbling  nature 
narrow  galleries  could  not  be  run  in  it, 
nor  loculi  hollowed  out,  without  the  em- 
ployment of  a  great  deal  of  masonry  for 
the  sake  of  security,  as  may  be  seen  in 
the  two  or  three  instances  of  arenarice 
turned  into  catacombs  which  do  exist ; 
thus  greater  expense  and  trouble  would 
arise  in  the  end  from  resorting  to  it  than 
from  excavating  in  the  tufa  granolare. 

If  it  be  asked  why  the  Roman  Chris- 
tians did  not  bury  their  dead  in  open-air 
cemeteries,  the  answer  is  twofold.  In 
the  first  place,  the  Church  grew  up  amid 
persecution,  and  the  Christians  naturally 
strove  to  screen  themselves  and  their 
doings  from  public  observation  as  much 
as  possible,  in  the  burial  of  their  dead  as 
in  other  matters.  The  sepulchral  inscrip- 
tions and  decorations  which  they  could 
safely  afiix  to  the  graves  of  their  beloved 
ones  in  the  subterranean  gloom  of  the 
catacombs,  could  not  with  common  pru- 
dence have  been  employed  on  tombs  ex- 
posed to  public  view.  In  the  second 
place,  the  needs  of  prayer  and  the  duty 
of  public  worship  were  in  this  manner 
reconciled  with  the  duty  of  sepulture  to 
an  extent  not  otherwise,  under  their  cir- 
cumstances, attainable.  The  relatives 
might  pray  at  the  tomb  of  a  departed 
kinsman;  the  faithful  gather  round  the 
"memory"  of  a  martyr;  the  Christian 
mysteries  might  be  celebrated  in  subter- 
>  The  walls  of  Aurelian. 


138  CATACOMBS 


CATACOIMBS 


ranean  chapels,  and  on  altars  hewn  out 
of  the  rock,  -with  a  convenience,  secrecy, 
and  safety,  which,  if  the  ordinary  mode 
of  burial  had  been  followed,  could  not 
have  been  secured.  Nor  was  the  practice 
a  novelty  when  the  Christians  resorted 
to  it.  Even  Pagan  underground  tombs 
existed,  though  the  general  custom  of 
burning  the  dead,  which  prevailed  under 
the  emperors  before  Constantine,  caused 
them  to  be  of  rare  occurrence ;  but  the 
Jewish  cemeteries,  used  under  the  pres- 
sure of  motives  very  similar  to  those 
which  acted  upon  the  Christians,  had 
long  been  in  operation,  and  are  in  part 
distinguishable  to  this  day. 

The  modus  operandi  appears  to  have 
been  as  follows.  In  ground  near  the  city, 
obtained  by  purchase  or  else  the  property 
of  some  rich  Christian,  an  area,  or  ceme- 
tery "  lot,"  was  marked  out,  varying  in 
extent  but  commonly  having  not  less 
than  a  frontage  of  a  hundred  and  a  depth 
of  two  hundred  feet.  At  one  corner  of 
this  area  an  excavation  was  made  and  a 
staircase  constructed ;  then  narrow  gal- 
leries, usually  a  little  more  than  two  feet 
in  width,  with  roof  flat  or  slightly  arched, 
were  carried  round  the  whole  space, 
leaving  enough  of  the  solid  rock  on  either 
side  to  admit  of  oblong  niches  {loculi) — 
large  enough  to  hold  from  one  to  three 
bodies,  at  varying  distances,  both  verti- 
cally and  laterally,  according  to  the  local 
strength  of  the  material — being  excavated 
in  the  walls.  After  burial,  the  loculiis 
was  hermetically  sealed  by  a  slab  set  in 
mortar,  so  that  the  proximity  of  the  dead 
body  might  not  aftect  the  purity  of  the 
air  in  the  catacomb.  Besides  these  loculi 
in  the  walls,  cubicula,  or  chambers,  like 
our  family  vaults,  were  excavated  in 
great  numbers ;  these  were  entered  by 
doors  from  the  galleries,  and  had  locidi 
in  their  walls  like  the  galleries  themselves. 
There  were  also  arcosolia — when  above 
the  upper  surfare  of  a  loculus  containing 
the  body  <il'  a  martyr  or  confessor,  the 
rock  was  i  \(  a\ .iI.mI,  so  as  to  leave  an 
arched  vault  aliiivc,  and  a  flat  surface 
beneath  on  wliich  the  Eucharist  could  be 
celebrated — and  "  table-tombs,"  similar 
in  all  respects  to  the  arcosolia  except  that 
the  excavation  was  quadrangular  instead 
of  being  arched.  Openings  were  fre- 
quently made  between  two  or  more  ad- 
ioining  ru/iir/i/a,  so  as  to  allow,  while  the 
l)ivine  M\>ti  lii  s  am  tc  being  celebrated 
at  an  arcosolimii  in  one  of  them,  of  a 
considei-able  number  of  worshippers  being 
present.    When  the  walls  of  the  cir- 


cumambient galleries  were  filled  with 
the  dead,  cross  galleries  were  made, 
traversing  the  area  at  such  distances  from 
each  other  as  the  strength  of  the  stone 
permitted,  the  walls  of  which  were 
pierced  with  niches  as  before.  But  this 
additional  space  also  became  filled  up, 
and  then  the  fossors  were  set  to  work  to 
burrow  deeper  in  the  rock,  and  a  new 
series  of  galleries  and  chambers,  forming 
a  second  underground  story  or  piano, 
was  constructed  beneath  the  first.  Two, 
three,  or  even  four  such  additional 
stories  have  been  found  in  a  cemetery. 
Another  way  of  obtaining  more  space 
was  by  lowering  the  floor  of  the  galleries, 
and  piercing  with  niches  the  new  wail- 
surface  thus  supplied.  It  is  obvious  that 
expedients  like  these  could  only  be  adop- 
ted in  dry  and  deeply-drained  ground, 
and  accordingly  we  always  find  that  it  is 
the  hills  near  Rome  in  which  the  ceme- 
i  teries  were  excavated — the  valleys  were 
useless  for  the  purpose  ;  hence,  contrary 
to  what  was  once  believed,  no  system  of 
general  communication  between  the  dif- 
ferent catacombs  ever  existed.  Such  com- 
munication, however,  was  often  efi"ected, 
when  two  or  more  cemeteries  lay  con- 
tiguous to  each  other  on  the  same  hill, 
and  all  kinds  of  structural  comphcations 
were  the  result ;  see  the  detailed  account 
in  "Roma  Sotten-anea"  of  the  gTowth 
and  gradual  transformation  of  the  ceme- 
tery of  San  Callisto. 

III.  With  regard  to  the  history  of 
the  catacombs,  a  few  leading  facts  are  all 
that  can  here  be  given.  In  the  first  two 
centuries,  the  use  of  the  catacombs  by  the 
Christians  was  little  interfered  with ; 
they  filled  up  the  area  with  dead,  and 
decorated  the  undergTOund  chambers  with 
painting  and  sculpture,  much  as  their 
means  and  taste  suggested.  In  the  third 
century  persecution  became  fierce,  and 
the  Christians  were  attacked  in  the  cata- 
combs. Staircases  were  then  destroyed, 
passages  blocked  up,  and  new  modes  of 
ingress  and  egress  devised,  so  as  to  defeat 
as  much  as  possible  the  myrmidons  of  the 
law ;  and  the  changes  thus  made  can  in 
many  cases  be  still  recognised  and  under- 
stood. On  the  cessation  of  persecution, 
after  A.D.  300,  the  catacombs,  in  which 
many  martyrs  had  perished,  became  a 
place  of  pilgrimage  ;  immense  numbers  of 
persons  crowded  into  them  ;  and  diflerent 
Popes — particularly  St.  Damasus,  early 
in  the  fifth  century — caused  old  staircases 
to  be  enlarged,  and  new  ones  to  be  made, 
and  luminaria  (openings  for  admitting 


CATACOMBS 


CATACOMBS  139 


light  and  air)  to  be  broken  through  from 
the  cuhicula  to  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
in  order  to  give  more  accommodation  to 
the  pious  throng.  These  changes  also  can 
be  recognised.  Burial  in  the  catacombs 
naturally  did  not  long  survive  the  con- 
cession of  entire  freedom  and  peace  to  the 
Church ;  but  still  they  were  looked  upon 
as  holy  places  consecrated  by  the  blood 
of  martyrs,  and  as  such  were  visited  by 
innumerable  pilgrims.  In  the  seventh 
and  eighth  centuries  Lombard  invaders 
desecrated,  plundered  and  in  part  de- 
stroyed the  catacombs.  This  led  to  a 
period  of  translations,  commencing  in 
the  eighth  century  and  culminating  with 
Pope  Paschal  (a.d.  817),  by  which  all  the 
relics  of  the  Popes  and  principal  martyrs 
and  confessors  which  had  hitherto  lain  in 
the  catacombs  were  removed  for  greater 
safety  to  the  churches  of  Rome.  After 
that,  the  catacombs  were  abandoned,  and 
in  great  part  closed ;  and  not  till  the  six- 
teenth century  did  the  interest  in  them 
revive.  The  names  of  Onufrio  Panvini, 
Bosio,  and  Boldetti  are  noted  in  connec- 
tion with  the  renewed  investigations  of 
which  they  were  the  object  :  and  since 
the  appearance  of  the  -work  of  the  Padre 
March!  already  mentioned,  the  interest 
awakened  in  all  Christian  countries  by 
the  remarkable  discoveries  announced  has 
never  for  a  moment  waned. 

IV.  Having  tlius  atteni])ted  to  sketch 
the  origin  and  trace  the  history  of  the 
catacombs,  we  proceed  to  describe  what 
may  now  be  seen  in  tlie  most  important 
portion  of  the  best  known  among  them  all 
—the  eemet.'rv  of  Smii  (  "nlli^to.  Ent,.rino- 
it  from  a  viiie\;ii-.l  n.^arih,-  Ajipiaii  Wav, 
the  visitor  ,lr-.,-,  n,K  a  ln'oa,!  tlitiiit  of  >tri,.. 
fashioned  l)y  Pojjo  Damasus  from  the 
motive  above  mentioned,  and  finds  him- 
self in  a  kind  of  vestiliule,  on  the  stuccoed 
walls  of  which,  honey-combed  with  loculi,  j 
are  a  quantity  of  rude  inscriptions  in 
Greek  and  Latin,  some  of  which  are  thir- 
teen and  fourteen  centuries  old,  scratched  , 
by  the  pilgrims  who  visited  out  of  devo-  i 
tion  the  places  where  Popes  and  Martyrs 
who  had  fought  a  good  figlit  for  Christ, 
and  often  their  <nvu  kinsfolk  and  friends, 
lay  in  the  peaceful  gloom,  awaiting  the 
resurrection.  By  following  a  narrow 
gallery  to  the  right,  a  chamber  is  reached 
which  is  called  the  Papal  Crypt ;  for  here 
beyond  all  doubt  the  bodies  of  many  Popes 
of  the  third  century,  after  Zephyrinus 
(2()-'i-217)  had  secured  this  cemetery  for 
the  use  of  the  Christians  and  committed 
it  to  the  care  of  his  deacon  Callistus,  were 


I  laid,  and  here  they  remained  till  they 
were  removed  by  Paschal  to  the  Vatican 
crypts.  This  is  proved  by  the  recent  dis- 
covery, in  and  near  the  Pa])al  Cry])t,  of 
'  the  slabs  bearing  the  original  inscrij)!  ions 
in  memory  of  the  Pop(>s  Eutvchian, 
Anteros,  Fabian,  and  Ltieius.  .V  ])as-iaire 
leads  out  of  the  cr^^t  into  the  cuhieiilmn 
of  St.  Crecilia,  where,  as  De  Kossi  lias 
almost  demonstrated,  the  l)ody  of  the 
saint,  martyred  in  the  first  half  of  tlie 
third  century,  was  originally  de])osited  by 
Pope  Urban,  though  it  was  afterwards 
removed  by  Paschal  to  her  church  in  the 
Trastevere,  where  it  now  lies  under  the 
high-altar.  In  this  cuhiculum  are  paint- 
ings of  St.  Caecilia  and  of  Our  Lord,  the 
latter  "according  to  the  Byzantine  ty])e, 
with  rays  of  glory  behind  it  in  the  form  of 
a  Greek  cross."  But  these  paintings  are 
late — not  earlier  than  the  tenth  century. 
Besides  the  Papal  Cr\-ptand  the  chamber 
of  St.  CiBcilia,  there  are  in  this  part  of 
the  cemetery  "  several  cuhicula  interesting 
for  their  paintings,  chiefly  referable  to 
Baptism  and  the  Eucharist,  the  fish  being 
the  principal  emblem  of  the  latter.  In 
one  of  these  crypts  is  a  painting  of  four 
male  figures  with  uplifted  hands,  each 
with  his  name,  placed  over  an  arcosoUum; 
in  another  are  representations  of  peacocks, 
the  emblem  of  immortality;  i)i  a  third, 
Moses  striking  the  rock,  and  ascending  to 
the  mount  ;  in  a  fourth,  a  grave-diggnr 
(  fossor)  sun-onnded  with  the  implements 
of  his  trade  :  in  a  fifth,  the  Good  Shep- 
herd, with  the  miracle  of  the  paralytic 
taking  up  bis  bed ;  in  a  sixth,  a  banquet 
of  seven  persons.  su])posedtobe  the  seven 
(lisei])les  alhuleil  to  in  the  twenty-first 
fha])tpr  of  .St.  .John's  Gospel.  These 
paintings,  as  well  as  the  greater  part  of 
the  catacomb,  are  referred  to  the  last  halt 
of  the  third  centurv."' 

V.  For  a  detailed  answer,  accompanied 
with  ])roofs,  to  tlie  (|nrsrion.  ^vhat  testi- 
mony tlie  cataeomlis  bi-arto  the  nature  of 
the  relii-ious  belief  and  life  of  tlie  narly 
Christiaiis,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
pages  of  "  Roma  Sotterranea,"  or  to  the 
larger  work  of  De  Rossi.  He  will  there 
find  sutlii  ient  evidence  tocom  lnee  him  of 
the  truth  of  two  main  pro]iositions — 
(1)  that  the  religion  of  those  Christians 
was  a  sacramental  religion;  (2)  that  it 
was  the  reverse  of  puritanical :  that  is, 
that  it  disdained  the  use  of  no  external 
helps  which  human  art  and  skill  could 
furnish,  in  the  effort  to  symbolise  and  eu- 
'  Murray's  Handtiook  of  Rome  and  itt 
Environs. 


140  CAT.IFALQUE 


CATECHISM 


force  spiritual  truth.  With  reference  to 
the  first  proposition,  let  him  consider  how 
the  sacrament  of  Baptism  is  tj'picaUy  re- 
presented in  the  catacombs  by  paintings 
of  Noe  in  the  ark,  the  rock  smitten  and 
water  gushing  forth,  a  fisherman  drawing 
fish  out  of  the  water  accompanied  by  a 
man  baptising,  and  the  paralytic  carrying 
his  bed  ("Roma  Sotterranea,"  p.  265); 
and  also  how  the  mystery  of  the  Eucharist 
is  still  more  frequently  and  strikingly 
pf)rtrayed  by  pictures  in  which  baskets  of 
bread  are  associated  with  fish,  the  fish 
being  the  well-known  emblem  of  Our 
Lord.i  The  second  proposition  is  so 
abundantly  proved  by  the  remains  of 
Christian  art  of  very  ancient  date  still  to 
be  seen  in  the  catacombs,  in  spite  of  the 
havoc  and  ruin  of  fifteen  centuries,  that 
it  would  be  a  waste  of  words  to  attempt 
to  establish  it  at  length.  Adopting  the 
general  forms  and  methods  of  the  con- 
temporary Pagan  art,  but  carefully 
eliminating  whatever  in  it  was  immoral 
or  superstitious,  we  find  the  Christian 
artists  employing  Biblical  or  symbohcal 
subjects  as  the  principal  figures  in  each 
composition,  while  filUng  hi  their  pictures 
witli  decorative  forms  and  objects— such 
as  faljulous  animals,  scroll-work,  foliage, 
fruit,  dowers,  and  l)irds — imitated  from 
or  suggested  by  the  pre-existing  heathen 
art.  A  type  for  which  they  had  a 
peculiar  fondness  was  that  of  the  Good 
Shepherd.  The  Blessed  Virgin  inid  ( 'hil.I, 
with  a  figure  standing  near  su]j]i(iseil 
to  he  Isiiias,  is  represented  in  an  ex- 
ceedingly beautiful  but  much  injured 
painthig  on  the  vaulted  roof  of  a  locidus 
in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Priscilla.  De 
Rossi  beheves  this  painting  "  to  belong 
almost  to  the  apostolic  age "  ("  Roma 
Sotterranea,"  ]).  258).  Another  favourite 
type  of  Our  L;)rd  was  Orpheus,  who  by 
his  sweet  music  drew  all  creatures  to  hear 
him.  The  vine  painted  with  so  much 
freedom  and  grace  of  handling  on  the 
roof  of  the  entrance  to  the  cemetery  of 
Domitilla  is  also,  in  De'  Rossi's  opinion, 
work  of  the  first  centur\'.  ("  Roma 
Sotterranea,"  Northcote  and  Brownlow; 
Murray's  -  Ilaiidbnok  ..f  Rmue.") 

CA.TAFAI.QUE.  An  erection  like 
a  bier  phiced  during  IMasses  uf  the  dead, 
when  the  corpse  itself  is  not  there,  in  the 

'  There  were  other  reasons  for  this;  but 
the  fact  that  the  initials  of  the  Greek  words 
signifyini;,  "  Jesus  Christ.  Sou  of  God,  Saviour," 
made  up  the  word  IX0T2,  fish,  undoubtedly 
had  much  to  do  with  the  general  adoption  of 
the  emblem. 


I  centre  of  the  church,  or  in  some  other 
j  suitable  place,  suiTOunded  with  buruing 
hghts  and  covered  with  black  cloth.  It  is 
also  called  "feretrum,"  "castrum  doloris," 
&c.  (Merati's  "  Novae  Observationes  "  on 
Gavantus,"  Part  ii.  tit.  13.) 

CATECHisnx.  A  summary  of 
Christian  doctrine,  usually  in  the  form  of 
question  and  answer,  for  the  instruction 
of  the  Christian  people.  From  the  be- 
ginning of  her  history,  the  Church  fulfilled 
the  duty  of  mstructing  those  who  came 
to  her  for  baptism.  Catechetical  schools 
were  established,  and  catechetical  instruc- 
tion was  carefully  and  methodically  given. 
We  can  still  form  an  accurate  idea  of  the 
kind  of  instruction  given  in  the  early 
Church,  for  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  has  left 
sixteen  books  of  catechetical  discourses, 
explaining  the  Creed  to  the  candidates  for 
baptism,  and  five  more  in  which  he  sets 
forth  for  the  benefit  of  the  newly-bap- 
tised, the  nature  of  the  three  sacraments 
(Baptism,  Confirmation,  Eucharist)  which 
they  had  just  received.  St.  Augustine 
wrote  a  treatise  on  catechising,  at  the  re- 
quest of  Deo  Gratias,  a  deacon  and  cate- 
chist  at  Carthage.  When  the  world  be- 
came Christiau  there  was  no  longer  the 
same  necessity  for  instructing  converts, 
but  the  children,  and,  indeed,  the  people 
generally,  still  needed  catechetical  instruc- 
tidu.  Ilencf'  we  find  a  council  held  at 
Paris  in  829  deploring  the  neglect  of 
catechetical  instruction,  while  the  Eng- 
lish Council  of  Lambeth  in  1281  requires 
parish-priests  to  instruct  their  people  four 
times  a  year  in  the  principal  parts  of 
Cliristian  doctrine — viz.  the  articles  of  the 
Creed,  commandments,  sacraments,  &c. 
The  treatise  of  Gerson,  "  De  Parvulis  ad 
Christum  trahendis,"  gives  some  idea  of 
catechetical  instruction  towards  the  close 
of  the  middle  ages. 

Catechetical  instruction  was  one  of 
the  subjects  which  (iccu])ied  the  Coimcil 
of  Trent,  and  tlieFatliers  arranged  that  a 
Catechism  should  lie  drawn  u])  by  a  com- 
mission and  be  ajijtroved  by  the  council. 
This  plan  fell  through,  and  they  put  the 
whole  matter  in  the  Pope's  hands.  Pius 
IV.  entrusted  the  work  to  four  theolo- 
gians— viz.  Calinius,  Archbishop  of  Zara; 
Fuscararius  (Fii.-cai-ai-i),  Bishop  of  ^lo- 
dena;  Marinus,  Arclilashdp  (irLanciano; 
and  Fureirius  (l-'uifiro),  a  Port  iigiiese. 
AUof  them,  except  the  first,  were  Domini- 
cans. Scholars  were  appointed  to  see  to 
the  purity  of  style.  St.  Charles  Borro- 
meo  took  a  great  part  in  assisting  the  im- 
dertaking.  In  1564  the  book  was  finished. 


CATECmST 


CATHEDRA :  EX  CATHEDRA  141 


rhereupon  it  was  examined  by  a  new 
couimissiou  under  Cardinal  Sirletus.  To- 
wards the  close  of  156G  the  Catechism 
appeared,  under  the  title  "Catechismus 
Roniauus,  ex  Decreto  Coucilii  Tridentini, 
Pii  V.  Pont.  Max.  jussu  editus.  Romaj, 
in  redibus  PopuH  Romani,  apud  Aldum 
Manutium."  The  original  edition  contains 
no  chapters  and  no  answers.  This  Cate- 
chism possesses  very  high,  though  not  al> 
solute,  authority,  and  has  been  regarded 
as  a  model  of  clearness,  simplicity  and 
purity  of  language,  of  method  and  of 
doctrinal  precision.  But  it  was  not  fitted 
for  direct  use  in  catechetical  instruction, 
being  intended  for  parish  priests  and 
others  who  have  to  catechise  rather  than 
for  those  who  receive  instruction.  Cate- 
chisms, therefore,  of  various  sizes  have 
been  prepared  by  bishops  lor  their  dio- 
ceses, or,  as  in  England,  the  bishops  in 
concert  approve  a  Catechism  for  use  in 
the  whole  country  or  province. 

CATECHZST.  A  name  originally 
given  to  those  who  instructed  persons  pre- 
paring for  baptism.  Catechists  were  in 
early  times  also  called  vavroXoyoi,  be- 
cause they  brought  the  sailors  on  board 
the  ship  of  the  Church. 

CATECBXTIWSM-S.  Those  who  were 
being  instructed  and  prepared  for  baptism. 
"We  meet  with  the  first  mention  of  cate- 
chumens in  Justin  Mart_^T,  in  TertuUiau, 
and  in  the  Clementines.  Tertullian  dis- 
tinguishes two  classes  of  catechumens : 
viz.  the  "novitioli."  or  beginners,  and  the 
"aquam  adituri,''  or  those  who  were 
nearly  ready  for  baptism  and  were  admit- 
ted to  the  sermon  and  liturgy.  In  the 
A]'o<tolie  Constitutions,  the  catechumens 
are  classified  as  (1)  "audientes"  or  mpoa- 
neroi — i.e.  "hearers"  who  atteudi-d  the 
sermon  :  (2)  '•  genuflectentes  "  or  -yoi'i'KXt- 
Koi/Tfs,  who  also  assisted  at  the  prayers 
which  followed  the  sermon,  and  recen  t  d 
the  bishop's  blessing  on  bended  knee ; 
(3)  the  "  competentes "  or  (^(on^u^evoi, 
who  were  allowed  to  hear  the  full  state- 
ment of  Christian  mysteries,  particularly 
the  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist.  There  was 
a  famous  catechetical  school  at  Alexandria. 
Usually  catechumens  remained  under  in- 
struction for  two  or  three  years,  and  often 
longer,  but  the  time  of  probation  was 
shortened  when  there  was  sufficient  rea- 
son. (From  Kraus,  "Kirchengeschichte," 
p. 

CATHARZ  (Gr.  "pure").  Amedieval 
sect  of  Maiiichfeans,  commonly  called 
Albigcnsc-  q-i-.' 

CATHEDRA:   EX  CATHEDRA. 


I  Cathedra,  in  the  ecclesiastical  sense,  means 
(1)  the  chair  in  which  the  bishop  sits.  It 
I  was  placed  in  early  times  behind  the 
altar,  which  did  not  stand,  as  it  usually 
does  now,  against  the  wall,  but  was  sur- 
I  rounded  by  the  choir.  The  wooden  chair 
I  which  St.  Peter  is  said  to  have  u.sed,  is 
still  preserved  in  the  Vatican  basihca, 
Eusebius  relates  that  the  chair  of  St, 
James  still  existed  in  Jerusalem  down  to 
the  time  of  Constantine.    The  chair  of 
St.  Mark  at  Jerusalem  was  regarded  with 
I  such  religious  awe  that  Peter  of  Alexan- 
I  dria,  archbishop  and  martyr,  did  not  dare 
to  sit  ui)on  it,  though  it  was  used  by  his  suc- 
cessors. (Thomassin,  "  Traits  des  Festes.") 
(2)  Cathedra  was  used  by  a  natural 
extension  of  meaning  for  the  authority  of 
the  bishop  who  occupied  it,  so  that  "the 
feast  of  the  Cathedra  or  chair  commemo- 
rated the  day  on  which  the  bishop  en- 
tered on  his  office.    Thus  we  have  three 
sermons  of  St.  Leo  on  the  "natalis  cathe- 
drcT  suae" — i.e.  his  elevation  to  the  pontifi- 
cate.  In  the  Sacramentarv  of  St.  Gregory 
we  find  a  Mass  for  "  thV  Chair  of  St. 
Peter,"  on  the  24th  of  February.  Accord- 
ing to  John  Belith,  a  liturgical  writer  of 
the  middle  ages,  this  feast  was  intended 
to  celebrate  St.  Peter's  episcopate  both 
at  Antioch  and  Rome.     A  feast  of  St. 
Peter's  ebair  is  mentioned  in  a  sermon  at- 
tributed to  St,  Augustine,  and  in  a  canon 
of  the  Sfcond  Council  of  Tours,  which  met 
in  567.  In  the  course  of  the  middle  ages, 
the  feast  in  February  was  associated  with 
St.  Peter's  chair  at  Antioch.    Paul  IV., 
in  a  Bull  of  the  year  1  ■")•">-;,  eoniplain>  that 
although  the  feast  of  St.  Peter's  cliair  at 
Rome  was    (•■■leliiateil    in    France  and 
S])ain,  it  was  forgotten  in  Rome  itself, 
I  although  the  feast  of  bis cliiiir  at  Antioch 
i  was  kept   in  Rome.    Accordingly  Paul 
i  IV.  ordered  tliat  tlie  lea-t  of  St. 'Peter's 
chair  at  Rnnie  should  be  observed  on 
January   IS.    Tlie  feast  of  St.  Peter's 
:  chair  at  Aittioch  is  kept  on  Februarv  22, 
;  (Thonia^Mii.  ih.) 

j  (.?)  Cath-Mha  is  taken  as  a  symbol  of 
authoritati\  I  (lot  trinal  teaching.  OurLord 
said  that  the  scribes  and  Pharisees  sat 
"su])er  cathedram  Movsis" — i.e.  on  the 
chair  of  ^Moses.  Here  plainly  it  i>  not  a 
material  chair,  of  which  Clirist  sjieaks.  but 

■  the  "chair,"  as  Jerome  says,  is  a  nietajilior 
for  the  doctrine  of  the  law.  This  meta- 
phor became  familiar  in  Christian  litera- 
ture. Thus  Jerome  speaks  of  the  "chair 
of  Peter  and  the  faith  praised  by  apostolic 
mouth."  Later  theologians  use  "e.x  cath- 
edra "  in  a  still  more  special  sense,  and 


142 


CATHEDKAL 


CATHEDRATICUM 


employ  it  to  mark  those  definitions  in  faith 
and  morals  which  tlie  I'ope,  as  teacher  of 
all  Christians,  inijuwr-  on  their  belief. 
The  phrase  is  c  oiiiii.ii;it  i\ I'ly  modern, 
and  Billuart  addiuc-  n.)  instance  of  its 
use  before  1305.  It  is  often  alleged  that 
the  theologians  explain  the  words  "  ex 
cathedra  "  in  many  ditlerent  ways,  but  a 
clear  and  authoritative  account  of  the 
meaning  is  given  by  the  Vatican  Coimcil, 
which  declares  that  the  Pope  is  infal- 
lible "when  he  speaks  'ex  cathedra' — i.e. 
when,  exercising  his  office  as  the  pastor 
and  teacher  of  all  Christians,  he,  in  virtue 
of  his  supreme  apostolic  authority,  defines 
a  doctrine  concerning  faith  and  morals,  to 
be  held  by  the  whole  Church."  (From 
Ballerini,  "De  Primatu,"  and  the  BuU 
"Pastor  feternus,"  cap.  iv.) 

CATHEDRAE  {KadeSpa,  the  raised 
seat  of  the  bishop).  The  cathedral 
church  in  every  diocese  is  that  church  in 
which  the  bishop  has  his  chair  or  seat ; 
whence  see,  the  English  form  of  siege. 
It  is  sometimes  called  simply  Domus, 
"  the  house  "  {Dttomo,  Ital. ;  I)o>n,  Ger.)  ; 
for,  as  "  palace  "  sufficiently  indicates  the 
residence  of  a  king,  "so  the  Lord's  house, 
which  is  the  cathedral  church,  the  palace 
of  the  king  of  kings,  and  the  ordinary 
seat  of  the  supreme  pastor  of  a  city  and 
diocese,  is  sufficiently  denoted  by  the 
single  word  Donms."  (Ferraris,  in  Ec- 
clesia.)  A  cathedral  was  in  early  times 
called  the  Matrix  Ecclcsia,  l)ut  th;it  name 
is  now  given  to  any  church  which  has 
Other  churches  subject  to  it. 

The  establishment  of  a  cathedral 
church,  the  coin"i-si()n  of  a  eolli>giate 
church  int"  a  cat IumIim  1,  and  tlu'  union  of 
two  or  nutv  catlii'ilraK  iimli'i'  tlir  same 
bisho]),  ai'f  all  mrasni-rs  which  cannot  he 
legally  tak.'U  without  the  a]i].iMlial  ion  ..|' 
the  ro]H'.  The  tenqioral  power  has  often 
perfoi'iiieil  lliese  auil  the  like  acts  by  way 
of  nsiiv]i.it  loll,  as  \\-lien  the  i'e\-o|ut  ionarv 
gnA-erniiieiii  ol'l'ivmce  reiluced  the  niiniher 
of  Frenclwlioce~e~  tVoui  more  than  a  hun- 
dred and  thirty  to  >i\ty;  hut  a  regular 
and  lawful  state  of  things  in  such  a  case 
can  only  be  restore, 1  hy  the  State's  enter- 
ing into  a  coiiNentioii  %\  illi  the  Holy  See, 
which  is  alwavs  reailv,  without  aliandou- 
ing  ]ii-iiici]il",  to  (-■onl'oian  its  action  to  the 
eniel'^jelll  ]|,.|;e--lties  of  the  times.  Thus, 
in  the  case  jii-t  mentioned,  liv  the  Con- 
cordat Willi'  Na].o|rnn  iu  ISO.;,  Uome 
ShucIioii.mI  the  p.  '-in:iiient  ^ii]i]iressiou  nf 
many  oh!  .-e,--.  m  c,  ,M-ei|iience  of  which 
the  '  French  episcopate  now  nundiers 
eighty-four  bishops  instead  of  the  larger 


number  existing  before  the  Eevolution. 
Analogous  changes  are  provided  for  in 
the  Anglican  communion  by  the  theory 
of  the  Royal  Supremacy,  though  this 
theory  has  been  slightly  modilied  by  the 
progress  of  political  development  since 
the  Reformation.  The  sovereign  is  still 
supreme  in  theory  "  in  all  causes  and 
over  all  persons,  ecclesiastical  as  well  as 
civil,"  within  the  Anglican  communion; 
but  the  supremacy  cannot  be  exercised  iu 
any  important  matter  without  the  consent 
of  the  majority  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, expressed  through  a  responsible 
ministry.  An  Act  of  Parliament,  em- 
bodying as  it  does  the  united  will  and 
action  of  sovereign  and  Parliament,  solves 
all  difficulties.  Thus  in  1833  ten  Protes- 
tant sees  in  Ireland  were  suppressed  at  a 
'  stroke,  and  within  the  last  few  years 
I  several  suffragan  sees,  at  Nottingham  and 
1  elsewhere,  have  been  erected — always  by 
Act  of  Parhament.  In  every  such  case, 
j  whatever  legality  the  Act  may  have  is 
I  solely  due  to  the  action  of  the  temporal 
I  power;  ecclesiastical  authority  has  nothhig 
to  do  with  it. 

The  Council  of  Trent  forbids  the 
holding  of  more  than  one  cathedral 
[  church,  or  the  holding  of  a  cathedral 
I  along  with  a  parisli  church,  by  the  same 
j  bishop.'  It  enjohis  that  ordinations 
]  shall,  so  far  as  possible,  be  publicly  cele- 
'  brated  in  cathedral  churches,  and  in  the 

presence  of  the  cunoUS.^ 
I        CATHESRAXi    and  MOirASTZC 

SCHOOX.S.  [See  SCHOOLS.] 
j  CATHESRATZCUnX.  This  pay- 
'  ment,  as  originally  regulated  by  the 
Second  Council  of  Braga  (572),  was  a 
\i>ilatiou  fee  due  from  every  ])arish 
chinvh  in  liis  (li,,ce-eto  the  bishop  on  the 

oce,-,M  f  lii^  annual  M-it  to  it.  The 

aiiioiinl  was  two  shilling-  {.tn/idi)  in  gold. 
In  jirocess  of  lime  coins  of  greater  value 
were  tendered — thus  in  thi'  kingdom  of 
Na])les  the  cathedraticuin  was  considered 
to  be  two  ,/„er,^s-^-and   when   such  had 

to  the  smaller  monev  wa.-  not  allowed. 
AVherever  there  is  a  henelice,!  cler^v  this 
;  fee  is  still  legally  due  to  the  l,i-lio,,.  nor 
can  any  jieriod  of  actual  immunity  from 

claim  to  future  e\.'iii]'i  ion.  I'.m  .-ince 
the  Council  <ifTrenl  il  ha~  h-m  cii-lomary 
to  ]iav  it  in  synod,  not  (liirini;  the  visi- 
tation: whence  it  is  also  called  "  Synod- 
al icum."  The  churches  and  monasteries 
1  .So-ss.  vii.  2;  x.xiv.  17,  De  Itcform. 

I  *  Ses.s.  xxiii.  S.  De  liefoira. 


CATHOLIC 


CATHOLICUS  143 


of  the  regular  clergy  are  exempt  from 
the  payment  of  the  Cathedraticum,  though 
it  must  be  paid  ou  account  of  all  secular 
benefices  which  are  in  the  possession  of 
monasteries.  (Ferraris;  Fleury,  "Hist. 
Eccl."  xxxiv.) 

CATHo:lzc  ("  general "  or  uni- 
Tersal).  The  word  occurs  in  profane 
authors — e.g.  in  Polybius  —  but  among 
Christians  it  received  a  special  or  tech- 
nical sense,  and  was  applied  to  the  true 
Church,  spread  throughout  the  world,  in 
order  to  distinguish  it  from  heretical 
sects.  Thus  one  of  the  very  earliest 
Christian  writers,  Ignatius  of  Antioch, 
says,  ""\Miere  Christ  is,  there  is  the 
Catholic  Church ;  where  the  bishop  is, 
there  must  the  people  be  also."  Thus 
"Cathohc"  became  the  recognised  name 
of  the  Church.  As  "heresy,"  Clement  of 
Alexandria  tells  us,  denotes  separation 
(since  heresy  signifies  individual  choice), 
€0  the  words  "  Catholic  Church  "  imply 
imity  subsisting  among  many  members. 
Again,  St.  Augustine  in  his  epi^rl.■  auainst 
the  Donatists,  tells  them  that  tht-  ijiR  stion 
fit  issue  is  "  ^Miere  is  the  Church  ?  "  lie 
appeals  to  the  traditional  name  "  Catholic 
Church,"  which  is  given  to  one  body  and 
to  one  body  only  :  he  proves  that  the 
name  has  been  eiven  rightly,  as  is  sho^^Ti 
bythe  very  fact  that  the  Catholic  Chtu-ch, 
imlike  the  Donatist  sect,  is  diffused 
throughout  the  world ;  and  he  concludes 
that  as  the  Church  is  one,  as  this  one 
Church  is  the  Catholic  Church,  as  the 
Catholic  Church  is  the  body  of  Christ, 
therefore  that  he  who  is  without  its  pale 
cannot  "  obtain  Christian  salvation." 

The  name  "  Catholic  "  was  also  ap- 
plied from  very  early  times  to  individual 
members  of  the  Church.  The  use  occurs 
e.g.  in  Cypri.in,  and  the  saying  of  Pacian 
(Ep.  I  ad  Senipron.)  is  familiar  to  every- 
body: "Christian  is  my  name ;  Cntliolic 
is  my  surname."  Lastlv.  tli>>  word 
<'  Catholic  "  is  used  of  the  fa'itli  which  the 
Church  of  God  holds.  "\Ve  meet  with 
the  phrase  "Catholic  faith"  in  Pruden- 
tius,  and  frequtntly  of  course  in  later 
writers.  (For  C.MHOLic  Chuech  see 
CHrECH  OF  Christ.) 

"Catholic"  is  also  used  in  various 
subsidiary  senses,  viz. : 

(1)  Of  letters  addressed  to  the  faith- 
ful in  general,  whether  by  the  Apostles, 
who  wrote  "  Catholic  epistles"  as  distinct 
from  Epistles  to  the  (ialatians,  &c.,  or  by 
later  bishops.    (See  Euseb.  iv.  23.) 

(2)  In  Greek,  of  cathedral  churches 
as  distinct  from  parish  churches ;  of  the 


chief  chxirch  as  distinct  from  oratories; 
and,  in  the  later  Byzantine  period,  of 
parish  as  distinct  from  monastic  chapels. 

(3)  Catholicus,  originally  a  civil  title 
used  during  Constantine's  time  in  Africa 
and  given  apparently  to  the  "  procurator 
fisci,"  was  bestowed  on  the  Bishop  of 

j  Seleucia,  as  representing  the  Patriarch  of 
Antioch,  and  also  on  the  chief  ecclesias- 
!  tic  among  the  Persian  Nestorians.  The 
I  title  was  also  current  among  Armenians 
I  and  Ethiopians.    It  is  said  to  have  de- 
noted a  primate  with  several  metropoli- 
tans under  him,  but  himself  subject  to  a 
patriarch.     S^h"  (  'atholicus.] 

(4)  "Catholic  thrones"  was  a  title 
given  to  the  lour  patriarchal  sees. 

(5)  "  Catholic  King "  was  a  title 
given  to  Pipin  (767),  aud  other  kings  of 

j  France  (Froissart  says  it  was  borne  by 
I  Philip  of  Yalois),  who  were  afterwards 
called  "  Most  Christian."  "  Catholic 
King  "  became  in  modern  times  the  usual 
title  of  the  Spanish  sovereig-ns.  The  title 
"  Catholic  "  was  conferred  by  Alexander 
VI.  on  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  (Kraus, 
"  Real  Encyclopadie ;  "  and  for  the  title 
"  Catholic  King  "  see  also  Fleury,  cxvii. 
11.) 

CATBOX.ZCirS.     Certain  Oriental 
patriarchs  in  Mesopotamia,  Armenia,  and 
Persia  have  anciently  borne  and  perhaps 
!  still  bear  this  name.    It  must  have  been 
I  intended  to  signify  the  wide  sweep  of  the 
jurisdiction  which   the   bearer  of  this 
dignity  enjoyed  over  the  provinces  and 
dioceses  under  his  rule.  Yet  the  catholki 
were  never  placed  on  a  level  with  the 
j  patriarchs  of  the  five  great  sees,  Rome, 
!  Jerusalem,    Antioch,    Alexandria,  and 
j  Constantinople.    On  the  erection  of  the 
Armenian  church,  through  the  labours  of 
Gregory  the  Illuminated,  early  in  the 
fourth  century,  its  episcopal  head  was 
named  "  Catholicos."    As  time  went  on 
we   find  him   indifferently  styled  the 
!  Catholic  of  Persia  or  of  the  Armenians. 
'  There  was  also  a  Catholic  of  Seleucia  on 
the  Tigris.    Both  these,  after  the  general 
revolt  of  the  Oriental  churches  agaiii>t 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  lo-t  the  ortho- 
I  dox  faith;   one  was  Moiio[)hy>ite,  the 
1  other  Nestorian.    The  Ne.-toriau  Cat liolie 
I  of  Seleucia  had  many  archbishops  and 
I  bishops   under  his  jurisdiction,  whose 
dioceses  are  said  to  have  reached  even 
j  bej'ond  the  Ganges.    Both  were  origin- 
!  ally  subject  to  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch ; 
but  the  Catholicus  of  Seleucia,  pleading 
tlie  remoteness  of  his  see,  obtained  the 
consent  of  the  Patriarch  to  his  ordination 


144  CELEBRA^sT 


CELIBACY 


of  archbishops  by  his  own  sole  authority ;  1 
and  the  concession  of  this  right  was 
almost  equivalent  to  the  erection  of  a 
new  patriarchate.  Thus  we  find  the 
Arabic  canons  of  Nice  directing  that  the 
Patriarch  of  Seleucia  shall  have  the  sixth 
place  in  councils,  after  the  five  patriarchs 
above  mentioned,  and  that  the  seventh 
should  be  assigned,  with  the  title  of 
Catholicos,  to  the  patriarch  of  the  Ethio- 
pians. Persecution  seems  to  have  di'iven 
the  Armenian  Cathohc  out  of  Persia ;  in 
the  fifteenth  centm-y  we  find  him  es- 
tablished at  Sis  in  Cihcia,  but  almost 
isolated  there,  and  knowing  little  of  what 
went  on  in  the  real  Annenia.  This 
state  of  things  led  to  the  assumption 
of  patriarchal  power  by  the  Abbot  of 
Echmiadzin,  near  Mount  Ararat,  and  by 
his  successors  down  to  the  present  day. 
Latterly,  the  Armenian  uniate  Church, 
which  is  in  communion  with  the  Holy 
See,  has  been  prospering  and  advancing ; 
the  late  patriarch  of  this  Church,  Mgr. 
Hassoun,  who  resided  at  Constantinople, 
was  made  a  Cardinal  (d.  1884) ;  the  Ku- 
pelianist  schism  has  been  extinguished; 
and  there  is  a  fair  prospect  of  the  return 
of  the  whole  Armenian  nation  to  Catholic 
unity.    [See  Armenian  Christians.] 

Anastasius  the  Sinaite,  writing  in  the 
seventh  centmy,  speaks  of  a  CathoUcus 
of  the  Nestorians,  who  was  obeyed  by  a 
great  number  of  bishops  and  metro- 
politans. (Thomassiu,  "  Vetus  et  Nova 
Ecclfsiio  DiscipUna.") 

CEI.EBBA.M'T.  The  priest  who 
actnallv  oilers  Mass,  as  distinct  from 
others  who  assist  him  in  doing  so.  Cele- 
bration of  Mass  is  equivalent  to  ofi'ering 
Mass.  But  "  celebi-ant "  is  also  used  bv 
good  liturgical  writers— e.(?.  by  Gavantus 
— for  the  chief  officiant  at  other  solemn 
oflicps,  such  as  vespers. 

CSXiBSTZirZAIl'  HBRTCZTS.  A 
branch  of  the  Franciscans,  authorised  by 
St.  Celestine  V.  in  lL".t4,  and  named  after 
him.  The  object  of  their  institution  was 
to  practise  the  rule  of  St.  Francis  with 
greater  exactitude.  They  sufl'ered  much 
persecution,  and  soon  after  the  death  of 
their  lirsl  >upcrior,  Lilicratus,  ceased  to 
exist  as  a  separate  body. 

CSXiSSTZlirzii.N-S.  This  order  was 
founded  about  1254  by  the  holy  hermit 
Peter  of  Morone,  and  took  the  above 
name  after  the  elevation  of  their  founder 
to  the  supreme  pontificate,  with  the  title 
of  Celestine  V.,  in  1204.  Its  rule  was 
austere;  the  religious  had  to  rise  at  2  a.m. 
to   say  matins ;  abstained  perpetuelly 


from  meat  unless  in  case  of  iUness,  and 
fasted  every  day  from  the  Exaltation  of 
the  Cross  to  Easter,  and  twice  a  week 
for  the  rest  of  the  year.  They  increased 
rapidly,  and  spread  into  France  and 
Germany,  but  do  not  appear  to  have  ever 
established  themselves  in  England.  Most 
of  their  priories  in  Germany  were  in  those 
provinces  which  the  movement  begun  by 
Luther  most  afiected,  and  they  conse- 
quently perished.  In  the  early  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century  there  were  ninety- 
six  priories  in  the  Italian,  and  twenty- 
one  in  the  French  province  ;  the  chief  or 
mother  house  being  the  convent  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  at  Morone,  near  Sulmoua, 
the  only  abbey  in  the  order.  The  French 
Celestinians,  whose  principal  house  was 
at  Paris,  were  included  among  the  fifteen 
hundred  convents  which,  upon  various 
grounds  more  or  less  specious,  were  sup- 
pressed by  the  commission  of  1766  pre- 
sided over  by  the  contemptible  Lomenie 
de  Brienne,  Ai-chbishop  of  Toulouse. 
The  order  has  not  since  been  revived  in 
France.  Of  the  once  numerous  ItaUaa 
priories  very  few  now  exist. 

CEZiiBACY  of  the  clergy.  The  law 
of  the  Western  Chui-ch  forbids  persons 
hving  in  the  married  state  to  be  ordained, 
and  persons  in  holy  orders  to  marry.  A 
careful  distinction  must  be  made  between 
the  principles  on  wliich  the  law  of  celi- 
bacy is  based  and  the  clianges  -wliich 
have  taken  place  in  the  application  of  the 
principle. 

The  principles  which  have  induced 
the  Church  to  impose  celibacy  on  her 
clergy  are  (a)  that  they  may  serve  God 
with  less  restraint,  and  with  undivided 
heart  (see  1  Cor.  vii.  32) ;  and  (/3)  that, 
being  called  to  the  altar,  they  may 
I  iiilnace  the  life  of  continence,  which  is 
holier  than  that  of  man-iage.  That  con- 
tinence IS  a  more  holy  stale  than  that  of 
marriage  is  distinctly  allirnied  in  the 
words  of  our  blessed  Lord  ("There  are 
eunuchs  who  have  made  themselves 
eunuchs  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven's 
sake.  He  that  can  receive  it,  let  him 
receive  it").  It  is  taught  by  St.  Paul 
("  He  that  giveth  his  virgin  in  marriage 
doeth  well,  and  he  that  giveth  her  not, 
doeth  better")  and  by  St.  John  (Apoc. 
xiv.  4).  Christian  antiquity  speaks  with 
one  voice  on  tliis  matter,  and  the  Council 
of  Trent,  sess.  xxiv.  De  Matr.  can.  10, 
anatlieiiiat  i,--  those  who  deny  that  "it 
is  m<n-i-  IjIom  (1  to  remain  in  virginity  or 
in  celibacy  than  to  be  joined  in  marriage." 
Thus  all  Catholics  are  bound  to  hold  that 


CELIBACY 


CELIBACY  145 


celibacy  is  the  preferable  state,  and  that 
it  is  speciuUv  desirable  for  the  clergy. 
It  does  not,  however,  follow  from  this 
that  the  Church  is  ubsolutely  bound  to 
impose  a  law  of  celibacy  on  her  ministers, 
nor  has  she,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  always 
done  so. 

There  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
anv  A]i(istolic  legislation  on  the  matter, 
rxi  r]ii  ihat  it  wa>  nM|uired  of  a  bishop 
that  he  slimild  have  been  only  once  mar- 
ried. In  early  times,  however,  we  find  a 
law  of  celibacy,  though  it  is  one  which 
ditlers  from  the  present  Western  law,  in 
full  force.  Paphnut  ins,  who  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nictea  resisted  an  attempt  to  impose 
a  continent  life  on  the  clergy,  still  admits 
that,  according  to  ancient  tradition,  a 
cleric  must  not  marry  after  ordination. 
This  statement  is  confirmed  by  the 
Apostohc  Constitutions,  vi.  17,  which 
forbid  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  to 
marry,  while  the  27th  {al.  25th)  Apos- 
tohc Canon  contains  the  same  prohibition. 
One  of  the  earhest  councils,  that  of 
Neoceesarea  (between  314-325),  threatens 
a  priest  who  married  after  ordination  with 
degTadation  to  the  lay  state.  Even  a 
deacon  could  marry  in  one  case  only — 
viz.  if  at  his  ordination  he  had  stipulated 
for  liberty  to  do  so,  as  is  laid  down  by 
the  Council  of  Ancyra,  in  314.  Thus  it 
was  the  recognised  practice  of  the  ancient 
Church  to  prohibit  the  marriage  of  those 
already  priests,  and  this  discipline  is  still 
maintained  in  the  East. 

A  change  was  made  in  the  West  by 
the  33rd  Canon  of  Elvira  (m  305  or  306). 
It  required  bishops,  priests,  and  all  who 
served  the  altar  ("  positis  in  ministerio  ") 
to  live,  even  if  already  married,  in  con- 
tinence. The  Council  of  Nicaea  refused 
to  impose  this  law  on  the  whole  Church, 
but  it  prevailed  in  the  West.  It  was 
laid  down  by  a  sjmod  of  Carthage  in  390, 
by  Innocent  I.  20  years  later;  while 
Jerome  (against  Jovinian)  declares  that  a 
priest,  w^ho  has  "always  to  otfer  sacrifice 
for  the  people,  must  always  pray,  and 
therefore  always  abstain  from  marriage." 
Leo  and  Gregory  the  Great, and theEighth 
Council  of  Toledo  in  053,  renewed  the 
prohibitions  against  the  marriage  of  sub- 
deacons. 

So  the  law  stood  when  Hildebrand, 
afterwards  Gregory  VII.,  began  to  exer- 
cise a  decisive  influence  in  the  Church. 
Leo  IX.,  Nicolas  II.,  Alexander  II.,  and 
Hildebrand  himself  when  he  came  to  be 
Pope,  issued  stringent  decrees  against 
priests  living  in  concubinage.    They  were 


forbidden  to  say  Mass  or  even  to  serve  at 
the  altar;  they  were  to  be  punished  with 
deposition,  and  the  faithful  wcvr  w  arurd 
not  to  hear  their  xMass.  So  far  ( Ireg.  n  y 
only  fought  against  the  corru])tion  of  tlie 
times,  and  it  is  mere  ignorance  to  repre- 
sent him  as  having  instituted  the  law  of 
cehbacy.  But  about  this  time  a  change 
did  occur  in  the  canon  law.  A  series  of 
syuods  from  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century  declared  the  marriage  of  persons 
in  holy  orders  to  be  not  only  unlawful 
but  invalid.  With  regard  to  persons  in 
minor  orders,  they  were  allowed  for  many 
centuries  to  serve  in  the  Church  while 
living  as  married  men.  From  the  twelfth 
century,  it  was  laid  down  that  if  they 
married  they  lost  the  privileges  of  the 
clerical  state.  However,  Boniface  VIIL,  in 
1300,  permitted  them  to  act  as  clerics,  if 
they  had  been  only  once  married  and  then 
to  a  virgin,  provided  they  had  the  per- 
mission of  the  bishop  and  wore  the  clerical 
habit.  This  law  of  Pope  Bonifiice  was 
renewed  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  sess. 
xxiii.  cap.  6,  De  Reform.  The  same 
Council,  can.  9,  sess.  xxiv.,  again  pro- 
nounced the  marriage  of  clerks  in  holy 
orders  null  and  void.  At  present,  in  the 
West,  a  married  man  can  receive  holy 
orders  only  if  his  wife  fully  consents  and 
herself  makes  a  vow  of  chastity.  If  the 
husband  is  to  be  consecrated  bishop,  the 
wife  must  enter  a  religious  order. 

We  may  now  turn  to  the  East,  and 
sketch  the  changes  which  the  law  of  celi- 
bacy has  undergone  among  the  Greeks.  In 
the  time  of  the  Church-historian  Socrates 
(about  450),  the  same  law  of  clerical 
celibacy  which  obtained  among  the 
Latins  was  observed  in  Thessaly,  Mace- 
donia, and  Achaia.  Further,  the  case  of 
Synesius  in  410  proves  that  it  w-as  un- 
usual for  bishops  to  live  as  married  men, 
for  he  had,  on  accepting  his  election  as 
bishop,  to  make  a  stipulation  that  he 
should  be  allowed  to  Uve  with  his  wife. 
The  synod  in  TruUo  (692)  requires  bishops, 
if  married,  to  separate  from  their  wives, 
and  forbids  all  clerics  to  marry  after  the 
subdiaconate.  However,  a  law  of  Leo 
the  Wise  (886-911)  permitted  siib.leacoiis, 
deacons,  and  priests,  who  liad  married 
after  receiving  their  respective  orders,  not 
indeed  to  exercise  sacred  functions,  but 
still  to  remain  in  the  ranks  of  the  clergy 
and  exercise  such  offices  {e.g.  matters  of 
administration)  as  were  consistent  wdth 
the  marriage  which  they  had  concluded. 

The  practical  consequences  of  these 
enactments  are  (1)  that  Greek  candidates 

L 


146 


CELL 


CEMLTERT 


for  the  priestliood  usually  leave  the 
seminaries  before  being  ordained  deacons, 
and  return,  having'  concluded  marriage, 
commonly  with  datighters  of  clergymen  ; 
{■J)  that  secular  priests  live  as  married 
men,  but  cannot,  on  the  death  of  their 
wives,  marry  again;  (3)  that  bishops  are 
usually  chosen  I'rom  the  monks.  (From 
Ilefele,  "  Beitrage  zur  Kirchengeschichte, 
Arcliiiologie  und  Liturgik.") 

CEXiXi.  (1)  A  colony  or  offshoot 
from  some  large  monastery.  Cells  were 
first  heard  of  in  the  Benedictine  order, 
and  were  usually  planted  on  estates  that 
had  been  granted  to  the  mother  house. 
Tliey  were  also  called  "  provostships," 
•'  obediences,"  or  "  priories."  They  were 
originally  ruled  by  provosts  or  deans,  re- 
movable at  the  discretion  of  the  abbot  of 
the  mother  house.  Some  cells  were  of 
sufficient  importance  to  be  called  abbeys; 
but  their  abbots  could  only  be  elected 
with  the  consent  and  subject  to  the  confir- 
mation of  the  abbot  of  the  mother  house. 
The  inmates  of  the  cell  were  bound  to 
render  yearly  a  stated  portion  of  their 
revenues  to  the  house  on  which  they 
depended,  and  to  present  themselves  there 
in  person  on  particular  days.  Instances 
of  important  cells  in  this  country  were, 
Tynemouth  Priory,  depending  on  St. 
Alban's;  Leighton  Buzzard,  on  VVobum 
(Cistercian);  and  Bermondsey,  a  cell  of 
the  Cluniac  abbey  of  La  Charity,  in 
France.  This  last  is  also  an  instance  of 
an  "alien  priory,"  of  which  there  were 
great  numbers  in  England  at  the  dissolu- 
tion.   (Ferraris,  Monasterium.) 

(2)  The  separate  chamber  or  hut  of 
any  monk,  friar,  or  hermit,  is  popularly 
termed  his  "  cell,"  as  in  Milton's  lines — 
And  may  at  length  my  weary  age 
Find  out  the  peacefurhermitaee, 
The  hairy  gown,  and  mossy  cell. 

(8)  In  primitive  times  the  name 
"cella"  was  given  tea  small  memorial 
chapel,  erected  over  the  tomb  of  some 
friend  or  relative  in  a  sepulchral  area,  in 
which  "agapiB''and  commemorative  cele- 
brations were  held  on  the  anniversaiy  of 
death. 

CEraETERV  ((cot/iijnjpioK,  sleeping- 
place).  Ill  tbis  article  only  burial- 
grounds  or  churchyards  "sub  die,"  or  in 
the  open  air,  will  be  noticed;  for  subter- 
ranean burial-places  see  Catacombs. 

I'lveii  (luring  Mm  ages  of  persecution 
open  air  eemeterii's  wi're  in  use  at  Rome, 
as  has  been  shown  by  1  >e  Uossi,  as  well 
as  in  the  provinces.  Thus  the  cemetery 
named  after  Callistus,  who  was  placed  in 


charge  of  it  by  Pope  Zephyrinus,  was 
partly  above  and  partly  below  ground  ; 
that  at  Vienne  on  the  Rhone  entirely 
above  ground.  After  Constantine,  sul)- 
terranean  interment  was  of  course  abiin- 
doned.  The  old  Roman  law,  as  old  as 
the  Twelve  Tables,  which  forbade  intra- 
mural sepulture,  was  gradually  disre- 
garded; after  619  it  became  common  to 
bury  at  Rome  within  the  walls ;  and  it 
is  only  in  modem  times  that  the  sounder 
practice  of  antiquity  has  been  everywhere 
restored. 

A  cemetery  or  churchyard,  in  order  to 
be  fit  to  receive  the  bodies  of  Christians, 
must  first  be  consecrated  and  set  apart  by 
the  bishop  for  that  purpose.  The  rite 
may  be  seen  in  the  Pontificale.  From 
its  tenor  it  is  evident  that  it  contemplates 
the  burial  of  none  but  Christians  within 
the  space  to  be  consecrated ;  indiscriminate 
burial  is  therefore  an  abuse.  The  admis- 
sion to  ecclesiastical  burial  in  a  cemetery 
so  consecrated  is  regarded  as  a  species  of 
commimion.  Hence  it  has  ever  been  held 
that  the  burial  of  excommunicated  per- 
sons, and  others  with  whom  in  their  life 
we  could  not  communicate,  in  a  Catholic 
cemetery,  is  unlawful.  If  such  an  inter- 
ment has  been  violently  effected,  Innocent 
III.  ordered  that  the  remains  of  the  ex- 
communicated person  so  buried  among 
those  of  the  faithful  should,  if  they  could 
be  distinguished,  be  exhumed ;  if  not, 
that  the  cemetery  should  be  reconciled  by 
the  aspersion  of  holy  water  solemnly 
blessed,  as  at  the  dedication  of  a  church. 
In  a  recent  instance  in  Canada,  where 
the  civil  power,  acting  upon  the  sentence 
of  a  lay  tribunal,  forcibly  eftected  the 
burial  of  an  excommunicated  person  in 
the  Catholic  cemetery,  the  Bishop  of 
Montreal,  Mgr.  Bourget,  laid  the  portion 
of  the  cemetery  so  desecrated  under  an 
interdict. > 

Cemeteries  enjoyed  the  same  right  and 
degree  of  asylum,  in  the  case  of  criminals 
fleeing  to  them  for  shelter,  as  the  churches 
to  which  they  were  attached. 

The  Council  of  Lyons  ( 1 244)  ordered 
that  all  trading,  marketing,  adjudication, 
trial  of  criminals,  and  secular  business  of 
every  kind,  in  churchyards  no  less  than 

1  See  an  account  of  the  "  Guibord  case,"  in 
the  Catholic  Review  of  New  ifork,  September  2.5, 
1875.  A  French  Canadian  priest  writes  to  u3 
(May  5,  1881):— "The  man  was  buried  by 
force  in  the  Catholic  buryiug-ground,  and  the 
spot  is  considered  with  horror  by  all  Catholics 
visiting  that  grand  and  imposing  Montreal 
j  cemetery." 


CENSURE 


CEREMONY  (SACRED)  147 


in  churches,  should  be  put  an  end  to. 
(IVn-aris,  Ccemeterium.) 

CfiifSirRS  may  be  defined  as  a 
s])iritiial  penalty,  imposed  for  the  correc- 
tion and  amendment  of  ofl'enders,  by 
which  a  baptised  person,  who  has  com- 
mitted a  crime  and  is  contumacious,  is 
deprived  by  ecclesiastical  authority  of  the 
use  of  certain  spiritual  advantages.  Thus 
a  censure  presupposes  not  only  guilt  but 
obstinacy ;  its  immediate  eft'ect  is  the  de- 
privation of  spiritual  goods  ;  it  only  atiects 
those  who  by  baptism  have  become  sub- 
jects of  the  Church.  It  may  be  true,  as 
Fleury'  says,  that  under  Gregory  VII. 
censures  were  multiplied  in  a  manner  un- 
known to  the  early  Church,  and  this  may 
have  been  necessitated  by  the  increasing 
wickedness  of  the  times.  But  it  is  cer- 
tain that  the  use  of  censures  dates  from 
the  very  infancy  of  the  Church. 

Censures  are  divided,  according  to  the 
nature  and  extent  of  the  pains  they  in- 
flict, into  excommunications,  suspensions, 
and  interdicts  [see  under  those  articles]. 
"Censurje  latsB  ?ententi;B"  are  inoun'ed 
on  the  violation  of  the  law,  ipso  facto  \ 
"  Censurfe  sententise  ferendfe,"  only  on 
the  sentence  of  the  ecclesiastical  judge. 
They  may  be  passed  ab  homine — i.e.  they 
may  be  issued  by  a  mandate  respecting 
some  single  action  or  business ;  or,  again, 
a  jure — i.e.  a  permanent  law  may  be 
passed,  binding  under  censure.  In  the 
former  case,  imless  already  incurred,  they 
expire  with  the  death  of  the  legislator ; 
in  the  latter,  they  continue  still  in  force. 
Some  censures  are  reserved,  others  not 
reserved — i.e.  the  superior  may  reserve 
the  power  of  absolution  from  censures  to 
himself,  or  he  may  commit  it  to  the 
ordinary  ministers  [see  Absoltttion]. 

That  the  Church  has  the  power  of  in- 
flicting censures  appears  from  the  words 
of  Christ — "He  that  will  not  hear  the 
Church,  let  him  be  unto  thee  as  a  heathen 
and  a  publican" — as  well  as  from  the 
constant  practice  of  the  Church  herself. 
Censures  can  be  imposed  according  to  the 
ordinarj-  law,  by  ecclesiastics  possessing 
jurisdiction  in  the  external  courts  ("  forum 
externum as  distinct  from  the  internal 
court  or  tribunal  of  confession).  Thus 
censures  may  be  imposed  bj-  the  Pope  or 
a  general  council  for  the  whole  Church ; 
by  an  archbishop  for  his  own  diocese,  also 
in  the  dioceses  of  his  suflragans  during  a 
visitation,  or  with  respect  to  cases  brought 
to  his  tribunal  by  appeal  from  one  of  his 
suffragans ;  by  bishops  and  vicar-generals 

•  See  the  Discourse  prefixed  to  livr.  Ix. 


in  their  own  dioceses ;  by  cardinals  in  the 
churches  from  which  they  take  their 
titles;  by  legates  in  the  territory  of  their 
legation;  by  provincial  covuicils  in  the 
province ;  by  chapters  in  the  vacancy  of 
a  see  till  the  election  of  a  vicar-capitular, 
on  whom  the  power  then  devolves ;  by 
generals,  provincials,  local  superiors  of 
regulars,  according  to  the  statutes  of 
j  their  order.  Thus  parish  priests  as  such 
I  have  no  power  of  this  kind.  Still  such 
authority  may  be  delegated  to  all  ecclesi- 
astics :  not,  however,  to  women — e.ff.  to 
abbesses. 

I  Persons  who  have  not  reached  the  age 
I  of  puberty  are  not  included  among  the 
j  persons  whom  the  censure  strikes ;  nor 
!  again  are  sovereigns,  unless  the  censure 
be  inflicted  by  the  Pope.  Cardinals  are 
not  subjected  even  to  Papal  censures,  un- 
less they  are  specially  mentioned  as  so 
subject.  (From  Gury,  "  Theolog.  Moral.") 
csREznoio-T  '(sacred),  in  its 
widest  sense,  denotes  any  external  act 
used  in  the  worship  of  God.  Some  cere- 
monies are  essential — such,  for  example, 
as  concern  the  matter  and  form  of  the 
sacraments;  others  are  accidental— e.,^. 
the  sacraments  can  be  given  vahdly,  or 
the  worship  of  God  could  be  carried  on, 
without  them.  Of  accidental  ceremonies, 
some  descend  from  the  apostolic  age, 
others  have  been  added  in  the  course  of 
time  by  the  Church.  That  the  Church 
has  power  to  institute  or  to  change  such 
ceremonies  is  plain  from  the  practice  in 
all  ages,  and  is  defined  by  the  Coimcil  of 
Trent.'  The  Council  further  declares 
that  the  approved  rites  of  the  Church,  in 
the  solemn  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments, cannot  be  despised,  or  changed  by 
individual  caprice,  without  sin.^ 

Scripture  and  reason  combine  to  show 
the  wisdom  of  the  Church's  doctrine  on 
this  head.  Scripture — for  God  ordained 
ceremonies  in  the  old  law,  and  Christ 
made  outward  ceremonies  essential  to 
the  administration  of  Baptism  and  the 
Eucharist.  Reason — because  it  is  natural 
for  man,  who  is  composed  of  body  and 
soul,  to  express  his  interior  devotion  l)y 
exterior  acts ;  because  man  is  iinj)res.-ed 
by  teaching  which  is  conveyed  in  thi; 
form  of  symbol,  and  which  appeals  to  his 
eyes  as  well  as  to  his  ears ;  because, 
lastly,  as  both  body  and  soul  come  from 
God,  we  are  bound  to  use  both  in  His 
service. 

The  position,  however,  and  import- 
1  Sess.  xxi.  cap.  2,  De  Comiium. 
*  Sess.  vii.  can.  13,  De  Sacrani.  in  gen. 

l2 


148 


CEPJNTHIAIVS 


CHALCEDON,  COUNCIL  OF 


aiice  of  ceremonies  in  the  Christian  is 
very  different  from  that  which  they  held 
iu  the  Jewish  Church.  In  the  latter  a 
multitude  of  ceremonies  were  hinding  by 
divine  law ;  in  the  Christian  worship,  on 
the  other  hand,  only  a  very  few  cere- 
monies have  been  instituted  by  Christ ; 
the  rest  are  alterable  at  the  will  of  the 
Church.  Another  reason  gave  cere- 
monies a  much  more  important  place  in 
the  Jewish  than  they  have  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  The  Jews,  St.  Thomas 
says,  were  looking  forward  in  faith  and 
hope,  not  only  to  heavenly  joys,  but  also 
to  the  means  by  which  these  joys  could 
be  obtained.  Heaven  and  the  means  of 
getting  there  were  both  future  to  them, 
and  both  were  symbolised  by  their  cere- 
monies. With  us  the  means  of  salvation 
are  secured  by  acts  already  past  (e.g. 
Christ's  passion),  or  by  acts  actually  per- 
formed in  our  midst  (e.ff.  the  sacraments). 
Our  ceremonies  symbolise  grace  already 
won  for  us,  and  regard  the  future  only  so 
far  as  they  typify  heaven.  The  blessed 
in  heaven  have  nothing  more  to  hope  for; 
therefore  with  them  tliere  are  no  figures 
or  symbols  ("  nihil  figurale  "),  "  but  only 
thanksgiving  and  the  voice  of  praise,  and 
so  it  is  said  concerning  the  city  of  the 
blessed  :  I  saw  no  temple  in  it,  for  the 
Lord  God  Almighty  is  its  temple  and  the 
Lamb." ' 

CEZtZM-THlAlirs.  Cerinthus  was  a 
nativi'  ol  Alexandria,  but  taught  his 
heresy  in  proconsular  Asia.  He  was  a 
contemporary  of  St.  John,  who  on  one 
occasion  left  the  public  Ijatlis  at  Ephesus 
because  Cerinthus  was  there,  the  Apostle 
fearing  to  he  in  the  same  place  with  an 
"  enemy  of  the  truth."  Irenseus  says  St. 
John  wrote  his  Gospel  to  confute  him. 
Cerinthus  was  (1)  a  Judaiser.  He  seems 
to  have  held  a  gi-oss  doctrine  on  the 
Millennium,  to  have  enforced  the  rite 
of  circumcision  and  the  observance  of 
sabbaths.  IMnreover,  it  is  related  that 
the  Cerinthians,  like  the  Ebionites,  ac- 
cepted only  St.  Matthew's  Gospel. 

(2)  He  was  also  a  Gnostic,  so  that  he 
forms  the  link  between  the  Judaising  and 
Gnostic  sects.  He  attributed  the  creation 
of  the  world  and  the  giving  of  the  Jewish 
law  to  an  angel  or  angels  far  removed 
from  and  ignorant  of  the  supreme  Being. 
The  reader  will  observe  that  Cerinthus 
made  his  creative  angel  ignorant  of,  but 
not  antagonistic  to,  the  supreme  God ;  so 
that  he  was  not  obliged  to  break  entirely 
with  Judaism,  as  the  later  Gnostics  did. 
*  1'  2*,  qu.  ciii.  a.  3. 


(From  Lightfoot  on  Colossians:  "Essay 
on  the  Colossian  Heresy.") 

CESSATZO  A  DZVZM-XS.  A  prohi- 
bition which  obliges  the  clergy  to  abstain 
from  celebrating  divine  offices,  or  giving 
Church  burial,  in  some  specified  place. 
It  is  distinct  from  an  interdict,  because 
(1)  an  interdict  may  affect  only  certain 
persons :  cessatio  a  divinis  is  always  local 
— i.e.  it  forbids  anyone  to  celebrate  the 
divine  offices  in  a  particular  place;  (2) 
an  interdict  is  a  censure,  and  therefore 
inflicted  to  correct  offenders:  not  so 
cessatio  a  divinis,  which  may  be  ordered 
as  an  expression  of  the  Church's  sorrow, 
to  repair  some  injury  done  to  the  divine 
honour,  &c. ;  (3)  during  an  interdict 
offices  may  be  celebrated  with  closed 
doors,  and  publicly  on  certain  feasts: 
neither  is  permissible  duriug  cessatio  a 
divinis. 

Cessatio  a  divinis  is  in  some  cases  pre- 
scribed, as  a  matter  of  course,  by  the 
gejieral  law  of  the  Church — e.g.  when  a 
church  is  desecrated ;  but  it  may  also  be 
imposed  by  all  who  have  power  to  inflict 
censures.  (Gury,  "Theolog.  Moral.") 
Fleury  gives  several  instances  of  cessatio 
a  divinis  from  the  history  of  the  French 
church  in  the  sixth  century.' 

CHAI.CESOM-,  GENERAX.  COTTN-- 
CZli  or.  The  fourth  General  Council, 
which,  in  451,  condemned  the  errors  of 
Eutyches  and  affirmed  two  natures  in 
Christ. 

The  opposition  to  Nestorius,  who  said 
there  were  two  persons  in  Christ,  led 
many,  particularly  among  the  monks, 
into  the  opposite  extreme  of  maintaining 
that  there  was  one  nature,  as  there  was 
one  person  only,  in  our  Lord.  Among 
those  who  fell  into  this  error,  which  was 
closely  connected  with  Apollinarianism, 
a  conspicuous  place  belonged  to  Eutyches, 
an  old  monk  who  had  been  for  thirty 
years  Archimandrite  of  a  monastery  near 
Constantinople  which  numbered  not  less 
than  300  religious.  In  448  Eusebius  of 
Dorylfeum  accused  Eutyches  of  heresy 
in  a  synod  at  Constantinople.  Eutyclics 
expressed  his  belief  as  follows:  "I  conlV  vs 
that  our  Lord  was  of  two  natures  l)ei'nre 
the  union,  but  after  the  union  [i.r.  the 
union  of  the  two  natures  in  the  Incar- 
nation] I  confess  one  nature."  The  synod, 
over  which  Flavian,  bishop  of  Constant  i- 

1  Liv.  xxxiv.  53.  He  calls  them  all  inter- 
dicts, but  one  or  two  of  his  instances  (e.g.  tlie 
cessation  of  the  offices  at  St.  Denys,  in  Paris, 
because  it  had  been  polluted  by  bloodshed) 
exactly  correspond  to  the  cessatio  a  divinis. 


CITALOEDON.  COT'NCIL  OF 

noplt',  presided,  maintained  two  natures  in  I 
Christ  "  (T/Vcr  tlie  unimi  "  [i.e.  lufarnu- j 
IliiT,  ami  Eutyc-he>  was  coiKlnnned  and  i 
(l.'lKiscd.   Tlis  cn-orcul  at  thi'  vrrv  roots  of  | 
true  l)flirl'  in  the  hu-arnatioii.   lie  main-  i 
tained  tliat  in  Christ  the  human  was  I 
absorbed  in  the  divine  nature,  so  that 
C'hrist's  body  was  not  of  one  substance 
with  ours — was  not,  indeed,  the  "  body 
of  a  num."    ("arried  to  its  logical  conse- 
quences, the  Eutyehian  heresy  involved  a 
denial  of  Christ's  hunuinity  and  even  of 
His  divinity,  for  Christ  would  have  had 
one  mixed  nature,  partly  human,  partly 
divine,  and  in  reality  neither  divine  nor 
human. 

After  the  synod,  Eutyches  appealed  to 
Leo,  professing  his  desire  that  the  matter 
had  been  laid  before  Leo  sooner,  and  his 
readiness  to  accept  the  Pope's  judgment. 
He  also  wrote  to  Chrysologus  of  Ravenna, 
who  refen-ed  him  to  the  chair  of  Peter ; 
and  it  is  probable,  though  not  quite  cer- 
tain, that  he  also  addressed  himself  to 
Dioscorus  and  other  bishops.  Pope  Leo, 
after  examining  the  acts,  approved  the 
sentence  passed  in  the  synod  at  Con-  ! 
stantinople.  Dioscorus,  on  the  other  hand,  ■ 
•who  was  really  of  one  mind  with  Euty-  j 
ches,  managed  through  his  influence  with 
the  Empress  Eudocia,  to  secure  the  convo- 
cation of  a  general  synod  at  Ephesus. 
Thereupon  Leo,  who  rec('i\  (>d  on  May  18, 
449,  an  invitation  to  take  part  in  the 
council,  despatched  three  legates  to  repre- 
sent him  there,  and  gave  into  their  hands 
several  lettei's,  among  which  was  his 
famous  "dogmatic  epistle"  to  Flavian. 
In  it  the  Pope  teaches  with  all  possible 
fulness  and  clearness  the  existence  of 
two  distinct  natures  in  the  incarnate  God. 
"He  who,  remaining  in  the  form  of  a 
God,  made  man,  also  in  the  form  of  a 
servant  w  as  7uade  man.  For  each  nature 
without  defect  preserves  its  proper  cliarac- 
teristics  ( jirojirietateni  suam),  and  as  the 
form  [/.e.  nature]  of  a  servant  does  not 
take  away  the  form  of  God,  so  tlie  form 
of  God  does  not  dimini,>h  the  form  of  a 
servant.  .  .  Each  form  in  union  with 
the  other  does  what  is  projier  to  it :  the 
Word,  that  is  to  say,  operating  that 
which  is  proper  to  the  \\'ord,  and  the 
flesh  performing  that  which  is  pro])er  to 
the  tiesh.  .  .  .  The  one  [i.e.  the  divine 
nature]  shines  forth  in  miracles,  the 
other  [j.e.  the  Inniiaii  iialmv^  siici-iimbs 
to  injuries.  And  as  the  WHiil  does  not 
fall  away  from  eijuaiity  li  the  l-'.-ilher's 
glory,  so  the  tiesh  does  not  leave  the 
nature  of  our  race.    For  one  and  the 


CHALCEDON,  COT  XCrL  OF  14!1 

same,  a  point  often  to  \«-  rej>eated,  is 
truly  sou  of  God,  and  truly  son  of  man. 
.  .  .  To  hunger,  to  thirst,  to  be  weary, 
and  to  sleep,  is  evidently  proper  to  man. 
Hut  to  satisfy  five  thousand  men  with 
five  loaves,  and  to  give  the  woman  of 
Samaria  living  water  ...  is  without 
doubt  divine.  ...  It  does  not  l)elong  to 
the  same  nature  to  say,  I  and  the  Father 
are  one,  and  again,  the  Father  is  greater 
than  I."  In  August  of  the  same  year  the 
bishops  began  to  assemble  at  Ephesus  in 
the  council  which  for  its  evil  repute  has 
earned  the  name  of  Latrocinium  or 
Robber-synod.  The  council  met  on  the 
8th  of  the  month  and  consisted  apparently 
of  about  130  bishops,  though  one  ancient 
account  raises  the  number  to  300.  Dios- 
corus presided,  while  two  Papal  legates, 
besides  Domnus  of  Antioch,  Juvenal  of 
Jerusalem,  Flavian  of  Constantinople, 
were  present.  Flavian  and  Eusebius  were 
condemned  as  heretics  and  deposed,  as  it 
was  pretended,  by  the  unanimous  vot  e  of 
the  council,  but  the  coarse  and  fanatical 
Dioscorus  would  allow  no  notes  of  the 
proceedings  to  be  made  except  by  his 
own  creatures,  and  he  was  afterwards 
accused  of  having  falsified  the  Acts.  He 
called  in  soldiers  and  monks  armed  with 
cudgels,  cruelly  m.altreated  Flavian  and 
cast  him  into  prison,  and  forced  the  other 
Fathers  by  outrage  and  starvation  to  sign 
a  blank  paper,  on  which  he  afterwards 
vsTOte  the  condemnation  of  Flavian,  who 
died  shortly  afterwards  of  the  ill-usage 
he  had  received.  Leo,  with  the  whole 
West,  rejected  this  council,  while  the 
churches  of  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Pontus, 
would  hear  nothing  of  it.  It  was,  how- 
ever confirmed  by  the  Emperor  Theo- 
dosius  II.,  and  for  the  time  it  was  im- 
possible to  convoke  another  synod. 

Better  times  came  with  the  accession 
of  Marcian  and  Pulcheria  to  the  throne. 
Marcian  at  once  annulled  the  decrees  of 
the  Latrocinium,  and  in  concert  with 
Valentiuian  III.,  the  Western  emperor, 
and  with  the  approval  of  Pope  Leo  and 
of  Anatolius,  the  new  bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople, who  had  now  subscril)ed 
Leo's  letter  to  Plavian,  convoked  a  new 
council,  which  was  to  meet  at  Nicrea. 
Afterwards,  however,  Chaleedon  was 
chosen  as  the  place  of  meeting,  because 
I  of  its  proximity  to  Constantinople,  which 
made  it  possible  for  Marcian  to  attend 
the  council  and  at  the  same  time  to 
I  look  after  civil  affairs  in  the  capital  of 
■  his  empire.  The  council  opened  on 
I  October  8, 451,  and  closed  on  November  1 


150    CIIALCEDON,  COUNCIL  OF 


CHALCFDON,  COUNCIL  OF 


of  the  same  year.  The  Fathers  held 
their  sessinns"  in  the  church  of  St. 
Eu|.Iirmia,  wliich  ^t..n,l  nrar  the  ]!os- 
Jihunis  nil  a  i;rntlc  ciiiinfiicc  just  opposite 
Const  ant  iudple.  The  nunilicr  of  asseuihled 
bishops  was  about  UOO.  The  external  order 
of  the  council  was  in  the  liands  of  an 
imperial  commission,  consisting  of  civil 
officers ;  but  the  papal  legates  "  manifested 
an  unmistakeable  superiority  over  the 
other  voters,  as  representing,  according 
to  their  own  explicit  statement,  the  head 
of  the  whole  Church,  and  as  holding  fast 
to  the  conviction  that  every  resolution  of 
the  synod  to  which  they  did  not  agree  was 
null  and  void." '  This  claim  was  fully  re- 
cognised by  the  council,  as  will  presently 
appear. 

In  the  first  session,  Dioscorus  was 
declared  guilty  of  murder  and  of  other 
moral  ofl'ences,  particularly  of  violence 
and  outrage  upon  the  Fathers  who  met 
at  Ephesus.  In  the  second,  the  epistle  of 
Leo  to  Flavian  was  unanimously  approved. 
The  Fathers  exclaimed,  "  That  is  the 
faith  of  the  Fathers:  that  is  the  faith  of 
the  Apostles.  So  we  all  believe.  Peter 
has  spoken  through  Leo.  That  was  also 
Cyril's  faith,  and  that  is  the  faith  of  the 
Fathers."  In  the  third  session  Dioscorus 
was  deposed.  In  the  fourth  the  letter  of 
Leo  to  Plavian  was  approved  by  a  formal 
vote.  In  the  fifth  session,  the  dogmatic 
formula  of  Chalcedon  which  had  been 
drawn  up  by  a  commission  was  adopted 
by  the  council. 

In  this  formula  the  council  defined 
that  there  was  "one  and  the  same 
Christ  the  Son,  Lord,  only  begotten,  in 
two  natures,  without  confusion,  without 
change  [this  is  directed  against  Eutyches], 
without  division,  without  separation  [this 
against  Nestorius,  who  divided  Christ 
into  two  persons] ;  the  difl'erence  of  the 
natures  being  in  no  wise  destroyed  on 
account  of  the  union,  but  rather  the  pro- 
perty (ISioTrjTos)  of  each  nature  being 
presened  and  meeting  (a-vvrpexova-rjs) 
in  one  Person  and  Hypostasis.  At  the 
close  of  the  council  the  Fathers  wrote  to 
Pope  Leo,  who  "  had  presided  over  aU 
the  assembled  [bishops]  as  the  head  over 
the  members,"  begging  him  "  by  his 
assent  also  to  honour  their  decision " 
(rifji-qrrov  K(u  rnls-  aais  yj/r}4>ois  Triv  Kf)ta-iu). 
The  Emperor  also  asked  the  Pope  to  con- 
firm the  decrees  of  the  council.  Accord- 
ingly, on  March  21,  453,  Leo  addressed  a 
circular  to  the  bishops  who  had  attended 

1  Hefele,  Concil.  ii.  p.  421. 


the  council  confirming  their  definition  of 
the  faith. 

Tlie  confirmation  of  the  council  would 
have  been  olitained  much  sooner  and 
mucli  more  easily,  if  the  dogmatic  con- 
troversy had  been  the  only  matter  of 
discussion.  Ikit  it  was  not  so.  At  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  session,  the  Papal 
legates  withdrew,  and  in  their  next 
meeting  the  Fathers  of  the  Council 
passed  thirty  canons,  relating  to  Church 
government,  clerical  and  monastic  dis- 
cipline, &c.,  of  which  the  28th  is  the 
most  important.  The  Church  of  Con- 
stantinople, though  not  of  Apostolic 
foundation,  naturally  acquired  great  in- 
fluence as  an  imperial  city,  and  as  early 
as  381  the  second  General  Council  as- 
signed it  "  the  pre-eminence  of  honour  " 
after  the  Church  of  Rome,  cn  the  ground 
that  Constantinople  itself  was  New 
Rome.  This  canon,  however,  was  ig- 
nored by  Rome.  At  Chalcedon,  Ana- 
tolius  of  Constantinople  saw  that  the 
time  was  unusually  favourable  for  assert- 
ing the  doubtful  privilege  of  his  see  and 
for  extending  it.  He  had  not  much  to 
fear  from  the  jealousy  or  conservatism  of 
the  great  patriarchates  or  exarchates  in 
the  East.  The  sees  of  Alexandria  and 
Ephesus  were  vacant,  Maximus  of  Antioch 
was  his  creature,  Juvenal  of  Jerusalem 
was  in  his  debt  for  helping  him  to  obtain 
jurisdiction  over  the  three  Palestinian 
provinces.  In  these  circumstances,  the 
28th  canon  of  Chalcedon  was  agreed  to 
with  little  difficulty.  The  former  part 
of  this  canon  merely  reaffirms  the  decree 
of  the  second  general  synod  to  which  the 
canon  of  Chalcedon  ex])ressly  refers.  The 
Fathers,  the  bislio])s  of  Chalcedon  say, 
had  rigiitly  assioned  [patriarchal]  privi- 
leges to  th>'  eld.T  lloiiie,  boeause  of  its 
imperial  dignity,  and  had  from  similar 
motives  assigned  the  second  rank  to 
New  Rome — i.e.  Constaiitiiu>i)le.  The 
latter  part  of  the  28th  canon  goes  much 
further.  It  sanctions  the  practice  which 
had  prevailed  since  Chrysostom's  time — 
viz.  that  the  Bishop  of  Constantinople 
should  be  supreme,  not  only  over  the 
distiict  {SioiKrjais)  of  Thrace,  but  also 
over  Pontus  and  Asia,  which  had  been 
formerly  independent.  The  metropolitans 
of  those  districts  were  to  receive  conse- 
cration from  Constantinople. 

Leo  absolutely  refused  to  confirm  this 
canon,  and  Anatolius  acknowledged  that 
"the  whole  force  and  confirmation  of 
that  which  had  been  done  was  reser\  ed 
to  the  authority  of  [his]  beatitude  " — i.e. 


CHALDEAN  RITE 


CHALDEAN  RITE  151 


to  tlie  authority  ot  his  Holiness  the  Bishop 
of  Rome.  In  like  manner  the  council 
itself  and  tlie  Enijx'ror  Marcian  had  ex- 
pressly allowed  that  the  canon  was  in- 
valid "without  the  approbation  of  the 
A])o>tolic  Sice.  Indeed,  tor  a  considerable 
t  iiii.'  the  ( irei'lis  themselves  did  not  appeal 
to  tile  canon  in  question,  and  their 
canonists'  omitted  it  in  their  collections. 
Justinian,  however,  confirmed  the  high 
ranlv  of  Constantinople,  and  this  very 
i  Miion  of  Clialeedon  was  confirmed  at  the 
^ivat  i:,iMrrn  synod  in  Trnllo,'^  although 
IJoiiu-  still  al),-taini'd  from  sanctioning  it. 
But  after  a  Latin  Empire  had  been  esta- 
blished in  the  East,  and  a  Latin  Patri- 
archate at  Constantinople,  the  Fourth 
Lateran  Synod  under  Innocent  III.,  in 
the  year  1215,  ordained  that  the  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople  was  to  hold  rank  im- 
mediately after  the  Pope,  and  therefore 
above  the  Patriarchs  of  Alexandria  and 
Antioch.  (From  Ilefele,  "  Concil."  vol.  ii.) 
CHAlSEAir       RITE,  CHRZS- 

TXANS  OP. — The  name  Chaldeans  in 
ecclesiastical  use  signifies  the  Catholics 
who  belong  to  the  Church  formed  by 
conversions  from  Nestorianism.  Assemani 
(••  Ribliothec.  Orient."  tom.  iii.  p.  -IIO  seq.) 
distinguishes  between  particular  conver- 
sions —  i.e.  conversions  of  individual 
bishops  and  their  dioceses,  and  general 
conversions — i.e.  unions  effected  with  a 
large  section  of  the  Nestorians  which  led 
to  the  recognition  of  a  Catholic  patriarch. 
Under  the  former  head  he  mentions — (1) 
the  conversion  of  the  Bishop  Sahaduna 
and  the  Gamarajans,  a.d.  630  ;  (2)  that  of 
Timothy  of  Tarsus,  metropolitan  of  the 
Nestorians  in  Cyprus,  and  of  his  subjects, 
A.I).  1445  ;  (.3)  that  of  the  Nestorians  on 
the  Malabar  Coast ;  (4)  that  of  the  Chris- 
tians of  St.  .Tohn,  called  Sabseans,  by  the 
( 'avmelite  Fathers,  in  Bassora,  ci'rc.  a.d. 
10.;().  The  story  of  the  third  of  these 
conversions  will  be  given  in  the  article 
on  the  CnRisTiANS  of  St.  Thomas.  We 
doubt  the  accuracy  of  Assemani's  state- 
ment about  the  Sabseaus,  whose  history 
has  been  recently  investigated  by  Cliwol- 
son.^  The  third  case  is  interesting  from 
its  connection  with  the  Council  of  Flo- 
rence. Timothy  was  converted  by  An- 
drew, archbishop  of  Rhodes  (Oolossensis), 

1  Till  the  time  of  Photius.  Hergenriither, 
PI,oli„s.  i.  p.  87. 

-  Hut  the  (leci.sion  of  the  council  in  Trullo 
on  tliis  iKiiiit  was  not  received  iu  the  other 
tasteru  ji;itriiirchatcs.  Hergenriither,  ib.  p.  "223. 

5  See,  especially,  his  criticism  of  Assemani 
(Z>ie  Sabier  und  der  Sabismus,  vol.  i.  p.  48). 


whom  Eugenius  IV.  sent  to  Cyprus. 
The  union  was  effected  in  the  second 
session  of  the  continuation  of  the  council 
in  the  Lateran,  August  7, 1445.  Eugenius, 
in  his  bull  containing  the  decree  of  union, 
forbids  anyone  to  call  the  Chaldeans  here- 
tics. So  that  here  we  have  a  formal  re- 
cognition of  the  name  "  Chaldean."  ' 
(Ilefele,  "  Concil."  vii.  p.  815  seq.) 

Assemani  enumerates  the  following 
"  general  conversions."  (1)  In  1247  Asa, 
"  Vicar  of  the  East  " — i.e.  representative 
of  the  patriarch  in  China  and  Eastern 
Tartary — under  the  Nestorian  Patriarch 
Sabarjesu  (1226-5G),  made  a  profe-ssion 
of  Cathohc  belief  to  Innocent  IV.  It  was 
subscribed  by  the  Archbishop  of  Nisibis, 
two  other  a,rchbishops,  and  three  bishops. 
(2)  The  Patriarch  Jaballaha  was  recon- 
ciled under  Benedict  XL,  a.d.  1304.  (3)  A 
dispute  about  the  succession  to  the  patri- 
archate between  Sulaka  and  Shimoom  led 
to  the  reconciliation  of  the  former  under 
Julius  III.,  A.D.  1652.  (4)  The  Patriarch 
Elias  became  Catholic  under  Paul  V., 
A.D.  1616.  None  of  these  conversions  had 
any  wide  or  lasting  influence.  (5)  The 
conversion  of  the  Nestorians  at  Diarbekir 
led  Innocent  XL  to  establish  a  new  Chal- 
dean patriarchate  in  that  city.  Joseph  I. 
was  the  first  patriarch  ;  the  last  died  in 
1828.  (Badger,  "The  Nestorians  and 
their  Rituals,"  vol.  i.  p.  150.) 

Here  Assemani's  narrative  ends,  but 
since  his  great  work  was  published  at 
Rome  (1719-28)  the  most  important  ac- 
cession of  Nestorians  to  the  Church  has 
taken  place.  There  had  been  since  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  a  schism 

1  '•  Meshihaya,"  which  simply  means  "fol- 
lower of  the  Messias" — i.e.  Chrfstian' — is  now 
used  as  a  distinctive  name  for  the  Chaldean 
Catholics,  as  opposed  to  the  Xestorians  of  the 
same  rite.    The  word  '  Meshi- 

chojo  ")  frequently  occurs  in  Syriac literature  as 
a  i^enernl  name  for  Christian.  (Pavne  Smith, 
Thfxaiir.  Si/r.  col.  -2-2i-2.)  The  Greek  word 
Xpio-Tioi'b?  has  been  adojited  in  the  Syriac  lan- 
fruage,  and  occurs  constantly,  not  onlv  in  the 
Peshitto,  but  also  in  late  authors,  e.tj.  in  the 
chronicles  of  Barhebra-us.  The  reader  must  not 
suppose  tliat  the  name  Chaldean  has  anything 
to  do  with  the  Chaldee  language.  The  Catho- 
lics (if  the  Syrian  and  Chaldean  rites  auree  in 
the  use  of  tlie  Syriac  tongue  in  the  liturgy,  the 
former,  however,  using  the  Western  or  Jacobite, 
the  latter,  the  Eastern  or  Nestorian,  dialect. 
The  differences  between  the  dialects,  which  are 
slight  and  chiefly  affect  the  pronunciation  of 
the  vowels,  are  lioted  in  all  the  reoetit  gram- 
mars. Murtiu  (Sj/ro-amldaic-i'  In^lil^fmms.  p. 
60)  gives  a  transcription  of  tlie  Xieeiic  Creed 
in  Koman  eharacter.s,  as  he  heard  it  pronounced, 
by  a  Chaldean  priest. 


152 


CHALDEAN  EITE 


CHALDEAN  RITE 


between  the  Nestorians  themselves,  and 
tliey  had  two  patriarchs,  one  residing  at 
Koehanes  in  Central  Koordistan,  the  other 
at  Mosul,  or  Alkosh.  Elias,  the  patriarch 
at  the  latter  place,  on  his  death  in  1778, 
left  two  nephews,  Ilanna  (  =  John,  the 
name  he  took  at  ordination,  his  own  name 
being  Hormuzd)  and  Jeshuyan.  Both 
were  already  metropolitans,  both  became 
Catholics,  and  both  were  candidates  for 
the  patriarcliate.  The  latter  liad  scarcely 
reached  the  object  of  his  ambition  when  he 
relapsed  into  Nestorianism.  John,  who  re- 
mained Catholic,  claimed  the  patriarchate 
in  his  place,  a.d.  1782.  He  had  bitter  dis- 
putes, not  only  with  his  Nestorian  relatives, 
but  also  witli  the  Carmelite  missionaries 
and  the  Patriarch  Joseph,  who  still  exer- 
cised jurisdiction  at  Diarbekir.  It  was 
not  till  the  close  of  the  last  century  that 
be  was  recognised  by  Rome  as  the  spiritual 
bead  of  all  the  Chaldeans,  and  allowed  to 
use  the  patriarchal  seal  and  exercise 
patriarchal  functions,  and  he  then  took 
the  name  Elias.  He  only  received  the 
pallium  shortly  before  his  death  at  Bagdad 
in  1841.  He  must  have  been  bishop  for 
more  than  sixty-three  years ;  but  it  appears 
from  his  autobiography,  translated  by 
Badger,  that  he  was  consecrated  metro- 
politan at  the  age  of  sixteen.  This  last 
conversion  to  the  Church  embraced  most 
of  the  Nestorians  in  the  plains  by  the 
Tigi  is.  Badger,  writing  in  1852,  estimates 
the  number  of  Catholii-s  belonging  to  the 
Chaldean  rite  at  20,000,  thinly  scattered 
through  the  vast  territory  which  extends 
from  Diarbekir  to  the  frontiers  of  Persia, 
and  from  Tyari  to  Bagdad.  The  Chal- 
deans, says  liadsrer  (i.  p.  176),  are  supe- 
rior to  their  Nestorian  countrymen  "  in 
civilisation,  general  intelligence,  and  eccle- 
siastical order."  This  is  important  testi- 
mony, coming,  as  it  does,  from  an  author 
who  had  extraordinaiy  opportunities  of 
judging  correctly,  and  who  writes  with 
passionate  vehemence  against  everything 
Catholic. 

Rome  utterly  abolished  the  hereditary 
succession  to  the  patriarchate  which  had 
long  prevailed  among  the  Nestorians,  and 
John  was  forbidden  to  make  any  of  his 
relations  bishops,  but  it  was  difficult  to 
root  out  this  abuse.  A  nephew  of  the 
Patriarch  John  actually  became  Nestorian 
for  a  few  months,  in  1834,  that  he  might 
be  consecrated  metropolitan  by  the  Nesto- 
rian patriarch  and  succeed  his  uncle,  who 
is  said  to  have  approved  of  this  proceed- 
ing. The  devotion  to  the  old  patriarchal 
liouse  nearly  led  to  a  schism,  which  was 


fomented  by  a  Nestorian  patriarch,  Shi- 
moom,  who"  tied  from  the  Kurds  to  Mosul. 
Great  discontent  was  caused  in  1843  by 
an  attempt  of  the  Patriarch  Zeiya  to  make 
the  Chaldeans  keep  Easter  according  lo 
the  Latin  reckoning.  This  patriarch  was 
himself  cited  before  the  Holy  Office  on  a 
charge  of  embezzlement,  and  resigned  in 
1846.  The  next  patriarch,  Joseph  .\udu, 
came  into  conflict  with  Rome  ou  accoujit 
of  his  claims  to  exercise  jurisdiction  over 
the  Chaldeans  in  India,  and  because  of  his 
uncanonical  ordinations.  He  was  forbidden 
to  con.secrate  bishops  without  leave  from 
Rome.  He  refused  to  accept  the  decrees 
of  the  Vatican  Council,  which  he  attended, 
and  renounced  communion  with  Rome. 
A  Capuchin,  Bishop  Fanciulli,  was  .sent 
as  Apostolic  visitor  to  Mosul,  and  the 
patriarch  made  a  qualified  submission  in 
July  1872.  Soon  after  the  patriarch  re- 
newed the  schism,  induced  some  of  the 
bishops  and  nobles  to  join  him,  and  conse- 
crated bishops  in  defiance  of  the  Pope. 
The  revolt  was  fostered  by  the  Turkish 
Government.  The  patriarch  made  histiual 
submission  in  January  1877. 

According  to  the  ordiuan'  law  the 
patriarch — unless  Rome  has  previously 
appointed  a  coadjutor  with  right  of  suc- 
cession— is  chosen  by  the  bishops.  The 
election,  if  canonical,  isconfirmed  at  Rome. 
He  is  subject  not  only  to  Propaganda  but 
to  the  Latin  Archbishop  of  Bagdad,  as 
apostolic  visitor.  He  resides  at  A.lljosh 
and  Mosul. 

The  metropolitans  and  bishops,  who 
are  chosen  from  the  monks,  are  nominated 
and  consecrated  by  the  patriarch.  The 
metropolitan  sees  are  Amedia,  Mosul 
(both  immediately  subject  to  the  pa- 
triarch), Kerkuk,  and  Sehna.  The  epi- 
scopal sees  are  Akra,  Diarbekir,  Gezir, 
Mardin,  Salmas,  Seert  and  Zaku.  The 
secular  priests  are  usually  married,  and 
partly  support  themselves  by  manual 
labour.  The  monks  belong  to  tlie  order  of 
St.  Anthony,  and  there  are  two  monas- 
teries— a  very  ancient  one,  that  of  Rabban 
Hormuzd,  at  Alkosh,  which  in  1843  had 
an  abbot  and  four  monks,  and  a  small 
one  founded  in  modern  times,  and  with 
scarcely  any  religious,  that  of  Mar  Yurgis 
(  =  St.  George),  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Tigris,  a  few  miles  above  Mosul.  The 
monks  live  apart  in  cells  which  are  mostly 
in  the  rock.  They  abstain  from  -wine  and 
spirits  and  from  flesh,  except  on  Christmas 
Day  and  Easter  Sunday. 

The  number  of  priests,  secular  and 
j  regular,  is  at  present  (1891)  above  100; 


CHALICE 


CHALICE  153 


tlio  number  of  Catholics  about  33,000. 
(Werner,  "Orbis  Terrarum  Catholicus.") 
Bickell  ("Conspectus  rei  Syrorum 
litterariae,"  Miinster,  1871,  §§  vii.-x.) 
mentions  the  following  printed  editions 
of  liturgical  books  of  the  Chaldean  rite : 
"  ilissale  Chaldaicum,  et  Decret.  S.  Con- 
gregat.  de  Propaganda  Fide,''Romae,  1767; 
"  PsalteriumChaldaienni  in  usum  nationis 
Chald."  Romee,  1842  ;  "  lireviarium  Chal- 
daicum in  usum  nationis  Chald.  a  Jose- 
pho  Guriel,  secundo  editum,"  Romae,  1865, 
lie  also  gives  the  titles  of  four  liturgical 
books  of  the  Chaldean  rite,  but  intended 
for  the  church  of  Malabar — viz.  "  Ordo 
Chaldaicus  ^lissje  B.  Apost.  juxta  ritum 
Eccles.  Malabar."  Romae,  1774;  "Ordo 
Chaldaicus  Rituum  et  Lectionum  juxta 
movem  Eccles.  Malabar."  Romae,  1775; 
"  Ordo  Chaldaicus  Ministerii  Sacrament. 
SS.  quae  perficiuntur  a  Sacerdot.  juxta 
morem  Eccles.  Malabar."  Romae,  1845; 
"Ordo  Baptism.  Adultorum  juxta  ritum 
Eccles.  Malabar.  Chaldseorum."  Romae, 
1859.  In  three  instances  there  is  an  ex- 
ceptional use  of  the  word  Chaldes  instead 
of  Syiiac  in  the  titles  of  books  meant  for 
the  Maronites— viz.  "  IMissale  Chaldaicum 
juxta  ritum  Eccles.  nationis  Maronita- 
rum,''  Romae,  1502  ;  "  Officium  Uefunc- 
torum  ad  usum  Maroiiitarum  Gregorii 
XIII.  impensa  Chaldaiois  characteribus 
impressum,"  Romae,  1585,  vol.  ii.  ;  "  Bre- 
viarii  Chaldaici  aestiva  pars  "  (the  former 
part,  printed  ten  years  earlier,  is  entitled 
simply,  "  OfKc.  Sanctorum  juxta  ritum 
Eccles.  Maronit.  pars  hiemalis  "),  Romae, 
1666. 

(Assemani  has  been  our  authority  for 
the  history  down  to  the  close  of  the  seven- 
teenth centurj',  then  Badger,  carefully 
compared  with  Silbernagl's  "  Kirchen  des 
Orients  ; "  and  for  the  events  of  the  last 
few  years,  Hergenrother,  "  Kirchenge- 
schiciite,"  vol.  ii.  p.  1009  seq.) 

CHiLIiZCE    {calix,    TTOTrjpwv).  The 

cup  used  in  Mass,  for  the  wine  which  is 
to  be  consecrated.  The  rubrics  of  the 
Missal  require  that  it  should  be  of  gold 
or  silver,  or  at  least  have  a  silver  cup  gilt 
inside.  It  must  be  consecrated  by  the 
bishop  with  chrism,  according  to  a  form 
prescribed  in  the  Pontifical.  It  may  not 
be  touched  except  by  persons  in  holy 
orders. 

"NN'e  know  nothing  about  the  chalice 
which  our  Lord  used  in  the  first  Mass. 
Venerable  Bade  relates  that  in  the  se\  enth 
century  they  exhibited  at  Jerusalem  a 
great  silver  cup,  with  two  handles,  which 
our  Saviour  Himself  had  used  in  celebrate 


ing  the  Eucharist,  but  antiquity  knows 
nothing  of  this  chalice,  and  it  has  no 
better  claim  to  be  regarded  as  genuine 
than  the  chalice  of  agate  which  is  still 
shown  at  Valencia  and  claims  also  to  be 
that  used  by  Christ.  Probably,  the  first 
chalices  used  by  Christian  priests  were 
made  of  glass.  It  seems  likely  at  least, 
though  the  inference  cannot  be  called 
certain,  from  TertuUian's  words,  that  in 
his  time  glass  chalices  were  commonly 
used  in  church,  and  undoubtedly  such 
chalices  were  still  common  during  the 
fifth  century,  as  appears  from  the  testi- 
monies of  St.  Jerome  and  Cyprianus 
Gallus,  the  biographer  of  St.  Cn?sarius  of 
Aries.  Gregory  of  Tours  mentions  a 
crystal  chalice  of  remarkable  beauty, 
which  belonged  to  the  church  of  Milan. 

However,  even  before  persecution  had 
ceased,  the  Church  began,  from  natural 
reverence  for  Christ's  Blood,  to  employ 
more  costly  vessels.  The  Roman  Book 
of  the  Pontiffs  says  of  Pope  Urban  I. 
(226)  that  "  he  made  all  the  holy  vessels 
of  silver."  So,  too,  we  read  in  the  acts  of 
St.  Laurence's  martyrdom,  that  he  was 
charged  by  the  heathen  with  having  sold 
the  altar-vessels  of  gold  and  silver,  and 
with  having  given  the  proceeds  to  the 
poor ;  while  St.  Augustine  mentions  two 
golden  and  six  silver  chalices,  which  were 
exhumed  from  the  crypt  of  the  church  at 
Cirta.  Of  course,  such  precious  chalices 
became  more  common  when  the  Church 
grew  rich  and  powerful.  Thus  St. 
(Jhrysostom  describes  a  chalice  "  of  gold 
and  adorned  with  jewels."  In  857  the 
Emperor  Michael  III.  sent  Pope  Nicolas 
I.,  among  other  presents,  a  golden  chalice, 
sun-ounded  by  precious  stones,  and  with 
jacinths  suspended  on  gold  threads  round 
the  cup.  A  precious  silver  chalice  adorned 
with  figures  belonged  to  the  church  at 
Jerusalem,  and  was  presented  in  869  to 
Ignatius  of  Constantinople.  But  it  is 
needless  to  multiply  instances  on  this 
head. 

For  a  long  time,  however,  chalices  of 
horn,  base  metal,  Sec,  were  still  used,  and 
Binterim  says  that  a  copper  chalice  in 
which  Ludger,  the  Apostle  of  Miinster,  in 
the  eighth  century,  said  Mass,  is  still  pre- 
served at  Werden,  where  he  founded  an 
abbey.  But  very  soon  afterwards  chalices 
of  glass,  horn,  base  metal,  &c.,  were  pro- 
hibited by  a  series  of  councils  in  England, 
Germany,  Spain,  and  France,  although 
chalices  of  ivory  and  of  precious  stone 
(e.g.  of  onyx)  were  still  permitted. 
Gratian  adopted  in  the  Corpus  Juris  a 


154  CIIALICE-VEIL 


CHANCELLOR,  EPISCOPAL 


canon  which  he  attributes  to  a  Council 
of  Rheims,  otherwise  unknown.  The 
words  of  the  canon  are,  "  Let  the  chalice 
of  the  Lord  and  the  paten  be  at  least  of 
silver,  if  not  of  gold.  But  if  anyone  be 
too  poor,  let  him  in  any  case  have  a 
chalice  of  tin.  Let  not  the  chalice  be 
made  of  copper  or  brass,  because  from  the 
action  of  the  wine  it  produces  rust,  which 
occasions  sickness.  But  let  none  pre- 
sume to  sing  Mass  with  a  chalice  of  wood 
or  glass."  (Hefele,  "  Beitriige,"  ii.  p.  322 
ser/.) 

The  practice  of  consecrating  chalices 
is  very  ancient.  A  form  for  this  purpose 
is  contained  in  the  Gregorian  Sacrament- 
ary,  as  Avell  as  in  the  most  ancient 
"  Ordiues  Romani,"  and  such  consecration 
is  usual  among  the  Greeks  and  Copts. 
In  the  Latin  Church,  the  bishop  anoints 
the  inside  of  the  chalice  with  chrism, 
using  at  the  same  time  appropriate 
prayers.  The  consecration  is  lost  if  the 
chalice  be  broken  or  notably  injured,  or 
if  the  inside  is  regilt.  A  decree  prohibit- 
ing all  except  those  in  sacred  orders  to 
touch  the  paten  or  chalice  is  attributed 
to  an  early  Pope,  St.  Sixtus,  by  the  author 
of  the  "  Liber  Pontificalis."  But  Merati, 
who  quotes  this  statement,  admits  that 
a  Roman  Ordo  regards  it  as  lawful  for 
acolytes  to  do  so.  However,  a  Council 
of  Braga,  held  in  563,  confines  the  right 
of  touching  the  sacred  vessels  to  those 
who  at  least  are  subdeacons. 

Besides  the  chalice  from  which  the 
priest  took  the  Precious  Blood,  the 
ancients  also  used  "  baptismal  chalices," 
from  which  the  newly-baptised  received 
communion  under  tlie  species  of  wine,  and 
"  ministerial  chalices  "  ("  calices  minis- 
teriales,"  "scyphi"),  in  which  the  Precious 
Blood  was  given  to  the  people.  This 
"  ministerial "  chalice  was  partly  filled 
with  common  wine,  and  into  this  wine 
the  celebrant  poured  a  small  quantity  of 
the  Precious  Blood  from  the  "  calix  offer- 
torius" — i.e.  the  chalice  with  which  he 
said  Mass.  (Benedict  XIV. "  De  Miss."  i. 
cap.  4.) 

CHAXiZCE-VEZIi.  The  veil  with 
which  the  chalice  is  covered,  called  also 
"  peplum  "  and  "  sudarium."  It  used  to 
be  of  linen,  but  must  now  be  of  silk,  as 
the  rubric  requires.  The  Greeks  use  three 
veils,  one  of  which  covers  the  paten, 
another  the  chalice,  a  third  both  paten 
and  chalice.  They  call  the  third  veil 
dijp,  because  it  encompasses  the  oblations. 
Cardinal  Bona  says  this  Greek  custom 
began  in  the  church  of  Jerusalem,  and 


thence  spread  tlinuigli  the  East.  (Bene- 
dict XIV.  "])e  Miss."  i.  cap.  5.) 

Benedict  XIV.  considers  tlie  antiquity 
of  the  chalice-veil  to  be  pi-oved  by  one  of 
the  Apostolic  canons — viz.  72  (al.  73), 
which  forbids  the  application  of  the 
church  vessels  or  veils  (odovTjv)  to  pro- 
fane uses.  Hefele  thinks  this  canon  may 
belong  to  the  latter  half  of  the  third 
century.  But  there  does  not  seem  to  be 
any  reason  for  alleging  that  the  veil 
meant  is  tlie  chalice-veil.  Gavantus  says 
that  the  chalice-veil  is  mentioned  in  the 
liturgy  of  St.  Chrysostom  (which,  how- 
ever, has  been  altered  since  the  saint's 
time) ;  that  silken  chalice-veils  were  given 
to  Pope  Hormisdas  (514-523),  and  tliat 
Amalarius  mentions  the  Roman  custom 
of  bringing  the  chalice  to  the  altar 
wrapped  in  a  veil. 

CHANCEX..  The  part  of  a  church 
between  the  altar  and  the  nave,  so  named 
from  the  rails  (cancelli)  which  separated 
it  from  the  nave.  The  word  was  in  use 
before  the  Reformation,  and  the  Anglicans 
still  retain  it.  Among  English  Catholics 
it  is  now  Uttle  used,  the  portion  of  the 
church  near  the  altar,  separated  by  rails 
ft-om  the  nave,  being  designated  the 
"sanctuary."  In  cathedrals  and  conven- 
tual churches,  where  space  is  required  to 
accommodate  the  canons  or  the  reli- 
gious, a  portion  of  the  church  between 
the  sanctuary  and  the  nave  is  taken  for 
the  purpose ;  it  is  not  however  called  the 
"chancel,"  but  the  "choir,"  Fr.  c/tceur. 
[See  Choir.] 

CHAirCEX.X.OR,  EPZSCOPAX. 
{cancellarius,  from  cancelli,  a  lattice,  rail- 
ings). The  place  surrounded  by  railings,  or 
lattice  work,  where  the  legal  instruments 
which  decisions  in  an  imperial  or  royal 
court  made  necessary  were  prepared,  was 
called  "  cancellaria."  The  word  "  can- 
cellarius "  is  first  used  in  the  sense  of  a 
secretary  or  notary  by  Cassiodorus — that 
is,  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century. 
The  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  was  in 
primitive  times  exercised  by  his  ai-ch- 
deacon  [Archdeacon];  but  in  proportion 
as  the  powers  of  the  archdeacons  were 
enlarged,  a  tendency  manifested  itself  to 
make  their  jurisdiction  independent  of 
episcopal  control,  until  at  last  an  appeal 
actually  lay  from  the  archdeacon  to  the 
bishop.  Such  a  state  of  things  would 
inevitably  make  the  bishop's  own  official, 
his  "  chancellor  " — the  person,  whether  a 
clerk  or  a  layman,  who  had  the  charge  of 
the  judicial  records  of  the  diocese — a  per- 
sonage of  greater  importance.    We  find, 


CHANCERY,  EPISCOPAL 


CHAPLAIN 


155 


accordingly,  that  in  the  three  centuries 
preceding  the  Keformation,  while  the 
j)ower  of  the  archdeacon  had  everywhere 
declined,  or  was  declining,  the  influence 
and  importance  of  the  bishop's  chancellor 
were  always  on  the  ascendant.  "\Ve  find 
St.  Edmund  Rich,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, in  the  thirteenth  century,  carrying 
on  an  important  and  delicate  negotiation 
with  the  monks  of  Christchurch  chiefly 
through  Richard,  his  chancellor,  after- 
wards celebrated  in  the  Church  as  St. 
Richard,  bishop  of  Chichester.  (See 
Gervase  of  Canterbury.)  Canon  law 
contains  many  regulations  respecting  the 
fees  of  office  which  chancellors  are  entitled 
to  demand. 

CHAXrCERT,  EPZSCOPAX..  (See 
the  article  on  Episcopal  Chancellors.) 
From  the  chancery  of  a  bishop  proceed 
all  those  documents,  deeds,  certificates, 
licences,  dispensations,  &c.,  which  are 
necessar\-  to  the  publication,  recognition, 
and  execution  of  the  acts  which  he  per- 
forms in  the  exercise  of  the  fivefold 
jurisdiction  attributed  to  him  by  the 
canon  law,  in  which  are  included  the 
jmwers  of  ordering,  jud(jing,  correcting, 
c/ispensinf/,  and  administering.  To  these 
may  be  added  the  power  of  delegating  or 
deputing.  (Soglia,  "  De  Potestate  Juris- 
dictionis.") 

CHAM-CERV,  PAP  AX.  :  CBAW- 
CBRT  TAXES,  &.C.  [See  CUEIA 
ROJIANA.] 

CHAN-T  ECCZ.ESZASTXCAI., 
CRECORZAio-,  &.C.  [See  Plain 
Chant.] 

CHAITTRT  (Lat.  capellama,  Fr. 
chapellenie).  The  ancient  name  in  this 
country — 

(1)  of  a  chapel,  aisle,  or  part  of  an 
aisle,  in  a  church,  set  apart  for  the  offer- 
ing of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  for  the  benefit 
of  the  soul  of  a  particular  person,  gene- 
rally the  founder,  or  for  some  other  pious 
purpose ; 

{2)  of  the  institution  and  endowment 
of  such  a  service :  as  when  Chaucer  ])raises 
bis  "  Persone  "  for  not  leaving  his  parish 
"  To  seeken  him  a  chaunterie  for  soules." 

All  chantries  were  dissolved  by  the  Acts 
of  1545  and  1547.  They  were  then  found 
to  be  more  than  a  thousand  in  number. 

Chantries  in  the  second  of  the  above 
senses  are  divided  by  the  canonists 
into  three  classes.  (1)  Mercenary,  as 
when  a  testator  leaves  property  to  a  lay- 
man with  the  charge  of  causing  Masses 
to  be  said  for  his  soul.    (2)  Collative, 


when  property  is  left  with  an  express  in- 
junction that  out  of  the  revenue  arising 
from  it  daily  Mass,  or  a  certain  number 
ofMassesiii  theyear,  should  be  celebrated; 
as  to  these  chantries,  the  r«l/ation  of  the 
priests  to  serve  them  ])ro])rrly  belim--  i,. 
the  bishop.  (3)  Cbimtrir>  in  pi-i\:itr 
patronage.  These  only  ditii-r  l'r,,ni  tli.' 
second  class  in  that  the  iioniiuntiini  to 
them  rests  with  the  private  jiatron  ;  but 
the  institution  must  still  conie  from  the 
bishop.    (Ferraris,  Capcllanid.) 

CHAPXiAlMT  [capdlanus,  from  capella, 
chapel).  The  word  capellfi,  the  de- 
rivation of  which  is  doubtful,  ;q)pears 
to  have  first  come  into  use  in  Gaul,  and 
to  have  been  applied  to  the  )juildiuii>, 
smaller  than  churches,  whicli  liiiiij>  or 
bishops  erected  in  their  own  ]ialac>  v,  that 
they  might  more  conveniently  and  fre- 
quently attend  divine  worship.  The 
priest  appointed  to  the  charge  of  such  a 
chapel  was  called  the  "capellanus"  or 
chaplain.  As  the  number  of  such  chapels 
increased,  the  chaplains  became  a  numer- 
ous bod}-,  and  were  placed  under  an  arch- 
chaplain,  who  was  also  called  the  Grand 
Almoner.  Charlemagne  selected  bishojjs 
for  this  office  of  Grand  Almoner. 

There  are  chaplains  of  many  kinds,  as 
the  following  enumeration  shows  : 

1.  Army  chaplains.  Various  indults, 
privileges,  and  faculties  have  been  granted 
to  Catliolic  sovereigns  by  the  Holy  See 
in  relation  to  priests  stationed  in  barracks, 
or  serving  with  an  army  in  the  field.  In 
modern  times  the  sovereigns  have  usually 
endeavoured  to  place  army  chaplains 
under  the  sole  control  of  a  royal  or  im- 
perial chaplain-major.  This  has  been  re- 
sisted by  the  Church,  and  it  is  decided 
that  such  chaplain.s,  in  the  ab,«ence  of  an 
Apostolic  brief  otherwise  providing,  must 
be  approved  by  the  ordinary  of  the  place. 
Thus  a  marriage  contracted  before  an 
army  chaplain,  in  tlie  absence  of  such 
brief  as  aforesaid,  is  held  to  be  null  if  cele- 
brated without  the  licence  of  the  bishop. 

There  are  at  present  (1891)  sixteen 
Catholic  chaplains  holding  commissions 
now  attached  to  the  British  army  in  Eng- 
land and  the  colonies. 

a.  Auxiliary  chaplains.  Appointed 
by  parish  priests  as  their  coadjutors,  and 
removable  by  them,  but  not  without  just 
cause.    (See  Ferraris,  Capellanu.^,  §  41.) 

3.  Cathedral  chaplains.  After  the 
common  life  of  canons  ceased,  and  each 
drew  his  portion  or  prebend  from  the 
common  fund,  it  became  usual  for  them 
to  reside  at  a  distance  from  the  cathedral 


ICG  CHAPLAIN 


CHAPTER,  CATHEDRAL 


or  collegiate  church  to  which  they  be- 
longed, and  to  pay  chaplains  to  perform 
their  duties  in  choir  for  them.  This 
practice  was  checked  by  the  Council  of 
Trent.    [See  Cajson.] 

4.  Chaplains  of  chant}-ies  (capellaniae). 
[See  Chaxtrt.]  A  large  proportion  of 
the  chantries  which  once  existed  were 
founded,  not  that  Mass  might  be  said  for 
snuls,  but  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary,  or  of  some  saint,  or  some  particular 
mystery.  The  chaplains  serving  these 
were  and  are  carefully  regulated  by  the 
canon  law,  so  that  the  course  of  episcopal 
and  parochial  discipline  might  not  be 
troubled  by  their  presence  in  a  diocese. 

■').  Chaplains  of  confrciternilies.  [See 
CoxFKATEENiTT.]  Such  chaplains  cannot 
have  processions  without  the  express 
licence  of  the  bishop.  They  are  not  to 
be  removed  without  cause  by  the  bishop 
against  the  wish  of  the  brotherhood. 

G.  Court  chaplains.  How  these  ori- 
ginated under  the  early  Frankish  kings 
has  been  already  explained.  Charlemagne 
gave  to  his  episcopal  arch-chaplain  prece- 
dence overall  the  archbishops  and  bishops 
of  his  einjiire.  The  chaplains  of  the 
imperial  and  royal  Courts  had  great  power 
for  centuries.  Bv  a  Papal  brief  dated  in 
1857  the  Holy  See  rcsr.ired  the  office  of 
arch-chaplain  or  (Trand  Almoner  in 
France:  but  wirli  tlie  coll.-ipse  of  the 
Sec-iiml  I']iiipire  the  brief  ln't-ame  inope- 
rative. At  the  Courts  of  Catholic  sove- 
reigns in  Germany  the  chaplains  of  an 
im)iHrial  or  royal  chapel  now  constitute  a 
body  111  canons,  and  the  chapel  of  the 
palace  is  regarded  as  a  collegiate  church. 

7.  Ihnnestic  chiiplains.  I'riests  ap- 
pointed to  say  Ma.-s  in  the  chnjiels  at- 
tached to  private  houses,  such  asCoptfold 
Hall,  Coughton,  &c. 

8.  Episcopal  chaplains.  In  early 
times  the  bishops  had  their  private  ora- 
tories, and  as  their  dwellings  grew  to  be 
palaces  their  first  care  was  to  provide 
them  with  Miitalile  chapels,  the  clergy- 
attached  to  uliich  lii'canie  episcopal  chap- 
lains. In  large  and  wealthy  dioceses 
these  bfcanie  nunii-rous,  and  were  then 
placed  under  an  episcojial  arch-chaplain. 
At  the  present  day,  when  the  Churcli  has 
in  most  countries  of  Europe  been  reduced 
to  the  greatest  poverty,  the  chaplains  of 
bishops  usually  act  as  their  secretaries,  or 
as  masters  of  the  ceremonies  when  they 
celebrate  High  Mass. 

9.  Chaplains  of  nunneries.  These  are 
of  course  very  numerous,  and  to  be  found 
in  every  part  of  the  Catholic  world. 


Canon  law  requires  that  they  shall  be 
of  mature  age,  and  in  other  ways  enacts 
a  minute  discipline  for  their  guidance. 

10.  Pontifical  chaplains,  attached  to 
the  Pope's  chapel.  They  are  of  three 
classes  :  honorary,  ceremonial,  and  secre- 
tarial. 

11.  Chaplains  ot  public  institutions: 
e.g.  workhouses,  prisons,  hospitals,  and 
lunatic  asylums.  In  all  such  appoint- 
ments the  chaplain  is,  as  a  rule,  nomi- 
nated by  the  civil  authority,  with  the 
approval  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese. 

CHAPTER,  CATKESRAI..  [For 
the  derivation,  see  Chapter,  Conven- 
tual.] The  ancient  name  for  the  clergy 
of  a  cathedral  church  was  Presbyterium  ; 
the  term  "  chapter  "  was  borrowed  from 
the  assemblies  of  regulars.  The  history 
of  chapters  has  been  already  partly  traced 
in  the  article  Canon.  With  the  increase 
of  the  corporate  property  of  chapters, 
the  extended  patronage  arising  from  that 
increase,  and  the  sense  of  dignity  which 
the  possession  of  that  patronage  en- 
gendered, a  strong  tendency  developed 
itself  in  the  course  of  the  middle  ages 
towards  the  independent  existence  of 
chapters,  both  cathedral  and  collegiate, 
and  their  exemption  from  episcopal 
control.  There  was  a  danger  lest  the 
canoos  of  his  cathedral,  instead  of  form- 
ing the  trusted  council  of  the  bishop,  and 
assi.-tinghim  in  the  administration  of  the 
diocese,  as  in  primitive  times,  should  be 
transformed  into  a  body  of  dignified  and 
wealthy  ecclesiastics,  burdened  by  very 
light  duties,  admission  amongst  whom 
would  be  desired  by  the  upper  classes  for 
their  sons,  from  motives  much  short  of 
the  purest.  This  happened  to  a  great 
e.xtent,  and  as  a  natural  consequence  col- 
lisions between  bishops  and  chapters  came 
to  be  of  frequent  occun-ence.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  applied  itself  to  remedy  this 
state  of  things,  and  partially  restored  the 
authority  of  the  bishops  over  the  chapters. 
A  general  right  of  visitation  and  cor- 
rection was  asserted  for  them.'  A  bishop 
was  authorised  to  convene  the  chapter 
for  anj-  afi'airs  which  did  not  solely 
concern  the  interests  of  the  canons  and 
their  dependents ;  this  power,  however, 
was  not  to  extend  to  his  vicar-general. 
At  meetings  so  convened  the  bishop  was 
to  preside,  and  due  rank  and  honour  were 
to  be  accorded  him.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  things  important  for  the  welfare  of 
the  diocese  could  at  no  time  be  settled  by 
the  bishop  without  the  consent  or  advice 
'  Sess.  vi.  c.  4,  De  Reform. 


CHAPTER,  CATIIEDEAL 


CHARACTER 


157 


of  bis  chapter;  and  in  this  respect  the 
Council  made  no  change.  Thus  the 
consent  of  the  chapter  is  required  in  the 
administration  or  alienation  of  the  see- 
property,  or  in  any  case  in  which  diminu- 
tion of  the  authority  and  privileges  of 
the  cathedral  is  threatened  ;  their  advice 
must  be  had  by  the  bishop  before  ordain- 
ing or  instituting  clerks,'  before  proclaim- 
ing public  processions,  conveniog  synods, 
&c..  Sec.  In  England,  in  consequence  of 
the  Elizabethan  schism,  the  reforming 
influence  of  the  Council  of  Trent  could 
not  assert  itself;  and  hence,  though  the 
chapters  w  ere  left,  no  attempt  was  made 
to  bring  back  their  action  and  authority 
into  that  harmony  with  those  of  the 
bishops  which  primitive  piety  required. 
Thus  the  present  singular  state  of  things 
gradually  arose.  The  dean  and  chapter  of 
an  Anglican  cathedral  have  their  own 
separate  property,  the  bishop  of  the  same 
cathedral  has  his,  and  neither  side  inter- 
feres with  the  other.  The  chapter,  say 
of  Worcester  Cathedral,  has  complete 
power  over  the  church  itself,  with  the 
exceptions  presently  to  be  mentioned ; 
but  there  its  connection  with  the  diocese 
ceases.  It  has  no  more  to  do  with  its 
government  by  the  bishop  than  the 
chapter  of  Munich  has.  At  a  vacancy  of 
the  see,  indeed,  the  chapter  meets  to  go 
through  the  mockery  of  electing  a  new 
bi>hop  :  l.ut.  as  everyone  knows,  in  the 
co»(/e  d'clirc  sent  down  to  them  from 
London,  the  name  of  the  Crown  nominee 
is  specified,  and  the  chapter  is  not  at 
liberty  to  reject  it.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  bishop  has  a  legal  right  to  a  chair  or 
throne  in  the  cathedral,  and  to  hold  con- 
firmations in  it,  and  here  his  power  ends, 
lie  has  no  authority  to  .summon  meetings 
of  the  chapter  lor  any  pm-])ose  whatever, 
nor  to  control  the  deau  or  the  canons  in 
any  way,  except  so  far  as,  in  their  merely 
clerical  capacity,  they  may  become  amen- 
able to  his  jurisdiction.  The  result  is 
that  an  Anglican  chapter  has  entirely 
lost  the  primitive  character  of  the  "  se- 
natus  episcopi,"  and  is  generally  regarded 
as  a  convenient  institution  by  which  a 
Government  can  pension  and  reward  its 
principal  clerical  supporters.  In  the 
Catholic  Church,  amidst  the  unnumbered 
ills  that  have  come  upon  it  in  every 
country  of  Europe,  it  is  consoling  to 
reflect  that  this  particidar  evil  at  least, 
so  rife  in  the  middle  ages,  has  in  our  day 
almoDt  disappeared ;  everywhere  harmony 

•  Ferraris,  "  Capituluni,"  art.  ii.  §  16. 


'  and  co-operation  reign  between  the  bishops 
and  the  cathedral  chapters. 

In  England  every  Catholic  diocese 
has  its  chapter,  presided  over  by  a  pro- 
vost, and  usually  numbering  ten  canons. 
In  Ireland,  out  of  twenty-eight  dioceses, 
ten  only  have  chapters,  but  these  are 
larger  than  in  England,  are  presided  over 
by  deans,  and  usually  contain  live  or  six 
dignitaries  or  officials  of  the  diocese, 
besides  the  Canon  Theologian  and  Canon 
Penitentiary  prescribed  by  the  Council  of 
Trent. 

CHAPTER,  CONVSN-TVAIi 

{capitulmn,  a  chapter).  It  was  and  is  the 
common  practice  of  monks  to  assemble 
every  morning  to  hear  a  chapter  of  the 
rule  read,  and  for  other  purposes.  Both 
the  meeting  itself  and  the  place  of  meet- 
iug  gradually  obtained  the  name  of 
Capitulum  or  chapter  from  this  practice. 
The  assembly  of  the  monks  of  one 
monastery  being  thus  designated  "the 
chapter,"  it  is  easy  to  understand  that 
assemblies  of  all  the  monks  in  any  pro- 
vince, or  of  the  whole  order,  came  to  be 
called  "provincial"  or  "general"  chap- 
ters. A  general  chapter,  in  the  case  of 
most  of  the  orders,  is  held  once  in  three 
years. 

CRAPTER-HOVSE.  The  place  of 
meeting  of  the  canons  of  a  cathedral,  or 
the  religious  of  a  monastery.  Till  the 
thirteenth  century  it  was  generally  rec- 
tangular; after  that  time  the  polygonal 
or  round  form  came  in,  as  at  Salisbury, 
Lincoln,  and  York.  Chapter-houses  were 
sometimes  richly  adorned;  at  West- 
minster Abbey,  for  instance,  a  band  of 
fresco,  the  painting  of  which  has  con- 
siderable merit,  ran  round  the  interior  of 
the  building;  the  remains  of  this,  lately 
opened  to  public  view,  are  of  great 
interest.  A  large  round  chapter-house, 
with  seats  for  sixty — the  number  of  the 
monks — extremely  plain  in  its  archi- 
tecture, but  effective  from  the  symmetry 
and  boldness  of  its  forms,  was  lately 
erected  by  the  Cistercians  at  their  house 
of  Mount  St.  Bernard's  in  Leicestershire. 

CHAPTERS.  [See  Three  Chap- 
TEEs,  Tin:.] 

CHARACTER  ( x"P"K^hp)-  ^  Stamp 
on  coins,  >rals,  .tc,  and  in  its  theological 
sense,  a  spiritual  marl<  indelibly  impressed 
on  the  soul,  by  bajitism,  eonlirmation,  and 
holy  order,  which  sacraments  cannot  be 
reiterated  without  sacrilege.  That  these 
sacraments  do  really  im])ress  a  character 
is  taught  by  the  Council  of  Florence,  in 
the  "decree  of  union,"  and  is  solemnly 


158  CHARACTER 


CHARITY 


affirmed  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
vii.  can.  9,  De  Sacram.  in  Gen.)  as  an 
article  of  faith.  The  Fatli.'vs  <>f  Trent 
content  themselves  with  detiiilniicliiirac-ter 
as  a  "spiritual  and  indelible  mark,"  on 
account  of  which  the  three  sacraments 
which  confer  it  cannot  be  reiterated,  But 
St.  Thomas,  who  is  followed  by  other 
theologians,  points  out  that  character 
marks  the  recipient  in  some  special  way 
for  the  worship  of  God  and  also  conveys 
certain  powers.  Thus  baptism  stamps  a 
man  indelibly  as  a  Christian  and  enables 
him  to  receive  the  other  sacraments: 
confirmation  makes  him  a  good  soldier  of 
Christ,  and  conveys  particular  powers  of 
confessing  the  faith :  by  holy  order  he 
))ecomes  a  minister  of  Christ,  and  is 
empowered  to  perform  certain  sacred 
functions.^ 

The  truth  of  the  Church's  doctrine  on 
tliis  matter  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it 
has  always  been  accounted  sacrilege  to 
reiterate  the  three  sacraments  of  baptism, 
conflriuationand order.  Theremust, there- 
fore, be  something  in  these  sacraments 
which  separates  them  from  the  other 
four,  which  may  be  lawfully  received  over 
and  over  again.  Nor  can  it  be  said  with 
any  show  of  reason  that  the  modern 
doctrine  of  character  is  an  invention  of 
the  middle  ages,  first  set  forth  by  Inno- 
cent III.  From  the  earliest  times.  Chris- 
tian writers — e.g.  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria'^— speak  of  baptism  as  "the  seal  of 
the  Lord"  (trc^paylSa  Tov  Kvpiov).  So  con- 
firmation was  known  as  the  "  seal,"  and 
it  is  still  conferred  in  the  (ireek  rite  with 
the  words  the  "seal  of  the  Holy  Ghost." 
Wliat  can  this  language  mean,  if  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  the  fact  that 
baptism,  confirmation  and  order  were 
never  reiterated,  except  this,  that  these 
sacraments  set  a  seal  on  the  soul  which 
could  never  be  blnttpd  nut,  by  sin  or  even 
by  apostasy?  Si.  Aiiiiusiiiie  gives  clear 
witness  to  the  trailitioii  nf  the  Church  on 
character,  and  a-  tlir  smsp  (if  his  state- 
ments has  1  II  .li-|Hiti  .l,       will  quote  a 

brief  summaiy  of  In-  Iriu  lung  from  the 
most  t'niini'iit  of  I'voii  stniit  (  Inirch  his- 
torians. AugustiiH',  Mivs  Nran.li'i-,''  "  in 
connection  with  baiiti<in  of'li  ii  ii>is  the 
comparison  with  the  mark  (•  cliaracter 
militaris')  \Ahicli  was  imjtrrssed  upon 
soldiers,  as  a  token  of  imjierial  service, 
and  wliich  remained  indelibly  fixed  even 
on  those  who  were  untrue  to  their  service, 

1  III.  qu.  a.  2. 

«  De  Divite  Serrtnitln,  c.  42. 
•  Kirchengescliichte,  iv.  [i.  441. 


though  in  that  case  it  only  witnessed 
against  them."  This  is  simply  the  Tri- 
dentine  doctrine  of  sacramental  character. 

CBARXTY.  The  theological  virtue 
of  Charity  may  be  described  as  "  a  virtue 
divinely  infused  by  which  we  entirely 
give  ourselves  up  to  God  as  the  Sovereign 
Good,  that  by  doing  His  will  we  may 
please  Him  and  be  united  with  Him." 
This  description  sets  forth  the  object  and 
the  substance  of  the  act  of  Charity.  The 
object  is  our  union  with  God,  for  it  is  of 
the  nature  even  of  disinterested  love  to 
seek  union  with  the  beloved  object ;  the 
substance  of  the  act  is  a  loving  gift  of 
ourselves  to  God,  which  is  also  called 
union.  "  It  pertains  to  charity,  that 
man  gives  himself  up  to  God  so  as  to 
adhere  to  Him  by  some  union  of  the  mind 
(spiritus),'"  i.e.  by  making  God  the  object 
of  his  thoughts  and  affections  (St. 
Thomas,  2»  2^,  q.  Ixxxii.  a.  2  ad  1).  St. 
Bonaventure  describes  charity  as  "a 
life  which  unites  the  lover  with  the 
beloved"  ("vita  copulans  amantem  cum 
amato."  St.  Bonav.  "Comp.  TheoL 
Verit."l.v.  c.  23.).  Considered  as  a  habit, 
charity  is  an  infused  virtue  which  elevates 
the  soul,  enables  and  disposes  it  to  bring 
forth  the  acts  proper  to  charity,  viz.  love 
of  God  above  all  for  His  own  sake,  and  of 
our  neighbour  for  the  sake  of  God. 
I  Charity  may  be  perfect  or  imperfect :  the 
former  justifies  man  by  its  own  etficacy; 
the  latter  only  in  the  Sacrament  of 
Penance.  (See  the  arts.  Attkition  and 
Contrition.)  Perfect  charity  admits  of 
three  degrees :  first,  love  of  God  above 
all  things  which  grievously  displease 
Him  ;  second,  love  above  all  things  which 
only  slightly  displease  God;  and  third, 
love  of  God  even  above  such  things  as  do 
not  displease  Him,  but  still  are  less 
pleasing  than  others.  The  first  degree 
excludes  all  mortal  sin  and  is  necessary 
and  sufficient  for  salvation.  The  second 
excludes  venial  sin  and  belongs  to  Christian 
perfection.  The  third  is  the  summit  of 
perfection  to  which  no  command  obliges 
us,  but  Divine  grace  invites.  Habitual 
charity  or  the  habit  of  charity  is  lost  by 
mortal  sin  only  (Trid.  Sess.  vi.  c.  15). 
Venial  sins,  however  numerous,  do  not 
diminish  it,  though  their  frequent  repeti- 
tion gradually  unfit  the  soul  for  the 
retention  of  charity,  just  as  disease 
gradually  unfits  the  boclv  for  the  reten- 
tion of  the  soul  (St.  Thomas,  2»  2  , 
q.  xxiv.  a.  10).  Christ  has  laid  down 
the  commandment  of  charity  as  the  first 
and  highest  of  all  commandments :  "  Thou 


CHARITY,  FATHERS  OF 


CHARITY,  WORKS  OF  159 


«hall  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  thy 
-whole  heart,  and  with  thy  whole  soul, 
and  with  thy  whole  mind,"  Matt.  xxii. 
4i7,  38.  Tliis  precept  forbids  hatred  and 
all  other  oHi'iiees  of  God  and  in  this 
respect  is  binding  at  all  times.  In  as  far 
as  it  commands  positive  acts  of  love  it  is 
not  binding  at  all  times ;  yet  a  single  act 
of  love  in  a  lifetime  is  not  sufficient  to 
comply  with  it.  Propp.  damn.  2  Mart. 
1679,  pr.  5,  6,  7.  (See  St.  Thomas, 
2*  2'*.  qq.  xxii.-xliv.  and  commentaries.) 

CHARXTT,  FATHERS  OP.  [See 
ROSMINIANS.] 

CHARITY,   SISTERS    OP.  [See 

Sisterhoods.] 

CHARITY,  WORKS  OP  CHRIS- 
TIAM'.  Our  Lord  himself  declared  "  by 
this  shall  men  know  that  ye  are  my 
disciples,  because  ye  love  one  another," 
and  the  heathen  felt  that  a  new  spiritual 
power  was  in  their  midst  when  they 
beheld  the  manifestations  of  Christian 
love.  The  fact  that  the  Christian  religion 
taught  its  disciples  to  pray  for  all  men, 
to  love  all,  and  to  sacrifice  themselves  for 
all,  is  a  most  solid  ami  a  most  touching 
proof  that  the  Christian  religion  is  divine. 
With  scarcely  an  exception,  every  work 
and  institute  of  mercy  existing  in  the 
world  is  of  Christian  origin,  direct  or 
indirect.  The  same  kind  of  proof  may 
be  brought  to  show  that  tlie  Catholic 
religion  is  the  one  true  form  of  Chris- 
tianity. No  doubt,  many  Protestnnts 
have  been  conspicuous  foi-  philantlirojiy, 
and,  as  Protestants  have  ])r,'>i'r\  i-d  much 
■of  the  Catholic  belief,  we  need  not  be 
surprised  to  find  this  belief  producing  its 
natural  fruit  in  works  of  mercy.  It  is 
true,  however,  on  tbe  other  hand,  that 
the  Catholic  Church  has  laboured  for  the 
souls  and  bodies  of  men  to  an  extent  un- 
known in  other  systems,  and  Protestants 
ofl'er  an  unconscious  testimony  to  the 
superiority  of  the  Catholic  religion  by 
imitating  many  of  its  institutes  for  the 
relief  of  the  poor  and  suffering.  ^luch 
information  on  this  head  will  be  found  in 
the  articles  on  religious  orders  founded 
for  works  of  this  kind.  Here,  we  can  only 
give  a  brief  account  of  the  different  direc- 
tions in  which  Catholic  charity  has  sho'mi 
itself.  We  shall  speak  first  of  spiritual, 
then  of  corj)oral,  mercy. 

(A.)  We  find  religious  orders  erected 
with  the  special  view  of  succouring  the 
fallen,  or  saving  those  who  are  exposed 
to  danger  of  sin.  Such  was  the  double 
■order  of  Fontevraud,  erected  for  male  and 
female  penitents,  towards  the  close  of  the 


I  eleventh  century,  by  Robert  of  Arbris- 
I  selles,  who  was  endowed  with  wonderful 
j  power  for  the  conversion  of  sinners.  The 
order  spread  over  France,  S])ain,  and 
England.  A  century  later,  the  famous 
preacherFulkof  Neuilly  and  Itavmnnd  de 
Palmariis  also  laboiired  fur  fallen  women. 
Other  orders  with  this  object  iiave  been 
founded  in  modern  times.  The  orders 
estahli-shed  for  the  instruction  of  the 
poor  in  Christian  doctrine  by  means 
of  missions,  &c.,  and  for  the  teaching  of 
youth,  both  of  the  higher  and  lo^^•er 
classes,  are  past  reckoning.  The  missions 
to  the  heathen  are  a  creation  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church.  They  were  adopted  by  Pro- 
testants long  af\er  the  rise  of  the  new 
belief,  and,  like  Sunday-schools,  missions 
to  people  already  Christian,  sisterhoods, 
&c.,  are  borrowed  from  the  old  religion. 

(B.)  The  care  of  the  Church  for  the 
bodies  of  the  poor  shines  forth,  not  only 
in  the  lives  of  saints,  but  in  the  Church's 
ordinary  law.  By  ancient  regulation,  a 
fourth  part  of  the  Church  revenues  was 
devoted  to  the  poor:  if  extreme  distress 
prevailed,  even  the  sacred  vessels  were 
sold  for  the  support  of  the  needy.  In 
many  monasteries  hundreds  of  poor  people 
were  fed  every  day ;  while  in  most  churches 
funds  for  the  poor,  called  "  mensae  pau- 
perum,"  "mensiB  S.  Sjuritus,"  were  esta- 
blished. Further,  the  Church  showed  her 
care  for  the  sufi'ering  and  the  indigent  by 
the  foundation  of  houses  in  which  they 
were  received  and  tended.  Public  institu- 
tions of  this  sort  were  scarcely  possible 
during  the  period  of  heathen  persecution; 
but  whenever  the  peace  of  the  Church 
was  secured,  the  bisho])S  began  to  have 
houses  erected  for  the  reception  of 
strangers  (Xenodochia),  of  the  sick  (Xoso- 
comia"),  of  the  poor  (Ptochotrophia),  of 
orphans  and  foundlings  (Orphanotro])hia 
and  Brephotrophia),  and  of  old  people 
(Gerontocoinia).  About  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  century,  we  hear  of  a  hospital 
for  the  sick  at  Sebaste  in  Armenia:  while 
the  hospital  erected  through  the  zeal  of 
Basil  the  Great  was  of  a  size  so  vast  that 
it  was  often  compared  to  a  town.  In  the 
different  sections  of  the  building  unfor- 
tunate people  of  every  kind  were  received 
• — the  poor,  exiles,  ieper.s,  itc.  Half  a 
century  earlier,  St.  Chrysostom  spent  all 
the  spare  revenues  of  his  church  in  re- 
storing old  hospitals  and  erecting  new 
ones.  In  the  West,  Paulinus  founded  a 
house  for  the  poor,  for  the  sick,  and  for 
widows.  It  is  to  he  observed  that  in 
Western  as  well  as  Eastern  Europe  the 


160     CHARITY,  WORKS  OF 


CHARITY,  WORKS  OF 


lirst  institution!'  of  this  kind  were  erected 
by  bishops.  Not  that  the  laity  were 
reiiiifS  in  promoting  works  of  charity. 
Fabiola,  the  friend  of  St.  Jerome,  the 
Emperor  Justinian,  the  Empress  Eudoxia, 
and  a  multitude  besides,  were  all  distin- 
guished as  the  founders  of  hospitals;  still, 
the  bishops  led  the  way. 

During  the  middle  ages,  the  Scottish 
monks — i.e.  monks  from  Scotland  or  Ire- 
land— seem  to  have  founded  the  earliest 
hospitals.  The  good  work  was  greatly 
promoted  by  Alcuin,  who  seems  to  have 
influenced  Charlemagne  in  this  direction, 
and  to  have  encouraged  the  bishops  to 
fovmd  hospitals  in  their  dioceses.  Two 
years  after  Charlemagne's  death,  a  Council 
of  Aix  la  Chapelle  issued  statutes  on  this 
matter  which  deserve  special  notice.  The 
bishops  were  required,  after  the  example 
of  the  Fathers,  to  provide  a  house  for  the 
poor,  and  to  support  it  from  the  Church 
funds.  The  canons  were  to  resign  a  tenth 
j)ait  of  their  income  in  its  favour.  It 
was  to  be  near  the  church,  and  under  the 
care  of  a  cleric,  and  in  penitential  seasons 
the  canons  were  to  wash  the  feet  of  the 
poor. 

Whether  these  hospitals  were  endowed 
by  clerics  or  lav  people,  they  were  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church,  a 
point  settled  in  the  East,  e.ff.  by  the 
ordinances  of  Justinian,  and  in  the  West  | 
by  Charlemagne  and  the  decrees  of 
councils  and  Popes.  Even  if  a  prince 
founded  a  hospital,  still  it  was  not  as  a 
secular  ruler,  but  as  a  Christian,  that  he 
did  so ;  it  was  not  state  policy,  but  the 
living  spirit  of  Christianity  which  had 
called  liospitals  into  being :  it  was  not 
State  reven\ies,  but  gifts  bestowed,  some- 
times by  ecclesiastics,  sometimes  by  secu- 
lar riders,  sometimes  by  private  indivi- 
duals, but  always  for  the  love  of  God, 
which  maintained  them  after  their  founda- 
tion. The  Council  of  Trent,  again,  en- 
forces the  obligation  which  lay  upon 
bishops  of  watching  over  benevolent  in- 
stitutions. And  the  Church  did  her  work 
well.  "  With  such  intelligence,"  says  Von 
Raumer,  "  was  the  inner  management  [of 
such  institutions]  condui-tcd  as  in  truth 
to  excite  astonishment  and  admiration." 
True,  even  in  the  middle  ages  lay  ad- 
ministrators did  occasionally,  to  the 
great  injury  of  the  su tiering  poor,  usurp 
the  control  of  hospitals.  But  it  was  the 
Reformation  which  began  to  sever  on 
principle  the  bond  which  connected  works 
of  benevolence  with  the  power  of  the 
Church  till  modern  statecraft  completely 


snapped  the  link  and  substituted  natural 
for  Christ  ian  benevolence.  No  Catholic  can 
appi-ove  of  a  change  which  is  opjjosed  to 
the  whole  tradition  of  the  Church  and  to 
every  Catholic  instinct.  Nor  do  results 
recommend  the  so-called  emancipation  of 
benevolence  from  the  Church.  The  feel- 
ing of  brotherhood  between  rich  and  poor 
has  been  changed  to  a  great  extent  into 
positive  enmity,  and  the  State  itself  has 
suftered  in  consequence  from  the  spread 
of  Socialism.  The  poor  accept  State  aid 
without  gratitude,  because  it  is  ver}-  often 
given  without  real  charity.  Every  expe- 
rienced person  knows  the  horror  with 
which  they  regard  the  workhouse,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  readiness  with 
which  indigent  Catholics  enter  a  house  of 
refuge  cared  for  by  religious — such,  for 
example,  as  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor 
or  the  Sisters  of  Nazareth. 

This  leads  us  to  speak  of  another 
characteristic  feature  in  Catholic  charity. 
It  was  not  only,  or  even  chiefly,  that  the 
Church  founded  houses  for  the  relief  of 
the  poor  and  suffering ;  she  infused  into 
her  children  a  spirit  which  made  them 
count  it  an  honour  to  tend  their  sufferings 
brethren,  and,  if  need  be,  to  sacrifice  life 
itself  in  their  behalf.  From  early  times, 
bishops,  like  St.  Basil  the  Great  and  St. 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  found  time  to  tend 
the  sick  and  minister  to  them  with  their 
own  hands.  Persons  of  the  highest  rank, 
such  as  Placilla,  wife  of  Theodosius  the 
Great,  performed  the  most  menial  services 
for  them.  In  the  middle  ages,  St.  Eliza- 
beth of  Hungary,  from  the  time  of  her 
widowhood — i.f.  from  her  twenty-first 
year — went  daily  to  the  hospital,  gave  the 
patients  food  and  medicine,  bound  up  their 
wounds  and  applied  remedies  to  ulcers, 
from  the  very  sight  of  which  others 
shrank  in  horror.  Everybody  knows  the 
love  St.  Francis  had  for  the  poor, and  his 
tender  care  of  the  suffering,  particularly 
of  lepers.  Whole  orders  were  founded 
for  this  personal  attendance  on  helpless 
sufferers,  and  the  poor  learned  to  love 
those  who  were  born  to  wealth,  when 
they  saw  the  richest  and  the  noblest 
among  them  making  themselves  the  ser- 
vants of  the  poor ;  they  learned  to  bear 
their  own  poverty  patiently,  when  they 
saw  the  rich  counting  it  an  honour  to  be 
poor  for  Christ's  sake.  Among  such  orders 
we  may  name  the  Canons  Regular  of  St. 
Antony  of  Vienne,  founded  by  a  French 
nobleman,  Gaston,  towards  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  century,  for  the  succour  of 
persons  afflicted  with  "  St.  Antony's  fire," 


CIIAKITY,  WOlHvS  OF 


CIIAKTOrilYLAX 


161 


a  liorrible  disease,  then  rafring  in  West- 
ern Europe;  the  Jesuats,  a  confraternity 
formed  by  B.  John  Colouibino,  which 
occupied  itself  in  the  preparation  of  medi- 
cines, Ac,  for  the  sick ;  the  "  Clerks  Regu- 
lar, Ministers  of  the  Sick,"'  also  called  "  the 
Fathers  of  a  Good  Death,"  established 
at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  by 
St.  C'amillus  of  Lellis  ;  the  "Si.-ters  nf 
Charity,"  founded  by  St.  Vincent  of  Paul; 
and  other  orders  founded  for  the  same 
ends  and  animated  by  the  snme  heroic 
zeal,  the  name  of  which  is  legion. 

The  Catholic  Church  has  also  allevi- 
ated the  hardships  of  jirison  life.  The  lot 
of  prisoners  wa.'^  changed  wherever  Chris- 
tianity became  the  religion  of  the  State. 
The  sexes  were  separated  ;  care  was  taken 
that  they  should  never  lack  the  consola- 
tions of  religion ;  greater  liberty  and  better 
food  were  allowed  to  them  on  Sundays ; 
the  bishop  had  to  visit  the  prisons  every 
week,  and  to  see  that  there  were  no 
abuses  in  the  administration  of  discipline. 
In  the  middle  ages,  the  Church  exercised 
her  tempering  and  restraining  influence 
on  the  roughness  and  barbarity  of  the 
times.  During  that  period,  the  constant 
wars  subjected  many  innocent  persons  to 
imprisonment;  and,  accordingly,  it  was 
common  for  pious  persons  to  devote  large 
sums  of  money  to  the  redemption  of  cap- 
tives. Help  was  given  in  other  ways,  but 
all  the  works  of  mercy  to  captives  were 
surpassed  by  the  Trinitarian  Order — an 
institute  devoted  to  the  redemption  of 
captives  from  slavery  under  the  Saracens,  j 
The  rule  of  the  Order  of  the  Trinity  was  - 
approved  by  Innocent  III.,  in  1198;  in 
1223,  a  similar  order,  "for  the  redemp- 
tion of  captives,"  was  established  in  Spain. 
In  the  seventeenth  century,  St.  Vincent  of 
Paul  laboured  for  the  galley-slaves,  and 
changed  places  which  had  been  like  hell 
on  earth  into  abodes  of  peniince,  resigna-  ; 
tion  and  peace.  The  Sisters  of  Notre  [ 
Dame  de  la  Charitt?,  of  St.  Joseph,  &c.,  ' 
have  undertaken  the  superintendence  of 
female  prisoners,  and  till  lately  almost 
every  prison  for  women  in  France  and 
Belgium  was  under  the  care  of  nuns. 
Statesmen  themselves  have  admitted  that 
by  religious,  and  religious  only,  could  , 
prisons  be  successfully  managed.  j 

We  pass  over,  for  want  of  space,  the 
orders  devoted  to  the  care  of  the  insane,  ' 
the  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  &c.,  and  will 
only  touch  in  conclusion  on  one  other  j 
work  of  Catholic  charity.  In  early  times 
and  in  the  middle  ages  it  was  often  diffi- 
cult to  borrow  money  except  at  usurious  [ 


rates.  To  meet  this  evil,  the  Franciscan 
Father  Barnabas  of  Terni,  under  Piu«  II, 
(14.58-(i4), erected  thefirst  Monte  di  Pieta, 
at  Perugia,  in  the  States  of  the  Church. 
The  rich  contributed  capital,  from  chari- 
table motives,  and  this  was  lent  to  the 
poor,  on  security  indeed,  but  at  a  very 
low  rate  of  interest.  Soon  almost  every 
city  in  Italy  had  its  Monte  di  Pietii. 
Several  Popes,  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council, 
and  the  Council  of  Trent,  confirmed  these 
institutions,  which  in  past  times  produced 
incalculable  good. 

No  doubt  many  of  these  orders  and 
institutes  of  charity  fell  away  from  their 
first  zeal,  and  were  abused  for  seKish  ends. 
But  holy  souls  have  never  been  wanting 
to  reform  wliat  was  amiss,  and  to  come 
with  fresh  help  to  the  relief  of  their 
brethren.  The  words  of  the  Psalm  have 
been  constantly  fulfilled  by  Christ  in  his 
Church  :  "He  will  judge  the  poor  of  his 
people,  and  save  the  children  of  the  poor." 
(From  Hefele,  "Beitriige  zur  Kirchen- 
geschichte,  Archiiologie,"  &c.) 

CHARTOPHYl.AX(more  often  spelt 
Carthojihylnx).  The  name  signifies  "keeper 
of  the  records  "  merely,  and  such  was  the 
original  function  of  the  ecclesiastics  who 
held  the  office  in  the  Eastern  Church, 
answering  to  that  oi  bibliotliecarius  among 
the  Latins ;  but  in  course  of  time  other 
duties,  carrying  with  them  a  correspond- 
ing increase  of  charge,  influence,  and  dig- 
nity, were  imposed  on  the  chartophylax. 
Yet  it  appears  from  the  cnnons  of  Nice 
that  in  the  fourth  century  the  chartophy- 
lax of  a  cathedral  was  inferior  in  rank  to 
the  archdeacon,  and  was  bound  to  obey 
him.  But  at  Constantinople,  the  power 
and  pre-eminence  of  the  chartophylax,  as 
a  kind  of  secretary  or  grand  chamberlain 
to  the  Patriarch,  attained  after  a  time  to 
a  greit  height.  An  exact  appreciation  of 
his  office,  and  of  the  dignities  attaching 
to  it,  as  they  stood  in  the  ninth  century, 
is  given  by  a  contemporary  writer — Anas- 
tasius  the  bibliotliecarian.  The  post  of 
chartophylax  in  other  cathedral  churches 
in  the  J']ast  appears  to  have  been  assimi- 
lated more  or  less  to  that  of  the  church 
of  Constantino])le;  and  hence  this  official, 
representing  the  bishop  and  exercising  his 
jurisdiction,  held  in  the  Eastern  nearly 
the  same  position  as  the  archdeacon  in 
the  Western  Church.  Even  at  this  day 
the  Uniate  Greeks  of  the  Austrian  Empire 
retain  the  office;  with  them,  "the  cartho- 
phylax  directs  the  business  of  the  episcopal 
chancery,  and  is  one  of  the  members  of 
the  metropolitan  or  cathedral  chapter, 


1G2 


CIIARTREUX 


CHASUBLE 


along  with  the  arcbpriest  or  chief  provost, 
the  archdeacon  or  lector,  the  pritnicerius 
or  precentor,  the  ecclesiarch  or  church- 
warden, and  the  scholaster  or  master  of 
ceremonies."  (See  the  rest  of  the  article 
by  Hausle,  in  AVetzer  and  AVelte.) 

CHARTREVX.  [See  Cakthusians.] 

CHASVBXiE  (Lat.  cnsula,  panula, 
planeta  ;  and  in  Greek,  (f)eK6viov  or  (^e- 
\u)vwv,  from  (\)aivoKr)i,  or  <^fXoi/?7f,  identi- 
cal with  panvld).  The  chief  garment  of 
a  priest  celebrating  Mass.  It  is  worn  out- 
side the  other  vestments.  Among  the 
CTreeli?,  it  still  retains  its  ancient  form  of 
a  large  round  mantle.  Among  the  Latins, 
its  size  has  been  curtailed,  but  it  still 
covers  the  priest  on  both  sides,  and  de- 
scends nearly  to  the  knees.  In  France, 
Belgium,  and  very  often  in  England,  a 
cross  is  marked  on  the  back :  in  Italy, 
this  cross  is  usually  in  front.  In  the 
West,  all  who  celebrate  Mass  wear  the 
same  chasuble,  but  among  the  Greeks,  the 
chasuble  of  a  bishop  is  ornamented  with 
a  number  of  crosses  {(paivoXwv  TroXva-rav- 
pwv),  while  an  archbishop  wears  a  differ- 
ent vestment  altogether,  viz.  the  aaKKos, 
whicli  is  supposed  to  resemble  the  coat  of 
Christ  during  His  Passion.  In  Russia, 
even  bishops,  since  tlie  time  of  Peter  the 
Great,  have  worn  the  o-ukxos. 

The  chasuble  is  derived  from  a  dress 
once  commonly  worn  in  daily  life.  Classi- 
cal writers  often  mention  the  "  ptcnula," 
or  large  oviter  garment  which  the  Romans 
wore  on  journeys  or  in  military  service. 
"Casula,'  from  which  our  word  chasuble 
is  obtained,  does  not  occur  in  pure  La- 
tinity.  It,  was,  however,  used  in  later  ages, 
as  an  equivalent  for  the  "paenula,"  or 
mantle.  We  fir.<t  meet  with  the  word  in 
the  will  of  Cffisarius  of  Aries  (about  540), 
and  in  the  biography  of  his  contempo- 
rar}'  Eulgentius  of  Ruspe.  In  both  in- 
stimc'.-i.  '-casula"  denotes  a  garment  used 
ill  cninuMii  lifV>.  Isidore  of  Seville  (about 
(].;())  us('>  Ihe  word  in  tlin  same  sense, 
and  e.xplains  it  as  a  diminutive  nf  "  casa," 
because,  like  a  little  liotisc,  it  iDvi'red  the 
whole  body.  Tlie  same  aiitlior  tells  us 
that  "  planeta "  comes  from  the  Greek 
TrXawo),  "  to  wander,"  because  its  ample 
folds  seemed  to  wander  over  the  body. 
It  is  plain,  from  the  examples  given  by 
Diicange,  that  "planeta,"  like  "casula" 
and  "  pajnula,"  denoted  a  dress  worn  by 
laymen  as  well  as  clerics. 

It  is  in  tlie  former  half  of  the  sixth 
century  that  we  find  the  first  traces  of 
the  chasuble  aa  an  ecclesiastical  vestment. 
In  the  famous  mosaic  at  San  Vitale,  in 


Ravenna,  the  archbishop,  Maximus,  is 
represented  W"earing  a  vestment  which  is 
clearly  the  chasuble,  and  over  which  the 
pallium  is  suspended.  The  chasuble  has 
the  same  shape  which  prevailed  till  the 
eleventh  century.  The  Fourth  Council 
of  Toledo,  in  638,  makes  express  mention 
of  the  "  planeta,"  as  a  priestly  vestment. 
Germanus,  Archbishop  of  Constantinople, 
about  715,  uses  the  word  (j)(\(ovtov  in  tlie 
same  technical  sense :  while  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ninth  century,  Amalarius  of 
Metz  speaks  of  the  "casula"  as  the  "gene- 
ral garment  of  sacred  leaders"  ("generale 
indumentum  sacrorum  ducum  ").  Almost 
at  the  same  time,  Rabanus  Maurus  gives 
the  derivation  of  "casula"  quoted  above 
from  Isidore  of  Seville,  and  goes  on  to 
say  that  it  is  "  the  last  of  all  the  vest- 
ments, which  covers  and  preserves  all  the 
rest."  Later  authors  of  the  middle  age 
copy  their  predecessors  ;  and  even  Inno- 
cent III,  adds  nothing  of  his  own  save 
certain  mystical  meanings  implied  in  the 
use  of  the  vestment. 

To  sum  up,  the  chasuble  was  first  of 
all  an  ordinary  dress;  from  the  sixth 
century  at  latest  it  was  adapted  to  the 
use  of  the  Church,  tiU  gradually  it  be- 
came an  ecclesiastical  dress  pure  and 
simple.  But  did  it  at  once  become  dis- 
tinctive of  the  priesthood  ?  The  question 
admits  of  no  certain  answer.  The  eighth 
"  Ordo  Romanus  "  dist  inctly  prescribes  that 
acolytes,  in  their  ordination,  should  receive 
the  "planeta"  or  chasuble.  Amalarius,  in 
like  manner,  declares  that  the  chasuble 
belongs  to  all  clerics.  On  the  other  hand, 
almost  all  ancient  writers  who  refer  to 
the  Church  use  of  the  chasuble  regard  it 
as  the  distinctive  dress  of  priests.  Cardi- 
nal Bona  mentions  this  difficulty  without 
venturing  to  explain  it.  Hefele  suggests 
that  as  the  Greek  (})fX6viov  signifies  (1)  a 
chasuble  in  the  modem  sense,  (2)  a  kind 
of  collar,  reaching  from  the  neck  to  the 
elbows,  which  is  worn  by  lectors  or 
readers,  so  the  Latin  word  "  planeta  "  may 
have  been  also  employed  as  the  name  of 
two  distinct  vestments.  But  even  if  this 
explanation  is  correct,  the  fact  remains 
that  even  now  the  deacon  and  subdeacon 
in  High  Mass  during  Advent  and  Lent 
wear  chasubles  folded  in  front,  laying 
them  aside  while  they  sing  the  Gospel 
and  Epistle.  This  custom  is  mentioned 
by  Hugo  of  St.  Victor  (d.  1140). 

The  form  of  the  chasuble  has  under- 
gone great  alterations.  The  ancient 
chasuble,  which  enveloped  the  whole 
body,  was  found  very  inconvenient,  and 


CHERUBIM 


CHINESE  RITES  163 


hence,  in  the  twelfth  century,  it  was 
curtailed  at  the  sides,  so  as  to  leave  the 
arms  free.  Of  this  kind  is  a  chasuble 
said  to  have  been  used  by  St.  Bernard. 
In  shape,  it  resembles  what  is  now 
known  as  the  Gothic  chasuble,  althouo;h 
tlie  ornaments  upon  it  are  not  Gothic, 
hut  Romanesque.  At  a  later  date,  the 
chasuble  was  still  further  curtailed,  till 
in  the  Rococo  perioc  all  resemblance  to 
the  original  type  disapj^eared.  However, 
even  in  Italy,  attempts  were  made  to  re- 
call the  ancient  shape,  at  least  to  a  certain 
extent.  Thus  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  in 
a  provincial  council,  ordered  that  the 
chasubles  for  the  Ambrosian  rite  should 
be  about  four  and  a  half  feet  wide,  and 
should  reach  nearly  to  the  heels. 

Various  symboUcal  significations  have 
been  given  to  the  chasuble.  The  earliest 
writers  make  it  a  ligure  of  charity,  which, 
as  Rabanus  Muurus  says,  "  is  eminent 
above  all  the  other  virtues."  This  is 
the  most  popular  explanation  of  the  sym- 
bolism ;  but  we  also  find  it  regarded  by 
an  ancient  writer  as  typical  of  good 
works;  ancient  Sacramentaries  and  Mis- 
sals consider  it  as  the  figure  of  sacer- 
dotal justice,  or  of  humility,  charity,  and 
peace,  which  are  to  cover  and  adorn  the 
priest  on  every  side  ;  while  the  prayer  in 
the  Roman  Missal  connects  the  chasuble 
with  the  yoke  of  Christ.  (Hefele,  "Bei- 
trage  zur  Kirchengeschichte,  Archaologie 
und  Liturgik,"  p.  195  seq.) 

CRERTTBZIVI.  Superhuman  beings, 
often  mentioned  in  Scripture.  They 
guarded  the  entrance  to  Paradise  after 
the  fall ;  the  images  of  two  cherubim 
overshadowed  the  ark;  God  is  represented 
in  the  Psalms  as  sitting  or  throned  upon 
the  cherubim ;  Ezekiel  saw  them  in  vision, 
with  wings,  with  human  hands,  full  of 
eyes  and  with  four  faces,  viz.  those  of  a 
man,  lion,  ox,  and  eagle.  The  Fathers 
generally  are  agreed  in  regarding  them  as 
angels ;  for  the  opinion  of  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia,'  who  denied  this,  seems  to 
be  quite  singular  in  Christian  antiquity. 
They  form  the  second  among  the  nine 
orders  of  angels.  "What  the  meaning  of 
the  word  is,  it  is  difficvdt  even  to  con- 
jecture. Most  of  the  Fathers  explain  the 
word  as  meaning  knowledge,  or  the  full- 
ness of  knowledge;  but,  as  Petavius  justly 
remarks,  this  derivation  finds  no  support 
either  in  Hebrew  or  Chaldee.  Many  con- 
jectural derivations  have  been  suggested 
by  modern  scholars.  In  a  cuneiform  in- 
scription copied  by  M.  Lenormant,  "  Kiru- 
'  Petav.  De  Angelxs,  lib.  ii.  cap.  3. 


bu  "  is  a  synonym  of  the  Steer-god,  whose 
winged  image  filled  the  place  of  guardian 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Assyrian  palaces. 
With  this  word,  the  Hebrew  cherub  may 
be  connected,  and  the  etymology  may 
belong  to  some  non-Semitic  language.' 

CHZliD  or  MARY.  About  the 
year  1560  a  Jesuit  professor  at  the 
Roman  College,  named  John  Leonius  (?), 
used  to  assemble  a  number  of  his 
students  after  lecture  to  give  them 
pious  discourses  and  to  guide  them  in 
their  spiritual  difficulties.  These  gather- 
ings were  placed  under  the  protection  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin.  The  members 
undertook  to  do  their  best  to  advance  in 
piety  and  learning;  they  heard  Mass 
every  morning ;  once  a  week  they  went 
to  confession,  and  once  a  month  to  Holy 
Communion.  On  Sundays  they  visited 
the  hospitals  and  performed  other  works 
of  mercy.  The  young  society  soon  began 
to  attract  attention.  Gregory  XIII. ,  in 
158-4,  gave  it  his  hearty  approval. 
Numerous  branches  were  formed  in 
imitation  of  the  original.  The  only  bond 
of  union  between  them,  besides  identity 
of  aim  and  practices,  was  aggregation  to 
the  parent  congregation  in  Rome  which 
is  called  "  Prima  Primaria."  The  members 
were  everywhere  distinguished  for  their 
virtue,  and  were  looked  upon  as  the 
champions  of  orthodoxy  against  heretics 
and  infidels.  In  1748  Benedict  XIV., 
himself  a  member,  published  the  "  Golden 
Bull,"  Glorios(B  Domina,  in  which  the 
confraternity  was  strongly  commended 
and  enriched  with  numerous  indulgences. 
The  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  France, 
in  1762,  where  the  "  Congregation,"  as  it 
was  called,  especially  flourished,  led  to 
the  suppression  of  the  confraternity  there. 
After  the  Revolution  it  revived ;  and 
during  the  Restoration  a  fierce  battle 
raged  between  the  "  Congregationistes  " 
and  the  Liberals,  ending  in  tlieir  suppres- 
sion once  more  in  1830.  It  has  since, 
however,  been  re-established.  Pius  IX. 
and  Leo  XIII.  have  both  highly  favoured 
the  institute. 

The  confraternity  was  thrown  open  to 
women  and  young  girls,  and  in  this  form 
is  perhaps  more  familiar  to  us  than  the 
male  branch  from  which  it  originally 
sprang.  (See  "  La  Congregation,"  by  M. 
de  Graudmaison,  and  the  art.  Sodality.) 

CHZX.ZA.sivc.    [See  Millennium.] 

CHZirESS  RZTES.  The  Jesuit  mis- 
sionary St.  FrancisXavier  de.sired  to  preach 
the  Gospel  in  China,  but  his  wish  was  not 

I  See  Cheyne  on  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  27.'?. 

M  2 


1C4 


CHINESE  RITES 


CHINESE  RITES 


fulfilled,  and  he  died  in  the  forty-fifth 
year  of  his  age,  a.d.  1552,  on  the  little 
island  of  Sancian,  close  to  the  great  empire 
which  was  the  ohject  of  his  longing. 
His  religious  brethren  entered  on  the 
labour  which  he  had  left  undone,  and 
worked  with  great  apparent  success. 
Father  Ricci's  mathematical  knowledge 
secured  the  favour  of  the  Imperial  Court. 
He  devoted  himself  to  the  mission  twenty- 
seven  years  (1582-1610),  and  left  behind 
liim  300  churches,  one  of  which  was  in 
the  capital,  Pekin.  A  German  Jesuit, 
Schall,  who  came  on  the  field  in  1622, 
was  also  a  distinguished  mathematician. 
Shortly  afterwards  a  great  change  oc- 
curred in  the  fortunes  of  the  Chinese 
mission.  It  had  been  left  entirely  in 
Jesuit  hands  ;  indeed,  Gregory  XIII.  had 
in  1585  forbidden  the  members  of  other 
orders  to  enter  China.  But  this  restric- 
tion was  removed,  and  in  1631  the  first 
Dominicjin  missionaries  appeared,  who 
were  followed  in  1633  by  another  Domi- 
nican, Morales,  and  by  Franciscans.  Tbe 
new  missionaries,  and  especially  Morales, 
accused  the  Jesuits  of  gaining  so-called 
converts  by  an  unworthy  compliance  with 
Chinese  idolatry  and  superstition ;  and 
the  famous  controversy  on  the  Chinese 
rites  began.  AVe  shall  have  occa.sion  to 
enter  upon  the  precise  nature  of  the 
Jesuit  concessions  later.  Here  we  con- 
tent ourselves  with  stating  the  main  con- 
tention as  given  by  the  Jesuit  advocate 
Pray  ("Hist.  Controversiarum  de  Rit. 
Sinicis,"  p.  9  scq.).  Ricci  and  his  suc- 
cessors, Pray  tells  us,  cousidered  the  offer- 
ings of  food  and  the  marks  of  homage 
given  to  the  dead  in  general,  and  to  Con- 
fucius the  great  Chinese  philosopher  in 
particular,  as  certainly  free  from  idolatry, 
and  probably  even  from  superstition. 
Further,  the  Jesuits  allowed  their  con- 
verts to  use  as  the  name  of  God  the 
Chinese  words  signifying  "Lord  of 
Heaven, "or  "  Lord  of  the  Sky,"or  even  the 
single  word  Tien — "sky"  or  "heaven," 
and  they  exhibited  in  their  churches 
tablets  with  the  inscription  "  King  tien," 
"adore  the  sky."  These  were  the  prac- 
tices known  as  the  Chinese  rites  or 
usages. 

In  1643  the  Dominicans  sent  Morales 
to  Rome,  and  he  submitted  to  the  Con- 
gregation of  Propaganda  seventeen  pro- 
positions on  the  Chinese  usages  tolerated 
by  the  Jesuits.  These  usages,  after  con- 
sultation with  theologians  and  the  Roman 
Inquisition,  were  prohibited  by  Innocent 
X.,  tin  the  Holy  See  should  otherwise 


determine.  Meanwhile,  the  Jesuit  ^lar- 
tini  tried  to  convince  the  authorities  at 
Rome  that  the  impugned  customs  had 
nothing  to  do  with  religion,  and  that  the 
success  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  China 
depended  on  their  being  permitted.  He 
obtained  from  tlie  Inquisition  a  decree, 
confirmed  in  1656  by  Alexander  VII. 
This  edict  allowed  the  practice  of  the 
Chinese  rites,  provided  they  possessed  a 
merely  civil  character,  were  free  from  all 
admixture  of  idolatry,  and  could  not  be 
omitted  without  grave  h'^s  to  the  Chinese 
Christians.  The  complaints,  however, 
were  renewed  by  three  Lazarists  whom 
Alexander  VII.  had  made  vicars-apo- 
stolic, and  Clement  IX.  in  1669  renewed 
the  decrees  of  1645  and  1656,  with  a 
significant  addition  in  which  the  regulars 
were  ordered  to  obey  the  vicars-apo- 
stolic. ^Tiile  these  disputes  were  dividing 
the  missionaries  into  two  hostile  camps, 
the  Jesuits  were  rising  in  the  favour  of 
the  Court,  and  in  1002  the  emperor 
Khang  Hi  publicly  anndiinced  that  the 
Jesuits  had  full  leave  to  preach,  and  his 
own  subjects  to  embrace  Christianity. 
Still  the  opposition  of  the  other  mission- 
aries lasted.  The  Lazarist  vicar-apo- 
stolic forbade  the  rites  in  1693,  and  sent  a 
priest  to  Rome  three  years  later  to  justify 
the  step  which  had  been  taken.  Inno- 
cent XII.  died  before  the  commission  he 
had  appointed  had  settled  the  question, 
but  his  successor  Clement  XI.  took  the 
matter  vigorously  in  hand,  and,  desirous 
of  full  information,  sent  Tournon,  patri- 
arch of  Antioch,  to  China  as  Apostolic 
legate  in  1703.  After  examination  of 
the  points  at  issue,  Tournon  in  1707  con- 
demned the  Chinese  rites  as  idolatrous, 
and  in  consequence  of  his  evangelical 
courage  was  imprisoned  by  the  Chinese 
emperor.  It  is  a  melancholy  fact  that 
the  Portuguese  at  Macao  were  not  ashamed 
to  act  as  his  gaolers,  and  there  he  died  in 
1710,  after  his  elevation  to  the  dignity  of 
cardinal.  The  Jesuits  and  bishops  who 
thought  with  them  appealed  against  the 
legates  decision  to  Rome:  but  they  found 
less  favour  there  than  at  Pekin.  Clement 
XI.  confirmed  decrees  of  the  Inquisition 
(1709  and  1710)  in  accordance  witli 
Tournon's  decision,  and  finally  closed  the 
question  by  the  Bull  "Ex  ilia  die"  (1715). 
Every  Catholic  missionary  in  China  was 
required  to  promise  on  oath  all  possible 
resistance  to  the  rites.  It  was  in  vain 
that  a  new  legate,  Mezzabarba,  tried  to 
modify  Clement's  ruling.  The  prohibi- 
tion was  renewed  in  all  its  force,  the 


CHINESE  RITES 


CHINESE  RITES  1G5 


concessions  of  Mezzabarba  recalled,  and 
the  oath  again  exacted  bv  Benedict 
XIV. 

We  have  abstamed  of  set  purpose 
from  discussing  the  serious  charges  of 
rebellion  against  and  cruelty  to  Cardinal 
Tournon  which  are  made  against  the 
Jesuits.  They  are  contained  in  the 
"  Anecdotes  sur  I'^tat  de  la  religion  dans 
la  Chine  "  (first  volume,  1733),  by  Viller- 
maules ;  in  the  "  Memorie  Storiche  del 
Cardinale  di  Tournon  ''  (Venice,  1761-2), 
prepared,  as  is  commonly  alleged,  by  that 
determined  opponent  of  the  Jesuits,  Car- 
dinal Passionei ;  and  in  the  Lazarist  "  Me- 
moirs of  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission  " 
(vol.  iv.-viii.),  collated  with  otlier  autho- 
rities in  the  Vatican  library  by  Father 
Theiner,  but  suppressed  by  Pius  IX.,  and 
now  an  exceedingly  rare  book.  The 
charges  have  often  been  repeated,  e.g.  by 
the  Protestant  historian  Mosheim,  and  they 
are  answered  by  Pray  in  the  work  men- 
tioned above.  The  writer  of  this  article 
dues  not  possess  the  knowledge  which 
would  entitle  him  to  an  opinion,  and 
what  he  has  read  on  either  side  proceeds 
from  writers  too  much  influenced  by  party 
spirit  to  inspire  mnfidence.  But,  after  all, 
the  conduct  of  the  Jesuits  to  Tournon  is 
not  a  question  of  theological  moment 
It  affects  the  conduct  of  individuals,  or 
at  most  of  a  religious  order,  but  it  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  great  principles  at 
stake.  Fortunately  these  principles  have 
been  stated  with  Christian  moderation 
and  with  rigid  impartiality  by  the  cele- 
brated Dominican,  Natalis  Alexander. 
It  is  only  right  to  compare  his  account 
with  that  of  Pray,  but  we  are  confident 
that  the  result  can  only  enhance  the 
credit  of  Natalis  Alexander.  Besides 
this,  a  very  clear  and  authoritative  state- 
ment of  the  controversy  will  be  found  in 
the  decree  of  the  Roman  Inquisition 
which  bears  date  November  20,  1704, 
and  is  printed  at  length  in  the  "  M^moires 
pour  Rome  sur  I'etat  de  la  religion  chr6- 
tieime  dans  la  Chine"  (1709;  no  place 
of  publication  given). 

It  is  well  known  tbat  Confucius,  who 
lived  about  600  years  before  Christ,  was 
in  no  sense  a  religious  teacher,  or  even  a 
philosopher,  if  by  that  term  we  under- 
stand one  who  investigates  the  idtimate 
causes  of  things.  He  laid  down  rules  of 
life  based  on  utility,  inculcated  great  re- 
spect fur  order  and  for  public  authority, 
and  great  reverence  for  ancestors,  for 
ancient  custom,  for  all,  in  short,  which 
represented  the  traditions  of  Chinese  j 


civilisation.  For  the  rest,  he  was  con- 
tent to  let  religion  alone  ;  and  the  ruling 
classes  then,  as  now,  were  mostly  atheistic, 
their  atheism,  however,  being  peifectly 
compatible  with  belief  in  fate,  and  in  a 
quasi-immortality  of  the  soul,  so  far  as 
this,  that  the  forces  which  constitute 
man's  life  were  su])posed  to  endure  after 
death  mingled  with  other  powers  of 
natui-e,  and  with  a  boundless  toleration 
of  popular  superstition  as  a  means  of  re- 
straint suitable  to  the  multitude.  Now 
the  Jesuits  may  have  had  some  excuse 
for  allowing  the  neophytes  to  call  God 
the  "Lord  of  Heaven,"  or  even  "Heaven," 
though  apparently  the  Chinese  literati 
used  these  terms  in  a  pantheistic  and 
materialistic  sense.  Even  here  they  went 
to  lengths  manifestly  dangerous  and  even 
reprehensible,  and  we  cannot  wonder  that 
the  Roman  Inquisition  refused  to  sanc- 
tion the  inscription  "  Adore  the  sky  "  as 
suitable  for  a  Christian  church.  (See  the 
second  article  in  the  questions  proposed  to 
the  Inquisition.)  But  the  worship  of  an- 
cestors, and  especially  of  Confucius,  was 
far  more  scandalous.  We  will  quote  a  de- 
scription of  this  worship  by  a  Jesuit  Father, 
Le  Comte,  who  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  dispute.  "  They  prostrate  themselves 
before  the  name  of  Confucius,  befoie  the 
name  and  the  tomb  of  the  ancestors. 
Ofi'erings  are  made  of  food  and  vegetables. 
Incense  is  burnt.  The  duty  is  acknow- 
ledged of  respect  for  the  one  (Confucius) 
and  gratitude  to  the  others  (the  ancestors). 
Such  has  been  their  immemorial  practice; 
this  is  the  essence  of  the  rites.  That,  then, 
is  good  and  laudable.  What  more  do  we 
want?  We  do  not  even  ask  so  much,  and 
we  limit  ourselves  to  that  which  is  in- 
dispensably attached  to  the  functions  of 
l)ublic  olhce "  (Lettre  du  R.  P.  le 
Comte,  p.  74;  apud  N.  A.  I^ettre  1,  p. 
25).  Even  this  is  a  very  inadequate  ac- 
count. Confucius  was  venerated  as  the 
greatest  of  the  sons  of  man  (see  decree 
of  the  Inquisition  in  1704,  super  iv.  artic.) 
He  was  addressed  in  these  words — "  All 
hasten  to  otter  thee  sacrifices  and  prayei-s. 
....  Let  thy  spirit  come  towards  us " 
("  Apologie  des  Dominicains,"  append, 
pp.  37  and  211 ;  apud  N.  X.  Lettre  1, 
p.  41).  Ancestors  were  worshipped  ac- 
cording to  a  maxim  of  Confucius,  as 
actually  pi'esent,  and  they  were  invited 
to  rest  in  their  pictures.  Even  the  athe- 
istic Mandarins  believed  that  the  subtle 
air  of  the  sky  into  which  the  souls  of 
the  dead  had  been  dissolved  was  at- 
tracted to  earth  by  sacrifice  and  the 


166  CHIVALRY 


CHIVALRY 


other  rites,  and  devotion  to  ancestors  was 
believed  to  ensure  good  luck. 

The  ruin  of  the  Chinese  mission  is 
said  to  have  followed  the  decision  hostile 
to  the  "  rites."  But  ruin  was  preferable 
to  success,  bought  so  dear.  No  one  who 
has  read  St.  Paul's  First  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians  can  reasonably  doubt  what 
his  decision  would  have  been.  Christ  has 
no  fellowship  with  idols,  and  the  religion 
which  is  from  above,  as  another  great 
authority  reminds  us,  is  first "  pure,"  then, 
and  only  then,  "  peaceable." 

[The  authorities  consulted  for  this  arti- 
cle are  Pray,  "  Hist.'Controvers.  de  Rit. 
Sin."  Buda-Pesth,  1789;  Pignatelii, 
"  Consult.  Canon."  torn.  v.  Consult.  45  ; 
Natalis  Ale.tander,  "  Lettres  d'un  docteur 
del'ordre  de  S.  Dominique  sur  lesC^r6mon- 
ies  de  la  Chine  ;  "  an  anonymous  work  in 
the  British  Museum,  "  MfSmoires  pour 
Home  sur  Vitut  de  la  religion  chr^tienne 
dans  la  Chine,"  1709,  which  contains  im- 
portant documents ;  Cardinal  Hergen- 
rother,"  Kirchengeschichte,"vol.  ii.  p.  629 
seq. ;  article  "  Accommodationstreit,"  in 
the  new  edition  of  the  "  Kirchenlexikon." 
Information  has  also  been  derived  from 
the  Saturday  Review,  December  13, 1884, 
and  the  Month,  February  1885.] 

CKlVAXiRY  (Lat.  caballus,  a  horse). 
The  system  of  ideas  prevalent  among  the 
mounted  men-at-arms  (Fr.  chevalier,  It. 
cavaliero,  Span,  caballero,  Ger.  Hitter, 
Eng.  kniffht)  of  the  middle  ages,  and 
which  still  influences  their  descendants 
and  European  society  in  general,  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  is  known  by  this 
name. 

The  Equites,  the  equestrian  order,  of 
ancient  Rome  summon  before  the  mind 
no  corresponding  associations.  The  three 
patrician  tribes  constituted,  indeed,  the 
"  horsemen  "  in  the  organisation  of  Servius 
TulHus,  and  had  the  first  place  both  in 
arms  and  in  politics.  But  before  the  end 
of  the  Republic  commercialism  invaded 
the  equestrian  order,  and  when  we  speak 
of  a  "  Roman  knight,"  or  ec/ues,  the  name 
suggests  a  selfish  capitalist,  wringing 
taxes  out  of  oppressed  provincials,  and 
living  in  vugar  luxury  at  Rome ;  it  is  as 
far  as  possible  from  caUing  up  any  of  the 
ideas  which  we  associate  with  the  term 
"chivalry." 

After  the  disruption  of  the  empire  of 
Charlemagne,  the  importance  of  horse- 
soldiers  in  war  continually  increased. 
For  this  there  were  various  reasons: 
among  others  the  improvements  made  in 
armour,  which  required  that  the  weight 


of  the  panoply  should  be  borne  by  the 
horse  he  rode,  so  that  the  warrior  might 
preserve  freedom  and  celerity  of  mov&- 
ment.  But  the  chief  reason  was  the 
condition  of  European  society,  under 
which,  in  the  absence  of  strong  central 
authority  in  the  various  countries,  power 
was  sown  broadcast  over  thousands  of 
principalities,  counties,  and  fiefs.  The 
holders  of  these  had  no  other  way  of 
deciding  which  should  rule  the  other,  or 
believed  they  had  none,  but  by  going  to 
war.  Horses  and  ai-mour,  like  breech- 
loading  rifles  at  the  present  day,  gave  an 
advantage  to  those  using  them  over  foot- 
soldiers;  whoever,  therefore,  could  afford 
it  went  into  battle  on  horseback.  The 
"miles  Crassi"  was  a  sturdy  footman, 
armed  with  the  pilum,  the  ensis,  and  the 
scutum ;  the  "  miles "  of  the  eleventh 
century  was  a  horseman  cased  in  as  much 
armour  as  he  could  bear  the  weight  of, 
and  attended  by  lightly-armed  followers 
on  foot.  The  principles  of  courage  and 
fidelity  may  have  been  transmitted  to  the 
knights  of  the  eleventh  century  from  their 
Teutonic  or  Iberian  ancestors;  in  these 
respects  a  Hermann  or  a  Viriathus  left 
little  to  be  desired.  But  if  ferocity  and 
rapacity  were  to  be  indulged  without 
check,  if  cruelty  and  injustice,  availing 
themselves  of  the  weakness  of  law,  were 
to  be,  without  protest,  the  accompaniment 
and  the  fruit  of  the  warrior's  toils,  no 
amelioration  of  the  general  lot  could  be 
hoped  for,  though  extraordinary  villany 
might  be  repressed  by  extraordinary 
chastisement,'  until  the  e.xpiration  of  the 
long  period  required  to  weld  a  loose 
feudal  aristocracy  into  an  orderly  law- 
governed  State.  Religion  here  stepped 
in,  and  endeavoured  to  consecrate  and 
triinsf(ii-in  tliat  niugh  struggle  for  supe- 
ritirity  which  was  everywhere  going  on. 
The  cavalier  was  not  to  desist  from  war; 
that  was  an  impossible  requirement,  and 
he  was  generally  fit  for  not  much  else ; 
but  he  was  to  draw  the  sword  for  just 
causes  only,  to  succoiu-  the  oppre.^^sed, 
resist  attack  and  encroachment,  and 
support  his  liege  lord  according  to  his 
oath.  He  was  to  be  immovable  in  his 
faith,  obedient  to  the  holy  Church,  full  of 
respect  for  her  ministers,  and  devoutly 
submissive  to  the  Vicar  of  Christ,  the 
Roman  Pontiff.  For  the  honour  and 
service  of  the  ever  blessed  Mother  of 
God,  whose  faithful  vassal  he  was  to  be, 
women  were  to  find  in  him  an  honourable, 
1  As  in  the  case  of  Thomas  de  Laon,  related 
by  Guibert  de  Nogent. 


CHIVALRY 


CHIVALRY 


167 


fearless,  and  virtuous  protector.  A  high  I 
standard  of  self-re?pect  could  not  but 
accompany  the  consecration  to  these  lofty  > 
ends.  The  word  of  the  knight  once  ' 
given,  whether  to  friend  or  foe,  must  be 
irrevocable ;  he  must  be  no  truce-breaker 
or  snatcher  of  mean  advantages;  his 
/lono It r  must  be  without  stain.  Courtesy 
and  humanity  were  to  mark  his  bearing 
and  his  acts.  In  a  word,  the  Christian 
soldier  was  to  have  all  those  perfections 
of  character  and  aU  those  (/races  d'etat 
which  the  revelation  of  the  Gospel  and 
the  institution  of  the  Sacraments  have 
rendered  possible;  he  would  then  be  a 
perfect  miiTor  of  chivalry.  This  was  the 
ideal ;  but  when  we  ask  in  what  degi-ee  i 
wa5  it  ever  realised,  we  are  forced  to 
admit  that  human  passion  and  perversity  [ 
have  played  their  part,  and  made  chivalry 
by  no  means  an  unmixed  blessing  to 
the  world.  The  reverence  for  woman, 
grounded  on  a  just  devotion  to  the 
5lother  of  God,  was  turned  into  an  idola- 
try; human  love  (such  was  the  baser 
teaching )  was  to  fill  the  soul  of  the  true 
knight  and  to  predominate  over  all  other 
thoughts ;  nay,  the  very  forms  and  words 
of  the  divine  office  were  blasphemously 

Sarodied  in  the  service  of  this  vicious 
evelopment.'  Again,  the  self-respect  of 
the  true  knight  was  depraved  into  a  pride 
of  class,  which  looked  down  on  the 
labouring  non-tiglitiug  multitude  as  base 
roturiers  and  plebeians,  the  shedding  of  , 
whose  blood  was  a  very  trifling  matter ;  ' 
his  sense  of  honour  often  became  an 
absurd  punctiliousness,  tyrannising  over 
the  free  speech  and  action  of  other  men. 
Human  rights  and  human  equality  were 
thus  ignored ;  but  this  was  not  the  doc- 
ti-ine  of  chivalry — it  was  the  corruption  (if 
that  doctrine.  The  true,  noble,  knightly 
spirit  and  its  counterfeit  went  on  side 
by  side,  energising,  founding,  and  de- 
stroying, for  centui-ies.  The  Popes,  be- 
ginuing  with  Urban  II.  and  ending  with  ' 
PiiLs  v.,  preached,  blessed,  and  aided  the 
holy  wars,  by  which,  in  the  cause  of 
justice,  the  places  made  sacred  by  our  i 
Lord's  sojourn  and  sulierings  were  to  be 
taken  out  of  the  hands  of  persecuting 
infidels,  or  Christian  lands  to  be  delivered 
fron;  .Moslem  thraldom.  Numerous  orders 
of  clii\  airy  were  instituted — the  Templars, 
the  Knitjhts  Hospitallers,  or  of  St.  John 
01  Jerusalem,  the  Knights  of  the  Sword, 
the  Teutonic  Knights,  those  of  Cala- 
trava,  Alcantara,  and  many  more — the 
•  As  in  Gower's  Confessio  Amantis,  and 
Chaucer's  Court  of  Love.  \ 


labours  of  which,  speaking  generally,  were 
an  honour  to  human  nature  and  a  benefit 
to  mankind.  The  spirit  of  chivalry  was 
refined  and  exalted  by  the  invention  of 
fruitful  conceptions,  such  as  that  of  the 
Saint  Graal,  by  which  the  whole  tone  of 
romance  literature  was  elevated.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
while  the  form  and  ceremonial  of  chlvalry 
were  greatly  developed,  its  essenci'  — the 
contention  for  justice — was  shamefully 
forgotten.  Our  Edward  III.  instituted 
the  Order  of  the  Garter,  but  waged  un- 
just wars  with  France,  causing  incredible 
misery:  his  son,  the  Black  Prince,  waited 
on  the  French  king,  his  prisoner,  at  table, 
but  ordered  the  indiscriminate  massacre 
of  the  people  of  Limoges. 

Burke  wrote,  beholding  the  first 
shameful  excesses  of  the  French  Jaco- 
bins, "The  age  of  chivalry  is  past;"  but 
the  age  of  chivalry  will  never  be  wholly 
past,  while  faith  survives  and  wrongs 
remain  to  be  redressed.  Wherever,  and 
so  far  as,  the  true  Catholic  faith,  and  the 
imitation  of  Christ  and  His  saints,  inspire 
a  population,  a  class,  or  an  individual, 
there,  and  in  that  proportion,  the  spirit  of 
chivalry,  dormant  and  entranced  as  it 
seems  now,  will  revive.  That  spirit  is, 
as  we  have  said,  essentiallj',  the  readiness 
tu  contend  for  justice.  For  the  pr>'-ent  it 
ii main-  lla^sive  in  cN  rry  part  of  Europe, 
stiip.'lietl.  :i>  it  were,  by  the  audacity  of 
the  so-i-:ilk'd  Liberals,' who.  having' got 
into  their  hands  the  organisations  of 
government  in  most  of  the  states,  are 
carrying  their  hostility  to 
the  Church,  and  the  Po]ie 
with  a  vigour  and  a  malice 
tians  find  a  difficulty  in  cot 
it  will  awake,  and  when  i 
not  ask  whether  univiTsal 
decided  this  way  or  that,  but  whether  it 
if  just  that  this  or  that  change  should  be 
made  or  unmade.  Parliamentary  govern- 
ment assisted  a  tyrant  in  England  to 
deprive  the  people  of  their  religion,  and 
enacted  that  none  who  did  not  com- 
mimicate  with  heresy  shotdd  serve  their 
country.'  Parliamentary  government  in 
France  has  recently  sanctioned  the  perpe- 
tration of  measures  of  violence  against 
the  religions  orders,  so  flagrant  in  their 
iniquity,  that  the  infidels  of  ut/ier  c  oun- 
tries  were  almost  scandalised.  The  tenijier 
of  true  chivalrj',  when  its  awakenincr 
comes,  will  perhaps  work  changes  which 
the  verdict  of  the  ballot-box  would 
neither  initiate  nor  ratify,  yet  which  may 
i  Test  Act  of  1G73. 


livine  faith, 
ltd  ])i-actice, 
vhich  Chris- 
eiving.  But 

doe.   it  will 

suiiVaoe  has 


CHOIR 


CIIOREPISCOPUS 


be  ultimately  found  to  be  beneficial  and 
curative  to  European  society. 

It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  an  order 
of  chivalry  which  has  abandoned  the 
Catholic  faith,  and  repudiated  obedience 
to  tlie  chair  of  Peter,  has  forfeited  its 
title.  An  order  like  the  Garter,  in  which 
the  official  chief  of  the  religion  of  the 
ialse  ])ro]iliet  is  one  of  the  "knights," 
]ia>  f  \  idrntly  nothing  of  chivalry  about 
it  but  the  name.  (See  Kenelm  Digby's 
"  Broad  Stone  of  Honour  "  and  "  Mores 
Catholici.") 

CHOIR  {chorus).  From  the  "band" 
of  singers  at  the  divine  worship,  who 
were  placed  between  the  clergy  in  the 
apse  and  the  people  in  the  body  of  the 
church,  the  space  between  the  sanctuary 
and  the  nave  came  to  be  called  the  choir. 
In  the  course  of  time,  the  superior  clergy 
of  a  cathcilial  or  follrf^iate  church  found 
if  Iu■l■r-^ary  t(.i  uiiuratc  IVom  the  confined 
bjKicc  of  the  apsi'  or  sanctuary,  which 
they  occupied  in  jiriniitive  times,  and  to 
establish  themseh  es  in  seats,  called  stalls, 
on  either  side  of  the  choir.  These  stalls 
were  often  ornamented  in  the  most  ex- 
quisite manner. 

The  recitation  of  the  breviary  for  each 
day  takes  place  "in  choir"  in  cathedrals, 
collegiate  churches,  and  the  great  ma- 
jority of  convents. 

CKORAI.  VZCARS.  These  were 
ancientlj'  clerics  to  whom  the  precentor 
{i.e.  the  canon  who  had  the  charge  of  the 
music),  in  a  cathedral  or  collegiate  church, 
committed  the  immediate  suptnntendence 
of  the  choir.  In  the  reconstituted  chap- 
ters of  France  and  Germany  choral  vicars 
are  directly  a])])ointed  to  perform  this 
duty,  in  concert  with  the  canons,  and 
receive  salaries  accordingly. 

CHORAVXiES  {xopiwXrjs,  lit.  a 
flute-player  in  an  orchestra).  In  the 
Eastern  Church  the  name  appears  to 
have  been  transferred  to  the  choir-boys 
of  a  cathedral  generally. 

CHOREPzscoPvs  (Gr.  x^pf""'- 
aKonns,  lit.  a  country  superintendent  or 
bishop).  Nothing  is  heard  of  such  per- 
sons in  the  first  three  centuries.  The 
first  mention  of  them  is  in  the  canons  of 
the  Councils  of  Ancyra  and  Neocgesarea 
(314),  and  they  probably  arose  in  Asia 
Minor.  A  chorepiscopus  was  appointed 
and  ordained  by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese, 
to  whom  he  was  answerable  for  the  right 
discharge  of  his  duties.  A  certain  dis- 
trict was  assigned  to  him  to  administer  ; 
be  was  to  attend  to  the  wants  of  the  poor 
and  the  maintenance  of  all  Christian  in- 


stitutions, and  he  had  the  power  of  con- 
ferring minor  orders,  even  to  the  sub- 
diaconate  inclusive.  It  has  been  argued 
— especially  by  the  Protestant  writers 
Hammond,  Beveridge,  and  others— that 
they  were  true  bishops,  although  of  in- 
ferior dignity  and  power  to  the  recog- 
nised bishops  of  sees.  The  fact  that 
fifteen  "country-bishops"  subscribed  the 
Kicene  canons  seems  to  lend  support  to 
such  a  view.  But  the  better  opinion  is 
that,  notwithstanding  the  name,  they 
were  neither  true  bishops  nor  an  order  of 
clergy  interposed  between  bishops  aiul 
priests,  but  simply  priests,  invested  with 
a  jurisdiction  smaller  than  the  episcopal, 
but  larger  than  the  sacerdotal.  Many 
notices  of  them  scattered  up  and  down  in 
ecclesiastical  history,  and  the  consenting 
tradition  of  the  Fathers,  adjust  themselves 
to  this  view  of  their  office,  and  not  to  the 
former.  Thus  a  canon  of  Neocaesarea 
likens  them  to  the  seventy-two  disciples 
sent  out  by  Christ ;  but  these  were  always 
associated  with  the  priesthood,  not  with 
the  episcopate.  The  Nicene  canon  which 
authorises  a  bishojj  to  treat  one  who  had 
been  deposed  from  the  see  for  heresy,  but 
who  desired  to  return  to  the  Church,  as  a 
chorepiscopus,  and  give  him  employment 
and  rank  as  such,  is  itself  a  proof  that 
they  were  not  bishops:  for  the  council 
would  not  have  empowered  a  single 
bishop  to  reinstate  to  his  former  place  a 
deposed  member  of  the  order.  Yet  it 
might  seem  as  if  they  formed  something 
like  an  intermediate  clerical  order,  for  a 
canon  of  Chalcedon  says.  Si  quis  ordiim- 
vcrit  per  pecunias  epi.'^copum,  aut  chor- 
episcopum,aut presbi/terum,  aut  diaconum 
("  if  anyone  shall  have  ordained  for  money 
a  bishop,  or  a  chorepiscopus,  or  a  priest, 
or  a  deacon").  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  in  no  age  of  the  Churcli  have  the 
grades  of  holy  (or  superior)  order  been 
reckoned  as  more  than  three — bishop, 
priest,  and  deacon.  A  chorepiscopus, 
therefore,  must  have  been  either  a  bishop 
or  a  priest ;  but  we  have  shown  that  he 
was  not  a  true  bishop ;  he  was  therefore 
a  priest,  but  one  who  received  on  his 
appointment  a  spiritual  jurisdiction 
higher  than  any  priest  could  pretend  to. 
The  Council  of  Laodicea  calls  them  irtpi- 
obevrai,  or  "  circuit  officers,"  which  shows 
that  they  were  then  expected  to  make 
visitation  tours  in  their  districts.  St. 
Basil  had  no  fewer  than  fifty  chorepiscopi 
under  him,  governing  districts  of  his 
extensive  Oappadocian  see,  like  the  arch- 
deacons whom  Remigius  appointed  in  the 


CHORISTER 


CHRIST 


169 


diilereut  counties  when  he  organised  his 
great  see  of  Lincoln.' 

In  the  "Western  Church  we  hear 
nothing  of  chorepiscopi  before  the  Council 
of  Kiez,  in  the  fifth  century.  But  after 
500  the  notices  of  them  become  numerous, 
and  under  Charlemagne,  according  to 
Thomassin,  their  numbers  and  power 
•were  such  as  to  be  formidable  even  to  the 
bishops  themselves.  In  the  later  Carlo- 
vingiau  times  unworthy  persons  were 
often  foisted  into  the  sees  through  lay 
interlerence,  for  the  sake  of  the  wealth 
witli  which  they  were  endowed,  and  such 
bishops  were  glad  to  devolve  as  much  of 
their  functions  as  they  could  divest  them- 
selves of  on  chorepiscopi,  engaged  at  a 
low  rate  of  remuneration,  and  live  in 
sloth  and  luxury  at  Court.  This  abuse 
called  forth  the  zeal  of  the  Roman 
Pontitis,  and  by  a  series  of  Papal  briefs 
and  couciliar  decrees,  from  Leo  III.  to 
the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  restraining 
the  authority  of  the  chorepiscopi,  annul- 
ling many  of  their  acts,  and  ordering  that 
no  more  should  be  appointed,  the  en- 
deavour was  persistently  made  to  compel 
tiie  bishops  to  perform  their  own  duties 
and  not  attempt  to  delegate  them.  No- 
thing more  is  heard  of  this  class  of  clergy 
alter  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century. 
(Thomassin ;  Soglia ;  Smith  and  Cheet- 
ham.) 

CHORXSTZiR.  A  singer  in  a  choir, 
whether  cathedral,  collegiate,  or  parochial. 
The  name  is  usually  applied  to  boys  rather 
than  men. 

The  regular  singers  {KavoviKoi  ilfoKrai) 
of  a  church  received  in  early  times  a  kind 
of  ordination,  without  imposition  of 
hands,  which  could  be  conferred  by  a 
presbyter.  The  form  of  words  prescribed 
by  the  Fourth  Council  of  Carthage  was. 
See  that  thou  believe  in  thy  heart  what 
thou  singest  with  thy  mouth,  and  approve 
in  thy  works  what  thou  believest  with  thy 
heart."  (Smith  and  Cheetham,  article 
Cantor.) 

CBRZSK.  Olive  oil  mixed  with 
balm,  blessed  by  the  bishop  and  used  by 
the  Church  in  confirmation  aa  well  as  in 
baptism,  ordination,  consecration  of  altar- 
stones,  chalices,  churches,  and  in  the 
blessing  of  baptismal  water.  The  oil, 
according  to  the  Roman  Catechism,  signi- 
fies the  lulness  of  grace,  since  oil  is  did'u- 
sion;  the  balm  mixed  with  it,  incorruption 
and  the  "  good  odour  of  Christ." 

In  itself  the  word  chrism  (xpIo-/ia) 
need  not  mean  more  than  "anything 
1  flenr.  Huntend. 


smeared  on ;  "  but  even  in  classical  writers 
it  denotes  especially  a  scented  unguent, 
while  the  common  oil  was  called  iXatov. 
It  was  this  simple  unperfumed  oil  which 
was  used  in  the  earliest  times  for  sacreil 
purposes,  but  from  the  sixth  century  oil 
mixed  with  balm  began  to  be  employed. 
^  This  balm  (^dXaanos,  in  the  classics  o-o- 
>  ISaXaafiov)  is  a  kind  of  perfumed  resin,  pro- 
duced by  a  tree  which  grows  in  Judsea 
and  Arabia.  This  Eastern  balm  was 
always  used  in  the  West  till  the  sixteenth 
century,  when  Paul  III.  and  Pius  IV. 
permitted  the  use  of  a  better  kind  of  balm, 
brought  by  the  Spaniards  from  the  "West 
Indies.  The  Orientals  did  not  content 
j  themselves  with  simply  mixing  balm. 
Thus  the  Greeks  mingle  forty  different 
spices,  and  the  Maronites,  before  they 
were  reunited  to  the  Catholic  Church,  pre- 
pared their  chrism  from  oil,  saffron,  cin- 
namon, essence  of  roses,  white  incense,  &c. 

The  consecration  of  the  oils  during 
the  Mass  goes  back  to  the  earliest  times. 
Cyprian  mentions  it  in  Ep.  70,  addressed 
to  Januarius ;  and  St.  Basil  attributes  the 
origin  of  this  "blessing  to  apostolic  tra- 
dition. It  of  course  included  chrism  in 
the  strict  sense,  when  that  came  into  use. 
In  the  "West  this  blessing  was  always  re- 
served to  bishops ;  in  the  East,  as  may  be 
seen  from  Goar's  "  Euchologium,'"  it  was 
only  given  by  the  patriarchs.  At  first 
the  oils  used  to  be  blessed  on  any  day  at 
Mass,  but  in  a  letter  of  Pope  Leo  to  the 
emperor  of  the  same  name,  in  the  Synod 
of  Toledo  (490),  and  in  all  the  older 
Sacrameutaries  and  ritual-books,  Maundy 
Thursday  is  fixed  for  this  blessing.  It 
was  only  in  France  that  the  custom  sur- 
vived of  blessing  the  oils  on  any  day,  till 
uniformity  with  the  use  of  other  churches 
was  introduced  by  the  Council  of  Meaux, 
in  84.5.  The  function  took  place  in  the 
second  of  the  three  Masses  which  used  to 
be  said  on  Maundy  Thursday  ;  whence 
the  name  "  MissaChrismatis."  The  bless- 
ing of  the  chrism  was  called  "  Benedictio 
chrismatis  principalis."  AH  the  clergy  of 
the  diocese  used  to  assist,  till,  in  the 
eighth  century,  the  custom  altered,  and 
only  those  who  lived  near  the  cathedral 
came,  while  the  others  had  the  holy  oils 
sent  to  them.  The  chrism  used  to  be 
kept  in  a  vessel  like  a  paten  with  a  de- 
I  pression  in  the  middle.  A  "  patena  chris- 
I  malis"  of  this  kind  is  mentioned  by 
'  Anastasius,  in  his  Life  of  St.  Silvester. 
I  (Kraus,  "  Real-Encyclopiidie.") 

CHRIST,  "Anointed"  (Gr,  ;^p(oTo's 
i  from  XP'")>  ^  translation  of  the  Hebrew 


170  CHRIST 


CHRIST 


•word  n*t/'p,  as  is  expressly  stated  in 
John  i.  4'2 :  "  "VVe  have  found  the  Messias, 
which  is  interpreted  Christ."  In  the  Old 
Testament  the  word  is  used  of  the  high- 
priest,  who  was  anointed  for  his  olHce 
(e.i/.  in  Levit.  iv.  ;5) ;  of  kings,  who  were 
als"  anointed — e.r/.  1  Reg.  xxiv.  7,  where 
I'avid  calls  Saul  "the  anointed  of  the 
Lord  :  "  in  the  second  Psalm,  "  against 
theLord,  and  against  his  anointed  "  (where 
Xfj^cTTos  is  the  word  in  the  LXX) ;  with 
which  we  may  compare  other  places,  such 
as  Dan.  ix.  25,  Hab.  iii.  13,  Ps.  cxxxi.  17. 
The  Hebrew  word  designates  the  king  who 
was  to  come,  the  promised  Messias.  In 
the  doctrinal  language  of  post- biblical 
Judaism,  this  expected  deliverer  is  called 
almost  with  the  significance  of  a  proper 
name,  n^L;.'p,  of  which  "Messias"'  is 
only  another  form,  and  "Christ,"  as  we 
have  seen,  a  translation.  Hence,  when 
our  Lord  came, "  the  Christ "  (6  Xpiarbs) 
was  his  official  title,  while  "Jesus"  was 
his  ordinary  name.  When  the  word 
occurs  in  the  Gospels,  it  constantly  im- 
plies a  reference  to  the  Messiah  as  por- 
trayed by  the  prophets. 

The  history  of  Christ's  life  belongs  to 
a  Biblical  rather  than  a  theological  dic- 
tionary ;  it  is  only  the  teaching  of  the 
Church  on  his  Person  and  office  which 
concerns  us  here.  We  may  divide  the 
subject  into  two  halves,  treating  under 
(A )  of  what  Christ  is  ;  under  (£)  of  his 
work. 

(A)  Natures  and  Person  of  Christ.— 
Jesus  Christ,  according  to  the  Catechism 
familiar  to  English  Catholics,  is  "God  the 
Son  made  man  for  us."  He  has  therefore 
two  natures:  that  of  God,  and  that  of 
man.  As  God,  according  to  the  Nicene 
Creed,  He  was  born  of  his  Father,  before 
iill  worlds:  He  is  God  from  God— i.e.  He, 
being  true  and  perfect  God,  proceeds  from 
God  the  Father,  who  is  also  true  and 
perfect  God — He  is  light  from  light ;  be- 
gotten, not  made,  as  creatures.  He  exists 
from  all  eternity.  He  is  almighty,  om- 
niscient, inca])able  of  error  or  of  sin. 
At  the  moment  of  his  Incarnation,  He 
fnrtlier  became  true  man,  without,  how- 
ever, in  any  way  ceasing  to  be  God. 

1  Tlip  Creek  wonl  Messias  CMeaaias  or  Mc- 
alas)  ix  imme.li.drl ,i  acnvcl,  fnim  the  He- 
brew, but  IVoni  liir  Ciialdre  }<^^L^'^PI  the  n 
beinti  (imiltc  i!  Iimiccn  the  two  long  vowels,  as 
in  /iiSa  -  XTnO-  ^I  'leni.  vii.  51,  and  the  <r 
(iometimes  dunMid,  as  in  ' APftraoXdn. 

^  It  iisiuilly  hiLs  llie  article  in  the  Gospels, 
but  occurs  oflener  than  not  without  it  iu  St. 
Paul's  Epistles. 


This  truth  is  vigorously  expressed  by  St, 
Leo  in  his  dogmatic  epistle  to  Flavian, 
which  was  accepted  by  the  Fathers  of 
the  Fourth  (Ecumenical  Council.  "  The 
Son  of  God,"  Leo  says,  "  enters  the  abase- 
ment of  this  world  (h(ec  mundi  infima), 
descending  from  his  heavenly  seat,  and 
[yet]  not  receding  from  his  Father's 
glory ;  begotten  according  to  a  new  order 
and  by  a  new  birth.  By  a  new  order : 
because  being  invisible  in  his  own  nature 
{in  suis)  He  became  visible  in  ours ;  being 
incomprehensible.  He  wiUed  to  be  com- 
prehended ;  remaining  before  time.  He 
began  to  be  from  a  (certain)  time."  More- 
over, He  had  a  true  body,  as  the  Chiu-ch 
taught  from  early  times  against  the 
Docetaj;  a  true  human  soul,  so  that  as 
man  He  could  fear,  sorrow,  reason,  &c., 
as  the  Church  taught  against  the  heretic 
Apolliuaris ;  a  human  will,  as  distinct 
from  his  divine  will,  as  was  defined  in 
the  Sixth  General  Council  against  the 
Monothelites.  Thus,  in  the  words  of  the 
Fourth  General  Council,  "Christ  Jesus 
the]  only  begotten  Son,  is  to  be  acknow- 
edged  in  two  natures,  without  confusion, 
without  change  .  .  .  since  the  difference 
of  the  natures  is  by  no  means  annulled 
on  account  of  the  union,  but  rather  the 
property  of  each  nature  preserved." 
Lastly,  those  two  natures  are  united  (so 
the  Council  of  Ephesus  defined)  in  one 
Person.  Our  body  and  soul  are  united 
in  one  person,  so — though,  of  course,  the 
analogy  is  imperfect — the  divine  and 
human  natures  were  united  in  one  Divine 
Person,  who  acted  and  suffered  iu  either 
nature.  To  believe  otherwise,  is  to  assert, 
with  the  Nestorians,  that  there  are  two 
Sons  and  two  Christs. 

Such  are  the  chief  definitions  of 
the  Church  on  the  Natures  and  Person 
of  Christ ;  but  it  is  necessary  to  point 
out  some  important  corollaries  from 
these  first  principles  of  the  faith.  The 
following  seem  to  be  the  most  impor- 
tant. 

(1)  Christ,  having  a  human  soul,  had 
true  hiunan  knowledge,  as  distinct  from 
that  which  belonged  to  Him  as  God. 
His  human  soul  did  not,  and  could  not, 
know  God  with  that  perfect  and  infinite 
comprehension  with  which  God  compre- 
hends Himself.  The  contrary  proposition, 
held  by  Augustine  of  Rome,  was  con- 
demned by  Nicholas  V.  Christ  acquired 
knowledge  in  the  same  way  as  other  men 
— i.e.  experimentally ;  for,  as  we  read  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, He  "learned 
obedience  from  the  things  which  He 


CHRIST 


CHRIST 


171 


Buffered."  It  is  important,  however,  not 
to  misunderstand  Catholic  doctrine  on 
this  head.  Even  in  Christ  as  man,  there 
was  no  ignorance  which  had  to  be  re- 
moved by  instruction  or  experience.  On 
the  contrary,  as  Christ's  soul  was  hypo- 
statically  united  to  the  \\'ord,  as  He  was 
the  liead  from  which  <;nae  and  glory  was 
to  flow  into  tlie  members,  it  was  fitting 
that  He  should,  fi-om  the  first  moment  of 
his  earthly  existence,  see  God  face  to 
face  with  his  human  soul,  as  the  blessed 
do  in  heaven.  This  beatific  knowledge 
was  always  present,  even  when  the  in- 
ferior part  of  his  soul  was  in  agony  on 
the  cross.  Again,  St.  Thomas  argues 
that  as  the  soul  of  Christ  is  the  most 
perfect  of  all  created  things,  therefore 
"no  perfection  found  in  creatures  is  to 
be  denied  to  it ; "  and  he  goes  on  to  say 
that,  besides  the  knowledge  of  God  seen 
in  his  essence,  and  of  all  things  seen  in 
God,  besides  the  experimental  knowledge 
common  to  all  men,  the  soul  of  Christ  had 
a  knowledge  infused  or  poured  into  it, 
by  which  He  knew  most  fully  all  the 
mysteries  of  grace,  and  every  object  to 
which  human  cognition  extends  or  can 
extend. 

(2)  Christ  was  absolutely  sinless  and 
incapable  of  sin,  because  his  actions  were 
the  actions  of  God,  who  is  holiness  itself; 
so  that  in  Him  sin  was  a  physical  im- 
possibility. Moreover,  in  Him  there  could 
be  no  involuntary  rebellion  of  the  flesh 
or  lower  appetites,  no  temptation  from 
within,  because  in  Him  human  nature 
was  united  to  the  Word,  and  it  was  the 
otiice  of  the  Word  to  rule  the  human 
nature  united  to  it  and  to  hold  it  in  abso- 
lute subjection.  He  could,  indeed,  as  the 
statements  of  the  Guspels  prove,  wonder 
and  fear  and  suffer  mental  distress,  but 
in  Him  these  feelings  were  in  perfect  sub- 
jection to  reason. 

(3)  Christ  had  the  fullness  of  all 
grace — i.e.  over  and  above  the  grace  of 
the  hypostatic  union  grace  was  infused 
into  his  soul  sotluit  it  was  most  perfectly 
sanctified,  according  to  the  prophecy  of 
Isaias,  "the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is  upon 
ine." 

(4)  Christ  did  not  only  take  a  real 
human  body,  but  He  took  one  subject  to 
those  defects  which  followed  from  the 
common  sin  of  mankind,  except  so  far  as 
these  defects  were  rejiugnant  to  the  end 
of  the  Incarnation.  I'he  reason  of  his 
taking  these  defects  (the  capability  of 
hunger,  thirst,  and  the  like),  and  no 
others,  was  that  Christ  became  subject  to 


I  infirmity,  with  the  precise  object  of 
satisfying  for  the  sins  of  human  nature. 
Therefore  He  took  upon  Him  in  his  own 
body  the  weaknesses  caused  by  Ailam's 
sin.    He  did  not,  however,  assume  Ijudiiy 
defects  so  far  as  they  are  incentive>  to 
sin  or  impediments  to  virtue,  since  this 
,  would  have  been  inconsistent  witii  his 
I  otiice  as  redeemer.    The  interesting  ques- 
tion on  the  personal  appearance  of  Christ 
will  be   treated   in   a  separate  article 
j  [Christ,  Personal  Appearance  and 
Representations  of]. 

(5)  Inasmuch  as  divine  and  human 
I  nature,  although  remaining  each  of  them 
I  distinct  in  its  own  properties,  were  united 
!  in  the  Person  of  the  Word,  it  follows 
that  human  attributes  may  be  predicated 
of  or  ascribed  to  God  the  Son;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  divine  attributes  may  be 
predicated  of  the  man  Christ  Jesus.  Thus, 
although  it  was  his  human  nature  which 
Christ  took  from  Maiy,  and  although  she 
is  not  the  mother  of  the  Godhead,  still 
the  Council  of  Ephesus  defined  that  the 
Blessed  Virgin  is  really  and  truly  the 
Mother  of  God.  So,  again,  we  may  truly 
say,  God  sufiered,  God  died,  or  the  man 
Jesus  Christ  is  the  eternal  God,  by 
whom  all  things  were  made.  [See  Coii- 
MUNiCATio  Idiojiatuji.]  Moreover,  as 
Cardinal  Franzelin  writes  in  his  treatise 
on  the  Incarnation, "  the  sacred  Humanity, 
or  human  nature  with  all  its  component 
parts,  inasmuch  as  it  is  the  nature  of  the 
Word,"  is  the  object  of  supreme  ador- 
ation, though,  of  course,  we  adore  the 
flesh  not  because  it  is  flesh,  but  because  it 
is  united  to  the  Word.  He  continues: 
"This  is  clearly  and  plainly  taught  in  the 
definitions  of  councils  and  in  the  dis- 
cussions of  the  Fathers."  Thus  the  Fifth 
General  Council '  anathematises  those 
who  "affirm  that  Christ  is  adored  in  two 
natures,  in  such  sense  that  two  adorations 
are  introduced,  one  proper  to  God  the 
Word,  and  one  proper  to  the  man  [Christ] 
.  .  .  and  do  not  adore  with  one  single 
adoration  God  the  Word  incarnate  with 
his  own  flesh,  as  the  Church  of  God  has 
received  from  the  beginning."  Cardinal 
Franzelin  also  quotes  words  of  St.  Atha- 
nasius  against  the  Apollinarists :  "It  J.e. 
the  body  of  Christ]  is  worshipped  ^^•ith 
due  and  divine  adoration,  for  the  Word, 
to  whom  the  body  belongs,  is  God  ;  "  and 
of  St.  John  Damascene  ("Fid.  Orthodox." 
iii.  8) :  "  Nor  do  we  deny  that  tiie  flesh 
[of  Christ]  is  to  be  adored ;  nor  again  do 
1  It  is  the  ninth  of  the  fourteen  anathe- 
mas.   Hefele,  Concil.  ii.  p.  897. 


172 


CUEIST 


CHRIST 


we  give  supreme  worship  to  a  creature ;  [ 
for  neither  do  we  adore  it  as  mere  6esh,  I 
but  as  united  to  the  Godhead."  It  will 
be  observed  that  these  principles  formu- 
lated in  the  eai'ly  Church  contain  within 
them  a  full  justification  of  the  adoration 
which  the  Church  gives  at  this  day  to  the 
Wounds,  Blood,  Heart,  &c.,  of  Christ. 
If  we  may,  because  of  the  hypostatic 
union,  adore  the  flesh  of  Christ,  which  is 
a  part  of  his  Humanity,  then  undoubtedly 
we  may  for  the  same  reason  adore  his 
Heart,  which  is  a  part  of  his  sacred 
flesh. 

(B)  The  Work  avd  Office  of  Christ.— 
(1)  Christ  came  chiefly,  as  the  Fathers 
declare,  ^  take  aicay  sin.  This  great  truth 
is  constantly  asserted  in  Scripture.  "The 
discipline  of  oui-  peace  was  upon  Him,  and 
by  his  bruises  we  are  healed."  "  Christ 
redeemed  us  from  the  curse  of  the  law, 
being  made  a  curse  for  us."  "  God  send- 
ing his  own  Son,  in  the  likeness  of  sinful 
flesh,  even  of  siii,  condemned  sin  in  the 
flesh  ; "  and  thus  in  the  Nicene  Creed  we 
confess  that  God  was  made  man  "  for  us 
men  and  for  our  salvation."  This  point 
is  trt-ated  move  fully  in  the  article  on  the 
Redemption.  Here,  it  is  enough  to  say 
that,  although  God  luiglit  have  forgiven 
sin  without  any  satisfuctioii  at  all,  still  it 
was  his  will  that  a  perlect  satisfoction 
should  be  made,  and  be  made  by  man. 
Accordingly,  God  the  Son  was  incarnate. 
He  was  a  natural  mediator  between  God 
and  man,  since  in  Him  the  divine  and 
human  natures  were  united.  As  man. 
He  was  able  to  sufler  and  die ;  because 
He  was  God,  his  satisfaction  possessed 
aji  inflnite  value,  more  than  suiHcient  to 
compensate  for  the  infinite  dishonour 
done  to  Cidd's  majesty  by  sin.  He  of  his 
free  will  (itfeied  Himself  to  endure  the 
penalties  incuired  by  men  who  were  bis 
brethren.  He  could  not,  of  course,  in  the 
strict  and  proper  sense,  make  our  sins 
his  own,  nor  was  Christ  as  man  punished. 
But  He  allowed  wicked  men  to  work 
their  will  upon  Him,  and,  as  the  new 
Adam  or  head  of  the  human  race,  took 
on  Himself  the  obligation  of  satisfying  for 
the  ott'ences  of  mankind.  It  was  this  free 
will  with  which  He  sufiered  that  gave 
their  meritorious  character  to  the  pains 
which  He  underwent.  By  his  passion 
He  merited  every  grace  which  has  de- 
scended or  ever  will  descend  on  man,  for 
even  under  the  old  law  all  grace  and 
pardon  was  bestowed  for  the  merits  of 
Christ  foreseen.  By  the  merits  of  his 
passion  He  on  the  day  of  his  ascension 


I  opened  Heaven  "  to  aU  who  believe." 
!  There  He  presents  his  five  wounds  and 
pleads  the  efficacy  of  the  work  He  ac- 
complished on  Calvary  ;  while  on  earth 
He  continues  and  applies  his  sacrifice  in 
the  holy  Mass,  thus  remaining  a  priest 
for  ever.* 

(2)  Christ  came  to  teach,  so  fulfilling 
the  prophetic  as  well  as  the  priestly 
office.  "Behold,"  God  says  in  Isaias,  "  I 
have  given  Him  for  a  witness  to  the 
people,  for  a  leader  and  a  master  to  the 
Gentiles."  He  Himself  declared  that  He 
came  "to  bear  witness  to  the  truth."  He 
revealed  the  nature  of  the  Triune  God, 
and,  first  to  his  apostles,  then  through 
them  and  their  successors  to  the  world. 
He  explained  the  mysteries  of  the  king- 
dom of  God,  and  the  way  to  heaven. 
He  gave  perfect  instruction  in  morals, 
particularly  in  the  sermon  on  the  mount, 
in  which  He  speaks  with  authority,  as 
the  giver  of  the  new  law.  Lastly,  He 
taught,  as  no  mere  man  could,  by  ex- 
ample, exhibiting  Himself  as  the  model 
of  every  virtue. 

(3)  Christ  is  the  Head  of  the  Church, 
militant  in  this  world,  suffering  in  Purga- 
tory, and  triumphant  in  heaven,  and  this 
headship  belongs  to  Christ  as  man,  for 
St.  Paul  in  Ephes.  i.,  alter  mentioning 
the  fact  that  God  raised  Christ  from  the 
dead,  adds  that  He  made  "  Him  head 
over  all  the  church."  This  proves  that  the 
headship  belongs  to  Christ  as  man,  for  it 
was  in  his  human  nature  that  Christ 
was  raised  from  the  dead.  Christ  is  head, 
not  only  because  He  is  supereminent  in 
dignity  as  compared  with  the  members  of 
his  mystical  body,  but  also  because  grace 
and  glory  flow  fi-om  Him  to  the  members 
of  his  Church  in  earth  and  Purgatory 
and  in  heaven.  Even  Catholics  living  in 
mortal  sin  are  members  of  Christ,  con- 
nected with  Christ  their  head  by  the  gift 
of  faith  ;  and  the  proposition  of  Quesnel, 
that  "he  who  does  not  lead  a  life  worthy 
of  a  son  of  God  and  of  a  member  of 
Christ  ceases  to  have  God  within  him  for 
his  Father  and  Christ  for  his  head,"  was 
condemned  by  Pope  Clement  XI.  More- 
over, Christ  is  head  of  his  Church  because 
it  receives  its  constitution  and  its  doctrine 
from  Him. 

(4)  Christ,  as  man,  holds  a  kingly,  as 
well  as  a  priestly,  power.  The  Prophets 
foretold  Him  as  king,  and  the  "anointed 

1  The  opinion  held  by  some  of  the  ancients 
that  Christ  inherited  the'  priesthood  by  descent 
from  Aaron  on  his  mother's  side,  is  refuted  by 
Petavius,  De  Incur,  xii,  15. 


CHRIST,  APrEAR.\:N"CE  OF 


CHRIST,  APPEARANCE  OF  173 


liii:<;  "  is  a  recognised  name  of  tlie  Mes.<ias 
in  Jewish  wTiters.  He  exercises  this 
regal  power,  not  only  over  his  Church, 
but  also  over  all  men,  so  far  as  his  law 
binds  them  all.  As  God,  of  course,  Christ 
is  supreme  over  all,  both  in  temporal  and 
spiritual  matters.  I?ut  it  cannot  be  af- 
firmed, at  least  for  certain,  that  He,  as 
man,  possessed  temporal  dominion.  "  As 
man,"  Petavius  says,  "  I  consider  that  He 
was  by  no  means  a  temporal,  but  only  a 
spiritual,  king;  especially  so  far  as  He 
lived  a  man  among  men.  For  He  did  not 
answer  falsely  to  Pilate  the  povernor, 
when  he  inquired  concerning  bis  king- 
dom: "My  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world.'" 
Whence  Augustine  "thus  explains  the 
place  in  the  second  Psalm  where  Christ 
says  that  He,  after  his  resurrection,  was 
constituted  king:  '  But  I  am  constituted 
king  by  Him  over  Sion  his  holy  moun- 
tain:' viz.  by  pointing  out  that  that  Sion 
and  that  mountain  are  not  of  this  world. 
'  For  what  is  his  kingdom,  except  those 
who  beheve  in  Him  ? '  See,  too,  the  same 
Father  in  his  12th  Book  against  Faustus. 
cap.  4:?,  where  he  explains  morf  fully  the 
kingdom  of  Christ  from  the  prophecy  of 
the  Patriarch  Jacob,  and  demonstrates 
that  it  does  not  belong  to  this  world — 
that  it  is  not  temporal,  but  spiritual."  ' 

(5)  Closely  connected  with  Christ's 
regal  dignity  is  his  otiice  of  Jwhje.  This 
also  belongs  to  Christ  ;  ?  niaii.'-  "••'He  has 
been  appointed  by  God."  in  the  words  of 
St.  Peter,  "judge  of  tlie  living  and  the 
dead."  He  is  eminently  fitted  for  this 
office  by  his  perfect  justice  and  integrity, 
his  knowLdge  of  man's  heart,  and  his 
mercy. 

Other  titles  of  Christ,  such  as  Advocate, 
Slieplierd,  &c.,  have  been  virtually  ex- 
plained already.  Others  will  be  discussed 
in  other  articles.  (From  St.  Thomas,  P. 
iii. ;  Billuart,  Cardinal  Franzelin,  but 
above  all,  Petavius,  in  their  treatises 
"  De  Incarnatione.") 

CRRZST,  PERSONTAX.  APPEAR- 
ANCE  AND  REPRESENTATZOIfS 

or.  Two  view-  on  Christ's  personal 
appearance  have  prevailed  in  the  Church. 
During  the  hrst  three  centuries,  when 
Christians  were  persecuted  and  oppressed, 
it  was  generally  held  that  our  Lord  as- 
sumed a  bodily  form  '  without  comeli- 

•  Petav.  De  Incamat.  xii.  15. 

•  The  Father  is  said  to  have  triven  all  iudg- 
ment  to  the  Son.  Petavius  s.iys  that  the  otiice 
of  judge  -'resides  properly  in  the  human  nature, 
like  the  office  of  priest,  'mediator,  &c.,  though 
it!  force  and  value  comes  from  the  Godhead." 


ness  or  beauty.  Thus  Justin,  "  Dial.  c. 
Trs-ph.,"  speaks  of  Christ  as  artfins  <cai 
d(i^)]s,  "without  honour  and  unsightly:" 
a  view  which  he  repeats  six  or  seven 
times  at  lea.st,  and  which  is  also  asserted 
by  Clement  of  .Alexandria,  TertuUian,  and 
Origen  (against  Celsus).  This  view  was 
based  on  the  prophecy  of  Isaias :  "  De- 
spised and  the  most  abject  of  men,  a 
man  of  sorrows  and  acquainted  with  in- 
firmity ;  and  his  look  was,  as  it  were, 
hidden  and  despised ;  whereupon  we  es- 
teemed Him  not."  This  conception  of 
Christ's  personal  appearance,  joined  with 
the  danger  of  scandal  to  converts  from 
heathenism,  may  account  for  the  fact 
that  the  ante-Nicene  Church  was  not 
accustomed  to  make  a  religious  use  of 
pictures  and  statues  representing  Christ 
in  his  natural  form.  Christians  preferred 
to  pourtray  Him  under  symbolical  forms 
— e.ff.  that  of  the  Good  Shepherd — or  to 
honour  Him  by  honouring  his  cross. 
Indeed,  we  find  the  first  certain  instances 
of  statues  or  natural  representations  of 
Christ,  among  heathen  and  heretics.  Thus 
Lampridius,  in  his  Life  of  the  heathen 
emperor  Alexander  Severus  (222-235), 
c.  29,  tells  us  that  the  latter  placed  in  his 
Lararinm,  or  chapel  for  the  protecting 
gods  of  the  house,  figures  of  ApoUonius, 
Abraham,  Orpheus,  and  Christ ;  while 
L'enfeus  (i.  25)  relates  of  the  Carpocra- 
tians,  an  early  Gnostic  sect,  that  they 
had  paintings  and  other  representations 
of  Christ,  and  asserted  that  Pilate  had 
caused  Christ's  portrait  to  be  taken  during 
his  lifetime.  The  respect  which  the 
Carpocratians  paid  to  these  images  was 
evidently  quite  unchristian,  for  they 
offered  a  similar  veneration  to  likenesses 
of  Pythagoras,  Plato,  Aristotle,  and 
others. 

A  second  and  widely  difTereut  view 
of  Christ's  outward  appearance  began  to 
gain  ground  after  the  triumph  of  the 
Church  under  Coustantine.  Clirysostom 
and  Jerome '  regard  Christ  as  the  ideal 
of  human  beauty ;  and  the  advocates  of 
this  theory  also  supported  it  by  an  appeal 
to  the  Old  Testament,  and  quoted  the 
verse  of  the  Psalm,  "Thou  art  beautiful 
above  the  sons  of  men."  This  naturally 
'  became  the  most  popular  view,  and  it  is 
the  only  one  that  could  be  adopted  in  the 
religious  use  of  art.  At  the  same  time, 
we  may  observe  that  this  belief  of  Chry- 
sostom  and  Jerome  has  not  been  accepted 
without  reserve  by  all  later  theologians. 

I  Hefele  cites  Chrysost.  0pp.  t.  v.  p.  62, 
Hieron.  t.  ii.  p.  08^,  both  in  Benedict,  ed. 


174   CHRIST,  APPEARANCE  OF 


CHRIST,  APPEARANCE  OF 


Billuart,  !or  example,  denies  that  our 
Lord's  body  wliile  still  passible,  exhibited 
any  extraoidinnry  beauty ;  and  St. Thomas 
wa^f  of  tlie  same  oi)iiiioii.' 

Whatever  we  may  think  on  this 
matter,  in  any  case  the  diveigence  of 
ojiiui^in  ^vitll  regaril  to  it  in  the  early 
Clnu'ch  seems  to  create  a  strong  presump- 
tion against  the  authenticity  nf  any  like- 
ness of  Christ  attributed  to  pci-sdus  who 
had  seen  Ilim.  Indeed,  St.  Augustine 
("De  Trin."  viii.  4)  allows  that  there 
was  no  sure  tradition  in  the  Church  on 
the  bodily  appearance  of  Christ.  This 
presumption  is  confirmed  by  an  investiga- 
tion of  the  portraits  of  Christ  for  which 
an  early  origin  is  claimed. 

The  earliest  witness  to  the  existence 
of  these  ancient  likenesses  is  Eusebius. 
In  his  "Church  History,"  vii.  18,  he  tells 
us  that  he  had  seen  a  statue  of  Christ 
erected  at  Cffisarea  Philippi  by  the  woman 
who  was-  healed  of  an  issue  of  blood. 
There  was  a  figure  also  of  the  woman 
herself  kneeling  at  Christ's  feet.  In  tlie 
fragments  of  the  Arian  historian  Philo- 
storgius  we  find  this  same  statue  of  Christ 
mentioned,  with  an  additional  remark 
well  worthy  of  notice.  Philostorgius  says 
that  at  first  it  was  not  known  to  whom 
or  by  whom  the  statue  had  been  erected, 
till,  on  clearing  the  inscription,  it  was 
found  that  it  had  been  raised  by  the 
woman  with  an  issue  of  blood,  to  Christ. 
Very  likely  the  statue  was  erected  to 
Hadrian,  or  some  other  heathen  emperor, 
and  the  female  figure,  kneeling  at  his 
feet  may  have  symbolised  a  suppliant 
province;  while  the  inscription  may  liave 
run — "To  the  Saviour  of  the  "^Vorld" 
{(Tarijpi  Toil  KocTfiov),  a  title  which 
his  Batterers  would  readily  give  to  the 
em])eror,  and  which  may  have  misled  the 
Christians  wlio  read  it  at  a  later  time. 

Another  tradition  attributes  portraits 
of  our  Lord  to  St.  Luke.  This  tradition 
is  never  mentioned  by  early  writers. 
Theodorus  Lector  (-"ilS)  mentions  a  por- 
trait ..r  til.'  Virgiu  painted  bv 
St.  Lulvr,  liiii  lie  does  not  sjieak  of  his 
having  painted  our  Lord's  likem'ss.  Por- 
traits of  our  Lord  from  the  liand  of  St. 
Luke  are  first  ini'utioned  liy  Simeon 
Metai)lin,ste8.  tlie  Menolo-ium  of  the 
Eni])eror  W.i-il  C.iM)),  .Mnd  Xirephorus 
Callisti    iiiaiiiri-tl\  nutleirif  ie.  oftoolate 

1  I'.illuai-t,  /)c  M,„lrr.  Diss,  vii,  ,1.  11  ; 
"  Ilmii.nia  t'aeici  el  cnrjieris  Cliristi  Ibnnil  non 
fuit  insii^iiiPc'i- v(_>nu>t.i.  iR'i|iie  iiisi^oiitor  defur- 
niis."  He  quotes  St.  Thomas  on  Ps.  xliv.  aud 
on  Isai.  liii. 


a  date  to  inspire  much  confidence  in  a 
statement  which  is  unlikely  on  the  face 
of  it.  Accounts  which  make  St.  Luke  a 
sculptor  (a  statue  of  Christ  said  to  have 
been  executed  by  St.  Luke  is  preserved 
at  Sirolo;  one  "by  Nicodemus,"  at  Lucca) 
are  of  still  later  origin. 

There  is  another  class  of  likenesses, 
the  so-called  elKovts  a^^dppnolr^rai,  images 
not  made  with  hands,  of  which  the  most 
famous  are  the  portrait  sent  to  Abgarus 
and  the  "  Veronica  "  likeness. 

As  to  the  former,  Eusebius,  at  the 
I  beginning  of  his  history  (i.  13),  mentions 
a  correspondence  between  our  Lord  and 
Abgarus,  king  of  Edessa.  Moses  of 
Chorene,  an  Armenian  historian  of  the 
fifth  century,  adds  that  Christ  sent 
Abgarus  a  portrait  of  Himself,  wonder- 
fully impressed  on  a  cloth.  This  likeness 
is  said  to  have  been  removed  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  thence  to  the  church  of 
St.  Silvester,  at  Rome,  wliere  it  is  still 
shown.  It  belongs  to  the  Byzantine  type 
of  art,  and  represents  our  Saviour  with  a 
lofty  brow,  clear  eyes,  long,  straight  nose, 
and  reddish  beard.  Genoa  also  claims  to 
possess  this  miraculous  picture. 

Veronica  is  said  to  have  been  one  of 
the  women  who  accompanied  our  Lord 
on  his  way  to  Calvary.  She  gave  Him 
her  veil  that  He  might  wipe  away  the 
j  perspiration  from  his  face,  and  wlien  our 
I  Lord  had  done  so,  the  impress  of  his 
countenance  was  found  upon  the  cloth. 
It  is  alleged  that  this  likeness  was  brought 
to  Rome  about  the  year  700,  and  it  be- 
I  longs  at  this  day  to  the  relics  of  St. 
Peter's  church  at  Rome,  where  it  is  only 
shown  t  o  jiersons  of  princely  rank,  who, 
however,  nuist  first  be  made  titular 
canons  of  St.  Peter's.  MabiUou  and  the 
Bollandist  Papebroch  suppose  that  the 
Veronica  came,  by  mere  error,  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  name  of  a  person,  the  word 
really  being  a  barbarous  compound  of 
vera  and  icon  {(Ikwv),  and  meaning 
"true  image.''  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
mediieval  writers  give  the  name  Veronica 
to  the  image  itself  and  not  to  a  woman. 
Thus  Matthew  of  Paris  (ad  ann.  1216) 
speaks  of  "  the  representation  of  our 
Lord's  face,  which  is  called  Veronica." 
A  recent  archteologist,  William  Grimm, 
derives  the  word  from  BfpoviKrj,  the 
name,  according  to  John  Malala,  a  By- 
zantine liistorian  of  the  sixth  century, 
which  belonged  to  the  woman  with  the 
issue  of  blood, 
j  In  this  utter  absence  of  any  authentic 
I  likeness  of  Christ  or  account  of  bis  appear- 


CllRlSTLYNS 


CHJilSTlAN  DOCTRINE  175 


ance,  dilTerent  types  of  face  were  assigned 
to  our  Lord  in  diliereut  countries.  Photius 
(Ep.  64)  testifies  that  this  was  the  ca.-e 
in  his  day ;  and  a  recent  traveller  and  IJibli- 
cal  scholar,  Dr.  Scholz,  found  a  number  of 
different  tj^jes  prevailing  in  difierent 
Eastern  nations.  Thus  the  Copts,  Syrians, 
Armenians,  iS:c.,  each  give  a  special  type 
of  face  to  pictures  of  our  Lord.  At  the 
same  time  great  intluence  was  exercised 
(1)  by  a  description  to  be  found  in  St. 
John  Damascene  (ed.  Le  Quien,  t.  i. 
p.  631),  and  which  is  as  follows:  "Christ 
was  of  imposing  stature,  with  eyebrows 
nearly  meeting,  beauiifnl  eyes,  crisp  hair, 
somewhat  stooping,  in  the  bloom  of 
youth,  with  black  beard  and  yellow  com- 
plexion, like  his  mother;"  (2)  by  a  forged 
letter  of  '•  Publius  Lentulus,"  a  friend  of 
Pilate,  addressed  to  the  Roman  Senate, 
which  contains  the  following  description: 
"  He  is  a  man  of  slender  figure,  dignified, 
of  a  venerable  countenance,  which  in- 
spires love  and  fear  in  those  who  see  him. 
His  hair  is  curled  and  crisp,  dark  and 
glossy,  falling  over  his  shoulders  and 
parted  in  the  middle,  after  the  fashion  of 
the  Nazarenes  (?  Nazarites).  The  brow  is 
very  clear,  the  face  without  wrinkle  or 
spot,  pleasing  by  its  moderately  red 
colour.  Nose  and  mouth  are  faultless  ; 
the  beard  strong  and  reddish,  like  the 
colour  of  the  hair,  not  long,  but  ])iirted ; 
the  eyes  of  indistinct  colour  and  clear." 
We  cannot  determine  the  date  of  the 
forgery,  but  in  its  present  f.'iiii  it  boi  ame 
well  known  about  St.  Anselni">  time.  A 
third  description  of  Christ's  form  is  found 
in  Nicephorus  Callisti.  It  belongs  to  the 
fourteenth  century. 

The  famous  work  of  Jablouski,  ''De 
Origiue  Imaginum  Christi  Domini,"  is  u 
standard  authority  on  this  siiliicct.  A 
treatise  on  the  Abgarus  likeness  api)eart'd 
in  1847,  by  Samuelian,  an  Armenian 
Mechitarist  monk  at  Vienna.  The  subject 
lias  also  been  treated  bv  Gliickselig, 
"  Christusarchiiologie."  18fi3.  (Hefele, 
"Beitnige  zur  .\rcliaol(isie,"  &c.) 

CHRZSTZANS  (Xpia-TiavoL).  A 
name  first  given  at  Antioch  to  the 
foUow.ers  of  Christ  about  the  year  4.3,  as 
we  learn  from  Acts  xi.  '26.  The  name  can 
scarcely  have  arisen  from  the  discii)les 
themselves,  for  it  seems  at  first  to  have 
been  used  contemptuously — at  least  this 
seems  a  fair  inference  from  Acts  xxvi.  'JS, 
1  Pet.  iv.  14-10  (the  only  other  places  of 
the  New  Testament  where  the  word 
occurs),  as  well  as  from  Tacitus,  "  Annal." 
XV.  44.    Still  less  could  it  have  come 


'  from  the  Jews,  who  would  never  have 
admitted  that  the  adherents  of  a  sect 
which  they  hated  and  despised  could 
rightly  claim  so  honourable  a  title  as 
"disciples  of  the  Messias."  On  the  con- 
trary, they  called  Christ's  di.-ciples 
"Nazarenes,"  "Galileans."  Probably, 
the  heathen  at  Antioch  mij.took  ''Cliris- 
tus  "  for  a  proper  name,  and  called  the 
disciples  "Christiani,"  just  as  they  called 
those  who  adhered  to  I'ompey's  party 
"Pompeiani."  It  was  at  Autioch  that 
the  first  church  of  converts  from  heathen- 
ism was  formed,  and  no  doubt  it  then 
became  plain  to  the  heathen  that  the 
doctrine  of  the  disciji'ics  was  distinct  from 
Judaism,  and  tliis  led  to  the  imposition 
of  a  special  name.  Besides  the  form 
"Chri>tiani,"  we  also  find  that  of  "Chres- 
tiani,"  many  heathen,  in  their  ignorance  of 
the  Mesbianic  doctrine,  deriving  Christ's 
name  from  xp'l""^°^'  "good,"  instead  of 
from  XP^^!  "  '^o  anoint."  ' 

In  later  times  the  word  has  been  used 
(1)  for  those  who  imitate  the  life  as  well 
as  hold  the  faith  of  Christ;  -  (2)  for  Catho- 
lics ;  (3)  for  baptised  persons  who  believe 
in  Christ :  (4)  for  all  baptised  persons. 

CRRZSTZAM'  DOCTRZN'E:  pa- 
THERS  AND  COXrFRATSRNZTY 
or  THZ:.  Ignorance  of  their  religion 
being  seen  to  be  one  of  the  chief  causes  of 
the  terrible  instnljility  which  caused  whole 
popidations  in  the  .sixteenth  century,  con- 
founded by  the  harangues  of  Protestant 
]ireachers  which  they  knew  not  how  to 
answer,  to  lapse  into  heresy,  earnest  eti'orts 
were  made  by  many  good  men  to  procure 
that  the  teaching  of  the  true  doctrine  of 
Christ  should  be  more  general  and  syste- 
matic. To  this  end  a  number  of  priests  and 
laymen,  with  Marco  Cusani,  a  gentleman  of 
-Milan,  for  their  head,  formed  themselves 
into  a  society,  iiljout  15G0.  for  the  pur- 
pose of  teaching  the  catechism  to  children 
on  Sundays,  and  to  the  igm.irant  generally, 
in  the  country  districts,  on  Church  holi- 
days. Cusaui  came  to  Rome  in  the  year 
above  named,  and  found  there  many  siq)- 
porters  and  associates,  among  whom 
were  Cassar  Baronius,  and  Francis  Maria 
Tarugi,  two  of  the  most  prominent 
among  the  comi)anions  of  St.  Philip  Neri. 
The  Popes  strongly  encouraged  the  pious 
enterprise,  which  was  exactly  in  accord- 
ance with  the  spirit  which  the  Council  of 
Trent  laboured  to  revive  in  every  part  of 
the  Catholic  world.  The  priests  belong- 
ing to  the  institute  were  the  "Fathers" — 

'  Tertull.  Apolng.  .J. 

*  St.  Thomas,     •i-'^,  qu.  124,  a.  5. 


176    CHEISTIAN  BROTHERS 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS 


the  laymen  the  "  Confraternity  " — of  the 
Christian  Doctrine;  but  the  whole  society 
was  often  spoken  of  by  the  name  of  con- 
fraternity. St.  Pius  v.,  by  a  bull  in 
1571,  ordered  that  such  associations 
should  be  established  by  parish  priests 
ffenerally,  accorded  special  indulgences 
to  their  members,  and  gave  to  the 
Fathers  the  church  of  St.  Agatha.  This 
being  found  too  small  for  them,  Clement 
VIII.,  in  loiiG,  granted  them  the  fine 
church  of  St.  Martin  dei  Monti.  This 
Pope  also  directed  Cardinal  Bellarmine 
to  compose  a  short  catechism  for  use  in 
the  schools  of  the  confraternity.  In  pro- 
cess of  time  the  name  of  provost  was 
given  to  the  chief  among  the  Fathers,  and 
tliat  of  president  to  the  head  of  the  con- 
fi-uternity.  hour  definitors,  two  chosen 
by  the  clerical,  two  by  the  lay  members, 
decided  any  difficult  or  disputed  question 
that  might  arise.  Although  they  wore 
the  dress,  slightly  modified,  of  the  secular 
clergy,  and  were  not  bound  to  any  office 
in  common,  the  Holy  See  did  not 
view  any  light  treatment  of  their  obliga- 
tiiins  with  indiflerence,  and  Urban  VIII. 
(Hj27)  ordered  that  members  leaving  the 
community  should  incur  the  penalties 
of  apostasy  as  if  they  were  monks. 
[Apostasy.]  Paul  V.  raised  them  to  the 
rank  of  an  archconfraternity.  In  later 
times  the  Fathers,  taking  the  name  of 
( 'oimregation,  a])pear  to  have  been  en- 
tirely separated  from  the  archconfrater- 
nity. From  the  continuation  of  H6lyot 
by  Badiche,  it  would  appear  that  the 
head  of  this  congregation  is  at  present 
styled  vicar-general.  (Helyot,  "  Ordres 
Monastiques.") 

CHRXSTXAir  BROTHERS.  The 
proper  title  is  "  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools."  This  admirable  institution  was 
founded  by  the  Blessed  J.  B.  de  la  Salle, 
the  process  of  whose  canonisation  was 
be^'-un  at  Rome  some  years  ago  and  is 
.still  in  progress.  Born  in  1651  at  Reims, 
where  his  father  was  a  distinguished 
advocate  and  kings  counsel,  Jean  Baptiste 
devoted  his  remarkable  powers  of  mind 
and  will  at  an  early  aae  to  the  divine 
.service,  aud,  having  been  ordained,  was 
nominated  Canon  of  Reims.  The  educa- 
tion of  the  poor,  to  promote  which 
schools,  called  "  little  schools,"  had  begun 
to  be  organised  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
after  the  legal  establishment  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris,  was  checked  by  the 
Hundred  Years'  War  which  raged  in 
France  at  short  intervals  from  the  middle 
of  the  fourteenth  to  the  middle  of  the 


fifteenth  century.  In  1570  a  society 
of  teachers  was  established  under  the 
title  of  the  "  master-writers"  (inaitre^ 
ecrivains)  at  Paris,  whence  it  spread  to 
other  cities.  Their  aim  was  to  teach 
writing  and  arithmetic,  and  a  little 
Latin,  so  that  their  pupils  might  be 
qualified  to  assist  the  clergy  in  the 
church  offices.  They  received  many 
privileges,  which  they  construed  into  a 
1  monopoly  of  teaching.  About  the  year 
1680,  many  good  and  earnest  persons, 
both  among  the  clergy  and  the  laity, 
were  engaged  in  promoting  the  Christian 
education  of  the  people.  Prominent 
I  among  these  was  a  M.  Nyel  of  Rouen, 
j  who  selected  teachers- and  trained  them, 
I  and  then  sent  them  to  the  cities  or  great 
seigneuries  which  oftered  to  provide 
buildings  and  salaries.  The  Abbe  de  la 
Salle,  who  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
M.  Nyel,  had  his  attention  thus  drawn 
to  the  subject,  the  importance  of  which 
soon  engro.ssed  his  thoughts.  In  his  capa- 
cious mind  the  spirit  of  system  was  united 
to  a  sound  common-sense,  quick  percep- 
tion of  character,  and  the  tendere.st 
charity.  He  took  charge  of  several  of 
1  M.  Nyel's  teachers,  and  engaged  others ; 
but  finding  that  many  of  these  young 
men  were  anxious  about  their  future, 
and  dreading  to  embark  in  a  calling 
which  the  death  of  their  leader  might 
deprive  of  stabihty  and  social  favour,  he 
resolved  to  renounce  his  church  prefer- 
ment, and  also  his  private  fortune,  that 
he  might  be  able  to  say  to  them  that  he, 
even  as  they,  had  no  help  or  trust  save 
in  God.  He  accordingly  resigned  his 
I  canonry,  aud  distributed  his  patrimony 
I  to  the  poor.  This  was  in  1684;  in  the 
same  year  he  drew  up  the  first  rules  for 
his  teachers,  and  selected  the  name  which 
they  should  bear ;  the  origin  of  the 
brotherhood  therefore  dates  from  this 
time.  The  teaching  in  all  his  schonls 
was  to  be  gratuitous  for  the  day  scholars, 
but  boarders  and  day-boarders  were 
also  received.  The  blessed  founder 
himself  often  taught  in  his  schools,  and, 
with  his  sure  eye  for  organisation,  re- 
formed the  instruction  in  main'  large 
schools  {e.g.  in  that  connected  with  St. 
Sulpice  at  l*aris)  the  inefficiency  of  which 
had  baffled  the  elibrts  of  their  managers. 
De  la  Salle  insisted  that  Latin  should 
be  no  longer  an  obligatory  subject  in 
schools  for  the  children  of  the  poor,  but 
that  the  basis  of  their  teaching,  after  the 
Catechism,  should  be  their  own  language : 
let  them  first  learn  to  read  and  write 


CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS         CHRISTI.IN  BROTHERS,  IRISH  177 


French  correctly,  and  then,  if  they  had  j 
time  and  means,  they  might  take  up  | 
Latin.    On  this  account  the  Blessed  de 
la  Salle  is  often  regarded — and,  it  would 
seem,  with  justice — as  the  originator  of 
primary  schools  and  primary  instruction,  i 
which,  till  his  time,  had  been  confounded  | 
with  secondary.  It  is  true  that  St.  Joseph 
Calasanctiub  had  founded  at  Rome  long 
before  (1597)  his  admirable  institution  of  | 
the  Scuole  Pie,  or  Pious  Schools,  in  which 
instruction  was  given  gratuitously ;  but  J 
the  line  was  not  clearly  drawn  in  these,  i 
as  regards  the  subjects  taught,  between 
what  constitutes  primary  and  what  con-  ' 
stitutes  secondary  instruction.  Latin  was  i 
not  excluded,  and  the  teachers  were  en- 
couraged to  aspire  to  the  priesthood ;  hence  ' 
the  Pious  Schools  passed  by  degrees  into 
the  rank  of  secondary  establishments.  On  i 
the  other  hand,  the  rule  of  the  Blessed 
de  la  Salle  required  that  the  Brothers  1 
who  bound  themselves  by  vow  to  devote  j 
their  lives  to  teaching  in  the  schools,  and 
wore  the  religious  habit,  should  be  and 
remain  laymen,  equally  with  the  pro- 
fessors and  assistant  teachers  who  were 
employed  under  them.  And  this  has  con- 
tinued to  be  the  practice  of  the  congrega- 
tion ever  since.    For  the  training  of  the 
Brot  hers  the  founder  instituted  unovicia  te ; 
for  that  of  the  professors,  &c.,  a  normal 
school.    Founded  at  Rheims  in  168.5.  this 
appears  to  have  been  the  first  training 
school  for  primary  teachers  in  Europe. 
It  was,  and  still  is,  a  part  of  the  rule, 
that  the  Brothers  should  work  in  pairs. 
They  take  the  three  religious  vows,  after 
having  attained  to  at  least  twenty-three 
years.    Their  habit  gives  them  an  eccle-  I 
siastical  apjiearance  ;  it  consists  of  a  long 
black  cassock,  with  a  cloak  over  it  fastened 
by  iron  clasps,  a  falling  collar,  and  a  hat 
with  wide  brims. 

The  founder  lived  to  see  the  fruit 
of  his  labours  in  the  establishment  of 
his  schools  iu  man}'  of  the  princi])al 
towns  of  France.  He  died  in  1719, 
leaving  his  congi-eiiiition  so  firmly  planted 
that  all  the  convulsions  by  which  French 
society  has  since  been  torn  have  not  been 
able  to  extirpate  it.  It  has  moreover 
spread  to  many  countries  lieyond  the 
limits  of  France,  and  has  been  imitated 
by  other  teaching  associations. 

From  a  table  with  which  we  have 
be  jn  furnished  by  the  Principal  of  Tooting 
College,  London,  it  appears  that  at  the 
end  of  1890  the  Brothers  had  under  their 
charge  1,71.}  schools,  attended  by  315,332 
scholars.  Out  of  this  general  total  France 


and  her  colonies  contributed  221,793 
scholars  ;  Belgium,  19,588 ;  England  and 
Ireland,  2,149 ;  North  and  South  America, 
48,953;  India,  2,137.  The  number  of 
Brothers  was  12,554. 

It  should  have  been  mentioned  that  a 
Bull  of  approbation  in  favour  of  the 
Christian  Brothers  was  granted  by  Bene- 
dict XIII.  in  1725,  elevating  them  into  a 
religious  congregation.  The  founder  was 
declared  "  Venerable "  in  1840,  and  was 
beatified  Feb.  19,  1888. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that,  in  1699, 
long  before  Sunday  Schools  were  thought 
of  in  England,  the  Blessed  de  la  Salle 
established  one  {ecole  dominicale)  at  St. 
Sulpice,  which  was  to  be  open  from  noon 
to  three  o'clock,  and  give  secular  instruc- 
tion. Similar  schools,  open  on  festivals, 
were  established  by  St.  Charles  Borromeo 
at  Milan,  about  1580 ;  see  his  Life  by 
Bascape,  vii.  42. 

("Vie  du  V6n6rable  J.  B.  de  la  Salle," 
Rouen,  1874.) 

CHRZSTXAir  BROTHERS, 
IRISH.  Areligious  congregation  founded 
in  1802  in  the  city  of  Waterford  by  Ed- 
mond  Ignatius  Rice,  of  Callan,  iu  the 
county  Kilkenny.  Mr.  Rice  had  resided 
in  Waterford  since  1780,  and  thus  had 
an  opportunity  of  witnessing  the  demoral- 
ising effect  of  the  penal  laws,  which 
proscribed  Catholic  education.  He  used 
to  relate  with  what  pain  he  saw  crowds 
of  poor  children  waiideiiiig  throujU  the 
streets  and  lanes  of  the  city,  in  idleness, 
and  its  usual  attendant,  vice ;  and  how, 
meeting  a  number  of  them  one  ilay  at  a 
village  near  the  town,  he  drew  them 
round  him,  and  by  questioning  them  ascer- 
tained the  fact  of  their  neglected  condi- 
tion, and  in  particular  their  drjilnrable 
ignorance  of  the  first  elenit  nts  Df  religion. 
It  was  on  this  occasion  that  he  conceived 
the  idea  of  devoting  his  life  and  ample 
property  to  the  cause  of  the  educati?)n  of 
the  poor. 

He  adopted  the  rules  and  general 
fvstem  of  the  institute  Ibunded  by  the 
lile.-sed  de  la  Salle,  conceiving  that  he 
could  find  no  better  model.  His  iirst  school 
was  opened  at  Mount  Sion  in  tiie  city 
of  Waterford,  on  May  1,  1804,  and  was 
eminently  successful ;  so  much  so,  that  in 
a  short  time  the  altered  habits  and  de- 
meanour of  the  children  in  the  streets 
became  a  common  topic  of  remark.  The 
bishop  of  Waterford  was  a  warm  admirer 
and  supporter  of  Mr.  Rice,  and  he  was 
soon  uivited  by  other  bishops  to  open 
similar  schools  in  their  dioceses.  In  the 
TS 


178       CHRISTIAN  NAME 


CHRIST2kIAS  DAY 


course  of  a  few  years  houses  of  the  in- 
stitute were  established  in  Dublin,  Cork, 
Limeiick,  and  other  centres  of  popula- 
tion ;  and  the  result  appeared  so  satis- 
factory that  the  bishops,  in  1818,  me- 
morialised the  Holy  See  to  approve  the 
congregation,  and  grant  it  a  constitution. 
Rome  took  two  years  to  consider  the 
question,  and  on  September  5,  1820,  the 
Apostolic  Brief  of  Pius  VII.  {Ad  Pas- 
toi  alis)  granted  the  prayer  of  the  memo- 
rial and  confirmed  the  institute.  The 
members  bind  themselves  by  the  usual 
religious  vows,  and  are  subject  to  a  Su- 
perior-General, who  has  three  Assistants 
to  aid  him  in  the  government  of  the  body. 
Houses  of  the  order  are  now  found  in 
almost  every  town  in  Ireland,  and  in 
several  of  the  British  colonies.  The  Bro- 
thers at  present  number  about  600,  and 
their  pupils  40,000.  Their  system  of 
teaching  has  met  with  the  warm  approval 
of  successive  Royal  Commissions,  ap- 
pointed to  inquire  into  the  state  of  edu- 
cation in  Ireland.  (See  "  Testimonies  in 
favour  of  the  Christian  Brothers  and  their 
Schools,"  Dublin,  1877.)  The  Brothers, 
after  the  establishment  of  the  Irish  system 
■  of  national  education  in  ISiiS,  placed  their 
schools  for  a  time  in  connection  with  the 
Board,  and  accepted  the  grant ;  but  find- 
ing that  the  rules  of  the  ]3oard  as  to  the 
absolute  division  of  secular  from  religious 
teaching  were  gradually  leading  them 
into  concessions  alien  from  the  .spirit  of 
their  founder  and  the  Church,  they  with- 
drew from  all  connection  with  Govern- 
ment, and  have  since  carried  on  their 
schools  independently.  Nor  have  they 
seen  any  cause  to  repent  of  having  thus 
thrown  themselves  boldly  on  the  generous 
Catholic  sympathies  of  the  Irish  people. 
(From  information  supplied  by  the  Rev. 
13r.  J.  A.  Grace,  of  Belvidere  House, 
Prumcoiidva.) 

CHRISTIAN-  N-AlttE.  [See  BAP- 
TISM A  1.  Nam  10.  ] 

CHRISTIVIAS  DAY.  The  25th  of 
Dccembei-,  on  which  the  Church  cele- 
brates Christ's  birth.  Whether  or  not 
the  birth  of  our  Lord  really  occurred  on 
this  day,  ancient  authorities  are  not 
ay^reed.  Clement  of  Alexandria  mentions 
tlie  opinion  of  some  who  placed  it  on  the 
20th  of  April,  and  of  others,  who  thought 
it  took  place  on  the  20th  of  May,'  while 
St.  Kpi])hanius  and  Cassian  state  that  in 

1  This  stntcment  is  given  on  the  authority 
of  Benedict  XIV.  It  is  clear  from  Clement's 
vords  (S/ro)ii.  i.  c.  14.5)  that  he  knew  of  no  cer- 
tain tradition  as  to  the  date  of  Christ's  birth. 


Egypt  Christ  was  believed  to  have  been 
born  on  the  6th  of  January.  For  a  long 
time  the  Greeks  had  no  special  feast 
corresponding  to  Christmas  Day,  and 
merely  commemorated  our  Lord's  birth 
on  the  Epiphany.  St.  Chrysostom  in  a 
Christmas  sermon,  delivered  at  Antioch 
in  the  year  386,  says,  "  it  is  not  ten  years 
since  this  day  [Christmas  Day  on  Decem- 
ber 25]  was  clearly  known  to  us,  but  it 
has  been  familiar  from  the  beginning  to 
those  who  dwell  in  the  West."  "  The 
Romans,  who  have  celebrated  it  for  a 
long  time,  and  from  ancient  tradition, 
have  transmitted  the  knowledge  of  it  to 
us."  St.  Augustine  gives  similar  testi- 
mony as  to  the  custom  of  the  Latin 
Church.  We  may  therefore  conclude 
that  in  the  fourth  century  Christmas  Day 
had  been  celebrated  from  time  immemorial 
in  the  West,  and  about  Chrysostom's  day 
it  began  to  be  observed  in  the  East;  and 
it  seems  to  have  spread  rapidly  there,  as 
apiii'ars  from  the  writings  of  the  two 
Gregories  (of  Nazianzum  and  of  Nyssa). 

Two  or  three  points  in  the  celebration 
of  the  Christmas  festival,  as  at  present 
practised,  deserve  special  notice.  It  is 
well  known  that  in  ancient  times  the 
greater  feasts  were  preceded  by  vigils, 
which  the  faithful  kept  in  the  church, 
spending  the  night  in  fasting  and  prayer. 
For  grave  reasons,  the  Church  abolished 
this  custom,  among  the  faithful  generally, 
and  restricted  the  observance  of  vigils  in 
the  proper  sense  to  the  religious  orders, 
who  say  the  night  office,  while  to  the 
lay  people  a  vigil  is  merely  an  ordinary 
fasting-day.  But  when  other  vigils  were 
abolished,  that  of  Christmas  was  still 
])reserved,  and  to  this  day,  according  to 
ancient  custom,  the  people  meet  in  the 
church  to  assist  at  the  singing  of  the 
divine  office,  and  at  the  sacrifice  of  the 
Mass,  which  is  olTered  after  midnight. 

Next,  on  Christmas  Day,  against  the 
rule  which  prevails  on  every  other  day  in 
the  year,  priests  are  allowed  to  celebrate 
three  Masses.  In  aiJicient  times,  how- 
ever, the  custom  of  allowing  a  single 
priest  to  celebrate  more  than  one  Mass 
was  not  limited  to  Christmas  Day.  Two 
Masses  used  to  be  said  on  January  1 — one 
Mass  of  the  octave  of  the  Nativity, 
another  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  Three 
Masses  were  said  on  Holy  Thursday — 
one  for  the  reconciliation  of  penitents, 
another  for  the  consecration  of  the  holy 
chrism,  a  third  to  commemorate  the 
solemnity  of  the  day.  Two  Masses  were 
said  on  the  Ascension — one  of  the  vigil, 


CHURCH  REGISTERS 


CHURCH  HISTORY  179 


and  another  of  the  feast.  A  Roman  Ordo 
mentions  the  custom  of  saying  three 
Masses  on  the  feast  of  St.  John  Baptist, 
•w  hile  it  appears  from  Prudentius  that  the 
Popes  used  to  celebrate  two  Masses  on 
the  feast  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul- 
one  in  the  Vatican  basilica,  another  in 
the  church  of  St.  Paul.  To  return  to 
Christmas  Day :  the  Roman  Ordines 
prove  that  the  Popes  used  on  that  feast 
to  say  three  Masses — the  first  in  the 
Liberian  basilica;  the  second  in  the 
chui-ch  of  St.  Anastasia,  whose  memory 
is  celebrated  on  the  same  day,  December 
25 ;  the  third  in  the  Vatican  church.  In 
other  places,  particularly  in  France,  the 
same  priest  used  to  say  two  Masses  on 
Chi-istmas  Day.  AVben  the  Roman  Ordo 
was  received  in  France  by  the  command 
of  Charlemagne,  the  Roman  custom  of 
saying  three  Masses  was  introduced  in 
France  also,  the  privilege  being  given 
first  of  all  to  bishops  only,  and  then  to 

friests  also.  To  sum  up  :  throughout  the 
'hurch,  or  at  least  in  a  great  part  of  it, 
there  were  two  Masses — one  for  the  vigil 
of  Christmas,  another  for  the  feast  itself. 
At  Rome  there  were  three,  because  the 
feast  of  St.  Anastasia  fell  ou  the  same 
day ;  and  the  Roman  custom  spread 
throughout  the  "West.  Those  three 
Masses,  however,  were  always  said,  not 
together,  but  at  considerable  intervals — 
viz.  at  midnight,  dawn,  and  in  the  day 
time — a  custom  still  observed  in  cathedral 
and  collegiate  churches.  A  mystical 
explanation  of  the  three  Masses  is  given, 
and  they  are  supposed  to  figure  the  three 
births  of  our  Lord — viz.  of  His  Father 
before  all  ages,  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and 
in  the  hearts  of  the  fallhful. 

An  old  chronicler  (Albertus  Argenti- 
nensis)  relates  that  during  the  Christmas 
Ma.'is  celebrated  at  "  cock-crow,"  Charle- 
magne stood  with  drawn  sword  and  read 
the  gospel,  "  A  decree  went  forth  from 
CiEsar  Augustus."  Martene  mentions  the 
ancient  custom,  according  to  which  the 
emperor,  or,  failing  him,  any  sovereign 
wlio  was  present  in  the  Papal  chapel 
on  Christmas  night,  used  to  read  the 
fifth  lesson  in  the  office,  with  his  sword 
iu  his  hand.  "  At  present,"  says  Benedict 
XIV.,  "  on  Christmas  night  the  Pope 
blesses  a  ducal  cap  aud  sword,  which  lie 
either  gives  to  some  prince  who  is  there, 
or  L'lse  sends  it  as  a  present."  (Benedict 
XIV.,  "  De  Festis.") 

CBVRCB  BOOKS  OR  REGXS- 
TEKS.  Tbe  Roman  Ritual  in  the  Eng- 
lish editioD  enumerates  the  following 


books  or  registers  to  be  kept  by  every 
parish  priest  (a  name  which  here  no  doubt 
IS  meant  to  include  priests  in  charge  of  a 
mission) — viz.  the  register  of  baptisms, 
confirmations,  marriages  and  deaths 
("  libri  baptizatorum,  confirmatorum, 
matrimoniorum,  defunctorum  ").' 

The  origin  of  the  baptismal  register  is 
very  ancient.  The  catechumens  were 
accustomed  some  time  before  baptism, 
and  usually  in  the  fourth  week  of  Lent, 
to  give  their  names  to  the  bishop,  that  he 
might  enter  them  in  a  list  known  as  the 
"  book  of  life,"  or  "  roll  of  catechumens  " 
("  catalogus  catechumenorum  ").  The 
Council  of  Trent  (sess.  xxiv.  De  Reform. 
Matrim.  c.  2)  orders  parish  priests  to 
write  down  in  a  book  the  names  of  the 
god-parents  at  baptism. 

The  "  book  of  the  dead  "  may  be  con- 
nected in  origin  with  the  diptychs  of  the 
ancient  Church,  in  which  the  names  of 
benefactors,  Sec,  were  enrolled,  in  order 
that  they  might  be  prayed  for  specially  in 
the  commemoration  of  the  dead  ;  but  it  is 
uot  till  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century 
that  we  find  the  names  of  the  dead  regis- 
tered in  the  present  manner.  The  keep- 
ing of  a  register  of  marriages  was  intro- 
duced (or  rather  made  of  universal  obliga- 
tion) by  the  Council  of  Trent,  sess.  xxiv. 
De  Reform.  Matrim.  c.  l,in  these  words: 
"  Let  the  parish  priest  have  a  book,  in 
which  he  is  to  enter  the  names  of  the 
persons  married  and  of  the  witnesses,  the 
day  on  which  the  marriage  was  contracted, 
and  the  place  at  which  it  was  celebrated, 
which  book  he  is  to  keep  carefully  under 
his  charge."  The  register  of  persons  con- 
firmed, like  that  of  deaths,  was  prescribed 
by  various  provincial  councils. 

CHTTKCH  HISTORY.  It  is  the 
object  of  the  following  article  to  give  some 
account  of  the  chief  histories  of  the 
Church.  We  confine  ourselves,  with  re- 
gard to  Church  hi^itovies  written  in  modern 
times,  to  such  as  have  come  from  Catho- 
lics, and  we  shall  speak  only  of  histories 
which  deal  with  the  fortunes  of  the  whole 
Catholic  Church,  as  distinct  from  the  par- 
ticular branches  of  it  which  have  flour- 
ished in  this  or  that  nation.  What  we 
have  to  say  is  taken  in  substance  from  a 
learned  essay  by  IJishdp  Ilcielo  in  the 
(lerman  "  Catholic  Cyclop;e(li;i."  Follow- 
ing his  guidance  we  divide  tlie  litci-utuni 

I  Accdrdinjrto  Wetzer  .and  WoKe  the  Ritual 

which  ooiiliiins  tahulatcd  rc|i(iri-  of  the  h:ip- 
tisnis,  m.irriages,  and  number  of  children  wlio 
have  made  their  first  communion,  &o. 


180       CHURCH  HISTORY 


CHURCH  HISTORY 


of  the  subject  into  three  epochs.  The 
first  period  {A)  comprifles  the  ancient 
Church  historians  down  to  the  time  of 
Charlemagne,  crowned  Roman  Emperor 
in  800.  During  this  period  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  were  the  chief  representatives 
of  civilisation  and  Catholic  Christianity. 
The  second  period  (.B),  from  Charlemagne 
to  the  rise  of  the  Protestant  religion,  em- 
braces the  whole  of  the  middle  ages, 
during  which  the  German  and  Romance  | 
nations  were  united  in  one  Church  and  j 
under  one  head,  viz.  the  Pope.  The  third  ; 
period  (C)  extends  from  the  sixteenth 
century  to  the  present  day.  Under  the 
first  period  we  shall  begin  with  the  Greek 
and  then  pass  on  to  the  Latin  historians. 

(A)  The  first  Church  historian  of 
whom  any  memorial  has  been  preserved 
was  Hegesippus,  a  Jewish  convert,  j 
who  lived  about  the  middle  of  the 
second  century.  He  wrote  a  work  in  five  [ 
books  called  vuofivrifjLaTa,  or  Memoirs.  [ 
Great  use  of  it  was  made  by  Eusebius,  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  eight  frag- 
ments which  remain;  the  work  itself  is  | 
lost.  These  fragments  have  been  edited  | 
and  illustrated  with  learned  notes  by  the 
gi-eat  Protestant  scholar.  Dr.  Routh,  in  ■ 
his  "  Reliquiae  Paci-ae."  Hegesippus  also  j 
drew  up  a  catabi::  ue  of  the  Roman  bishops 
down  to  Anicetus,  and  this  may  have  j 
been  a  separate  work.  (1)  The  real 
Father  of  Church  history  is  Eusebius,  who 
was  bishop  of  Caesarea  in  the  earlier  half 
of  the  fourth  century.  His  "  Ecclesiastical 
History  "  in  ten  books  begins  with  Christ 
and  ends  with  the  victory  of  Constantine 
over  Licinius,  in  324.  He  used  a  number 
of  old  documents,  which  have  perished 
longsince,such  as  writings  of  early  Fathers, 
letters,  and  particularly  documents  taken 
from  the  archives  of  the  empire  and  placed 
at  his  disposal  by  Constantine.  This  history 
was  trauslated  into  Latin  by  Rufinus.  In 
spite  of  the  roughness  of  his  style,  the 
credulity  which  made  him  accept  un- 
historical  matter  {e.ff.  the  correspondence 
between  Christ  and  Abgarus),and  the  fact 
that  his  narrative  is  often  incomplete,  the 
document  s  which  Eusebius  used,  and  which 
have  perished  since,  give  a  value  alto- 
gether singular  to  his  "  Church  History." 
His  Life  of  Constantine  in  four  books  also 
contains,  although  it  is  written  in  the  tone 
of  a  panegyric,  information  of  the  first 
importance.  The  "Chronicle"  of  Eusebius 
belongs  rather  to  profane  than  to  eccle- 
siastical history,  and  is  besides  more  use- 
ful for  the  history  of  the  Old  than  of  the 
Kew  Testament.  The  first  book  seems  to 


have  contained  a  brief  sketch  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  world,  from  the  estabhshment 
of  the  first  of  the  great  empires  down  to  his 
own  day.  The  second  book  (;^poi'n(6f(tai'a)i') 
contained  chronological  and  synchronistic 
tables  from  the  time  of  Abraham  to  that 
of  Constantine.  It  was  founded  on  a 
similar  work  of  Julius  Africanus  (third 
century).  The  Greek  original  perished  in 
the  ninth  century,  and  we  were  left  with 
nothing  except  fragments  and  aLatin  repro- 
duction of  the  second  book  by  Jerome,  who 
allowed  himself  to  add  and  to  alter  freely. 
However,  an  early  Armenian  version  of 
the  entire  Chronicle  (with,  however,  some 
gaps)  was  printed  at  Venice  towards  the 
end  of  last  century,  and  edited  by  the 
Mechitarist  monk  Aucher,  with  a  Latin 
version  and  with  the  Greek  fragments 
(Venice,  1818).  (2)  Socrates,  a  lawyer, 
or,  as  he  calls  hmiself,  o-xoXao-riKos,  at 
Constantinople,  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Church  from  ."305  to  439 — i.e.  to  his  own 
time.  His  histoiy  is  in  seven  books,  and 
deserves  high  praise  for  the  diligent  use 
of  the  sources  (particularly  of  the  works  of 
St.  Athanasius),  for  the  exactness  of  the 
chronological  data,  for  the  agreeable  style, 
and,  on  the  whole,  for  impartiality.  He 
was  clearly  a  Catholic,  although  inclined 
to  regard  the  rigorist  views  of  Novatian 
with  favour,  and  although,  as  Photius 
remarks,  he  was  "  not  over-accurate "'  in 
his  account  of  dogmatic  matters.  (3) 
Sozomen,  like  Socrates,  a  lawyer  at  Con- 
stantinople, but  originally  from  Palestine, 
wrote  in  nine  books  the  history  of  the 
Church  from  324  to  423.  He  does  not 
seem  to  have  known  the  work  of  Socrates, 
to  which  his  own  is  in  most  respects  de- 
cidedly inferior.  (4)  Theodoret,  bishop 
of  Cyrus  in  Syria,  and  perhaps  the  most 
learned  theologian  of  his  age,  wrote,  about 
450,  the  history  of  the  Church  from  320 
to  428.  It  is  the  briefest  but  the  l)est 
continuation  of  Eusebius.  Its  chief 
fault  lies  in  the  almost  entire  omission  of 
dates.  (5)  Theodore  Lector  lived  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  and  was 
attached  as  lector  to  the  church  of  Con- 
stantinople. He  wrote  a  history  made  up 
of  extracts  from  the  works  of  Socrates, 
Sozomen,  and  Theodoret,  and  this  book 
still  exists  in  MS.  He  also  continued  the 
history  of  Socrates  down  to  527,  but  of 
this  original  history  only  fragments  re- 
main. (6)  The  last  Greek  Church-his- 
torian of  this  period  is  Evagrius,  a  Syrian, 
born  at  Epiphania  about  536.  He  was  a 
lawyer,  high  in  office  at  Antioch.  He 
wrote  in  six  books  the  history  of  the 


CHURCH  HISTORY 


CHURCH  HISTORY  181 


Cburch  from  the  Council  of  Ephesus  in  I 
431  to  594,  80  that  his  work  is  of  special 
importance  for  the  Nestorian  and  Mono- 

Shysite  controversies.  He  is  learned,  ortho- 
ox,  and  writes  in  a  cultivated  style,  but 
is  credulous  and  fond  of  marvels. 

The  Greek  text  of  Eiisebius  (Church 
History),  Socrates,  Sozomen,  Theodoret, 
and  E  vagrius,  with  fragments  of  Theodorus 
Lector,  was  edited  for  the  first  time  by 
Robert  Stephens  (Paris,  1544).  Au  edition  I 
incomparably  superior  was  issued  under 
tlie  care  of  Henri  de  Valois  (Valesius),  a 
lawyer,  who  was  entrusted  with  this  work 
by  the  French  bishops.  He  corrected  the 
text  by  collation  of  MSS.,  and  enriched  | 
his  editions  by  notes  and  dissertations  of  i 
profound  learning,  which  can  never  lose  ^ 
their  value.  The  work  appeared  at  Paris, 
1059-73,  in  three  folios — the  first  con- 
taining the  works  of  Eusebius  relating  to 
Church  history  except  the  C^hronicle  ;  the 
second,  Socrates  and  Sozomen;  the  third, 
Theodoret,  Evagrius,  and  the  fragments  of 
Theodorus  Lector  and  of  the  Arian  histo- 
rian, Philostorgius,  who  in  the  interest  of 
his  party  wrote  a  Church  history  in  twelve 
books,  from  the  I'ise  of  Arian  ism  to  the 
year  423.  A  new  and  convenient  edition 
of  the  ancient  Church  historians  was  edited 
by  Reading  and  published  at  Cambridge, 
1720.  Since  then  Eusebius  has  been  edited 
by  several  critics,  among  whom  we  may 
mention  Stroth  (Halae  ad  Salam.,  1779), 
Heinicheu,  Burton  (Oxford,  1838,  an 
edition  of  inferior  merit).  Heinicheu's 
last  edition  (Lipsire,  1868)  contains  a 
good  text  and  valun  ble  notes,  excursus,  &C., 
taken  from  many  sources. 

In  this  first  period  the  Latins  did  much 
less  than  the  Greeks  for  Church  history. 
Rufinus,  about400,made  a  free  translation 
of  Eusebius,  compressing  the  work  of  the 
latter  into  nine  books  and  adding  two  of 
his  own,  which  gave  the  history  of  the 
Church  from  318  to  395.  Rufinus  is  an 
inaccurate  and  sometimes  a  partial  writer. 
The  best  edition  is  by  Cacciari  (Romaj, 
1740).  Sulpitius  Soverus,  a  contemporary 
of  Rufinus,  wrote  a  "Sacred  History" 
("Historia Sacra," also  "Chronica  Sacra") 
from  the  beginning  of  the  world  to  400. 
Tlie  style  is  justly  celebrated,  but  the  work 
is  too  meagre  to  be  of  much  value,  though 
it  gives  some  details  on  the  history  of  the 
Priscillianists.  The  best  editions  are  by 
Hieron.  de  Prato  (Veronse,  1741),  and  by 
the  Oratorian  Gallandius  in  vol.  viii.  of  his 
"  Ribliotheca  Patrum."  Orosius,  a  Spanish 
priest,  at  the  request  of  St.  Augustine, 
wrote  his  "Seven  Books  of  Histories 


against  the  Pagans,"  which  is  really  a 
profane  history,  written,  however,  in  the 
Christian  interest,  with  the  special  inten- 
tion of  showing  that  the  calamities  of 
the  empire  were  not  caused  by  the 
triiunph  of  the  Christian  religion.  Last  ly, 
Cassiodorus,  after  he  had  retired  from 
his  high  civil  offices  and  had  become 
superior  of  the  monastery  he  founded, 
abbreviated  and  harmonised  the  histories 
of  Socrates,  Sozomen,  and  Theodoret. 
This  ,"  Historia  Tripartita,"  as  it  was 
called,  consisted  of  twelve  books,  and 
was,  with  the  works  of  Rufinus,  the  great 
authority  during  the  middle  ages  on  the 
history  of  the  early  Church. 

(B)  In  the  second  period,  the  relative 
merits  of  Greeks  and  Latins  with  regard 
to  Church  history  were  reversed.  Among 
the  former,  literature  of  this  kind  almost 
died  out;  among  the  latter  it  began  to 
flourish  vigorously  when  the  storm  of 
the  barbarian  invasion  was  past.  Indeed, 
between  600  and  1,500,  the  East  boasts 
only  one  famous  Church  historian,  viz. : 
Nicephorus  Callisti,  a  clergyman  at  Con- 
stantinople about  the  middle  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  He  wrote  the  history  of 
the  Chiu'ch  down  to  610 — in  wliich  year 
the  Emperor  Phocas  died — using  very  dili- 
gently the  authors  (many  of  them  lost  to 
us)  in  the  library  of  St.  Sophia,  but  with- 
out the  critical  spirit  or  the  power  to  dis- 
tinguish history  from  legend.  His  work 
has  been  edited  by  the  Jesuit  Fronton  le 
Due  (Paris,  1630). 

As  we  have  already  said,  the  richness 
of  historical  literature  in  the  West  oHers 
a  striking  contrast  to  the  poverty  of  the 
East  in  this  respect.  However,  the  most 
valuable  historical  literature  of  the  middle 
ages  does  not  fall  under  review  here.  It 
is  com])osed  of  annals  and  chronicles 
without  number,  and  also  of  the  histories, 
civil  and  ecclesiastical,  of  particular  races 
and  nations.  To  the  latter  class  belong 
a  history  of  the  Franks  by  St.  Gregory  of 
Tours  (t595) ;  the  "Ecclesiastical  History 
of  the  English  Nat  ion"  (gentis  Auglorum) 
by  Venerable  Bede  (t735) ;  of  the  Lom- 
bards by  Paulus  Diaconus  (t  799) ;  of  the 
Scandinavian  North  by  Adam  of  Bremen 
(canon  of  Bremen  from  1067) ;  of  Bremen, 
Hamburg,  Lower  Saxony  and  West- 
phalia, by  Kranz,  a  canon  of  Hamburg 
(tl517).  To  these  we  may  add  a  history 
of  the  church  of  Rheims  by  Flo<l  >ard 
(t966).  Of  general  histories,  the  follow- 
ing are  extant:— (1)  Ten  books  of  Church 
history,  by  Haymo,  from  840  bishop  of 
Halberstadt.  This  work,  mostly  compiled 


182        CHURCH  HISTORY 


CHURCH  HISTORY 


from  Rufinus,  gives  the  Church  history  of  j 
the  first  four-  centuries.  (2)  About  the 
same  time  lived  Anastasius,  librarian  of  the 
Roman  Church,  and  appointed  by  Nicho- 
las I.  abbot  of  a  monastery  on  the  further 
side  of  the  Tiber.  He  wrote  an  "  His- 
toria  Ecclesiastica  seu  Chronographia  Tri- 
partita," which  is  translated  and  compiled 
from  three  Byzantine  historians,  and  goes 
asfarastheninthcentary.  Commonly, too,  I 
the  famous  "  Liber  Pontificalis,"  also  called 
"De  Vitis  Romanorum  Pontificum,"  is 
ascribed  to  him.  But  the  learned  authors 
of  the  "Origines  de  I'Eglise  de  Rome" 
(Paris,  1826),  followed  by  Hefele,  have 
proved  that  the  book  is  much  older,  and 
that  Anastasius  cannot  have  written 
more  than  the  lives  of  some  of  the  last 
Popes  in  the  series.  The  latest  edition  of 
this  book  is  by  Blanchinus  and  Vignolius. 
(3)  About  1142,  Ordericus  Vitalis,  an 
Englishman  and  Abbot  of  St.  Evroul,  in 
Normandy,  wrote  thirteen  books  of  eccle- 
.siiistical  history  from  the  time  of  Christ  to 
the  twelfth  century.  (4)  Some  150  years 
later,  the  Dominican  Bartholomew  of  Luc- 
ca wrote  a  Church  historv  in  twentv-four 
books,  from  Christ  till  1312.  (5)  The  great 
Church  history  of  the  middle  ages  came 
from  Antoninus,  Archbishop  of  Florence  in 
the  fifteenth  centmy.  He  relates  the  his-  j 
tory of  theworld, secular  and  profane, from 
the  beginning  to  1459.  Here  we  see  the 
first  dawn  of  historical  criticism.  Lauren- 
tius  Valla  and  Nicolas  of  Cusa  had  already 
pointed  out  the  spurious  character  of  the 
so-called  "  Donation  of  Constantine,"  and 
of  other  documents  accepted  in  the  middle 
ages,  and  the  new  epocli  of  historical 
literature  was  soon  to  bi'gin. 

(C)  Many  causes  cin^pired  at  the 
timeiif  tlip  IJiloniiaticn  t'j  awakenanew 
jiili  ii'>t  in  ( 'liurcli  liisliuy,  and  to  intro- 
duce a  new  luctliod  t.l'  Studying  it.  The 
fall  of  till'  1'>;istcrn  empire  brought  Greek 
literature  ;md  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
language  t(>  A\'rslrrn  Europe,  so  that  it 
became  po^siMc  to  consult  the  sources. 
The  in\(  iiti('ii  nl'  ])]-inting  made  these 
sources  wi'lcly  acce.-sible,  while  the  fact 
that  tlio  ri-i.tr.vtaiits  represented  their 
religion  as  a  revival  of  primitive  (Chris- 
tianity impelled  Catholics  to  study  with 
exactness  the  histon*  of  the  early  Church. 
In  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  famous  work  of  the  Magdebuig  Cen- 
turiators  began  to  be  writtt>n  and  pub- 
lished. It  was  a  histoi-y  of  the  Church, 
written  in  an  intensely  Lutheran  spirit, 
divided  into  centuries,  of  which  the  first 
five  were  prepared  at  Magdeburg,  whence 


the  name,  though  the  whole  work  was 
printed  at  Basle  in  1599  in  thirteen  folios. 
The  director  of  the  work  was  Matthias 
Flacius,  who  had  a  number  of  learned 
men  working  under  him,  collecting  ma- 
terial.*, &c.,  while  the  Protestant  princes 
suppoited  him  with  money.  To  meet  the 
impression  the  "Centxrries"  were  likely 
to  make,  Caesar  Baronius,  afterwards  Car- 
dinal, began  his  "  Ecclesiastical  Annals," 
a  work  of  stupendous  learning,  and  a 
treasure  house  of  valuable  documents,  so 
that  at  this  day,  as  Hefele  says,  Prote,*- 
tants  use  it  a  hundred  times  for  once 
that  they  have  recourse  to  the  forgotten 
"Magdeburg  Centuries."  The  first  edi- 
tion, ending  with  1198,  was  published  at 
Rome  in  twelve  folios  (1588-1607).  It 
was  continued  by  the  Polish  Dominican 
Bzovius,  in  eight  folios,  reaching  to  1564 
(Rome,  1672) ;  by  Spondanus,  Bishop  of 
Pamiers^  in  two  folios  (Paris,  1640), 
reaching  to  1040.  The  best  continuation, 
rich  in  documents,  is  by  the  Oratorian 
Raynaldus,  in  nine  folios  (Rome,  1646- 
77).  Laderchius,  also  an  Oratorian, 
added  three  folios  (Rome,  1728-37),  which 
however  only  contain  the  history  of  seven 
years.  The  two  Pagi,  uncle  and  nephew, 
both  Franciscans,  gave  to  the  world 
learned  and  valuable  notes  on  Baronius, 
entitled  "  Critica  Historico-Chronologica 
in  Universos  Annales,  etc.,  Baronii " 
(Antw.  1705).  They  were  published 
complete  by  the  younger  Pagi  after  his 
uncle's  death.  Mansi's  edition  of  Ba- 
ronius is  the  most  esteemed ;  it  contains, 
besides  the  text  of  Baronius,  the  notes  of 
the  Pagi  and  the  continuation  of  Ray- 
naldus, in  thirty-eight  folios  (Lucca, 
1738-59).  This  costly  edition  is  un- 
liappily  disfigured  by  errors  in  printing, 
ru'ceutly,  a  continuation  by  the  Oratorian 
Theiucr  in  three  folios  coming  down  to 
1583  has  been  printed  at  Rome  and 
Paris  (1856,  seq.),  while  the  whole  work 
has  been  reprinted  at  Bar-le-Duc  (1864, 
seq.) ' 

The  gieat  work  of  Petavius  on  the 
history  of  dogma,  the  admirable  editions 
of  the  Fathers  by  the  Benedictines  of  St. 
Maur,  and  many  other  works  of  a  critical 
nature,  prepared  the  way  for  the  labours 
of  the  French  Church  historians  of  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuiies. 
The  greatest  names  in  this  golden  age  of 
ecclesiastical  learning  arc,  (1)  Natalis 
Alexander.    His  great  work  in  thirty 

1  These  last  statements  nie  made  on  the 
authority,  not  of  Hefele,  but  of  Kraus,  Kirchen- 
geschichte,  ad  injV. 


CHUKCH  HISTOPxY 


CHURCH  HISTORY  183 


actavo  volumes,  containing  the  history  of 
the  Jewish  Church,  and  of  the  Christian 
to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  (Paris, 
1676,  seq.),  was  placed,  because  of  its 
Gallican  views,  on  the  Index  by  Innocent 
XI.  An  edition  by  Roncaglia,  with  the 
entire  text  of  Alexandei-,  but  with  the 
addition  of  notes  correcting  his  Gallican 
utterances,  appeared  at  Lucca  in  1734. 
There  hare  been  many  subsequent  edi- 
tions. (2)  Fleur}-,  sous-precepteur  of  the 
French  Princes,  and  Prior  of  Argenteuil, 
wrote  the  history  of  the  Church  down  to 
1414,  in  twenty  quarto  volumes  (1691- 
1720).  Unlike  Baronius  and  Natalis,  who 
wrote  in  Latin,  Fleury  wrote  in  French. 
The  strength  of  Xatalis  Alexander  lay  in 
learned  and  minute  discussion ;  Fleury 
contents  himself  with  giviug  the  results 
of  criticism,  and  tells  the  history  of  the 
Church  in  a  manner  attractive  to  the  edu- 
cated public,  and  in  language  clear,  digni- 
fied, and  simple.  Nothing  can  be  more 
charming  than  the  skill  with  which  he  in- 
troduces extracts  from  ancient  authorities, 
orthe  exquisite  tact  with  which  he  catclies 
the  spirit  and  portrays  the  manners  of  the 
early  Christians.  In  spite  of  his  Galli- 
canisiu,  Fleury  has  been  commended  in 
the  highest  terms  by  Cardinal  Newman 
and  Hefele.  Indeed,  no  competent  judge 
would  question  his  extraordinary  merits, 
and  to  this  day  his  work  is  unsurpassed. 
Fleur\'  found  several  eontinuators,  of 
whom  Faber,  a  bitter  and  exaggerated 
Gallican,  is  the  best  known,  but  none  of 
them  were  in  any  way  worthy  to  compare 
with  him.  (3)  Le  Nain  Tillemont,  perhaps 
the  most  learned  and  accurate  of  all 
Church  historians.  He  was  a  priest  en- 
tirely devoted  to  prayer  and  study,  con- 
nected with  the  solitaries  of  Port  Royal, 
though  not  himself  a  Jansenist.  His 
famous  "M6moires  pour  servir  4 1'histoire 
ecclcsiastique "'  give  materials  for  the  his- 
tory of  the  Church,  mostly  in  biographical 
form,  down  to  the  year  513,  in  sixteen 
quarto  volumes  (Paris,  1603).  The  his- 
tory is  given  almost  entirely  in  the  words 
of  the  ancient  documents,  but  these  ex- 
tracts from  ancient  authorities  are  united 
with  an  art  which  gives  to  the  whole  the 
smoothness  and  finish  of  a  mosaic.  Tille- 
mont's  accuracy  would  of  itself  entitle 
him  to  rank  as  an  historical  genius.  It 
never  fails  him,  notwithstanding  the  vast 
amount  of  details  with  which  he  deals. 
The  notes  at  the  end  of  each  volume  are 
models  of  critical  acumen.  The  readers 
of  Gibbon  are  aware  how  highly  he 
valued  Tillemont,  and  how  greatly  he  is 


I  indebted  to  him.  The  French  Church 
[  historians  soon  after  this  date  show  a 
marked  falling  off.  They  are  many  of 
them  agreeable  writers,  but  without 
depth  of  learning'.  Ani'Uig  them  we  may 
name  Choisy  ("  Plistoii-e  de  FEglisf," 
Paris,  1706-23),  the  Jansenist  Racine, 
Ducreux,  Perault  Bercastel,  a  popular 
writer  whose  history,  published  at  the 
close  of  the  last  centuiy,  has  been  re- 
edited  and  continued  down  to  our  own 
time  by  Henrion  (Paris,  1841).  A  history 
on  a  larger  scale  has  been  written  by  the 
Abbe  Rohrbacher,  "Histoire  Universelle 
de  I'Eglise  "  (Paris,  1842-48). 

The  Italians,  since  Baronius,  have 
done  much  less  for  the  history  of  the 
Church  than  the  French.  The  best  Italian 
Church  histories  are  those  of  Cardinal 
Orsi,  whose  "  Storia  Eccl."  (Rome,  1748) 
gives  the  history  of  the  Church  in  the 
first  six  centuries ;  and  of  Saccarelli 
("  Historia  Ecclesiastica,"  down  to  1185). 
The  work  of  Graveson,  a  Frenchman 
settled  in  Italy,  is  now  almost  forgotten. 
Berti's  compendium  has  little  worth. 
Works  of  moderate  compass  have  been 
written  by  Delsignore  ("  Institutiones 
Ilistoricae,"  Rom?e,  1837),  and  by  Palma 
(■'  Prsfilectiones  Hist.  Eccles.,"  Romae, 
1838). 

Much  labour  has  been  devoted  to 
Church  history  in  Germany,  but  the  most 
complete  and  popular  of  German  Church 
histories  is  the  Protestant  work  of 
Neander.  For  a  long  time  German  Catho- 
lics did  little  or  nothing  for  this  study, 
till  a  new  era  was  opened  by  Stolberg. 
The  first  fifteen  volumes,  containing  the 
"  History  of  the  Religion  of  Jesus  Christ," 
from  the  creation  to  a.d.  4-30,  were  pub- 
lished at  Vienna  and  Hamburg,  in  1806, 
seq.  This  work  with  its  continuation  by 
Kerz  and  Brischar  is  very  voluminous. 
A  popular  history  goins>-  down  to  1153 
was  wTitten  by  Katerkamp  (Mlinster, 
1JS19-34),  and  a  useful  compendium  bv 
Hortig  in  1826.  Bollinger,  about  teii 
years  later,  published  a  compendium 
which  carries  the  history  of  the  Church 
down  to  the  sixteenth  century.  He  also 
began  a  Church  history  on  a  larger  scale, 
but  unhappily  only  two  volumes  of  this 
excellent  and  learned  work  appeared. 
The  first  volume  ends  with  Coustantine; 
the  second  gives  the  external  history  of 
the  Church  down  to  680.  An  English 
version  by  Dr.  Cox  is  taken  partly  from 
the  compendium,  partly  from  the  larger 
history,  but  the  translation  is  far  from 
accurate.    Mohler's  lectures  on  Church 


184      CHUECH  OF  CHRIST 


CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


tistory  were  edited  and  published  long 
after  his  death  by  Gams  from  the  notes 
of  students.  The  compendium  of  Alzog 
(eig-hth  edition,  1867)  is  a  most  useful  work ; 
it  has  been  translated  into  English.  A 
Church  history  of  great  learning,  but  heavy 
in  style,  has  recently  appeared  from  the  pen 
of  Cardinal  Hergenrother.  The  manual  of 
Kraus  (Treves,  1871-75)  is  indispensable 
to  the  student.  In  its  owai  special  line  it 
has  no  rival.  A  Church  history  in  the 
proper  sense  it  can  scarcely  be  called. 
It  is  rather  an  analysis  of  the  facts,  with 
a  list  of  the  original  sources,  and  of  the 
whole  literature  down  to  modern  times, 
relating  to  each  part  of  the  subject,  while 
synchronistic  tables  are  given  in  an 
appendix.  It  is  difficult  to  say  too  much 
in  praise  of  this  book.  An  immense 
'  amount  of  matter  is  compressed  into  less 
than  1,000  pages;  the  aiTangement  is  a 
marvel  of  simplicity  and  system,  and  the 
completeness  of  the  information  on  books 
of  reference  is  no  less  admirable.  It  need 
hardly  be  said  that  Bishop  Hefele's  His- 
tory of  the  Councils  (in  seven  volumes) 
is  the  best  book  on  the  subject,  and  of 
European  reputation. 

In  English  we  have  no  Catholic 
Church  History  worth  mentioning,  though 
of  course  particular  portions  of  the  sub- 
ject have  been  treated  of  with  great  suc- 
cess by  Dodd,  Challoner,  Butler,  Lingard, 
Oliver,  Tierney,  Rock,  Northcote,  and 
above  all  by  Cardinal  Xewnian. 

CHURCH  OF  CHRIST :  CATHO- 
XIC  CBVRCH.  The  Roman  Catechism, 
in  expouftding  the  ninth  article  of  the 
Creed,  urges  priests  to  explain  the  nature 
and  authority  of  the  Catholic  Church  to 
their  Hocks  with  special  frequency  and 
earnestness,  because  of  the  supreme  im- 
portance which  belongs  to  this  point  of 
Christian  doctrine.  AH  heresy  involves  ^ 
a  rejection  of  tlie  Chm-ch's  authority ;  | 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  impossible  ' 
to  accept  the  true  doctrine  concerning 
the  Church,  and  at  tiic  same  time  to  be  a 
hiM-etic.  Ilt'Dce,  in  all  ages,  and  against 
all  forms  of  error,  the  Fathers  and 
Doctors  of  the  Catholic  Church  have 
appealed  to  her  teaching  as  the  infallible 
rule  of  faith.  If  such  an  appeal  was 
necessary  at  every  time,  there  is  a  more 
than  ordinary  need  at  the  present  day 
for  insisting  upon  this  article  of  the 
Creed,  "  I  believe  in  the  holy  Catholic 
Church."  It  is  misunderstood  by  Pro- 
testants more  utterly  than  by  most  at 
least  of  their  predecessors  in  separation, 
and  the  true  sense  of  the  ninth  article  in 


the  Apostles'  Creed  is  the  hinge  on  which 
all  our  controversy  with  Protestants  turns. 
AVe  propose  to  consider  (A)  the  Church  of 
Christ  as  described  in  the  New  Testament; 
{£)  this  Church  as  it  existed  in  the  ages 
which  came  immediately  after  that  of  the 
Apostles;  (C)  to  show  that  the  present 
Catholic  Roman  Church  is  the  Church 
founded  by  Christ  and  attested  by  Scrip- 
ture and  tradition ;  that  she,  and  she 
alone,  is  the  heir  to  the  promises  of  Christ 
and  the  ark  of  salvation :  (D)  having  dis- 
cussed the  general  characteristics,  we  shall 
conclude  with  a  more  detailed  account  of 
its  component  parts  and  constitution. 

(A)  The  Church  as  set  forth  in  the  Ne^o 
Testament. — It  is  well  known  that  the 
Protestant  Reformers  made  the  Bible,  and 
the  Bible  only,  the  rule  of  faith.  "With 
them  the  Bible  cametirst,  the  Church  came 
second,  and  occupied  a  very  subordinate 
position.*  The  individual,  enlightened  by 
the  Holy  Ghost,  read  the  Bible  and  received 
the  true  faith  from  its  pages.  A  number 
of  these  individuals,  gathered  together, 
formed  a  church.  This  idea  of  the  Church, 
it  may  be  safely  said,  is  still  held  by  the 
great  mass  of  Protestants,  though  it  haa 
lost  ground,  no  doubt,  among  the  learned. 
Now,  the  first  thing  which  ought  to  strike 
an  intelligent  reader  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment is,  that  there  is  an  importance 
attached  to  the  Church  which,  from  the 
Protestant  point  of  view,  is  exaggerated 
and  out  of  all  due  proportion,  while,  on 
the  contrary,  no  adequate  provision  is 
made  for  furnishing  mankind  with  the 
one  and  only  means  of  attaining  the 
truth — viz.  tlie  Bible.  ^  There  is  no  means 
of  evading  this  plain  and  evident  fact. 
Christ  never  once  told  His  disciples  to 
write  books,  or  promised  them  His  help  in 
doing  so.  Books  indeed  were  -wTitten, 
describing  the  life  of  our  Lord,  and  the 
Apostles  wrote  various  epistles,  as  occa- 
sion served ;  but,  so  for  as  we  can  learn 
from  the  pages  of  the  New  Testament,  the 
Apostles  did  not  leave  any  list  of  inspired 
writings,  and,  except  in  one  solitary  in- 
stance, they  never  once  even  allude  to 
the  fact  tliat  there  wefe  any  inspired 
writings  at  all,  except  fhose  of  the  old 
law.'-  Surely  this  is  very  strange,  on  the 
Protestant  theory.  It  cannot  be  affirmed 
that  these  wTitings  bore  the  marks  of  in- 

i  See  for  the  Protestant  doctrine  of  the 
Church  Mohler's  admirable  account,  Sym- 
bolik,  p.  396,  seq.,  where  abundant  references  are 
given. 

See  St.  Peter  2  Ep.  iii.  16,  where  St.  Paul's 
epistles  are,  by  implication,  called  Scripture. 


CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


CHURCH  OF  CHRIST  185 


fpiration  on  the  surface,  for  the  Fathers 
of  the  Church  (till  the  Church  decided) 
were  not  agreed  about  the  number  and 
titles  of  the  Biblical  books ;  and  those 
who  do  not  care  mucli  for  the  Fathers 
may  be  reminded  tliat  the  Reformers 
tliemselves  were  at  variance  with  one 
another  on  the  same  question.  But  this 
becomes  stranger  still,  on  the  Protestant 
theory,  when  we  find  that,  while  our 
Lord  and  His  Apostles  preserve  a  silence 
which  is  scarcely  broken,  on  the  New 
Testament,  they  speak  frequently  and  in 
most  exalted  terms  of  the  Church.  We 
find  Christ  telling  His  disciples  to  hear 
the  Church.  St.  Paul  speaks  of  the 
Church  of  God;  of  the  Church  which 
Christ  has  purchased  with  His  blood,  of 
the  Church  which  is  the  pillar  and  ground 
of  the  truth,  of  the  Church  as  "the  house 
of  God. "v*  This  is  ve£y  iutelligiblelo  Cath- 
olics, who  hold  that  the  Church  has  in- 
fallible authority  in  all  controversies  of 
faith,  so  that,  given  the  authority  of  the 
Church,  the  inspiration  of  Scripture  would 
be  accepted,  and  the  decision  of  questions 
as  to  the  books  which  composed  it  would 
follow  as  a  matter  of  course ;  on  the  Pro- 
testant hypothesis,  the  phenomenon  is 
ine.xplicable. 

Great  importance,  then,  was  given  by 
the  Apostles  to  some  Church  or  other. 
Let  us  see  what  they  understood  by  this 
Church. 

The  Church  which  they  recognised 
was,  first  of  all,  a  visible  body.  No  other 
kind  of  Church  would  have  answered  to 
the  intention  of  Christ  in  founding  it.  His 
disciples  were  to  be  like  "  a  city  that  is 
set  on  a  mountain"  (.Matt.  v.  14),  "a 
candle  put  on  a  candlestick"  {ib.  15). 
Christ's  Cliurch  was  not  to  consist  merely 
in  the  invisible  union  of  pious  believers  in 
Ilim.  Far  from  this,  in  a  series  of  para- 
bles our  Lord  warns  His  followers  that 
the  kingdom  of  heaven  ' — i.e.  the  Church 
which  He  was  to  establish  (since  none 
but  the  good  can  enter  heaven  in  the 
literal  sense) — was  to  consist  of  good  and 
bad.  He  compares  His  church  to  a  field 
in  which  good  grain  and  weeds  gTow 
together  till  the  day  of  judgment;  to  a 
net  which  takes  good  and  bad  fish  ;  to 
a  wedding-feast  where  all  the  guests 
are  not  clothed  in  the  wedding-garment 
of  charity ;  to  virgins,  some  of  whom  are 

'  This  title,  peculiar  to  Matthew,  exactly 
answers  to  the  old  Q^JJt^  noSp  "f  the  Syna- 
gogue. The  other  Gospels  say  "  Kingdom  of 
God."  See  Delitzsch,  History  of  Redemption, 
4).  185. 


wise,  some  foolish.'  The  same  charac- 
teristic of  the  Church  follows  by  a  neces- 
sary consequence  from  the  duties  of  man- 
kind with  regard  to  her,  which  will  be 
presently  explained.  There  would  be  no 
meaning  in  the  admonition  to  "  hear  the 
Church,"  if  she  were  invisible.  We  could 
not  accept  her  as  our  infallible  guide, 
as  the  unfailing  oracle  of  truth,  if  she 
consisted  only  of  pious  people,  who  are 
known  and  can  be  known,  as  such,  to  God 
alone.  It  is  true  that  there  is  an  invisible 
Church,  or,  rather,  that  the  visible  Church 
has  an  invisible  side.  The  Church  is  in- 
visible so  far  as  she  has  an  invisible 
Head,  Jesus  Christ;  so  far  as  she  is  united 
by  prayer  and  union  under  the  same  Head, 
Christ,  to  the  souls  in  Purgatory,  and 
to  the  "Church  of  the  first-born  who  are 
written  in  Heaven."  It  is  true  also  that  the" 
Church  to  a  great  extent  works  invisibly. 
She  is  compared,  not  only  to  a  spreading 
tree  in  which  tlie  birds  of  the  air  lodge, 
but  also  to  the  hidden  leaven,  the  working 
of  which  is  concealed  from  the  eye  of  the 
observer.  The  Church  gives  visible  sacra- 
ments, but  God  alone  can  distinguish 
with  absolute  certainty  the  souls  on 
which  the  invisible  grace  of  the  sacra- 
ments produces  its  due  eflect.  So  much 
every  Catholic  will  gladly  allow.  But  it 
is  one  thing  to  make  this  admission,  quite 
another,  and  a  very  difterent  thing,  to 
contend,  with  Luther,  that  God  first  of  all 
enlightens  the  individual  on  the  nature  of 
the  gospel,  and  that  the  individual  so  en- 
lightened, and  already  a  member  of  the 
invisible  Church,  pronounces  the  body  or 
bodies  in  which  this  true  gospel  is  taught 
to  be  the  true  visible  Church.  According 
to  Catholics,  the  recognition  of  and  submis- 
sion to  the  visible  Church  is  the  ordained 
means  of  sharing  in  the  invisible  treasures 
of  gi-ace.  The  visible  Church  precedes 
the  invisible.  The  Lutheran  reverses  this 
order,  and  thereby  separates  himself  from 
the  teaching,  not  only  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  but  also  of  the  New  Testament. 
The  Lutheran  doctrine  moreover  contra- 
dicts, the  Catholic  is  in  perfect  harmony 
with,  the  whole  purpose  of  the  Incarnation. 
The  Son  of  God  did  not  content  Himself 
with  working  invisibly  on  the  hearts.  He 
assumed  a  visible  body,  weut  about  teach- 
ing and  doing  good,  and  at  the  same  time 
added  to  His  words  and  works  the  in- 
visible agency  of  His  divine  Spirit.  There- 
fore He  left  visible  representatives,  who 

»  Matt.  xiii.  24-30,  47-50,  xxii.  2,  seq. 
XXV.  1,  seq. 

3  Heb.  xii.  23. 


186      CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


were  to  be  known  and  seen  by  all,  and  at 
the  same  time  took  care  that  this  out- 
ward Church  should  be  quickened  by 
the  invisible  presence  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
which  rules  and  quickens  the  Church,  as 
the  soul  rules  and  quickens  the  body. 

The  Church,  then,  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  a  visible  body,  and  it  was  fur- 
ther invested  with  authority.  A  visible 
body  differs  from  a  mere  mob  or  accidental 
gathering  of  individual  units,  because  the 
former  has,  while  the  latter  has  not,  a  re- 
gularly appointed  government.  We  have 
seen  already  that  the  Church  was  to  be 
clothed  with  power,  from  the  fact  that  all 
men  were  to  hear  her.  This  power  was 
to  be  wielded  b}-  the  officers  and  rulers  of 
the  Church.  Our  Lord  chose  and  trained 
His  Apostles.  As  He  was  leaving  the 
earth.  He  declared,  "All  power  is  given  to 
Me  in  heaven  and  in  earth.  Go  ye  there- 
fore, teach  all  nations." '  How  great  the 
power  was  which  had  been  given  to  our 
Lord  and  which  He  committed  to  the 
twelve  appears  from  His  own  words  to 
them,  "  "Whatsoever  you  shall  bind  upon 
earth,  shall  be  bound  also  in  heaven :  and 
whatsoever  you  shall  loose  upon  earth, 
shall  be  loosed  also  in  heaven ; "  ^  and 
again,  "  Whose  sins  ye  shall  forgive,  they 
are  forgiven  them :  and  whose  you  shall 
retain,  they  are  retained."* 

The  consideration  of  the  Church  as  a 
visible  body  naturally  leads  us  to  speak  of 
her  unity.  We  can  see  that  our  Lord 
meant  to  found  one  Church,  because  He 
compares  His  Church  to  a  house,  the  keys 
of  which  He  put  into  Peter's  hands ;  and 
again,  He  likens  His  Church,  in  pointed 
and  emphatic  words,  to  one  single  flock 
under  one  single  shepherd.  The  Chm-ch, 
then,  is  one,  because  she  is  a  single  body 
constituted  under  one  invisible  Head, 
Jesus  Christ,  and  also  under  one  earthly 
head,  our  Lord's  representative  upon  earth 
- — viz.  St.  Peter.  Christ  did  not  permit 
His  followers  to  form  themselves  into 
voluutary  and  independent  societies, 
united  by  individual  inclinations,  or  for 
purposes  of  convenience.  Pie  built  His 
house  upon  a  rock,  and  He  gave  St.  Peter 
power  to  open  and  to  shut  the  doors — i.e. 
to  admit  some  to  membership  and  to  ex- 
clude others,  according  to  the  statutes 
which  Christ  Himself  had  framed.  St. 
Paul  develops  the  idea  of  this  unity,  and 
shows  exactly  in  what  it  consisted,  in  the 
maxim,  "  One  body  and  one  Spirit  .  .  . 
cue  Lord,  one  faith,  one  baptism."*  In 
'  Matt,  xxviii.  19.  ^  Matt,  xviii.  18. 
»  John  XX.  23.  *  Ephes.  iv.  4. 


other  words,  the  unity  of  the  Church  is 
assured  by  the  unity  of  God  Himself,  who 
founded  one  Church  and  continues  to  rule 
it  by  His  earthly  representatives.  This 
unity  manifests  itself  in  a  double  way. 
First,  it  implies  unity  of  faith — "  One 
faith."  Among  the  members  of  merely 
human  institutions  opinions  must  needs 
vary.  Not  so  with  the  members  of  the 
Church,  who  are  united  in  the  one  in- 
variable truth,  proclaimed  by  the  incarnate 
God.  Accordingly,  St.  Paul  beseeches  his 
converts  to  persevere  in  this  unity  of  be- 
lief, in  which  they  had  been  established 
by  the  grace  of  God.  "  I  beseech  you, 
brethren,  by  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  that  you  all  speak  the  same  thing, 
and  that  there  be  no  schisms  among  you ; 
but  that  you  be  perfect  in  the  same  mind, 
and  in  the  same  judgment."'  Far  from 
tolerating  various  ways  of  thinking;  far 
from  allowing  scope  for  private  judgment 
on  articles  of  faith,  or  admitting  that  men 
were  free  to  indulge  in  great  latitude  of 
belief,  provided  that  they  were  sincere 
and  attentive  to  the  natural  precepts  of 
morality,  St.  Paul  exclaims,  "If  any  one 
preach  to  you  a  gospel  besides  that  which 
you  have  received,  let  him  be  accursed." -' 
The  word  "  heresy,"  which  is  used  at  first 
without  any  bad  meaning  in  the  sense  of 
"  party  "  or  "  school,"  occurs  in  the  later 
writings  as'  a  term  of  reproach,  used  to 
mark  those  who  chose  for  themselves 
instead  of  submitting  to  the  faith  of  the 
Church,  as  if  that  fact  alone  were  sufficient 
to  brand  those  who  presumed  to  exercise 
this  choice.  We  are  not  left  to  guess 
how  the  Apostles  judged  of  such  a  course. 
"A  man  that  is  a  heretic,"  St.  Paul 
writes,  "  after  the  tirst  and  second  ad- 
monition, avoid  :  knowing  that  he  that  is 
such  an  one  is  subverted  and  sinneth,  being 
condemned  by  his  own  judgment."  '  St. 
Peter  describes  heretical  parties  or  schools 
as  "  sects  of  perdition,"  ^  and  St.  John, 
with  all  his  gentleness,  is  no  less  stringent. 
"  If  any  man  come  to  you  and  bring  not 
this  doctrine,  receive  him  not  into  the 
house  or  say  to  him,  God  save  you." 
Next,  the  unity  of  the  Church,  as  St.  Paul 
conceives  it,  implies  that  the  faithful  are 
not  only  one  because  they  hold  the  same 
faith,  but  also  because  they  participate  in 
the  same  sacraments — "  One  baptism." 
In  baptism  all  are  bom  again ;  they  be- 
come children  of  the  same  Father  in 
heaven,  and  for  that  very  reason  are  united 
as  brethren  to  each  other.    "  As  many  of 

'  1  Cor.  i.  10.  Gal.  i.  9. 

»  Titus  iii.  11.      =>  2  Pet.  ii.  7.      »  2  John  10. 


CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


CHURCH  OF  CHRIST  187 


you  as  have  been  baptized  in  Christ,  have 
put  on  Christ.  There  is  neither  Jew  nor 
Ureek;  there  is  neither  bond  nor  free; 
there  is  neither  male  nor  female.  For 
you  are  all  one  in  Christ  Jesus. ' '  More- 
over, St.  Paul  only  names  baptism  as  one 
of  the  sacraments  by  which  the  unity  of 
the  Church  is  secured,  and  in  which  this 
miity  di.-plays  itself,  for  he  attributes  the 
same  unifnng  influence,  and  that  in  a 
higher  degree,  to  the  Eucharist.  "The 
chalice  of  benediction,  which  we  bless,  is 
it  not  the  comiiiunion  of  the  blood  of 
Christ  ?  And  tlie  bread  which  we  break, 
is  it  not  the  partaking  of  the  body  of  the 
Lord?  For  we  being  many  are  one 
bread,  one  body,  all  who  partake  of  one 
bread."  ^ 

The  unity  of  the  Church,  then,  depends 
on  the  unity  of  her  organisation,  her  com- 
mon faith  and  teaching,  the  discipline  to 
which  all  are  subject,  the  life  of  prayer 
and  of  sacramental  grace  to  which  all  her 
members  are  called.  But  this  sacramental 
life  makes  the  Church  holy,  just  as  it 
makes  her  one.  There  is,  indeed,  a  marked 
ditl'ereuce  in  our  Lord's  teaching  on  the 
6aiictity  as  contrasted  with  His  state- 
ments on  the  unity  of  the  Church.  As  has 
been  already  proved,  Christ  warns  us 
that  all  the  members  of  Ilis  Church  would 
not  be  holy,  while  He  never  gives  the 
slightest  hint  that  this  Church  could  by 
any  possibility  be  split  into  opposing  sects. 
But  in  spite  of  sins  and  defects  in  her 
members,  the  Church  was  to  be  in  a  true 
and  real  sense  holy.  She  deserves  to  be 
80  called  because  in  Christ  her  Head  she 
possesses  the  source  of  all  sanctity  :  bf- 
cause  by  true  doctrine  on  morals,  as  well 
as  on  faith,  she  teaches  the  way  to  heaven ; 
■while  by  prayer  and  the  sacraments  she 
puts  into  men's  hands  the  weapons  of  this 
spiritual  warfare,  by  which  they  can  over- 
come evil  and  fight  the  good  fight  of  faith. 
Christ  "  loved  the  Church  and  delivered 
Himself  up  for  it,  that  He  might  saner  ify 
it,  clean.-iug  it  by  the  laver  of  water  in 
tlie  word  of  life."^  He  loves  the  Church 
as  husbands  ought  to  love  their  wives;  so 
that  the  marriage  bond  is  a  type  of  the 
union  between  Christ  and  Hi's  mystical 
body.'  Moreover,  in  spite  of  scandals, 
which  were  by  no  means  lacking  in  Apo- 
stolic times  and  were  often  of  the  grossest 
character,  the  sanctity  of  the  Church  shone 

»  Gal.  iii.  27-29. 

-  1  Cor.  X.  16,  17.  A  more  accurate  transla- 
tion would  be  "  It  is  one  bread,  we  the  many 
are  one  body,  for  all  of  us,"  &c. 

5  Kphes."  V.  -Jj.  ^  Ephes.  v.  28. 


forth  in  the  lives  of  her  children.  St. 
Paul  appeals  in  all  humility  to  his  own 
work,  to  his  self-denial,  his  arduous  toils, 
his  charity  and  gift  of  syiupathy,  Ui  th.^ 
fruitfuhiess  of  his  Apostolic  teacliini;  .  I  '.ir 
the  first  time  Jews  and  heathen  ni-ti 
give  up  their  goods  and  hold  all  thin->  in 
common :  they  beheld  not  only  nu'ii  who 
were  pure  and  faithful  to  their  wi\  f.-,  but 
also  others  who  embraced  a  perfect  ion  un- 
known even  to  the  great  saints  of  the  old 
law — men  who  embraced  the  celibate  life, 
making  themselves,  in  Christ's  words, 
"  eunuchs  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven's 
sake,"  St,  Paul  specially  commends  the 
unmarried  state,  and  that  not  simply  "  on 
account  of  the  present  necessity,"  but 
further,  on  general  grounds,  becau.^e  '•  he 
that  is  without  a  wife  is  solicitous  for  the 
thmgs  that  belong  to  the  Lord,  that  he 
may  please  God,  But  he  that  has  a  wile 
is  solicitous  for  the  things  of  the  world, 
how  he  may  please  his  wife,  and  he  is 
divided,"  '  Thus,  while  the  heathen 
rulers  were  actually  trying  to  force  their 
subjects  into  marriage,  in  order  to  deliver 
them  from  the  evfls  of  profligacy,  the 
members  of  the  Christian  commonwealth 
exhibited  to  the  world  a  new  order  of 
things,  in  which,  on  the  one  hand,  the  holy 
mari'iagetie  became  iudissoluble,  and  was 
rendered  holier  still  by  a  great  sacrament, 
while,  on  the  other,  many  pressed  ou  to  a 
higher  state  and  even  ou  earth  led  an 
angelic  life.  On  this  supernatural  sanctity 
of  the  Church,  flowing  from  union  with 
Christ,  developing  itself  in  charity,  zeal, 
benevolence,  virginity,  and  a  thousand 
other  ways,  Christ  promised  to  set  His 
seal  by  miracles.  "  These  signs  shall 
follow  them  tliui  believe.  In  Mv  name 
they  shall  cast  out  de.ils:  they  sluill 
speak  with  new  tongues.  They  shall  take 
up  serpents;  and  if  they  shall  drink  any 
deadly  thing  it  shall  not  hurt  tlieni:  ilie'y 
fhall  lay  their  hands  upon  the  sick  and 
they  shall  recover."  -  This  sancf  it\-  -  .i'  the 
Church,  begun  and  really  enei-oj-iuM  u]>i)n 
eartli.was  to  be  periectrd  in  liea\.  ii.  At 
the  day  of  judgment,  the  wheat  was  to  lie 
separated  from  the  weeds,  the  good  rish 
from  the  bad.  Then  the  prophet's  words 
were  to  be  fulfilled :  "  Arise,  arise,  put 
on  thy  strength,  0  Sion;  put  on  the 
garments  of  thy  glory,  0  Jerusalem, 
the  city  of  the  holy  one :  for  henceforth 
the  uncircumcised  and  unclean  shall  no 
»  1  Cor.  vii.  32,  33. 

*  Mark  xvi.  17,  18.  The  authenticity  of 
this  section  of  St.  Mark  is  disputed,  but  in  "any 
case  it  is  very  early,  for  Irenasus  quotes  it. 


188      CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


more  pass  through  thee." '  The  marriage 
of  the  Lamb,  of  which  St.  John  speaks  in 
the  Apocalypse,  will  be  solemnised,  and 
the  bride  of  Christ  will  take  her  proper 
place  in  His  glory. 

The  Catholic'and  Apostolic  character 
of  the  Church  in  the  New  Testament  need 
not  detain  us  long;  we  have  only  to  point 
out  that  these  marks  are  included  in  the 
picture  already  drawn.  The  Jewish 
Cliurch  was  national  and  therefore  parti- 
cular. The  Church  of  Christ  received  a 
commission  to  teach  all  nations;  the  wall 
of  partition  between  Jew  and  Gentile  was 
broken  down;  the  Church  was  to  be 
Catholic  or  universal.  To  this  Catholic 
Church  the  Apostles  gave  laws.  When 
questions  and  disputes  arose  as  to  the  ob- 
ligation of  the  Jewish  law,  the  Apostles 
with  the  "ancients"  gave  a  decisive 
judgment,  accompanying  it  with  the 
words,  "It  hath  seemed  good  to  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  to  us."-  On  the  foundation  of 
prophets  and  apostles  "  the  Church  was 
built,"  "  Jesus  Christ  Himself  being  the 
chief  corner-stone."^  The  influence  of  the 
Apiistlt's  was  felt  in  every  part  of  the 
Churclijircaiisp  all  doctrine  and  all  autho- 
rity to  tt-acli  (li'scended  from  them.  It  was 
to 'tile  A])ostles  Christ  had  entrusted  the 
commission  of  teacliiiig  and  Ijaptising  all 
nations.  They  in  turn  ordained  others 
and  gave  them  power  to  hand  on  like 
authority  to  "faithful  men"  who  were  to 
rei)n'sent  Christ  in  future  generations. 
"F.ir  this  cause,"  St.  Paul  writes  to  Titus, 
"I  left  thee  in  Crete,  that  thou  shouldst 
set  in  order  the  things  that  are  wanting, 
and  shouldst  ordain  presbyters  in  every 
city,  as  I  also  appointed  thee."*  Thus, 
the  orders  and  mission  of  the  whole  Church 
were  to  be  apostolic,  and  the  teaching  or 
doctrine  of  tlie  Church  was  to  be  apostolic 
also.  Wliat  St.  I'aul  said  to  the  Thessa- 
lonians.  lie  said  virlually  to  all  Christians 
with  wlinm  111-  was  comu'cted,  directly  or 
indirectly.  "Stand  firm:  and  hold  the 
traditions  which  you  have  learned,  whe- 
ther byword  or  hy  our  epit^tle."^  One 
word  more  is  needed  l)ef(ire  we  quit  this 
part  of  our  subject.  It  is  sometimes  ob- 
jected that,  after  all,  the  Roman  Catliolic 
Church  is  not  really  Catholic,  because  it 
does  not,  in  matter  of  I'act,  include  with- 
in its  pale  all  mankind,  or  even  all  who 
profess  themselves  Christians.  The  fact  is 
indisputable,  but  no  inference  against  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  can  be  dediiced 

»  Is.  lii.  1,        «  Acts  XV.        5  Ephes.  ii.  20. 
*  Tit.  i.  5.  »  2  Thessal.  ii.  14. 


from  it.  The  Church  of  the  Apostles  was 
not  Catholic  in  this  sense.  It  was  Catho- 
lic, not  because  it  embraced  all  mankind, 
but  because  it  claimed  universal  jurisdic- 
tion ;  because  it  asserted  its  right  to  con- 
trol the  hearts  and  consciences  of  all  the 
children  of  Adam  ;  because  it  claimed  to 
speak  in  the  name  of  Him  who  had  re- 
ceived the  nations  for  His  inheritance.  No 
obduracy  on  the  part  of  the  heathen,  no 
apostasy  on  the  part  of  Christians,  could 
alter  the  character  of  the  Catholic  Apo- 
stolic Church.  Let  sects  increase  ever  so 
much,  and  spread  and  flourish  in  human 
estimation,  still  the  Church  remained  the 
bride  of  Christ  and  the  sole  heir  to  His 
promises.  To  each  new  sect  the  Church 
could  say,  "Prior  veni:  I  was  here  before 
you :  I,  not  you,  have  received  the 
commission  to  teach  and  rule  the  nations." 

Another  gift  was  necessary,  without 
which  the  Church's  unity  could  not  have 
continued,  and  even  if  it  could  have  been 
maintained,  would  have  been  an  evil 
rather  than  a  blessing.    There  is  no  real 
advantage  in  an  iron  constraint  which 
forces  men  to  repeat  the  same  formulas 
and  acquiesce  in  the  same  decisions;  thei-e 
is  no  advantage  in  unity,  unless  it  be 
unity  in  the  truth.    Accordingly,  our 
Lord    made    His    Church  infallible. 
Against  her  He  promised  that "  the  gates  of 
hell " — i.e.  the  powers  of  evil  and  of  error 
issuing  forth  from  the  gates  of  the  infernal 
city — would  never  prevail.    He  was  the 
truth  itself,  the  uncreated  Wisdom,  and 
to  Him  His  disciples  could  boldly  go,  be- 
cause He  "had  the  words  of  eternal  life." 
,  But  they  were  not  to  be  ^^■orse  off  when 
His  visible  presence  left  them.   "  Behold, 
I  I  am  with  you  all  days,  even  to  the  con- 
[  summation  of  the  world.'"    The  Holy 
Ghost  was  to  teach  them  "  all  things."  - 
Hence  St.  Paul  speaks,  in  a  passage  already 
quoted,  of  "  the  house  of  God,  which  is 
j  the  Church  of  the  living  God,  the  pillar 
aud  the  ground  of  the  truth. No  error 
1  could  ever  darken  the  Church  :  no  perse- 
]  cution  could  ever  destroy  her.  Those 
i  who  revolted  from  her  were  self-con- 
demned ;  and  tho.se  who  listened  to  her 
could  never  be  led  astray  by  doubt  or 
misbelief.    What  tlie  Scriptures  were, 
what  the  Scriptures  meant — all  was  to  be 
settled  for  them  by  the  Church.  They 
were  favoui-ed  with  a  full  perception  of 
the  truth  and  with  an  abundance  of  grace 
impossible  under  the  Jewish  dispensation. 
Just  as  our  Lord  impressed  His  hearers 
>  Matt,  xxviii.  20.  »  John  xiv.  26. 

3  1  Tim.  iii.  15. 


CIIUECH  OF  CUEIST 


CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


180 


bv  the  verv  fact  that  He  spolie  as  one 
having  authority  and  not  as  the  Scribes, 
so  the  Church,  bv  her  loft  v  prerogatives  as 
the  Bride  of  Christ  and  organ  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  was  to  -win  the  hearts  of  men  to 
love  and  reverence.  "Thy  teacher  shall 
not  flee  away  from  thee  any  more,  and 
thine  eyes  shall  see  thy  teacher.  And  thine 
ears  shall  hear  the  word  of  one  admonish- 
ing thee  behind  thy  back:  This  is  the 
way,  walk  ye  in  it;  and  go  not  aside 
neither  to  the  right  hand  nor  to  the  left."  ^ 

{B)  The  Church  of  the  Jirst  Ages  after 
the  Apostles. —  We  have  been  trying  to 
show  that  the  Church  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  One,  Holy,  Catholic  and  Apo- 
stolic, the  indefectible  and  infallible  organ 
of  the  truth,  from  which,  and  not  from 
their  private  study  of  Biblical  records,  all 
nations  were  to  learn  the  truth.  Did  any 
change  occur  in  the  rule  of  faith  when 
the  Apostles  were  no  longer  upon  earth  ? 
TNTien  the  Apostles  were  gone,  did  the 
Protestant  religion  begin  to  be,  so  that 
Christians  went  for  their  faith,  not  to  the 
Church,  but  to  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments?  Now,  on  the  face 
of  it,  it  is  unlikely  that  our  L  n  d  ordained 
an  elaborate  system  whicli  was  to  con- 
tinue for  a  brief  space  and  then  give  place 
to  one  radically  diflei-ent.  But  this  im- 
probability rises  to  sheer  impossibility, 
when  we  reflect  that  our  Lord,  far  from 
preparing  His  diseipb  s  for  such  a  change, 
distinctly  promised  that  He  was  to  be 
with  His  Church  "all  day?;"  that  the 
gates  of  hell  were  not  to  prevail  again>t 
it;  and  so  clearly  implied  that  the  Ajinftles 
were  to  have  succejsors,  endowed  with 
the  same  powers  and  with  the  same 
infallibility.  If  we  turn  fiom  the 
New  Te>t;;uient  to  tlie  writings  of  the 
first  Christians,  we  find  everything  in 
exact  correspondence  with  the  Ciitliolic 
theory  of  the  Church.  When  St.  .Toliii, 
the  last  of  the  Apostles,  din!,  tlin-e  i>  n.i 
trace  of  any  revolution  which  oec  urreii  in 
the  system  of  riiri^tian  government,  ^^'e 
find  the  bishops  ruling  jiist  as  the  Apostles 
had  done,  and  making  the  -ame  claims 
to  speak  in  the  name  of  Christ.  St. 
Ignatius,  the  disciple  of  .St.  John,  pro- 
claims the  Church's  unity,  and  the  neces- 
sity of  union  with  and  submission  to  her. 
"i)o  nothing,"  he  writes,  "without  the 
bishop.  . .  .  Jesus  Christ  is  one.  .  .  .  There- 
fore, let  ill!  of  you  meet  together,  as  in 
one  temple,  as  at  one  altar,  as  in  one  Jesus 
Clirist."-  We  are  to  receive  one  Eucharist, 
for  there  is  one  flesh  of  our  Lord  Jesus 

1  Is.  XXX.  20,  21.         2  Ad  Magnes.  7. 


Christ,  one  altar,  one  chalice,  as  there 
is  one  bishop.*  Our  Lord  breathed 
"  incorruption  into  His  Church."  ^  In  his 
epistles  the  term  "  Catholic  Church  "  ap- 
pears for  the  first  time  in  Christian  litera- 
ture,^ and  it  embodies  the  same  idea 
which  he  expresses  elsewhere,  when  he  tells 
the  Ephesians  to  be  "  united  in  the  mind 
of  God ; "  and  goes  on  to  say  that  the 
bishops  established  throughout  the  world 
(Kara  ra  Trepara)  "are  in  the  mind  of  Jesus 
Christ."*  In  this  Church  he  recognised  a 
visible  head,  the  Church  which  "presides 
{irpoKa6r)Tai)  in  the  region  of  theRomans."* 
St.  Ignatius  is  the  only  disciple  of  the 
Apostles  who  speaks  ex  professo  on  doc- 
trinal matters  in  documents  which  stiU 
survive.  St.  Irenaeus  belongs  to  the 
second  stage  of  the  Church's  history.  He 
was  the  faithful  disciple  of  St.  Polycarp, 
who  was,  like  St.  Ignatius,  the  disciple  of 
St.  John.  St.  Irenseus  wrote,  not  later 
than  190,  a  treatise  "against  heresies," 
the  earliest  dogmatic  treatise  which 
has  been  preserved  to  us.  He  stood 
face  to  face  with  developed  systems  of 
heresy,  and  this  forced  him  to  state  at 
length  and  with  precision  the  Catholic 
rule  of  faith.  This  rule  in  his  estimation 
certainly  was  not  the  "  Bible  and  the 
Bible  only."  "  We  must  not,"  he  says, 
"  seek  from  others  the  truths  which  it:  is 
easy  to  obtain  from  the  Church,  since  into 
her,  as  into  a  rich  treasury,  the  Apostles 
poured,  as  into  a  full  stream,  all  which  per- 
tains to  the  truth :  so  that  all  who  will 
may  drink  at  her  hands  the  water  of  life. 
She  is  the  gate  of  life  :  as  for  all  the  rest, 
they  are  thieves  and  lohliers."  He  even 
l)Ut's  to  himself  the  iiii;iuiiiary  (M-e  that 
'■the  Apostles  had  lel't  no  Scriptures,"  an 
hyiHith.'sis  which  on  the  Pnitestant  theory 
would  have  made  true  Christ ianitv  im- 
possible. Ti-eii;eus  iud-.'.l  dillerent  Iv. 
"Snj.i.oM  .-he  saN  "tlu'  Apostles  had  left 
Usno^cri],iures,;--l,onldwe  not  follow  the 
order  of  tiaditioii  which  they  handed 
down  to  those  into  whose  hands  thev  en- 
trusted the  chin-ches?"'  "The  "true 
knowledge  is  the  teaching  of  the  Apostles 
and  the  ancient  constitution  of  the  Cliurch 
over  the  whole  world  (ro  apxniov  rJjf  tV- 
K^rjaias  avarijpa  Kara  ttuvtos  tov  Koap-ov)}'^ 
This  Church,  "planted  even  to  the  ends  of 
the  world  by  the  Apostles  and  their  dis- 
ciples, iidierits  [their]  faith. "'•*  He  regards 

1  Ad  rhiladdph.  4.  «  Iren.  iii.  4,  1. 

2  Ad  Kphis.U.  ■'Ibid. 

i  Ad  Smi/r».  8.  8  Il>id.  iv.  33,  8. 

*  Ad  hjj'hes.  3.  9  Ibid.  i.  10.  1. 

5  Rom.,  ad  init. 


190       CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


the  character  of  the  Cliurch's  tradition, 
as  in  .itself  the  witness  to  its  truth.  Each 
heretic  in  turn  "  wished  to  set  up  for  a 
teacher,  and  seceded  from  the  sect  in 
which  he  found  himself  at  first.  ...  No 
man  could  tell  tlie  uumher  of  those  who, 
each  on  a  dill'erent  plan,  separated  from 
the  truth." '  "  But  the  Church,  dwelling, 
so  to  speak,  in  one  house,  as  with  one  soul 
and  one  heart,  constantly  teaches,  preaches, 
delivers  this  [Apostolical  tradition]  as 
with  one  mouth.  There  are  divers  lan- 
guages in  the  world,  hut  still  the  force 
of  tradition  is  one  and  the  same."  In 
Germany,  in  Gaid,  and  Spain,  in  the  East, 
and  in  Africa,  the  Church  holds  the  same 
faith.'^  God  Himself  has  bestowed  the 
faith  upon  her,  and  with  it  the  "  Holy 
Spirit,  the  pledge  of  incorruption  and  con- 
firmation of  our  faith.  .  .  .  "Where  the 
Church  is,  there  is  the  Spirit  of  God,  and 
where  the  Spirit  of  God  is,  there  is  the 
Church  and  all  grace ;  and  the  Spirit  is 
truth."  ^  Hence  to  be  ovitside  of  the 
Church  is  the  same  thing  as  to  be  outside 
of  the  truth.  The  quotations  given  abun- 
dantly prove  that  Irenjeus  believed  the 
Church  to  be  one,  Catholic,  infallible  in 
her  teaching,  and  the  source  of  sanctity. 
He  is  no  less  ey^'  ^.  in  laying  down  her 
Apostolic  cb-  Indeed,  he  makes 

this  last  tl  'I  of  all  the  Church's 

prerogativt  ist  obey  those  who 

have  the  sui.  .  the  Apostles."  It 

is  from  those  .ive  this  succession 

from  the  Apt  hiess  of  doctrine, 

conversation   -w  reproach,  speech 

pure  and  incorrU|4ible,  that  we  must  learn 
the  truth."  "They  are  the  nieu  who  ex- 
pound the  Scriptures  for  us  without 
danger'  of  error.  Aud,  if  we  ask  how 
we  are  to  know  that  tlie  bisliops  have 
retained  sound  doctri'ie  and  the  true  tra- 
dition, the  answer  is  tliat  "with  the  suc- 
cession of  tlie  episcopate  they  have  re- 
ceived a  sure  t/ift  nf  truth  {chnriama 
vcritatis)  according  to  tli(>  good  will  of 
the  Father.'"  '  M'e  cannot  i)ut  the  belief  of 
St.  Irena3us  better  than  in  the  words  of  a 
le.-irned  Protestant  far  removed  from  any 
s\ni|Kitliy  with  it.  "Iren:ens'^  makes  the 
])ri'-i'r\ .'it  mn  ol'  sound  doeti'ine  and  tlie 
pnsrnii'  of  111,,  lliily  Chost  dependent 
UJion  the  bislMi]j.~  w  ho  in  irt; it  iniate  suc- 
cession re])i'esent  the  A ]ii i>t les.  a nd  .  .  . 
this  manifestly  because  lir  \\ants  at  any 
price  to  have  a  security  for  the  unity  of  j 
the  visible  Church."  St.  Treiuens  finds  the  ■ 

>  Iren.  i.  28,  1,  2.       -'         i.  10.  2. 

«  Ibid.  in.  24,  1.        "  Ihid.  iv.  '20,  2  and  5. 

•  Ziegler,  Iren'dus,  p.  150.  ' 


centre  of  this  uuity  in  the  Roman  Church, 
"  with  which,  because  of  its  more  powei  ful 
principality,  every  Church  must  agret — 
that  is,  the  faithful  everywhere — in  which 
the  tradition  of  the  Apostles  has  ever  been 
preserved  by  those  on  every  side."  But 
the  interpretation  of  these  words  belongs 
to  the  article  on  the  Pope. 

Other  testimonies  may  be  added  from 
the  same  period.  Clement  of  Alexandria 
tells  us  that  "  the  true  Church  is  one.  the 
Church  which  is  really  ancient."  '  It  is 
one,  he  says,  because  God  is  one,  though 
men  try  to  split  it  up  into  many  heresies. 
He  speaks  of  heresies  "  which  abandon 
the  Church  which  is  from  the  beginning," 
and  avers  that  "  he  who  falls  into  heresy, 
goes  through  a  desert  without  water."  ^ 
Tertullian  holds  similar  language  in  con- 
troversy with  heretics.  Over  and  over 
again  he  appeals  to  the  Apostolic  founda- 
tion of  the  Catholic  Church  "We  commu- 
nicate with  the  Apostolic  Church,  because 
there  is  no  difference  of  doctrine  between 
us;  this  is  nn  evidence  of  truth" — i.e.  a 
proof  that  what  we  teach  is  true.^  The 
Apostles  knew  all  truth,"  and  taught  it 
to  the  churches.^  He  proves  the  truth  of 
Catholic  doctrine  from  the  fact  that  the 
!  Church  is  preser-\  ed  from  error  by  the 
Holy  Ghost,  whose  office  it  is  so  to  pre- 
'  serve  her;  from  the  very  fact  that  all 
Catholics  hold  the  same  diictr.'ne,  arguing 
that  if  the  churches  had  fallen  into  error, 
they  would  not  all  have  fallen  into  the 
same  error,  since  "that  which  is  found 
one  [and  the  same]  among  many,  is  not 
an  error,  but  a  tradition.''-  Finally,  to 
return  to  Tertullian'-  te.-ieliing  on  the 
A]iostolicity  oi  ill,.  Ciiiifcli.  \y\t]i  which 
wi-  began,  L,'  thai   ( 'atholics  can, 

heretics  canii,)t,  claim  communion  with 
any  Church  of  A]i,i>tolic  origin.' 

"We  have  sai<l  ,.noii^li  ]vrhaps  on  this 
divisioncjf  thesubji  ct :  liut  fr,'m  Tertullian 
we  may  fitly  pass  t,)  him  ^\  h,)  used  to  call 
Tertuliiau  'liis  master,  th,-  great  St. 
Cv]irian.  He  defin,  .-  the  ( 'liureh  as  "  the 
laitv  united  fi  tle^ir  Iu-Iimj,  {s,:,,rdut)) 
an.l  p,.M,.r."  The  C'liuivli  i>  on,  and  lui- 
di\  id, m1,  "being  b,iund  in  nwv  by  the  ailhe- 
sioii  of  bisho])s  in  mutual  communion." " 
Tlie  saying  which  is  re^ardiHl  as  e-\])ress- 
iii'i  the  very  I'ssence  of  Popish  bigotry, 
anihvhieh  has  ever  been  specially  offensive 
>  Cli'in.  Al.  Strom,  vii.  17. 
-'  Iluil.  i.  19.  S  Preeser.  21,  32. 

4  ll,i<l.  -l-l.  5  Ilyid.  n. 

6  Ilnd.  -.'8.  7  Adv.  Marc.  i.  21. 

8  Cyprian.  Ep.  Ixvi. ;  the  numbering  of 
the  epistles  here  follows  the  recent  critical 
edition  bv  Hartel. 


CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


CHURCH  OF  CHRIST  191 


to  Protestants,  viz.  "no  salvation  outside 
the  Church "  ("  extra  ecclesiam  nulla 
salus  ")  is  found  word  for  word  in  Cy- 
prian.' Heresy  is  a  stain  which  even 
blood  shed  for  the  truth  of  Christ  cannot 
■wash  awav.^ 

(C)  The  Catholic  Roman  Church,  the 
Church  of  the  New  Testament  and  of  the 
jprt^/(erit.— The  real  difficulty  in  the  contro- 
versy with  all  who  are  not  Catholics  is  to 
•prove  that  the  four  notes  of  the  Church 
given  in  the  Constantinopolitan  Creed, 
"  one,  holy,  Catholic  and  Apostolic 
Church,"  are  the  true  marks  by  which  the 
■Chiu-ch  of  Christ  may  be  distinguished  from 
the  sects.  AVhen  that  is  done,  the  ques- 
tion between  Catholics  and  their  opponents 
is  almost  at  an  end,  for  a  Protestant  body 
can  scarcely  pretend  with  seriousness  to 
be  the  "  one,  holy,  Catholic  and  Apostolic 
Church."  In  fact,  no  single  Protestant 
body, so  far  as  we  are  aware,  ])n)fesses  to 
be  the  one  Chui'ch.  But  iieitlier  can  it  be 
maintained  that  Protestant  bodies  taken 
together,  or  Protestants  and  Catholics  to- 
gether, or  Anglicans,  Greeks  and  Roman 
Catholics  together,  form  the  one  Church. 
These  difterent  bodies  arc  not  one  in  doc- 
trine ;  they  hold  no  visiljle  communion 
with  each  other ;  much  less  are  the)-  ruled 
by  one  visible  government ;  they  cannot, 
therefore,  form  one  visibh'  body.  Just  as 
little  can  any  of  the  bodies  which  are 
severed  from  the  unity  i>f  the  faith,  claim 
the  title  of  Catholic.  No  Protestant  sect 
.asserts  its  right  to  universal  dominion  ;  i 
such  sects  are  essentially  national  or  local  : 
in  their  character,  and  exhiliit  a  certain 
amount  of  toleration  to  each  other.  The 
Scotch  Prcsljytcrian  Church  is  not  aggres- 
sive in  Eiioland :  the  Englisii  Episcopalian 
Church  maljes  no  attempt  to  exercise  juris- 
diction over  the  French  or  Italian  nations. 
No  Protestant  body  dares  to  say,  "  I  am 
the  Catholic  Church  ;  out  of  my  jiale  there 
is  no  salvation  ;  all  men  must  hear  me  and 
submit  to  me  :  if  they  refuse,  it  is  at  tli,-ir 
peril."  Even  the  (;ireek  schismatical 
■Church  does  not  seriously  attempt  to 
convert  the  French  or  even  the  Iviglish 
to  its  special  form  of  Christianity.  Simi- 
larly it  might  be  shown  that  no  separated 
body  can  rightly  call  itself  holy  or  Apo- 
stolic ;  but  we  need  not  enter  at  length  on 
the  treatment  of  tliese  p(]ints,  because  we 
shall  have  to  point  out  ])rfsHntlv  that 
the  Catholic  Konian  Clnin  li  is  in  oxi'lusive 
possession  of  the,-'  mai-l^,  w  hieh  sri-\  r\\  ilh 
the  other  two  to  dK^tinguisli  the  tine 
Church.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  no  single 
'  Ep.  Ixxiii.       2  De  Unitat.  Ecclesice,  14. 


Protestant  body,  no  schismatical  body  of 
any  kind,  can  by  any  possibility  have  re- 
ceived its  mission  from  the  Apostles.  At 
some  time  or  other,  each  separated  itself 
from  the  unity  of  the  Church  and  started  a 
newand  independent  life,  so  that  its  present 
doctrine  and  its  present  independent  state 
cannot  have  come  down  to  it  in  unbroken 
succession  from  the  Apostles  of  Christ. 
Indeed,  no  Protestant  Church  professed 
to  have  received  its  doctrine  in  unbroken 
succession  from  the  Apostles.  The  Angli- 
can body,  for  example,  declares  expressly 
that  Christianity  was  grossly  corrupted  ; 
that  this  corruption  ailected  the  English 
church  among  others,  and  that  she  at  the 
time  of  the  Reformation  reverted  to  the 
simplicity  of  primitive  doctrine.  The 
mark  of  sanctity  was  conspicuously  absent 
in  the  founders  of  the  Greek  schism  and 
of  the  Protestant  churches.  Nor  can 
any  body  which  is  not  Catholic  possess 
the  means  of  holiness.  Even  if  the  true 
sacraments  are  given,  they  are  given  and 
taken  against  Christ's  will,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  they  are  given  outside  of  the 
Church  which  He  fumded  and  by  those 
1  who  hold  no  commission  to  administer 
I  them.  They  are  therefore  given  and 
j  received  sacrilegiously  and  cannot  profit 
the  recipient,  unless  he  is  excused  by 
invincible  ignorance. 

The  Catholic  Roman  Church,  on  the 
other  hand,  claims  with  good  right  to  be 
"  one,  holy.  Catholic  and  Apostolic." 
She  is  one  because  all  her  members  are 
united  under  one  visible  head,  the  Bishop 
of  Rome,  who  is  the  centre  of  unity,  and 
who  has  received  supreme  power  to  rule 
and  govern  the  Church  of  God.  He  does 
so  along  with  the  bishops  whom  the  Holy 
Ghost  has  appointed  also  "to  rule  the 
Church  of  God,"  an  office  which  tlit>y 
exercise  in  union  w  ith,  and  in  subordi- 
nation to,  the  successor  of  St,  Peter. 
The  Church,  then,  if  we  look  at  its  con- 
stitution, is  one,  as  truly  as,  indeed  far 
more  truly  than,  any  nation  can  be  one. 
Some  years  ago  a  great  deal  was  said 
about  the  unity  of  Germany,  which  was 
eagerly  desired  by  many,  (lermans  had 
many  points  in  comm(ni :  they  all  si)oke 
the  same  language;  the  same  l)lood  flowed 
in  their  veins ;  they  were  proud  of  the 
same  literature ;  they  were  bound  together 
by  many  ennobling  recollections,  and,  in 
some  measure,  by  common  aspirations. 
I'liit  the  German  States  were  not  one, 
Lji'cause  they  were  not  under  one  govern- 
ment. After  a  military  struggle,  the 
I  unity  of  the  empire  was,  at  least  to  a 


102      CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


p-cat  extent,  secured,  because  the  great 
majority  of  Germans  were  placed  under 
one  single  rule.  This  unit}-  Christ  pro- 
vided for  His  Church  by  placing  it  under 
Peter  and  his  successors.  But,  whereas 
earthly  governments  cease  to  be,  and 
nations  may  be  severed  and  divided, 
Christ  took  care  that  the  government  of 
His  Church  should  never  fail — that  it 
sliould  continue  to  the  end  of  time,  one 
and  indivisible.  He  made  Peter  the 
rock,  and  promised  that  the  gates  of  hell 
shall  never  prevail  against  the  Church 
built  upon  it.  That  this  unity  of  govern- 
ment is  possessed  by  the  Catholic  Roman 
Church  at  this  day,  is  an  unquestioned 
and  unquestionable  fact.  No  less  clear  is 
the  Church's  unity  in  faith.  All  Roman 
Catholics  believe  the  Church  in  commu- 
nion with  the  Pope  to  be  infallible  in 
faith  and  morals.  The  freest  discussion 
is  permitted  on  matters  of  opinion— even 
of  theological  opinion.  But  all  the  faith- 
ful, by  the  very  fact  that  they  are  Catho- 
lics, admit  that  they  are  bound  to  hear 
the  voice  of  the  Church,  and  when  the 
Pope  solemnly  issues  a  definition  of  faith, 
when  the  pastors  united  teach  a  truth  as 
of  faith,  then  all  controversy  is  at  an  end. 
The  Protestant  principle  of  private  judg- 
ment is,  from  the  very  necessity  of  the 
case,  a  principle  of  division.  A  behef  in 
the  gift  of  infallibility  which  our  Saviour 
has  bestowed  on  His  Church  is  in  its  own 
nature  a  principle  of  unity.  This  unity 
of  government  and  belief  is  perfected  by 
unity  of  worship.  The  Catholic  Church 
all  over  the  world  ofiers  to  God  the  one 
worship  really  worthy  of  Him — viz.  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  Everywhere  she 
administers  the  same  sacraments  with 
the  same  essential  rites. 

The  Catholic  Roman  Church  is  also 
holy.  She  gives  the  true  sacraments,  and 
it  is  in  the  unity  of  the  Church,  and  there 
only,  that  these  sacraments  are  means  of 
grace.  Because  of  her  infallibility  she 
teaches,  and  is  sure  to  teach,  a  holy  doc- 
trine, thereby  differing  from  tlie  Protes- 
tant Reformers,  who  taught  that  man  is 
justified  by  iTiere  faith  without  good 
works;  that  man's  will  is  not  free;  that 
God  has  predestined  some  to  eternal  ruin 
without  any  fault  of  theirs.  It  may  be 
safely  said  that  if  a  Protestant  is  virtu- 
ous, it  is  not  because,  but  in  spite  of,  the 
heresy  taught  by  those  who  founded  the 
Protestant  religion,  while  a  bad  Catholic 
is  bad  because  he  does  not  practise  the 
faith  which  he  holds.  Further,  the  holi- 
ness of  the  Church  is  seen  in  the  sanctity 


of  Christ  and  His  Apostles  who  founded 
her ;  in  the  constancy  of  the  martyrs  who 
sealed  her  faith  with  their  blood  ;  in  the 
lives  of  the  great  saints,  who  have 
adorned  her  in  all  ages  ;  in  the  lofty  per- 
fection to  which  her  priests  and  religious 
are  called.  The  Reformers  ought  to  have 
been — considering  the  exalted  mission 
which  they  professed  to  have  received 
direct  from  heaven — men  of  manifest  and 
heroic  sanctity.  Let  the  reader  study 
the  character  of  Luther  as  portrayed  by 
learned  Protestants,  such  as  Hallam  or 
Sir  William  Hamilton  in  his  Essays :  let 
him  then  peruse  the  defence  of  Luther 
against  his  Protestant  assailants,  by 
Archdeacon  Hare  ;  and  he  will  see  how 
far  Luther  fell  short  of  the  ordinary 
moral  standard,  let  alone  heroic  sanctity. 
Is  it  credible  that  God  used  such  a  man 
as  the  great  instniment  for  reintroducing 
the  gospel  into  Europe  .f*  Then  let  the 
reader  turn  to  the  lives  of  the  great 
Catholic  saints — St.  Ignatius,  St.  Charles 
Borromeo,  St.  Francis  \avier,  and  many 
others — whom  God  raised  up  at  the  very 
time  when  so  many  were  deserting  the 
Church  of  Christ  and  stigmatising  her  as 
apostate  and  coiTupt.  Or,  again,  let  any- 
one impartially  consider  the  state  to 
which  a  priest  is  called,  and  compare  it 
with  that  of  a  Protestant  cleri;yman. 
The  former  is  forbidden  the  enjoyment  of 
domestic  life,  that  he  may  give  himself 
entirely  to  the  service  of  God  and  his 
brethren.  Day  by  day  he  must  recite 
the  Divine  Office ;  practically  he  is  obliged 
to  offer  frequently  the  holy  sacrifice,  so 
that  he  has  the  most  powerful  motive  for 
keeping  his  conscience  pure.  The  life  of 
a  priest  is  utterly  unlike  that  of  other 
men.  A  Protestant  minister,  on  the 
other  hand,  scarcely  diff'eis,  so  far  as  his 
state  goes,  from  the  laymen  around  him, 
and  if,  as  is  ol'ten  ihe  case,  he  is  a  munof 
exemplary  zeal  ami  sell-ilrnial,  it  is  not 
his  Church  which  makes  him  so.  Lastly, 
the  Catholic  Church  at  all  times  produces 
eminent  servants  of  God,  who,  according 
to  Christ's  promise,  perform  woi'ks  of 
Mduder,  like  His  dwn.  So  confident  is 
the  Catholic  Chiiivli  iliat  t-lie  ])'i>>esses  a 
succession  of  ^ailll,■-  \\  li(i>e  >anetity  is  evi- 
denced by  mirach/s,  that  she  actually 
possesses  a  regular  tribunal  for  the  inves- 
tigation of  their  heroic  virtues  and  the 
miracles  which  attested  it.  It  is  certain 
that  no  heretical  sect,  no  church  except 
the  Catholic  Roman  Church,  would  ven- 
ture, in  the  broad  light  of  civilisation,  to 
set  up  such  a  cotirt. 


CHURCH  OF  CHEIST 


CHURCH  OF  CHRIST  193 


The  Church  is  continually  aggressive, 
end  she  will  acknowledge  no  rival. 
"Wherever  it  is  possible  she  sends  her 
missionaries  and  plants  churches.  She 
claims  universal  jurisdiction.  The  com- 
mon sciit^e  of  mankind  acknowledges  her 
Catholic  character.  Various  sects  claim 
the  name  of  Catholic,  but  they  never  suc- 
ceed in  persuadiiin' fi(  hers  to  acknowledj;e 
this  claim,  and  rlicy  scarcely  seem  to  be- 
lieve in  it  themselves.  They  are  known 
as  the  Church  of  a  particular  country,  as 
the  Church  of  England,  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  &c. ;  by  the  name  of  some 
heretical  founder,  Calvinists,  Lutherans, 
Sec. ;  never  as  Catholics.  Even  separa- 
tists who  have  maintained  the  priesthood 
and  the  Catholic  rites  are  not  known  to 
the  world  generally  as  Catholics,  but  as 
Jansenists,  "  Old  "Catholics,"  &c.  The 
argument  of  St.  Augustine  holds  as  good 
now  as  in  his  own  day.  He  says  he  was 
kept  in  the  Church  by  the  "  very  name 
of  Catholic  which  not  without  cause 
among  so  many  heresies  that  Church 
alone  has  obtained  ;  so  that,  although  all 
heretics  wish  to  be  called  Catholic,  no 
heretic,  if  a  stranger  asks  the  way  to  the 
Catholic  Church,  dares  to  point  out  his 
own  basilica  or  house."  '  The  Church  in 
no  way  remits  her  claim  to  be  Catholic 
when  she  also  speaks  of  herself  as  Roman. 
It  is  the  distinctive  mark  of  Catholics  to 
be  in  communion  with  the  Roman  see. 
And  this  use  of  Roman  as  equivalent  to 
Catholic  is  not  of  recent  date.  "The 
Catholics,"  Cardinal  Newman  writes, 
"during  this  ])eriod  [viz.  that  of  the 
Arian  Goths]  were  denoted  by  the  addi- 
tional title  of  Romans.  Of  this  there  are 
many  proofs  in  the  histories  of  St.  Gre- 
gory of  Tours,  Victor  of  Vite,  and  the 
Spanish  councils."  .  .  .  After  giving  one 
accidental  reason  for  which  the  Catholics 
at  that  time  were  called  Romans,  Cardinal 
Newman  proceeds  :  "  The  word  certainly 
contains  also  an  allusion  to  the  faith  and 
communion  of  the  Roman  See.  In  this 
sense  the  Emperor  Theodosius,  in  his 
letter  to  Acacius  of  Beroea,  contrasts  it 
with  Nestorianism,  which  was  within  the 
empire  as  well  as  (Catholicism  ;  during 
the  controversy  raised  by  that  heresy,  he 
exhorts  him  and  others  to  show  them- 
selves 'approved  priests  of  the  Roman 
religion.' "  Later  on  similar  passages  are 
adduced  from  the  Emperor  Gratian  and 
St.  Jerome." 

1  Aiifiust.  Ep.  Fundam.  c.  4,  quoted  bv 
Billuart. 

JJevelopmetit,  p.  280,  seq. 


The  Roman  Church  is  Apostolic,  be- 
cause her  doctrine  is  the  faith  once  re- 
vealed to  the  Apostles,  which  faith  she 
guards  and  explains,  without  adding  to 
it  or  taking  from  it ;  because  the  orders 
of  her  clergy  come  by  unhrdken  succes- 
sion from  the  Apostles  ;  because  she  is  in 
communion  with  Ronu',  the  Apostolic 
see  by  pre-eminenci',  Idi-  the  Roman 
bishop  is  the  sm-(r>s(ir  "I'  St.  Peter,  to 
whomChristentrusted  11  is  tlock,  to  wh(jm 
He  gave  the  keys  of  His  house,  so  that 
communion  with  Rome  makes  the 
Church's  mission — that  is,  her  authority 
to  teach — apostolic.  Other  sees  of  Apo- 
stolic foundation  have  fallen  away  into 
heresy ;  and  in  the  Catholic  Roman 
Church  the  See  of  Peter  remains  the  un- 
failing centre  of  unity.  Sects  may  pre- 
serve the  Apostolic  succession  of  bishops, 
and  so  may  have  true  orders ;  but  no 
sect  can  have  Apostolic  mission  and  so 
be  Apostolic,  because  all  mission  is  losi 
the  moment  that  a  separation  from  the 
Roman  See  is  effected. 

{!))  The  Constitution  of  the  Church. 
— "VVe  may  now  dismiss  controversy,  and 
attempt  a  concise  account  of  the  militant 
Church  and  the  belief  of  Catholics  re- 
gaiding  it.  It  may  be  defined  as  "  the 
sriciety  of  the  faithful  who  are  baptised, 
and  united  by  the  profession  of  the  same 
faith,  participation  in  the  same  sacra- 
ments and  the  same  worship,  to  each 
other,  and  who  are  under  one  head  in 
heaven,  viz.  Christ,  one  head  on  earth, 
viz.  the  Pope,  His  Vicar."  Thus  the 
Church  consists  of  those  who  "  are  baji- 
tised,"  because  baptism  makes  us  members 
of  the  Church ;  who  are  united  in  faith, 
sacraments  and  worship,  because  since 
the  Church  is  intended  to  put  men  in 
possession  of  heaven,  her  members  must 
be  united  in  the  means  necessary  for  the 
attainment  of  this  end — viz.  faith,  sacra- 
ments, and  worship :  her  members  are 
aU  under  one  head,  otherwise  the  Church 
would  not  be  one  body;  lastly,  the 
Church,  being  a  visible  body,  must  have 
a  visible  head  and  centre  of  unity. 

The  Church  then,  though  it  consists 
of  good  and  bad  members,  does  not  m- 
clude  heretics,  schismatics,  or  (at  least 
in  the  strict  and  full  sense  of  member- 
ship) persons  severed  from  her  unity  by 
the   greater    excommunication.'  This 

1  Certain  questions  agitated  in  the  theo- 
logical schools  are  passed  over  here :  e.g.  whether 
"  pure  schismatics."  i.e.  persons  holding  the  full 
faith  of  the  Church,  but  separated  by  schism), 
may  still  be  called  members  of  the  Church. 

0 


194     CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


CHURCH  OF  CHRIST 


Church  is  divided  into  the  ecclesia  docens  1 
{i.e.  the  body  of  the  pastors  who  teach  i 
the  faith)  and  the  ecclesia  credens  (i.e. 
the  faithful  who  are  taught  the  faith  and  I 
who  accept  it).    The  teaching  or  ruling- 
body  of  the  Church  is  composed,  (1)  of 
the  Pope,  who  is  the  vicar  of  Christ  and 
successor  of  Peter ;  who  is  the  centre  of 
unity,  so  that  none  who  are  not  in  com- 
munion with  him  are  Catholics  at  all ; 
and  who  possesses  immediate  and  ordi- 
nary jurisdiction  over  all  the  faithful — 
i.e.  not  only  over  all  tlie  laity,  but  over 
all  other  pastors,  wliatever  their  dignity 
may  be.'    (2)  Of  the  bisliops,  who  rule 
separate  portions  of  Christ's  flock  which 
have  been  committed  to  their  charge, 
with  ordiii.-ii-y  jurisdiction  and  in  virtue 
of  divinr  a])]i(iintni(>nt,  but  Still  in  union  [ 
with  and  in  siiliordination  to  the  Pope. 
(3)  Of  tlie  inferior  clergy,  who  are  sub- 
ordinate to  tlie  bishops  and  represent 
tliem,  but  who  are  not  necessary  to  the 
Church  in  the  same  sense  as  that  in  | 
which  the  bishops  are,  since   bishops,  | 
governing   their   flocks   with  ordinary 
jurisdiction,  belong  to  the  divine  and 
unalterable  constitution  of  the  Church; 
not  so  vicars-general,  ])arish-priests,  &c. 
The  Pope,  indeed,  iii;iy  remove  bishops, 
may  alter  the  iKuiiei.irles  of  dioceses,  [ 
suppress  them  or  unite  them;  a  country 
may  lose  its  hierarchy  and  become  subject 
to  X'icars  Apostolic,  who  are  mere  dele- 
gates of  the  Pope.    But  there  ahvay.^  has 
been  and  there  always  wiU  be  an  episco- 
pate, presiding  over  dioceses  and  ruling 
them,  in  subjection,  of  course,  to  the  j 
Pojie,  but  still  with  ordinary  jurisdiction. 

Tlie  ecclesia  credens,  or  body  of  the 
faithful,  is  infallible  in  its  belief  concern- 
ing faith  and  morals:  i.e.  in  theological 
laiii;ii;iL;e,  liie  ('Imrcli  lias  a  passive  in- 
falliiiility  ;  but,  i  he  faithful  are  bound  . 
to  learn  the  faitli  from  tlii>ir  pastors,  it 
follows  that  the  Churcli  lias  an  active  as 
well  as  a  passive  infallibility :  i.e.  the 
faithful  cannot  err  in  what  they  believe, 
because  the  same  Holy  Spirit  which 
enables  them  to  believe  wliat  their  pastors 
teach  provides  that  these  jiastors  sliall 
teach  the  truth  with  unerring  voice.  The 
pastors  of  the  Church  may  exercise  this 
divine  gift  in  several  ways.  The  Pope,  in 
liis  supreme  office  of  universal  teacher, 
mav  define  a  doctrine  on  faith  and  morals, 
to  iie  lield  1)V  t  he  wliole  Church  ;  in  which 
(■a>e,  iiec.irdinL:  the  decision  of  tlie 
A'.alie.i.i  CouiM-il.he  is  infallible.  Afiaiii, 
the  I'ope  may  coiivolce  a  ])articular  synod 

1  Concil.  "Vatican,  "  Past.  Ktern."  cap.  o.  , 


and  in  union  with  it  define  a  doctrine  of 
faith,  which  be  afterwards  promulgates 
to  the  whole  Church.  Once  more,  the 
Pope  may  convoke  a  general  council,  and 
confirm  its  decisions  on  matters  of  faith. 
Lastly,  the  Church  disjiersed  may  exercise 
her  infallibility:  i.e.  the  Po])e'  and  the 
bisliops  throughout  the  world,  in  the 
ordinary  performance  of  their  duty,  and 
without  formally  concerting  together, 
may  teach  certain  truths  to  the  body  of 
the  Church  as  of  divine  faith.  In  all 
these  cases.  Catholics  without  exception 
maintain,  and  are  bound  to  maintain, 
that  the  teaching  given  is  infallible. 

It  only  remains  to  determine  the 
subject-matter  to  which  this  infalliliility 
extends.  Clearly,  neither  Pope  nor 
Church  can  put  forth  new  dogmas  for 
acceptance.  The  faith  has  been  "once 
delivered  to  the  saints."  The  Vatican 
Council  lays  down  this  point  with  great 
lucidity.  "The  Holy  Ghost  was  not  pro- 
mised to  the  successors  of  Peter  in  order 
that,  through  his  revelation,  they  might 
manifest  new  doctrine,  but  in  order  that 
tlinuigh  liis  assistance  [the  successors  of 
l''  !i  i-  Kil-lit  religiously  guard,  and  faith- 
fully e\i>iiuiid,  the  revelation  handed 
dow  n  by  the  Apostles,  or  the  deposit  of 
the  faitii."  The  Church,  then,  has  no  in- 
spiration: she  cannot  receive  fresh  revela- 
tions, to  be  imposed  on  the  belief  of  the 
faiiliful.  Her  office  is  confined  to  ex- 
pounding the  original  revelation,  to  the 
condemnation  of  new  error  and  the  draw- 
ing out  of  ancient  truth,  which  may  not, 
as  yet,  have  been  perfectly  understood  )jy 
the  faithful.  Hence  when  the  Church 
defines  an  article  of  faith — such,  for  exam- 
ple, as  the  Immaculate  Concejition  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin — there  is  a  double  obliga- 
tion of  belief.  First,  we  are  bound  to 
confess  that  the  doctrine  is  true  and  to  be 
accepted  without  doubt;  next,  that  this 
doctrine  was  revealed  to  the  A])ostles  and 
preserved  in  the  deposit  of  faith,  as  con- 
tained in  Scripture  and  tradition.  It  need 
scarcely  be  said  that  this  belief  in  the 
permanent  and  inalterable  character  of 
revealed  truth  is  perfectly  consistent  with 
the  theory  of  development  as  maintained 
by  Cardinal  Newman  and  other  eminent 
Catholic  divines.  It  is  one  thing  to  hold 
that  the  deposit  of  faith  was  given  in  its 
fullness  to  the  Apostles ;  quite  another  to 
assert  that  every  article  of  this  faith  has 
been  apprehended  fully  and  clearly  by  the 
faithful  generally  in  all  jiarts  of  the 
Church.  On  certain  great  and  central 
truth.s— e.y.  the  Pivinity  of  Christ  ;  His 


CIirRCH  OF  CHRIST 


CHURCH 


195 


presence  in  the  Eucharist ;  the  forgiveness 
of  sin  through  baptism  and  penance ;  the 
unity  and  infallibility  of  the  Church — the 
faith  of  Catholics  has  been  clear  from 
the  first.  On  other  questions  a  certain 
(ibscurity  prevailed,  and  the  Catholic 
dogmas  were  developed  by  the  slow  action 
of  time  and  controversy.  Consequences 
had  to  be  drawn  from  principles,  and  only 
by  degrees  did  it  appear  how  much  these 
principles  involved.  Individual  Fathers 
might  fall  into  exaggeration  or  commit 
themselves  to  incomplete  and  one-sided 
statements.  They  might  fix  their  atten- 
tion on  the  truths  which  it  was  their 
business  at  the  moment  to  defend  against 
the  heresy  of  the  day,  and  fall  into  in- 
accurate language,  which  could  be  used — 
unjustly,  indeed,  but  not  without  a  show 
of  plausibility — by  heretics  who  fell  into 
I'rror  at  the  opposite  extreme  from  tlie 
f-rrors  wliich  these  Fathers  opposed.  It 
may  be  freely  admitted,  then,  that  tlie  de- 
finitions of  councils  have  gone  beyond  the 
teaching  of  individual  Fathers,  but  then 
this  is  precisely  because  these  Fatliers  had 
fallen  short  to  some  extent  of  the  original 
teacliing  of  the  Apostles.  In  the  course 
of  vears  heresy  was  met  by  new  and  ade- 
quate expression  of  truth,  delivered  from 
the  first ;  but,  after  all,  the  stream  of  doc- 
trine rose  no  higher  than  its  source. 

Thus  the  Church's  infallibility  in  de- 
fining articles  of  faith  is  limited  to  the 
definition  of  truths  already  contained  in 
Scripture  and  Tradition.  IJut  within  this 
province  her  word,  and  her  word  alone,  is 
decisive.  To  her,  and  not  to  private  in- 
dividuals, it  belongs  authoritatively  to 
mterpret  Scripture.  She  has  determined 
the  books  of  which  Scripture  is  made  up; 
it  is  hers  to  judge  of  their  meaning.  So, 
too,  she  is  the  guardian  of  tradition,  and 
no  one  can  appeal  either  to  Scripture  or 
to  liistory  against  her  definition  without 
making  shipwreck  of  the  faith  and  for- 
feiting the  name  of  Catholic  by  the  very 
act.  Individuals  may  of  course  devote 
themselves  to  the  study  of  Scriptural  exe- 
gesis, and  of  history,  and  the  Church  in  all 
ages  has  encouraged  these  studies  and 
commended  those  who  have  pursued  them. 
Moreover,  few  studies,  if  pursued  in  a  really 
scientific  and  impartial  spirit,  tend  more 
to  strengthen  belief  in  the  Church's  claim. 
I'ut  to  say  that  a  private  person  may  on 
the  strength  of  liis  investigations  set  at 
defiance  the  Church's  definition  is  tan- 
tamount to  a  denial  of  the  Church's 
infallibility. 

We  have  just  said  that  the  Church's 


infallibility  in  articles  of  faith  does  not  ex- 
tend beyond  the  truths  contained  in  the 
j  original  revelation.  But  almost  all  theo- 
j  logians  are  agreed  that  the  Church  is 
!  endowed  with  a  further  infallibility,  on 
matters  which  are  so  closely  connected 
with  revealed  truth  that,  unless  the  Church 
were  infallible  in  pronouncing  upon  them, 
lier  infallibility,  in  defining  the  faith  itself, 
would  come  to  nothing,  or  at  least  fail  to 
effect  the  ends  for  which  it  was  bestowed 
upon  her.  Thus  the  Church  is  infallible  iu 
deciding  that  a  book  contains  heretical 
doctrine  :  in  affirming,  for  example,  that 
false  and  heretical  propositions  are  to 
be  found  in  the  work  of  Jansenius  on 
grace.  Otherwise  the  Church's  con- 
demnation of  false  df)Ctrine  would  be 
almost  useles,-,  since  the  faithful  would  be 
free  to  maintain  that  the  Cluiix-h  had  mis- 
understood the  meaning  of  the  s>ippo>ed 
heretic,  and  thus  they  might  continue  to 
feed  on  poisonous  pastures.  So  again,  the 
Church  is  infallible  iu  the  canonisation  of 
saints:  i.e.  in  deciding  that  a  pailieular 
individual  practised  virtue  iu  an  heroic 
degTee  and  now  reigns  with  Christ  in 
heaven  ;  else  she  would  be  proposing  false 
models  to  her  children,  and  encouraging  a 
vimeration  completely  misplaced:  to  do 
which  would  amount  to  nothing  less 
tlian  forfeiting,  or  at  ]>-,\<t  obscuring, 
lur  note  of  sanctity.  Similar  cases  in 
which  the  Church's  inrallihililv  extends 
beyond  the  deposit  of  faith  might  be 
mentioned.  But  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  Church  is  not  infallible  in  such 
facts  as  are  merely  personal  and  historical. 
She  may  err  in  her  judgment  on  the  guilt 
or  innocence  of  individuals  who  come  be- 
1  fore  her  tribunal ;  documents  may  be  ac- 
j  cepted  as  genuine  in  her  councils  M  hich 
j  are  really  spiu'ious ;  historical  errors  may 
exist  in  the  offices  of  the  Breviary,  ap- 
I  proved  as  it  is  by  the  judgment  of  the 
Pope  and  the  Church.  Error  on  such 
I  matters  is  possible,  because  they  form  no 
part  of  the  faith,  nor  does  error  in  regard 
1  to  them  detract  from  the  perfection  with, 
which  the  Church  gmirds  that  faith. 

[For  the  Church  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, see  the  admirable  account  in  Bollin- 
ger's "  First  Age  of  the  Church."  Mbhler's 
Symbolism  ("Symbolik")  contains  a  mas- 
terly exposition  of  the  differences  between 
Catholics  and  Protestants  on  the  subject  of 
the  Church.  Cardinal  Newman's  "Deve- 
1  lopment  of  Christian  Doctrine"  abounds 
I  with  valuable  matter  on  this  subject.] 

CHVRCK  :    PX.il.CZ:   OF  CHRZS- 
TZAir  ASSEMBZiY.    Churches  may, 
o2 


196  CHURCH 


CHURCH 


in  one  sense,  be  said  to  be  as  old  as  Chris-  1 
tianity  itself,  for  places  of  Christian  meet- 
\UiX  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  New  | 
Testament — e  ff.  in  1  (  'or.  xi.  2:2,  xiv.  34. 
At  first  no  doubt  private  hoiisf.-  were-  used 
for  tliis  purpose,  and  thus  St.  Paul, 
Colofs.  iv.  15,  writes,  "Salute  the  brethren 
who  are  at  Laodicea,  and  Nymphas,  and  the 
Church  that  is  in  his  house."  The  same 
e\pi>'<sion  is  used  of  Prisca  and  Aquila, 
tiotli  at  Rome,  in  Rom.  xvi.  5;  and  at  i 
Ephesus,  1  Cor.  xvi.  19:  and  also  of 
Philemon,  either  at  ColossiB  or  Laodicea 
(Philemon,  2).  This  state  of  things  con-  ; 
tinned  after  tlie  Apostolic  age,  though  it  is  ' 
ini]iii.~>il]le  to  determine  exactly  when  the 
giithevings  in  tlio  liouses  of  private  Chris-  j 
ti.-m-  uave  way  to  a,— emblies  held  in  build- 
i;ij~  .Trcteil  tor  I  he  purpose.  Justingives  | 
a  laiiiiHis  de-erijitirm  of  the  celebration' 
of  the  I'.ucliarist  am.mg  Christians  of  his  j 
tinii'.  hilt  he  does  not  make  any  mention  of 
churclies  in  tht' later  sense.  Some  lielit  is 
t]iro\vnontheearIv(:'hri>tiiiiia".nili!ieO,v 
tlie  words  quoted  i.y  1  te  Hn.-.-i.  •■  col Ir- i mu 
quod  est  in  domo  S.-rL;ia'  Paiiliii.e"'  i-'the 
club  which  is  in  the  house  of  Ser^^ia 
Paulina"):  for  the  Cliristiaus  were  first 
recognised  by  the  Roman  government  as 
"Collegia"  or  burial  clubs,  and  protected 
by  this  IfLial  toleration  they  no  doidit 
held  their  first  a>~emblies  for" ]>ublic  wor- 
ship. ]Iow(>ver,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century,  we  find  clear  proof  that 
chnrches  propi.-rly  so  called  began  to  be 
erected.  Thus  .I'jlius  Lamjn-idius  in  his 
Life  of  Alexander  Severus  (222-2.3.5)  re- 
lates that  tliis  l':ni])i'ror  confirmed  the 
Cliristiaus  in  ]M.>-....ion  of  aplaceof  wor- 
slii]).  St.  (lr.  L]or\  till'  wonder-worker  is 
said  by  liis  nam. -idie  of  Nyssa,  to  have 
built  se\eral  cliurclies:  and  when  the  per- 
secution of  1  )i,x'let  ian  broke  out,  the  sight 
of  Christian  chuicljes  was  fiimiliar  to  all. 
Thi'  edict  of  that  En;])eror,  usually  as- 
signed to  the  year  .j02,  ordered  their 
destruction.  As  soon  as  this  last  persecu- 
tion was  over,  and  tlie  peace  of  the  Church 
secured  by  Constantine,  Christians  began 
to  erect  churches  on  a  magnificent  scale, 
mill  flius  seized  the  first  opportunity  of 
manife.-ting  that  outward  respect  to  God 
and  His  house  which  is  cliaracteristic  of 
Catholics.  Eusebius  has  left  an  elaborate 
description  of  the  chnrcli  ljuilt  at  Tj-re 
between  .313  and  322.  He  tells  us  of 'its 
great  wall  of  enclosure,  which  has  left  its 
traces  to  this  day;  of  its  portico  opening 
into  the  atrium,  in  the  centre  of  which 
>  RoTna  Sotterranea,  i.  p.  209,  quoted  by  Dr. 
Lightfoot,  Comment,  on  Colossiaiis. 


there  was  a  fovintain  for  the  purification 
of  the  worshippers  as  they  entered ;  of  the 
great  doors,  the  nave,  the  aisles  with 
galleries  above  tliem ;  of  the  "thrones" 
for  the  clergy,  and  of  "the  most  holy 
altar "  surrounded  with  railings  of  ex- 
quisite work.'  In  short,  the  Church  ex- 
hibited the  pomp  of  Catholic  worship  as 
soon  as  it  was  possible  to  do  so. 

The  changes  of  style  in  church-build- 
ing at  different  epochs  do  not  concern  us 
here;  but  it  is  worth  while  to  note  the 
arrangements  of  the  earliest  Christian 
churches. 

According  to  the  rule  laid  down  in 
the  Apostolic  Constitutions,''  the  church 
■was  to  have  the  sanctuary  at  the  east 
end,  the  reason  being  that  by  this  means 
the  Christians  in  church  were  enabled  to 
pray  as  t  liey  were  used  to  pray  in  private, 
i.e.  facing  the  east.^  However,  this  rule 
was  by  no  means  universally  observed. 
The  church  at  Tyre,  of  which  we  have 
already  spoken,  had  the  entrance  at  the 
east  and  the  sanctuary  of  course  at  the 
west :  and  ancient  churches  in  Rome  (e.ff. 
St.  .lobn  Lateran)are  preserved,  that  are 
arran-ed  in  this  manner.  The  fact  is  tluit, 
as  we  shall  presently  see,  it  was  impossible, 
according  to  the  position  which  the  bishop 
occupied,  that  both  he  and  his  flock  should 
pray  facing  in  the  same  direction.  If  the 
rule  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  was 
followed,  the  people  faced  east,  the  bishop 
west;  if  the  church  was  placed  like  that 
built  at  Tyre,  or  like  those  said  'o  have 
been  erected  by  Constantine  at  Rome, 
then  the  people  had  to  face  westwards, 
but  the  celebrant  looked  towards  the 
east.  The  form  of  the  church  described 
in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  was  an 
oblong,  terminating  at  the  inner  end  in  a 
semicircular  projection,  called  concha  or 
apse.  In  this  apse  the  altar  was  placed ; 
behind  the  altar  the  bishop's  throne  was 
placed ;  the  priests  occupied  seats  which 
formed  a  semicircle,  the  bishop's  seat 
being  in  the  midst,  and  the  bishop  and 
the  priests  being  so  placed  as  to  look 
towards  the  people.  Origen  calls  this 
place  in  which  the  seats  of  the  bishops 
and  priests  were  set  round  the  altar, 
presbyterium.  It  corresponds  to  what 
we  now  call  the  sanctuary,  a  name  -which 
was  not  introduced  till  the  middle  ages. 
Of  the  deacons,  some  stood  in  the  pres- 
byterium, others  were  stationed  in  the 
body  of  the  church  to  keep  order  among 

1  Euseb.  H.  E.  X.  4,  §  37, 
'  Apost.  Constit.  ii.  .57. 
»  Clem.  AI.  Strom,  vii.  7. 


seq. 


CHURCH 


CHURCH  197 


the  people.  In  the  church  of  St.  Agnes 
in  the  Roman  Catacombs,  we  can  still 
discover  this  ancient  arrangement  of  the 
presbvterium.  At  each  side  of  the  apse — 
i.e.  at  the  north  and  south  corners,  if  the 
apse  lodlied  east — there  were  TT(iaTn(f>6f)ia 
or  cells  for  the  reservation  of  the  lUessed 
Sacrament  and  for  keeping  the  sacred 
Tessels. 

The  laity  were  placed  in  the  nave,  a 
name  which  has  arisen  from  the  com- 
parison of  the  Church  n  shi]),  -wluch 
we  meet  with  oven  in  tlir  A]i' i.-t- ilic 
Constitutions.  "  In  tli.'  iiiiJ.ll.'  >tn,.,l 
the  reader  on  a  rai.-fd  place"  Since  the 
bishop  also  is  said  to  have  sat  in  the 
middle,  although  his  throne  n-ally  stood 
at  the  east  end,  we  are  justified  \n  sup- 
posing that  the  reader's  pulpit  was  be- 
tween the  north  and  south  sides  of  the 
nave — in  other  words,  at  the  (\ast  of  the 
nave,  and  so,  close  to  the  presbyterium. 
St.  Cyprian'  describes  the  conspicuous 
position  of  the  reader,  as  he  stood  on  the 
pulpit  {pvlpitmn)  in  the  sight  of  the 
congTegation. 

Jsearest  to  the  presbyterium,  places 
were  reserved  for  the  virijins,  widow.s, 
and  aged  women.'-  The  iii'xt  part  of  the 
nave  was  parted  oft'  iutu  f  \\ n  -pacrs,  facli 
with  separate  door-:  ^nr  ..f  t  h.x-  ji.utiniis 
was  for  men,  the  doors  Ihmul;  ^^uardfd  liy 
cstiarii:  the  other  for  women,  the  doors 
being  placed  in  charge  of  deaconesses. 
"We  learn  from  the  direct  testimony  of 
Origen  that  the  last  place,  i.e.  the  most 
remote  from  tlie  altar — was  given  to  the 
catechumens.  No  douljt,  howcAer,  the 
catechumens  were  jilaced  nearer  to  the 
altar  than  the  penitents,  tliouuh  it  is 
difficult  to  determine  tin."  position  occu- 
jiied  by  the  dift'en-nt  cla>ses  of  pt^iitents. 
Tertullian'  speaks  nt  criniin.'ds,  who 
were  driven  not  only  fi.un  the  threshold, 
but  from  any  place  under  the  roof  of  the 
church;  and  Cyjirian  says  of  penitents, 
"Let  them  come  to  the  tlii'eshold  of  the 
cliurch,  but  bv  no  means  ]);i>s  over  it.  '  ' 

We  may  perhaji^  eonelnJe  ll,;,t   l],e  more 

advanced  class  of  pen  it  enl  -  1 1  lie  '■liearer,-") 
were  placed  in  the  porch  ( ni/i^^i;^),  while 
persons  under  excommunication  were 
]iut  outside  of  the  church  altogether. 
The  buildings  attached  from  ancient 
times  to  the  church,  such  as  the  sacristy, 

'  Cyprian,  Ep.  xxxviii.,  ed.  Hartel. 

-  np€(7-j8uTi5€S,  in  tlie  Apostohc  Constitu- 
tions. Tliere  is  some  dispute  as  to  the  meaning 
of  the  word. 

s  Tertull.  De  Pmlicit.  c.  \. 

*  Cyprian  (ed.  H:.i,cl),  Ep.  xxx.  §  6. 


baptistery,  &c.,  are  described  in  separate 
articles. 

As  has  been  already  said,  we  are  con- 
sidering the  church  from  the  theological 
or  ecclesiastical,  not  from  the  architec- 
tural point  of  view,  so  that  we  say 
nothing  of  the  different  styles  which 
have  prevailed  in  the  East  and  West. 
Accordingly,  having  described  the 
arrangements  of  a  Christian  church  in 
primitive  ages,  we  may  now  pass  on  to 
speak  of  the  modern  regulations  on  the 
subject  of  church-building.  We  shall 
follow  as  our  guide  a  recent  writer  on 
this  subject,  Msgr.  de  Montault,  in  his 
Traits  pratique  de  la  Construction  des 
Eglises." 

A  church  is  a  building  intended  for 
the  general  use  of  the  faithful,  and  is  for 
this  reason  distinct  from  a  chapel,  which 
is  intended  for  the  convenience  of  some 
family,  college,  &c. ;  or  from  an  orator}-, 
which  is  essentially  domestic  or  private. 
The  principal  churches  are  called  basili- 
cas, and  these  again  are  subdivided  into 
greater  and  patriarchal,  and  into  minor 
basilicas.  The  chief  church  of  a  diocese 
is  called  a  cathedral,  and  a  cathedral 
may  be  patriarchal,  primatial,  metro- 
jiolitan,  according  to  the  dignity  of  the 
luelate  who  holds  it.  An  abbatial  church 
IS  the  seat  of  an  abbot;  if  servivl  liy  a 
chapter,  a  church  is  called  colleiriate 
The  title  parish-church  explains  itself 
The  greater  basilicas  are  called  "most 
holy,"  while  "  most  illustrious  "  and 
"  illustrious"  (jjeri?7.'fii/>if  and  in.'iii/ne)  are 
nanii's  of  honour  given  respectively  to 
lesser  basilicas  and  collegiate  churches, 
by  favour  of  the  Holy  Si^e. 

The  ])lace  on  which  a  church  is  to  be 
built  is  to  be  designated  by  the  bishop, 
as  is  expressly  ordered  both  by  the  Pon- 
tifical and  canon  law.  There  must  be  an 
open  space  all  round  the  church,  but  this 
prescription  of  the  Pontifical  does  not 
forbid  the  placing  of  houses  for  the 
bishop  or  clergy  at  the  side.  Thei-t' 
should  be  no  window  or  door  opi-ning 
into  a  private  house,  unless  periTiis>ion 
to  that  effect  has  been  obtained  trom 
Rome.  There  is  no  rule  which  re(juires 
the  sanctuary  to  be  placed  at  the  east 
end,  though  Ferraris  considei-s  this 
arrangement  more  siiitaMe.  In  the 
middle  ages,  pains  were  taken  to  place 
the  sanctuary  so  that  it  looked  towards 
the  point  at  which  the  sun  rose  when  the 
fmndations  were  traced.  During  the 
last  three  centuries  this  orientation,  as  it 
is  called,  has  been  much  neglected.  Xor, 


198  CHURCH 


CHURCH  PRORERTY 


again,  need  the  cliurcli  be  of  any  par- 
ticular style,  since  the  Church  has 
sanctioned  liy  use  ull  kinds  of  ecclesi- 
astical in(  liileel  mr.  Mdreover,  churches 
ure  built  in  all  foiins  and  shapes:  that  of 
a  Latin  cross,  of  a  Greek  cro^s  (which  is 
a  cross  with  four  equal  branches),  of  a 
rectangle,  circle,  ifcc.  The  plans  when 
completed  nni,--t  he  suhmitted  to  the 
bishop  and  apjjroxed  l)v  him. 

The  laity  are  i.laeiMl  in  the  nave  of 
the  church.  Tlie  reparation  of  the  sexes, 
wliich,  as  we  h.-ive  seen  above,  dates  from 
the  infancy  of  flie  Clnirch,  continued 
during  the  middle  ages.  It  was  the 
custom  to  place  the  women  on  the  north, 
the  mcTi  t\n  the  south  side  of  tlie  nave. 
Tliis  separation  of  men  from  women  in 
church  is  now  very  generally  neglected, 
but  it  is  required  by  tlie  Komau  Kiiual 
and  the  "Ceremonial  of  Jiislmps,''  when 
it  can  be  managed  without  inconvenience. 

Catholics  are  of  course  bound  to  show 
respect  to  the  church  as  the  hon,-e  of 
(iod.  ^leu  nmst  uncover  their  lieiid,-, 
women,  according  to  St.  Paul's  rule,  inu>t 
have  their  heads  covered.  Ecclesia.-I  ieal 
authority  from  time  to  time  has  inter- 
vened to  suppress  aliuses  eonfrary  to  this 
respect,  and  has  severely  int''r(li(  ted  un- 
necessary tallving,  the  .sale  of  ])ioiis  olijei-t^, 
begging,  &c.,  in  the  church.  It  is,  how- 
ever, to  be  observed  that  ecclesiastical 
authority  permits  certain  reunions  which 
are  not  of  a  strictly  religious  character 
to  take  place  in  church.  Thus  in  1060 
the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  "de- 
clared that  it  was  not  contrary  to  the 
ecfdesiastical  rite,  miy,  tliat  it  was  praise- 
wortliy,"  for  the  medical  college  of 
Salerno  to  "  ctmfer  the  Doctor's  degree 
in  tlie  chui-ch." 

W  ilh  regard  to  the  repair  of  churches, 
tlie  I'xjiense  must  be  met,  according  to 
]!<  n(Mli(  t  XTV.  and  other  canonists,  (1) 
from  111.'  ie\enues  of  the  church,  if  suffi- 
cieni  lor  Mil'  ])urjiose  ;  (2)  by  those  who 
are  obliged,  whether  by  custom  or  parti- 
cular statute,  to  ilo  so;  (.;)  by  the  parish 
priest  if  his  proliv-M  iial  income  allows  of 
it,  the  assistant  idergy  being  also  bound 
to  crintrihule  on  the  same  condition;  (4) 
by  tlie  patron  ;  (5)  failing  all  these,  a  tax 
niii>t    Vie   imposed  on   the  ])arisliioners. 

gregalion  of  11  it  es  some!  mi, v~  priinil-  the 
people  .if  the  place  to  work"  on  holidays  of 
ohliLiation  according  to  tlie  discretion  of 
the  urdinary,  pro\ iiled  that  the  work  on 
these  days  is  done  gratuitously.  In  order 
to  change  the  site  of  a  church,  very  grave 


reasons  are  required,  and  often,  particu- 
larly if  a  cathedral  church  is  in  question, 

leave  must  lie  obtained  from  Rome. 

The  jiarticular  parts  of  the  church, 
choir,  jiorch,  &C.,  and  the  furniture,  altars, 
inuiges,  kc,  are  treated  of  in  separate 
articles.  Of  the  early  history  of  churches, 
a  good  account  will  "ije  found  in  the  recent 
work  of  Probst,  "  Kirchliche  Disciplin  in 
den  drei  ersten  Jahrhunderten." 

CHURCH  PROPERTY  (hnia  eccle- 
stat)fi.cii).  The  right  ot'  the  Catholic 
Church,  e(]ually  with  any  other  corpora- 
tion or  moral  jierMin,  to  acijuire  and  pos- 
sess property,  >ei  iii>  olivious  to  cf)mmon 
sense;  liiit  since  this  rii;ht  is  often  cou- 
te.-ted  in  theory  ami  withheld  in  jiractice 
in  oil)'  own  day,  it  may  lie  desirable  to  go 
into  the  matter  in  >oiiic  del  ail :  to  examine 
the  principle  in  human  nature  on  which 
the  tenijioral  endowments  of  the  Church 
are  founded;  to  distinguish  the  variou.<i 
kinds  ol'  ecclesiastical  property,  and  the 
IHiiposi  s  for  which  sucii  jiroperty  is  re- 
i|uin  (1  ;  flu  11,  alter  sketching  the  histoiy 
ol' ( 'hun  h  endowments  in  Europe,  to  give 
some  ai  count  of  the  elliu  ts  which  medi- 
a_'\al  and  modern  Icm  illation  has  made 
to  arre>t  tlieir  increase  and  oust  their 

I  low  the  Church  came  to  possess  pro- 
perty any  person  who  is  a  Catholic  in 
more  than  name  can  discover  by  merely 
analysing  the  feelings  which  >iM  Hit  a  iieously 
arise  in  his  own  mind  when  he  is  un  ited, 
or  has  the  opportunity,  to  malie  an  otl'er- 
ing  for  some  religions  object.  In  making 
it  he  feels  that  it  is  not  he  who  lays  the 
Church,  but  the  Church  that  lays  him, 
under  an  obligation;  enabling  him  by- 
such  acts  to  unite  himself  to  her  glorious 
cau.se,  assist  her  in  fultilling  lier  divine 
mission,  ludji  to  have  tlie  duine  praises 
celebrated  -with  greater  frequency  and 
splendour,  minister  to  the  poor  and  suft'er- 
ing,  and  participate  in  the  merits  of  her 
missioners  lahouringamongst  the  heathen. 
"It  is  more  blessed  to  give  tlian  to  re- 
ceive." Sui-h  being  the  natural  sentiments 
of  everyone  who  knows  what  being  a 
Catholic  means,  there  is  no  reason  to  fear 
I  that  temporal  possessions  will  e\er  be 
I  wanting  to  the  Church,  although  the 
s]ioliations  which  she  has  had  to  endure, 
and  is  still  enduring,  in  every  part  of 
fill  rope,  cannot  but  cause  great  local  em- 
barra>smeiit  and  temi)orary  arrest  of  her 
activity.  Wherever  there  are  Catholics 
deserving  the  name,  there  the  Clin.cli  will 
have  property,  whatever  intidel  legislation 
may  contrive.    The  real  danger  is,  lest 


CHURCH  PROPERTY 


CHURCH  PROPERTY  19& 


the  persevering  elibrts  of  the  modern  j 
State  to  shut  out  religion  from  education  ] 
should  succeed  in  training  up  a  generation 
of  men  and  women  to  whom  the  genuine 
spirit  of  Catholicism  would  be  unknown, 
and  who  would  cousetjueutly  starve  the 
Church  by  their  own  illiberality,  and  ob- 
^erve  her  persecution  by  their  rulers  with 
complacency.  On  this  subject  some  re- 
marks wiU  be  found  under  Education 
and  Schools. 

Property  is  of  two  kinds,  moveable 
and  immoveable.  The  so-culled  Liberals 
of  our  day  cannot  deny  that  the  Church 
must  possess  some  amouut  of  the  former 
at  least,  if  her  functions  are  to  be  per- 
formed at  all.  Christ's  kingdom,  though 
not  "  <•/  this  world,"  is  in  this  world ;  its 
ministers  and  subjects  are  human  beings, 
its  medium  is  social  life,  its  local  habita- 
tion is  the  world  of  sense ;  it  therefore, 
while  its  end  is  heavenly,  needs  external  \ 
and  material  resoiu-ces.  Money,  if  not  j 
exceeding  the  limits  of  "  evangelical  i 
poverty,"  and  church  requisites  of  all 
lands,  it  is  admitted  even  by  her  eneniii  s 
that  the  Church  must  possess.  But  thty 
liraw  a  line  between  moveable  and  im- 
moveable property— between  money  and 
land;  pretending  that  it  is  the  duty  and 
interest  of  the  State  to  debar  her  from  the 
enjoyment  of  real  property,  lest,  we  sup- 
pose, she  should  become  too  powerful,  or 
jest  wealth  shoidd  corrupt  her  ministers 
and  divert  them  from  their  true  vocation.' 
This  last  plea,  of  coiu-se,  is  hypocritical. 
On  the  other  side,  we  shall  quote  an  ad- 
mirable passage  from  Card.  Soglia,  in 
which  he  has  shown  for  what  pui-posesthe 
Church  requires  property,  and  by  what  an 
indisputable  right  she  acquires  and  enjoys 
it.  ''It  is  asked,"  he  says,  "whence does 
the  Church  derive  the  right  of  acquiring 
and  possessing  real  or  lauded  property 
{buna  stabilia  et  fruyifera)  ?  Is  it  from 
the  civil  law,  or  from  some  other  system 
of  law,  human  or  diTine  ?  Unless  I  am 
much  mistaken,  a  terse  and  solid  answer 
to  this  question  can  be  drawn  from  a  con- 
sideration of  the  divine  constitution  of  the  ] 
Church.    We  know  for  certain,  from  [ 

'  The  innumerable  unjust  spoliations  of 
which  the  Church  h.is  been  made,  and  is  still 
bciiii;  made,  the  victim  in  Italy,  and  especially 
at  Rome  (of  which  the  robbery  of  the  estates 
of  the  Colleire  of  I'riipatjanda  is  a  recent  and 
flagrant  instance),  are  justilied  on  some  such  I 
flimsy  re.isoning  as  that  described  in  tlie  text ;  j 
the  real  reason  of  course  being  that  Italian  j 
Liberal.*  hate  religion,  and  hatred,  as  Aristotle  I 
says,  desires  for  its  objects  annihilation —  I 
rb  jxi)  (hai.  I 


sacred  literature  and  tradition,  that  there- 
is  in  the  Church  a  supreme  power  of  ad- 
ministering religion  and  society,  peculiar 
to  it,  instituted  by  Christ,  and  entirely- 
distinct  from  the  civil  power.  It  is  also- 
a  certain  and  established  truth  that  she 
possesses  an  inherent  right  to  provide- 
herself  with  all  those  apt  and  suitable 
means  which  may  be  necessary  for  the- 
pi-e,-?er\ atiou  of  religion  itself  and  of 
Christian  society.  But,  in  order  to  the- 
worship  of  Liod  and  the  salvation  of  souls- 
in  the  Christian  society,  churches  and 
altars  must  be  built ;  sacred  vessels,  orna- 
ments, and  other  things  subsidiary  to  the- 
Divine  worship  must  be  provided ;  the- 
bishops,  priests,  and  ministers  who  serve 
the  Church  and  apply  all  their  eiieiu-ie- 
to  the  promotion  of  the  eternal  >al\  :il  uni 
of  men,  must  be  supported;  cleik--  must 
be  trained  in  letters  and  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline ;  the  poor,  the  sick,  widows  and 
orphans  must  be  taken  care  of;  hospitality 
must  be  practised  towards  the  faithful ; 
cajitives  must  be  redeemed,  and  many 
similar  \\-orks  carried  on  :  all  which  things 
eaiiuot  be  done  without  buildings,  re- 
\euues,  abundant  resources,  and  laree 
expenses.  It  follows  that  the  Church 
jiossesses  by  her  very  constitution,  and  by 
the  i,vill  of  lier  divine  Founder,  the  right 
of  proeiiriiig,  acquiring,  and  possessing 
property,  whether  personal  or  real,  in 
order  that  she  may  have  at  hand  what  is 
necessary  in  order  to  defray  the  e.xpendi- 
ture  above  mentioned ;  just  as  civil  society 
has  the  ri;:ht  of  demanding  taxes  and 
levying  imposts,  or  even  of  possessing 
landed  property,  if  public  necessity  and 
utility  require  it."  '  The  Cardinal  goes 
on  to  maintain  that  the  Church  has  at  all 
times  exercised  this  right,  even  in  the 
teeth  of  the  prohibition  of  the  civil  power; 
and  as  a  case  in  point,  he  cites  her  acqui- 
sition of  property  during  the  third  cen- 
tury, when,  as  a  "  coUegiiun  illicitum,"' 
she  could  not,  according  to  the  Roman 
jurisprudence,  legally  hold  it.  That  the 
Cluu-ch  acted  -wrongly  in  making  these 
acquisitions  it  would  be  absurd  and  im- 
pious to  maintain ;  but  the  rightfulness  of 
her  action  can  be  vindicated  on  no  other 
principle  than  one  which  asserts  her  right 
to  hold  property  to  he  jure  divino,  and  in- 
dependent of  t  he  consent  of  the  civil  power. 

The  historical  aspdct  of  the  subject 
must  now  be  briefly  treated.  It  is  the 
remark  of  St.  Austin,^  that  when  our 

1  Institiitiones  Canonitie.  iii.  1.  §  8. 
Quoted  by  Ott,  in  tiie  art.  •'  iJiens  EccW- 
siastique;!,'  'Wetzei-  and  VVelte. 


200      CHURCH  PROPERTY 


CHURCH  PROPERTY 


Lord,  who  could  have  provided  for  Him- 
self and  the  Apostles  in  other  ways,  sanc- 
tioned the  use  of  a  hag  or  pursf,  in  which 
the  otferings  of  His  followers  were  kept, 
ftnd  from  \\  liieh  money  was  taken  f  >r  the 
poor  and  tin-  reiiuirrmfnts  of  ft-stivals, 
lie  desirt'd  td  ti-aeh  His  Church  that  she 
Lad  the  ri^lit  cjf  pos>e>sing-  property.  We 
learn  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  that 
they  received,  dating  from  the  day  of 
Pentecost,  large  sums  of  money  which  the 
new  believers  poured  into  their  hands; 
that  in  those  first  days  of  fer\  our  private 
property  passed  tem])iirarily  into  abey- 
ance, and  the  Ap(_)stles  distributed  to 
"  every  one  according  as  he  liad  need ; "'  ' 
moreover,  that  when  the  "serving  of 
tables  "  threatened  to  become  so  onerous 
as  to  di\ert  the  Apostles  from  their 
pro])er  work,  they  appointed  deacons'-  to 
receive  and  administer  under  their  direc- 
tion the  Church  fund>.  It  is  also  ex- 
])licitly  staled  in  the  New  Testament 
that  "the  laljourer  is  worthy  of  his  hire;"'' 
that  if  the  clergy  sow  totlie  laity  spiritual 
things,  it  is  no  great  matter  if  they 
reap  their  carnal  thing-,'  and  tliat  ''the 
Lord  ordained  that  they  who  ])i'each  the 
Gospel  should  live  by  I  he  ( ii  .^iiel," The 
])rinci])le  of  Church  endowment  and 
Church  property  is  thii^  >een  to  have 
full,  ex])licit  aiul  undeniable  Scrij)tural 
warrant. 

Space  does  not  admit  of  our  showing 
in  detail  the  manner  in  which  this  jirin- 
cii)le  was  a])]ilied  from  age  to  age  :  how 
Cliureli  funds,  from  being  in  tlie  be- 
ginning jmndy  diocesan,  came  to  be  also 
ca]>itular,  panjchial,  and  monastic;  and 
liow  the  admission  of  the  feudal  customs 
endowed — if  we  might  not  say  bur- 
deni'd  the  Church,  not  only  with  broad 
land-.  Iiiit  wilh  a  \ast  teniixu-al  juris- 
dielioii  in  I  lie  shape  of  lordsliips  and 
principalities.  Il  may  be  inleresting, 
however,  lo  noir  tlir  jid-ilion  in  which 
the  question  -tood  al  I  he  time  when 
pea.-e  \va.-  i-.Mnivd  lo  the  Church  by 
Con-t  ant  iiie.  In  t  lie  imperial  ordinanei's 
])ie-er\  1(1  li\  j'hi-i'hiiis,  it  is  comnninded 
that  til.,  -it/'s  of  .-,11  their  chiiirlies  shall 
l)r  iv.inivd  to  the  ( ' 1 1  r  1 1 1  a  11^  :  and  this  is 
Jollowrd  ],\  ill..  -1-iiiheant  ]n'o\ iso  that 
",-ine.-  th..  Chr.-llan-  ,.iv  kn.iwn  t,.  have 
ha.l  n.il  ..niv  lli..-.^  i.hir.-  wh.^re  th.w 
were  accii>tonie.l  lo  m.'et,  hut  .)ther 
places  also,  belonging  not  to  individuals 
among  them,  but  to  the  right  of  the 

1  Acts  iv.  .S5.  *  Acts  vi.  2. 

3  Luke.  X.  7.  *  1  Cor.  ix.  11. 

i  1  Cor.  i.K.  14. 


whole  body  of  Christians,  you  [the 
prtetors,  procurators,  &c.]  will  also  com- 
mand all  these,  by  virtue  of  the  law 
before  mentioned,  without  any  hesitancy, 
to  be  restored  to  these  same  Christians: 
that  is,  to  their  body,  and  to  each  con- 
venticle respectively."  In  another  ordi- 
nance, addressed  to  Anulius,  the  Emperor 
intimates  that  this  restitution  is  to  l)e 
made  in  favour  of  "the  ('atlDlie  Church 
of  the  Christians  in  the  sever.al  cities  or 
other  places,"  and  that  Anulius  is  to 
"nudie  all  haste  to  restore,  as  soon  as 
possible,  all  that  belongs  to  the  churches, 
whether  gardens  or  houses,  or  anything 
else." '  We  here  see  the  civil  power 
recognising  the  legality  of  those  acquisi- 
tions which,  as  mentioned  in  a  previous 
paragraph,  had  been  made  in  contraven- 
ti(m  of  the  civil  law. 

The  nnresti'ict.'.l  right  to  enjoy  pro- 
perty tliii-  r.  I  ..I'ni-.'d  in  the  Church 
opened  till.'  \\a\  t  i  al)uses.  as  was  only 
j  natural;  these  ahuses  were  restrained  by 
edicts  of  the  Emperoi's  \'alentinian  and 
Theodosius  An  edict  of  Marcian  (+457) 
removed  many  of  these  restrictions,  and 
allowed  all  persons  ample  facilities  for 
endowing  the  Churcdi  with  any  descrip- 
tion of  property,  w  hether  by  will  or  dis- 
position i/iter  r/r'/.y.  In  the  West,  as 
each  nation  was  converted,  it  voluntarily 
j  and  j.iyfully  i.-nriched  with  lands  aiu.1 
go. 1.1,-  the  (  'hiireh  which  had  brought  to 
il  th.'  iiit's-at;.'  (3f  salvation.  In  the  ninth 
an.l  tenth  centuries  the  incursion  otT'a>;au 
,1  lanes,  Xoimaus.  ami  Hungarians,  and 
!  the  c. infusions  thence  arising,  causeil 
great  havoc  and  waste  of  the  Church's 
patrimony;  but  the  unity  of  the  eccle- 
siastical oreanisatiou  being  preserved, 
and  hei-esy  ke])t  at  hay,  the  damage  done 
\\-as  s|jei'ilily  repaired  on  the  return  of 
peace,  from  ih.'  ideventh  century  to 
I  the  tifti'i'iith  .'Xl.  n.led  that  marvellous 
period  of  Iviur.  i])ean  d.-velopment  in  which 
the  Chiir.  li.  ]iiiunnu  out  her  treasures 
with  a  fre.'  han.l  -  i  .ivered  the  face  of  the 
Cmtinenl  aiel  .if  .mr  own  island  with  a 
network  of  cat  li.'.lrals,  convents,  colleges, 
and  parish  churches,  llie  Ijeauty  and 
majesty  of  which  later  anil  c il.ler  ages 
admire  but  cannot  euiulat.'.  Th"  inroads 
made  upon  the  Church's  fortune  by  the 
Reformation  and  modern  revolutions  can 
only  be  indicated  in  general  terms.  In 

1  Euseb.  Hint.  Eccles.  x.  5  (Bohn's  transla- 
tion). 

^  "  Aurum  P2cclesia  habet,  non  ut  servet.  sed 
ut  erom't  ct  subveniat  iu  neoe.ssitnt  ibus."  St. 
Ambr.  quoted  by  SogUa,  /.  c. 


CHURCH  PROPERTY 


CIBORIUM  201 


];iigliind  the  Church  -w-as  deprived  of  the  ' 
cathedrals,  parish  churches,  universities,  I 
hi)si)itals,  see-lands,  glebes,  and  a  variety 
of  other  property,  moveable  and  im- 
moveable ;  all  which  were  transferred  to 
the  new  church  founded  by  Elizabeth. 
With  regard  to  the  monasteries,  their  i 
lands  passed  chiefly  into  the  hands  of 
private  persons,  their  personal  property  i 
to  the  Crown.  In  France,  the  enormous 
landed  possessions  of  the  Church  were 
confiscated  at  the  Revolution,  and  the 
Catholic  religion  for  a  time  suppressed. 
By  the  Concordat  which  the  First  Consul 
concluded  with  the  Holy  See  in  180l^ 
the  latter  agreed  to  recognise  the  title  of 
the  holders  of  all  Church  lauds  alienated 
up  to  that  time,  and  the  French  State 
on  the  other  hand  undertook  to  pay  an 
annual  grant  from  the  public  revenue 
for  the  supi)ort  of  the  clerg}-.  This  grant 
amounts  at  the  present  time  to  about 
two  millions  sterling,  a  sum  bearing  but 
a  small  proportion  to  the  rental  of  the 
property  lost.  In  Spain,  the  tithe  lias 
been  abolished  in  recent  times,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  lands  belonging  to 
the  clerg}-,  both  secular  and  regular, 
sold.  But  the  position  was  somewhat 
ameliorated  by  the  Concordat  of  1851,  : 
which,  while  ])rovidiug  a  new  "dotation"' 
for  the  clergy  by  means  of  a  special  tax, 
leaves  the  Church  free  to  administer  the 
property  still  remaining  to  her,  and  to 
make  fresh  acquisitions.  In  Portugal 
the  state  of  things  is  much  the  same  as 
in  Spain,  but  rather  less  favourable  to 
the  Church.  In  Italy,  the  tithe,  or  a 
portion  of  it,  is  stiU  payable  to  the 
clerg}- ;  tliis  is  also  the  case  in  Austria 
and  Bavaria.  In  Prussia  the  ancient 
patrimony  of  the  Church  was  all  lost 
during  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, and  M  as  replaced  by  an  annual  ' 
grant  of  very  moderate  dimensions.  The 
practical  effect  of  the  May  laws  of  1877, 
which  imposed  upon  the  bishops  and 
clergy  conditions  which  it  was  impossible 
for  them  to  comply  with  and  remain  at 
the  same  time  faithful  to  Chi'ist  and  His 
A'icar,  was  to  retrench  this  moderate  en- 
dowment very  seriously,  and  to  leave 
several  sees  and  hundreds  of  cures  desti- 
t  ute  of  occupant  s.  Happily  they  are  now, 
for  the  most  part,  repealed.  In  Ireland, 
the  Protestant  Church,  which  it  was  the 
policy  of  the  statesmen  of  Elizabeth  to 
ff)rce  upon  the  people,  and  to  endow  with 
the  tithes  and  lands  of  the  ancient  Church, 
Las  recently  (1869)  been  dise.<tablished. 
No  part  of  the  recovered  fund  has  been 


returned  to  the  Catholics ;  but  indirectly, 
from  the  appropriation  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  it  to  the  encouragement  of 
intermediate  schools,  which  are  to  a  large 
extent  Catholic,  some  advantage  has  ac- 
crued from  disestablishment  to  the  cause 
of  religion. 

Laws  of  mortmain,  having  for  their 
object  either  to  restrict  or  entirely  pro- 
hibit the  acquisition  of  landed  property 
by  the  Church,  have  formed  a  prominent 
feature  in  secular  legislation  in  most 
countries  of  Europe,  from  the  thirteenth 
century  down  to  the  present  day.  But 
it  will  be  convenient  to  treat  of  such 
legislation  under  the  Art.  Will  (2). 

CHVRCKXNTC  OP  WOAXEigr  AF- 
TER CHXZiSBIRTH.  A  blessing 
which  the  priest  gives  to  women  after 
childbirth  according  to  a  form  prescribed 
in  the  Iloman  Ritual.  He  sprinkles  the 
woman,  who  kneels  at  the  door  of  the 
church  holding  a  lighted  candle,  with 
holy  water,  and  having  recited  the  2.3rd 
Psalm,  he  puts  the  end  of  his  stole  into 
her  hand,  and  leads  her  into  the  church, 
saying,  "Come  into  the  temple  of  r4od. 
Adore  the  Son  (if  tin-  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary,  who  has  gi^\n  tliee  fruitfulness  in 
childbeuriiiL:',"'  Tlu'  w  niuiin  then  advances 
to  the  altar  and  kneels  before  it,  while 
the  priest,  having  said  a  prayer  of  thanks- 
giving, blesses  her,  and  again  sprinkles 
her  with  holy  water  in  the  form  of  a 
cross.  The  rubric  in  the  Ritual  reserves 
this  rite  for  women  who  have  borne 
children  in  wedlock.  Women  are  under 
no  .-triet  obligation  of  presenting  them- 
s  Iv  s  to  be  churched,  though  it  is  the 
"  pious  and  laudable  custom,"  as  the 
Ritual  says,  that  they  should  do  so. 
Properly  speaking,  the  churching  of 
women  is  not  counted  among  strictly 
parochial  rights ;  still  it  ought  to  be  per- 
formed by  the  parish  priest,  as  appears 
from  a  decision  of  the  S.  Congregation  of 
Rites,  December  10,  1703. 

This  rite  was  suggested  probably  by 
the  prescriptions  of  the  old  law  in  Levit. 
xii.  In  the  Christian  Church,  the  first 
mention  of  the  rite  is  said  to  be  found  in 
the  so-called  Arabic  canons  of  the  N  icene 
Council.  Among  the  Greeks,  the  blessing 
after  childbirth  is  given  on  the  fortieth 
day  after  the  birth  of  the  child,  and  the 
child  must  be  brought  with  the  mother 
to  the  church. 

CHURCH-YARD.  [See  Cejieteet.} 

CZBORXTTM.  The  use  of  the  cibo- 
rium,  or  canopy  over  the  altar,  has  been 
already  described  in  the  article  Baldac- 


202  CIRCUMCELTJONES 


CIRCUMCISION,  FEAST  OF 


CHixo.  Ill  England  ciborium  is  the  name 
commonly  given  to  the  pyx  in  which  the 
Ble.-sed  Sacrament  is  kept.  Pyx  (also 
Vas)  i.-5  the  recognised  name  in  our  pre- 
sent liturgical  books,  and  under  that  head 
the  Mibject  will  be  treated.  The  name 
"Ciborium  minus"  is  first  used  for  the 
receptacle  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in 
the  middle  ages.  It  is  foimd  in  an  Ordo 
Eomanus  printed  in  the  "  Bibliotheca 
Patr."'  Lugdun.  vol.  xiii.  724.  (Kraus, 
"  Real-Encyclopadie.") 

cxRCTfnicz:XiX.zoxrES.  A  name 
given  to  certain  Donatist  fanatics  [see 
Di  >x  \  I  i^Ts".  These  heretics  were  natiu-aUy 
eiii  ag^'il  and  embittered  when  Constantine 
deprixed  them  of  their  churches  and 
banished  the  most  distinguished  among 
their  bishops.  Their  fury  increased  when 
Constaus  renewed  his  father's  laws  in 
their  full  severity  ;  and  hence  crowds  of 
Donatists,  belonging  to  the  lower  classes, 
gathered  together  under  the  leadership 
of  some  cleric  or  layman,  made  open  war 
on  the  Catholics,  and  brought  immense 
sufi'ering  upon  them.  These  Donatists 
called  themselves  Agonistici,  "men  eager 
for  the  iight ; their  adversaries  called 
them  Circumcelliones,  because  they  wan- 
dered "  round  the  country  huts  "  ("  circa 
cellas  rusticas")  to  do  all  the  mischief 
they  could.  They  exacted  provisions  by 
force,  put  out  the  eyes  of  Catholic  clerics, 
possessed  themselves  of  their  chui-ches, 
k.c.  &c.  They  themselves  were  actuated 
by  a  morbid  craving  for  martyrdom;  so 
much  so  that  they  not  unfrequently 
inflicted  death  on  themselves.  This 
fanaticism  lasted  beyond  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  century.  Mention  is  made  of 
it  by  Optatus,  "De  Schism.  Donat."  ii. 
c.  18,  seq.  iii.  c.  4,  and  by  Augustine  in 
his  works  against  the  Donatists.  Besides 
.Circumcelliones,  we  also  find  the  forms 
Circelliones  and  Circuitores.  (Kraus, 
"  Real-Encyclopadie.") 

CZRCVnXCXSZOM',  FEAST  OF. 
The  connection  of  circumcision  with  grace 
and  the  removal  of  original  sin  will  be 
discussed  in  the  article  on  the  Sacra- 
ments OP  THE  Jewish  Chukch.  Here 
it  is  enough  to  say  that  circumcision  was 
the  rite  by  which  every  male  Jew  entered 
into  the  covenant  of  God  with  Abraham, 
and  became  a  partaker  in  its  privileges 
and  blessings;  and  that  it  was  also 
instituted  as  a  remedy  for  original  sin. 
The  law  of  circumcision  was  imposed  on 
the  Jews  under  the  jjenalty  of  excision 
from  the  people  of  God.  This  law  could  j 
not  in  any  way  bind  our  Lord.    He  was  ■ 


absolutely  sinless,  and  therefore  stood  in 
no  need  of  any  remedy  for  original  sin. 
He  was  the  Son  of  God  by  nature,  and 
therefore  did  not  require  adoption  into 
the  number  of  God's  children.  Still,  as 
St.  Luke  relates,  our  Saviour  was  cir- 
cumcised eight  days  after  His  birth,  ac- 
cording to  the  precept  in  Levit.  xii.  3, 
and  then  He  received  the  holy  name  of 
Jesus.  The  rite  no  doubt  was  performed 
at  home,  probably  in  the  cave  at  Bethle- 
hem, and  Benedict  XIV.  remarks  that 
painters  err  in  representing  the  scene  as 
taking  place  in  the  Temple.  Circum- 
cision was  sometimes  performed  by  the 
father  of  the  family:  Abraham,  for  ex- 
ample, in  Gen.  xvii.  23,  is  said  to  have 
cu'cumcised  "  Ishmael  his  son  and  all 
that  were  born  in  his  house  ;  "  sometimes 
by  the  mother,  as  appears  from  Exod.  iv. 
25,  and  1  Mach.  i.  63;  so  that  Christ 
may  have  received  the  rite  either  from 
His  Blessed  Mother  or  St.  Joseph. 

Various  reasons  are  given  bj'  theolo- 
gians and  spiritual  writers  which  made 
it  fitting  for  our  Lord  to  be  circumcised. 
As  it  pleased  God  to  send  His  Sou, 
"made  under  the  law,  to  redeem  those 
who  were  under  the  law,"  so  it  became 
Christ  to  submit  to  the  yoke  law  by 
receiving  circumcision,  that  He  might 
free  His  brethi-en  from  subjection  to  that 
law.  Moreover,  He  came  "  in  the  Hke- 
ness  of  flesh  of  sin,"  and  therefore  He 
allowed  Himself  from  the  first  to  be 
numbered  in  appearance  with  sinners, 
and  thus  to  aftbrd  a  perfect  model  of 
obedience  and  humility.  Lastly,  al  tho  ugh 
in  His  circumcision  Cliiist  did  not  actually 
redeem  us  by  the  blood  which  He  shed, 
still  the  drops  which  then  flowed  were  a 
pledge  of  all  the  blood  which  was  to 
follow,  when  He  hung  upon  the  cross. 
Thus,  in  the  beautifvd  language  of  a  me- 
diaeval writer,  Peter  of  Blois,  once  Arch- 
deacon of  London,  "He  who  lor  thirty 
years  was  to  work  salvation  in  the  midst 
of  the  earth,  from  His  very  cradle  and 
from  the  breasts  of  His  mother,  began 
the  business  of  our  salvation,  and  tasted 
the  first-fruits  of  His  Passiim." 

We  find  the  first  mention  of  the  feast 
by  its  present  name  in  Canon  17  of  a 
council  which  met  at  Tours  in  567.  "  In 
order,"  so  the  canon  runs,  "to  tread 
under  foot  the  custom  of  the  heathen,  our 
fathers  ordained  that  private  litanies 
should  be  held  (Jiert)  at  the  beginning  of 
January  (in  Kalendis),  psalms  sung  in 
the  churches,  and  at  the  eighth  hour  on 
the  first  of  the  month  {in  ipsis  Kalendis)> 


CmCUMCISIOX,  FEAST  OF 


CISTERCIANS  203 


the  Mass  of  the  Circumcision,  pleasing 
to  God,  should  be  said."  It  is  clear  from 
this  canon  that  the  feast  was  already 
ancient  in  the  sixth  century.  In  the 
"Codex  Sacramentorum  Ecclesiie  Ro- 
manae,"  which  Benedict  XIV.  attribute.s 
to  St.  Leo  and  to  his  predecessors,  and 
in  a  Roman  Calendar  not  later  than  the 
middle  of  the  ninth  century,  the  feast  is 
named  the  "Octave  of  our  Lord,"  and 
this  name  is  used  alonir  with  that  of  the 
Circumcision  in  the  "Coi-pus  Juris."  But 
it  is  evident  from  the  prayers,  gospel,  &c. 
appointed  for  this  "  Octave  of  the  Lord  " 
that  the  Circumcision  was  commemorated 
on  that  day.  In  the  Martyrology  of 
Usuard,  the  feast  is  mentioned  by  its 
present  name.  In  the  Roman  Martyr- 
ology the  double  title  is  used,  "the  Cir- 
cumcision of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and 
the  Octave  of  His  Nativity." 

In  some  ancient  Missals  we  fijid  two 
Masses  appointed  for  January  1 :  a  Mass 
of  the  Blessed  A'irgin,  and  another  for 
the  Circumcision  (if  our  Lord.  Durandus, 
■WTiting  in  the  thirteenth  century,  speaks 
of  this  custom  as  still  continuing  in  his 
time.  Connected  with  it  is  a  name  given 
to  the  feast,  or  rather  to  the  day,  in  an 
ancient  Roman  Calendai-,  viz.  Natale  S. 
Mariaj,  "the  feast  of  Holy  Mary."  The 
origin  both  of  the  name  and  of  the  custom 
cf  saying  the  Mass  de  Beata  Yirgine  are 
thus  explained  in  the  Micrologus : 
"  Lately,  when  we  celebrated  our  Lord's 
Nativity,  we  could  not  give  any  special 
office  to  His  Mother.  'J'herefore  not 
unsuitably  do  we  venerate  her  more 
specially  on  the  Octave  of  our  Lord  [i.e. 
on  Jan.  1]  ;  lest  she  should  seem  to  have 
no  share  in  the  solemnity  of  her  Son, 
though  we  do  not  doubt  that  in  that 
same  solemnity  she  deserves  the  chief 
honour  after  our  Lord."  A  curious  and 
interesting  relic  of  this  ancient  usage 
still  survives.  The  Mass  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  indeed,  can  no  longer  be  said  on 
that  day,  but  there  is,  both  in  the  Mass 
and  Office  of  the  Cii'cumcision,  a  marked 
and  repeated  reference  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  whicli  seems  strange  and  almost 
inexplicable  till  we  see  how  it  arose. 

The  Circumcision  used  to  be  kept  as 
a  fast,  though  probably  the  fast  was  not 
jirolonged  beyond  three  in  the  afternoon, 
ht.  Augustine  in  his  second  sermon  for 
Jan.  1,  St.  Peter  Chi-ysologus,  and  other 
Fathers,  inveigh  against  the  heathen  re- 
velry on  this  day,  connected  as  it  was  j 
with  the  idolatrous  worship  of  Janus  and 
Strenia  and  with  immoral  excesses.  This 


I  no  doubt  occasioned  the  institution  of  the 
fast.  Certain  Sacramentaries  contain  a 
Mass  for  Jan.  1  "ad  prohibendum  ab 
idolis."    (Benedict  XIV.  "  De  Fe-tis.") 

CZSTERCXAItrS.  Of  the  ancient 
and  illustrious  order  of  Citeaux,  the 
most  flourishing  and  prolitic  of  all  the 
offshoots  from  the  great  Benedictine 
trunk,  there  are  now  but  scanty  traces 
remaining.  The  monastery  at  Citeau.x 
itself  has  been  turned  into  a  Reformatory 
and  Penitentiary,  managed  by  secular 
priests,  after  the  failure  of  a  Socialist 
experiment  made  by  the  Fourierists  to 
establish  what  in  the  jargon  of  the  sect 
is  called  a^/i«/«?(.s^"'/-e  within  those  vener- 
able walls.    Sic  transit  (jloria  nwndi / 

St.  Robert,  the  son  of  a  gentleman  of 
Champagne,  devoted  himself  at  an  early 
age  with  all  his  heart  to  the  service  of 
God.  He  took  the  Benedictine  habit,  and 
studied  carefully  the  rule  of  the  great 
founder,  from  many  things  in  which  he 
found  that  tlie  majority  of  the  French 
monks  deviated  considerably.  The  chief 
points  of  difference  seem  to  have  regarded 
the  use  of  trowsers  and  furred  garments, 
eating  meat,  and  using  fat  in  cooking, 
none  of  which  things  were  allowed  by 
the  rule,  yet  were  generally  practised  in 
France.  In  several  monasteries  over 
which  he  presided  St.  Robert  and  the 
monks  could  not  agree,  on  account  of 
the  strict  observance  of  the  rule  which 
he  desired  to  introduce.  In  1075  he 
founded  a  monastery,  consisting  of  a 
group  of  cells,  in  the  forest  of  Molesme, 
near  ChatiUon.  Here  he  and  other 
!  fervent  hermits  lived  many  years ;  but 
his  thoughts  still  ran  on  the  necessity  of 
closer  conformity  to  the  rule,  and  as 
most  of  his  followers  saw  things  differ- 
ently,' he  at  last  quitted  Molesme,  and, 
followed  by  twenty  zealous  adherents, 
formed  a  new  monastery  in  a  desert  then 
covered  with  forest  and  thickets,  at  a 
place  called  Cistercium  (Citeaux),  five 
leagues  from  Dijon.  This  was  in  1098, 
which  is  regarded  as  the  date  of  the 
foundation  of  the  order.  St.  Robert  was 
not  to  water  the  shoot  which  he  had 
planted,  for  in  the  following  year,  the 
monks  of  Molesme  having  applied  to 
Rome  and  represented  the  forlorn  condi- 
tion in  which  his  departure  had  left  t  hem, 
the  Pope  directed  St.  Robert  to  appoint 
his  successor  at  Citeaux,  and  return  to 
his  former  charge.  St.  Robert  obeyed, 
and  for  the  rest  of  his  life  remained  at 
'  See  their  arguments  in  the  eighth  book  of 
Ordericus  Vitalis. 


204  CISTERCIANS 


CISTERCIANS 


-•lolesme,  where  he  died  in  1110.  Al- 
bei-ic,  his  sviccessor  at  Citeaux,  drew  up 
the  first  code  of  Cistercian  statutes;  it 
was  he  who  changed  the  habit  from 
brown  to  white ;  and  in  liis  time  the 
order  took  the  Blessed  Virgin  for  their 
special  patroness,  and  the  first  Cistercian 
nunnery  was  founded.  Alberic  dying, 
in  1109,  was  succeeded  by  Stephen 
Harding,  an  Englishman  from  the  monas- 
tery of  Slicrliorne,  a  man  of  great  energy, 
wisdom,  and  virtue,  who  in  his  twenly- 
fi\  f  years  (if  office  governed  Citeaux  with 
so  much  ability  and  success  that  he  is 
usually  regarded  as  the  second  founder 
of  the  order.  Stephen,  who  is  honoured 
among  the  saints  on  April  17,  had  been 
prior  under  Alberic.  In  his  time,  and 
in  great  part  by  his  exertions,  were 
founded  the  four  famous  monasteries 
of  La  F.Tte  (UV.',).  Tontigny  niM), 
Clairvaux  (111.5),  and  Morimoud  (1115), 
which  nuuntaiucd,  after  Citeaux,  a 
kind  of  superiority  in  the  order  doM  ii  to 
the  time  of  its  destruction.  St.  Stejilieii, 
in  whom  the  instinct  Of  government  \v;is 
strong,  took  care  that  all  the  new  ali^eys, 
wherewr  found.'d,  should  be  Miliordiiiale 
to  the  mother  house,  and  thai  the  alihots 
should  often  confer  together  on  common 
ad'airs:  he  is  said  to  ha\e  first  instituted 
"general  cli.ipters."  lie  wrote  the  account 

"Ch.iile  lie  Charite,"  and  caused  the 
"U-aeev"  and  the  "Exonliunr"  of 
Citeaux  to  be  compiled.  Tin-  I'sai^es. 
acconlinc'  to  .Vlhan  Tkitler,  "  ha\  e  alw  a\  - 
made  tlie  code  of  this  order."  A  t  mi,  lung 
>torv  i~  tol.l  about  the  an-ival  of  St.  Her-  I 
nani  at  (  iieaux  in  lll.'l  The  sturdy 
Ent:li>h  ahliot  had  given  ofl'ence  at  the 
Burgundian  Court  by  objecting  to  its  too 
frequent  visits  to  the  monaster}';  themoid<s 
were  left  in  extreme  poverty;  sickness  laid 
many  of  them  jirostrate  ;  no  new  subjects 
presented  theniseh cs;  and  it  seemed  as  if 
the  order,  too  austere  for  the  weakness  of 
human  nature,  must  speedily  perish. 
Stephen  betook  himself  to  jirayer,  and 
soon  afterwards  the  youthful  ]>ernard, 
with  some  thirty  of  his  kinsmen  and 
friends,  presented  liim.self  at  the  gate  of 
Citeaux  and  requested  admission,  the 
attraction  of  the  place  to  these  high- 
minded  men  having  been  that  very  aus- 
terity which  aii])alled  souls  less  firm.  The 
accession  of  sucli  a  novice  was  in  itself  an 
invigoration  of  the  order ;  and  the  abbot,  1 
who  soon  discovered  his  merit,  sent  Ber- 
nard two  years  later,  at  the  head  of  a 
colony  of  twelve  monks,  to  found  a  new 


monastery  at  Clairvaux.  By  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century  there  were  five 
hundred  abbeys  of  the  filiation  of  Ci- 
teaux ;  soon  after  1200  the  number  had 
increased  to  eighteen  hundred.  In  Eng- 
land the  order  soon  took  deep  root ;  the 
first  abbey  founded  here  seems  to  have 
been  that  of  Furness  in  Lancashire,  which 
the  united  exertions  of  Stephen  of  Blois 
and  the  abbot  his  namesake  erected  in 
1127.  Several  military  orders — e.ff.thoae 
of  Calatrava,  Alcantara,  and  Avis — were 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  abbot  of 
Citeaux.  For  two  hundred  years,  says 
Alban  Butler,  the  order  admitted  no  re- 
laxation of  its  observances.  The  rule  of 
St.  Benedict  was  followed  in  all  its  rigour; 
there  was  little  sleep  to  be  had,  much  hard 
labour  to  be  done  ;  fasting  was  obsen-ed 
1  from  Sept.  14  to  Easter;  meat,  fish,  eggs, 
and  grease  were  never  touched,  and  even 
nnlk  but  rarely.  Their  churches,  instead 
of  being  profusely  adorned  with  .sculp- 
ture and  painting  according  to  the  fashion 
of  the  times,  were  distingiushed  by 
a  bare  simplicity,  as  may  be  seen  at  Pon- 
t  igny  to  this  day. 

In  (he  fourteenth  century  the  preva- 
lence of  wars  in  Europe  caused  many 
abbeys  to  be  disturbed,  plundered,  and 
impoverished.  Discipline  sufiered,  for 
r.nder  such  circumstances  the  rule  could 
not  |iossili]\-  he  oliserved.  Long  contro- 
\  e]sies  arose  in  tlie  order  as  to  the  la w- 
Inlness  or  Uie  expediency  of  dispensing 
with  the  rule,  especially  as  to  eating  meat. 
The  Papal  decrees  called  the  Clcmevtine 
(126.5)  and  the  Benedictine  (1333),  while 
changing  several  matters  of  jurisdiction 
confirmed  the  observances,  which  certain 
abbots  had  even  then  begun  to  infringe. 
But  the  tendency  to  relaxation  gradually 
became  too  strong  to  be  resisted,  and  in 
1475,  a  brief  of  Sixtus  IV.  authorised  the 
general  chapter  and  the  ahbot  of  Citeaux 
to  permit  to  any  monks  who  applied  for 
it,  the  use  of  meat.  The  variety  of 
practice  which  ensued  was  so  embarrass- 
ing, that  in  1486  the  general  chapter 
decreed  that  meat  should  be  used  in  all 
the  convents  on  three  days  in  the  week. 
Meanwhile  a  count er-cuiTent  of  austerity 
exhibited  itself  in  many  places,  and  a 
reformation,  reviving  the  primitive  Cister- 
cian rigour,  was  introduced  by  Martin  de 
Vargas  in  Sjiain  (14.30),  and  spread  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  same  century  through 
the  provinces  of  Tuscany  and  Lombardy. 
In  later  1  imes  there  were  three  or  four 
celebrated  reforms  of  this  order;  on  one 
of  which — instituted  at  La  Trappe  by  the 


CISTEKCIANS 


CIVIL  LAW 


205 


Abb^deRanc^— see  the  article Trappists. 
The  reformed  congregation  of  Feuillans 
was  founded  in  1577  by  Dom  Jean  de  la 
Barri^re ;  that  at  Sept  Fonds,  in  the  fol- 
lowing centurv,  by  the  abliot  Eustache  de 
Beaufort.  The  convents  generally,  inclu- 
ding those  of  the  English  province,  fol- 
lowed what  was  called  the  "common 
observance"  according  to  the  dispense  of 
Sixtus  IV. 

At  the  Dissolution  there  were  upwards 
of  a  hundred  Cistercian  houses  in  Eng- 
land; the  names  are  given  below.'  Unlike 


'  This  list  of  Cistercian  houses  existini;  at 
the  date  of  suppression  is  extracted  from  the 
materials  provided  by  Tanner  and  Dugdale. 
Nunneries  are  distinguished  by  an  asterisk,* 
cells  bv  the  letter  C. 


Alba  Landa  (Caer.) 

Appletou,  Nun  * 
(  York.") 

Basedale  (York.) 

Basinsrwerk  (Flint.) 

Beaulicu  (Hants) 

Bid(llesden(  Bucks) 

BiUhvas  (Salop) 

Bindon  (Dors.) 

BleaTarn,C.(\Vest.) 
10  Bordeslev  (\V,>rc.) 

Boxlev  (Kent) 

Brewood*  ••^Vhite- 
ladies"'  (Salop) 

Bruerne  (Oxf.) 

Buckfastleigh 
(Dev.) 

Buckland  (Dev.) 

Bvland  (York.) 

Calder  (Cumli.) 

t'leeve  (  Som.) 

Coiriresh^lUKssex) 
20  Cok.-hill  -  (Wore.) 

Coinl.c  Kilnuc.)  C. 

(■..n.l...  (Warw.) 

('uiiilj.iiiiciv(Ches.) 

Cotf.n  *  (  I.inr.) 

Cro.\4en  (Staff.) 

Cwnihyr  (Kadn.) 

Cvninier  (Merion.) 

Dieulncres  (Staff.)  | 

Diink<'>\vell  (  [)ev. ) 
30  Dun-.rroft(York.),C. 

EUerton  •  (York.) 

Esholt  *  (York.) 

Farrinjidoii 
(Berks.).  C. 

Flaxlev  (Glouc.) 

Ford  (Dev.) 

Fountains  (York.) 

Furnecs  (  Lane.) 

Garendon  (Leic.) 

Goxhill*  (Line.) 
40  GraceDieu(JIonm.) 

Greenfield  •  (Line.) 

Hales  (Glone.) 

Hampole*  fYork.) 

Heyninftes*  (Line.) 

Holm  Cultram 
rCum.) 


Jervaulx  (Y'ork.) 
Keldon*  (York.) 
Kinf;swond(Glouc.) 
Kirklees  *  (York.) 
50  Kirkstall  ( York.) 
Kirkstoad  (Line.) 
Le,i;boriie*  (Line.) 
Leiuhton  Buzzard, C. 
Llanleir  *  (Card.) 
Llanlu;;an  * 

(Montg.) 
Llantarnani,  near 

Caerleon  (JIou.) 
London :  Tower  Hill 

„  St.  James's,  C. 
Louth  (Line.) 
Maenau  ( Caern.) 
60  Jlar^an  (Glam. ) 
Marham  *  (Norf.) 
Medmeiiham 

(Bucks.) 
Melsa,or  Meaux,  in 

Holderness 

(York.) 
Merevale  (  Warw.) 
Neath  (Glam.) 
Nttley  (Hants) 
Newenham  (Dev.) 
Newniinster 

(Northumberland) 
Piudlev*  (Warw.) 
70  Pipewell  (North- 
ants) 
Quarr.  or  Arreton 

(I-le  of  Wight) 
I^•ve^by  (Line.) 
IJeuiev  (O.xf.) 
Kievaulx  (York.) 
Robertsbridge 

(Suss.) 
Roehe  (York.) 
Kosedale  (Y(.rk.) 
Bufford  (Notts.) 
Ku>hin  (Man.) 
80  Sawlev  (York.) 
Sawtry  (Hunts) 
Sewesley,*  near 

To»ce,ster 

(Northants) 
Sibton  (Suff.) 


I  the  Friars,  who  planted  themselves  in  all 
the  large  towns,  the  Cistercians,  whose 
original  aim  was  personal  sanctification 
in  Milituili'  through  prayer  and  penance, 
usually  built  their  houses  by  preference 
in  lonely  valleys  and  sequestered  nooks. 
The  French  Revolution  swept  away 

j  their  foundations  in  most  countries  ot 
Europe,  but  several  Cistercian  convents 
still  remain  in  Austria,  Belgium,  and 
Poland.  In  England  they  have  one  house, 
that  of  Mount  St.  Bernard's  in  Charn- 
wood  Forest,  Leicestershire,  founded  with 
the  liberal  aid  of  the  late  Mr.  Am- 
brose Delisle,  in  1844.  In  Ireland  there 
are  two  Cistercian  abbeys,  both  of  recent 
foundation,  and  both,  it  is  believed,  in  a 
highly  flourishing  condition  —  that  ot 
Mount  Melleray,  in  the  Co.  Waterford, 
and  that  at  Roscrea. 

(Ilelyot, "  Ordres  Monastiques ; "  Alban 
Butler,  April  17  and  24;  Wetzer  and 
"VVelte,  art.  Citeaux;  Tanner's  "Notitia;" 
Dugdale.) 

CXVZIi  I.A'W.  The  law  of  Rome,  be- 
ginning with  the  twelve  tables,  and  end- 
ing with  the  Code  and  Pandects  of  Justi- 
nian, is  so  called.  Immense  powers  of 
mind  were  em])loyed  during  many  cen- 
turies in  harmonising,  rationalising,  and 
completely  adapting  to  the  wants  of  social 
life,  the  laws  of  Rome.  On  this  see  Sa- 
vigny,  "Walter,  Phillips,  kc.  Alter  the  in- 
road of  the  Lombards  into  Italy,  the  in- 
crease of  anarchy  and  barbarism  in  every 
part  of  Euro])e  caused  the  authority  of 
the  civil  law  to  decline.  The  customs  of 
the  Franks,  the  Burgundiaus,  the  Angles, 
or  the  Visigoths,  were  of  more  accoimt 
with  the  conquerors  of  Europe  than  all 
the  wisdom  of  Ulpian  or  Papinian ;  and 
out  of  these  customs  the  lex  loci,  or  com- 
mon law  of  each  country,  gradually  arose. 
In  the  twelfth  century,  society  being  now 
in  a  more  stable  condition,  the  study  of  the 


Sinningthwaite,* 

near  Wctherby 

(York.) 
Stanlegh,  near 

Chippenham 

(Wilts.) 
Stixwould  *(Linc.^ 
Stoneleigh(Warw.) 
Strata  Florida 

(Caern.) 
Stratford  Lang- 
thorne  (Essex) 
Swine,*  near  Hull 

(York.) 
Swinestieil  (Line.) 
Tarr.mt  Kaines  * 

(Dorset) 
Thame  (Oxf.) 


Tiltey  (Essex) 
Tintern  (Monni.) 
Vale  Royal  (Ches.) 
Valle  Crucis 

( Denb.) 
Vaudev  (Line.) 
Ward.In  (  Beds.) 
lOOWaverlev  (Surrey) 
Whallev'(York.) 
Wintnev*  (Hants) 
Woburii  (Keds.) 
Wtu'cester  * 
Wvckham,*  near 

Pickering(York.) 
106Ysfrat  Marehel, 

near  Welshpool 

(Montg.) 


206  CIVIL  LAW 


CLASSICS 


civil  law  was  revived  at  the  University 

of  Bologna,  whence  it  spread  to  other 
countries.  The  rulers  of  tlif^  Church  have 
■observed  no  uniform  attitude  towards  this 
study,  because,  as  circumstances  varied,  so 
did  the  duty  of  the  Church  vary.  St. 
Chrysostom,  when  he  was  converted  to 
■God,  abandoned  for  ever,  as  he  tells  us, 
the  study  of  the  Roman  law.  Yet  St. 
•Gregory  the  Great  often  made  use  of 
the  imperial  laws  himself,  and  advised 
the  bishops  of  several  countries,  when 
these  laws  did  not  conflict  with  the 
canons,  to  promote  their  observance.  After 
the  twelfth  century  the  civil  and  canon 
law  [C.\NON  Law]  were  studinipari passu; 
the  Roman  Pontifi'  admitted  that  "the 
laws  were  a  support  to  the  canons;"  and 
Ilonorius  HI.,  early  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury', ordered  that  there  should  always  be 
a  school  of  both  laws,  "utriusque  juris," 
in  the  Roman  Curia.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  German  and  imperial  legists,  who 
were  po.ssessed  by  the  idea  of  "  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire"  and  all  that  the  i)brase 
involved,  strove  to  give  to  the  civil  a 
universality  equal  to  that  of  the  canon  law, 
and  to  make  all  national  codes  give  way 
to  it.  As  mankind,  religiously,  were 
gathered  into  one  Church,  so,  civilly,  ac- 
cording to  these  dreamers,  they  were  or 
ought  to  be  members  of  but  one  State, 
the  Empire,  the  head  of  which  delegated 
more  or  less  of  his  power  to  the  kings 
and  princes  of  other  lands.  "With  such 
theories  of  the  civilians  the  Church  could 
have  nothing  to  do  ;  and  there  was  some 
danger,  if  she  should  show  unmixed 
favour  and  countenance  to  the  study  of 
the  civil  law,  lest  tlie  (lovernmentsoutside 
the  Empire,  which  maintained  their  abso- 
lute independence,  and  did  not  mean  to 
supersede  their  own  codes  by  the  Roman 
Law,  should  take  umbrage  at  her  proce- 
dure, and  curtail  her  liberty  of  action 
within  their  borders.  Hence  we  meet 
with  various  Papal  briefs  and  orders 
tending  to  discourage  or  at  least  to 
place  under  restraint,  the  study  of  the 
civil  law.  Pope  InnociMit  IV.,  in  a  letter 
addressed  to  llie  bl.linj.s  of  all  Euro- 
])eaii  coiiiit  ne-  e\c(']il  (  n •  i  n i .-my,  d(>pIored 
the  e\i  i-a\ a-aiii  aililici  ion  u|'  the  clergy 
to  this  study  ("  tota  (  Iri  icdi'um  multi- 
tudo  ad  aud'ieiidas  seciinuvs  leges  con- 
currit"),  and  forbade  tlir  civil  law  to  be 
publicly  taught,  iinli^-,  by  the  desire  of  the 

local  SOVeivi^n.     Xc\ el  I  he'lrss,  I  he  lllll  in- 

sic  excellences  ol'  tie'  Jioruan  Law  are  >o 
great  that  recourse  to  it  could  but  be 
moderated;  the  Pontiffs  neither  could  j 


nor  wished  to  supersede  it  by  any  other. 
In  aU  countries  it  was  introduced  along 
with  the  canon  la-u-  into  Church  courts ; 
and  the  rule  which  the  canonists  still 
observe  '  gradually  arose — namely,  that 
where  the  canons  are  silent  or  obscure, 
if  the  matter  under  adjudication  be  of  a 
spiritual  nature,  reference  shall  be  made 
to  the  writings  of  the  Fathers ;  but  if  it  l)e 
of  a  secular  nature,  to  the  civil  law.  In 
England  a  line  of  great  lawyers,  com- 
mencing with  Glanvile  in  the  t\\elfth 
century,  and  including  the  names  of  Brit- 
ton,  Bracton,  and  Littleton,  laboured  to 
refine  and  harmonise  the  common  law; 
and  no  other  code  was  recognised  in  the 
King's  courts.  But  in  the  Church  courts  the 
civil  law,  as  already  stated,  was  in  use ;  and 
it  was  carefully  studied,  and  degrees  were 
given  in  it,  at  the  two  Universities.'^  At 
the  Reformation  the  study  of  the  canon 
law  was  abandoned  at  Oxford ;  the  law 
of  the  land  did  not  even  yet  appear  to 
have  been  rationalised  sufficiently  for  the 
purposes  of  academical  study ;  and  hence 
to  this  day  the  only  legal  degrees 
conferred  by  O.xford  are  in  civil  law 
(Bachelor  and  Doctor),  a  branch  of  leai-n- 
ing  the  importance  of  which  in  legal 
education  is,  indeed,  now  fully  recognised 
amongst  us,  but  of  which  the  actual 
authority  and  practical  application  are, 
we  suppose,  more  limited  in  England  than 
in  any  other  European  country. 

CZVZXi  MARRZAGE.  [See  Mab- 
EIAfJE.] 

cx.AM'SZSSTZM'E.  [See  Impedi- 
ments OF  Marriage.] 

cXiARES.    [See  Pock  Clares.] 

CX.ASSZCS.  The  word  is  used  here 
to  denote  the  great  writers  of  Greece 
and  Rome  whose  works  have  survived, 
and  it  is  the  object  of  this  article  to 
sketch  the  opinion  held  by  Catholics  con- 
cerning them  as  a  means  of  Christian 
education. 

I.  T/ie  Patristic  Period. — In  the  early 
days  of  the  Church  the  pagan  literature 
of  Greece  and  Rome  was,  apart  from  the 
Bible,  the  one  and  only  means  of  liberal 
instruction,  and  to  renounce  the  study  of 
the  classics  would  have  meant  renouncing 
all  culture  and  forfeiting  eveiy  natural 
means  of  influencing  the  educated  world. 
>  Soglia,  lib.  i.  cap.  3. 

?  AiiHin-  thnso  present  at  thp  Convocation 
^vlli.•ll  ,  on, 1, .11111. ■<]  Wvclif.  in  ISSl  were  "  (loc- 
(i.n^  |i -mil  ■"  ( u'triu^qiie  jui-is,"  or  "jnris 
,-,iii  nici  'i  ri.i'i-"),  n  hisliop  -  voi-atus  in- 
i'i|iii'iiduiii  in  jure  eivili,''  and  --(loctores  Ue- 
cretoruni  "  (or  "  in  decretis  ")  whose  degree  was 
in  canon  law  alone.    See  Fascic.  Zhan.  p.  28G. 


CLASSICS 


CLASSICS  207 


Christians  showed  no  disposition  to  adopt 
Buch  a  course.  St.  Paul  himself  quotes 
Menander  (1  Cor.  xv.  33) ;  in  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  a  line  from  Aratus  and 
Cleanthes  is  cited,  as  part  of  St.  Paul's 
speech  at  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  28) ;  and  in 
the  p:i)istle  to  Titus  (i.  12)  the  evil  cha- 
racter of  the  (Cretans  is  piven  in  the 
•vrords  of  "  their  own  pn  ipliet,"  Epimenides, 
or  perhaps  Cullimachus.  Irenreus,  though 
bred  a  Christian,  was  thoroughly  familiar 
with  Homer  ("Adv.  liver."  ix.  4),  and 
Tertullian  ("  De  Idol."  10),  fanatic  though 
he  was,  admits  that  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary for  Chri.stian  children  to  attend  the 
heathen  schools  of  gnuumar.  Clement  of 
Alexandria  recognised  the  high  import- 
ance, even  from  a  theological  point  of 
view,  of  a  classical  education.  He  lays 
down  the  principle  ("Strom."  i.  5)  that 
])hilosophy  is  useful  fc^r  pii-ty,  and  adds 
that  the  (yKVK^^ia  fiiidrinnTn.  i.i'.  lil)('ral 
education,  df  which  classical  study  was 
a  chief  part,  were  the  proix-r  introduction 
to  philosophy.  His  extant  works  abun- 
dantly testify  to  his  high  appreciation  of 
the  classics.  Origen  taught  the  classics 
personally  at  Alexandria  (Euseb.  "  H.  E." 
vi.  2).  He  himself  had  acquin-d  this 
literary  knowledge  under  his  father,  a  zea- 
lous Christian,  and  afterwards  a  martyr. 

The  zeal  with  which  classical  litera- 
ture was  studied  in  the  t-hurch  alter 
Constantino's  time  is  apparent  from  tlie 
fact  that  Julian  the  Apostate  (oGl-Si;;'/) 
thought  it  worth  while,  as  a  means  of 
annoying  the  Christians,  to  forbid  the 
study  of  the  classics  in  the  .schools  of  the 
religion  which  he  bated.  The  Church 
was  determined  not  to  allow  classical 
study  to  fall  into  disuse.  The  Christian 
literature,  called  into  existence  as  a  make- 
shift, was  soon  forgotten  after  I'reedDin 
of  instruction  was  restori'd  (Socrates, 
"  H.  E."  iii.  16).  In  the  1-^ast  Gregory 
Nazianzen  ("Or."  43,  i.  p.  777  in  the 
Benedictine  edition)  and  Basil  ("De  Leg. 
Libr.  Gent."  ed.  Eened.  ii.  17.1),  in  the 
West  Jerome  ("  E])."  olt '  ad  I'aulin.)  and 
Augustine  ("  Doctrin.  Christ."  ii.  2i>,  ■•<eq.), 
vindicated  the  claims  of  classical  learning. 
There  is  abundant  evidence  tliat  these 
enlightened  theories  -won'  carried  out  in 
practice.  For  exampli»,  St.  Eulgentius, 
when  a  hoy,  by  the  desire  of  his  pious 
mother,  learnt  Homer  and  selections  from 
Menander  by  heart  (BoUand.  Jan.  i.  3:1), 

1  At  least  .Jerome  does  .so  practic,ill\ .  He 
extols  the  i-lassic.s  as  models  of  style,  and  (juottv 
Cicero  with  high  praise,  l)e.sidps  Persius  and 
Lucan. 


and  at  an  earlier  date  St.  Augustine 
("  Civ.  Dei "  i.  3)  takes  for  granted  that 
boys  at  school  learn  Virgil.  At  the  same 
time  there  were  persons,  some  even  high 
in  authority,  who  showed  a  jealousy  of 
classical  learning,  especially  when  culti- 
vated by  the  clergy.  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
in  the  pa.ssage  quoted  above,  admits  that 
most  Christians  had  an  unjust  prejudice 
(oi  TToXXot  XfiiaTiaviav  ....  KOKcoy  (iSores) 
against  pagan  learning  (tj)i/  e^o>6eu 
irnlhfva-iv),  and  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  in 
a  letter  to  Desiderius,  bishop  in  Gaul 
("Ep."  lib.  xi.  54),  says  he  has  heard  with 
horror  that  the  bishop  teaches  literature 
("  grammaticam  exponere  ").  Clearly, 
the  Pope's  objection  was  not  merely  to  a 
))isho])'s  employing  himself  in  this  way. 
"  It  cannot  be,"  he  says,  "  that  the  praises 
of  Jupiter  and  Christ  should  proceed 
from  the  same  mouth.  Consider  yourself 
how  grievous  and  criminal  a  thing  it  is 
for  a  bishop  to  sing  what  would  be  unfit 
for  a  religious  layman."  ' 

II.  The  Mofiasfic  Schools. — In  two 
ways  the  position  of  learning  underwent 
a  change  after  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
empire.  During  the  Patristic  period  the 
whole  of  ancient  literature  was  comprised 
in  the  classics,  whereas  the  monks  of  the 
great  Benedictine  period  were  able  to  look 
back  on  a  long  line  of  Christian  Fathers, 
on  a  literature  represented  by  such  names 
as  Ambrose,  Jerome,  Augustine,  Gregory 
the  Great.  The  pagan  element  had 
vanished  from  the  face  of  Europe,  or, 
where  it  remained,  lingered  only  as  a 
remnant,  not  of  civilisation,  but  of  bar- 
barism. Hence  the  classics  were  no 
longer  the  one  and  only  means  of  literaiy 
cultivation  outside  of  the  Bible  :  there 
were  other  writers  whom  the  educated 
world  was  content  to  revere.  Again, 
education  was  now  in  the  hands  of  the 
monks,  and  there  was  a  natural  feelini:- 
that  devotion  to  classical  studies  ini;ht 
interfere  with  their  religious  engagements. 
Certainly  Mr.  Maitland,  in  his  fascinating 
work  on  the  "Dark  Ages,"  has  collected 
a  number  of  passages  from  monastic 
writers  which  depreciate  classical  study. 
Thus  Alcuin,  when  a  boy,  is  said  to  have 
vowed  that  he  would  no  longer  prefer 
Virgil  to  the  melody  of  the  Psalms 
(Maitland's    "Dark    Ages,"    p.  181). 

1  See,  however,  Ncander,  Kircheiigeschkhte, 
v.  p.  10-i.  s«/..  wlio  sliews  that  there  are  reasons 
tor  hclicviiiu  tli;it  (;r.'uor\ 's  fixed  judgment  on 
clnssiciil  liter:iiur  w.is  net  so  adverse  as  might 
appear  from  the  qimtatidn  in  the  text.  The 
story  ofhishaviui;  the  Palatine  library  "  burnt " 
is  an  idle  le.;ouil. 


208  CLASSICS 


CLASSICS 


About  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury the  rigid  St.  Peter  Damian  blames 
monks  who  "  go  after  the  common  herd 
of  grammarians  "  and  prefer  the  rule  of 
Donatus  to  that  of  St.  Benedict  (ib. 
p.  184).  "It  grieves  me,"  says  the  author 
of  the  famous  "Gemma  Aninise," perhaps 
about  1120,  "when  I  consider  in  my  mind 
tlie  number  of  persons  who,  having  lost 
their  senses,  are  not  ashamed  to  give  their 
utmost  labour  to  the  abominable  figments 
of  the  poets  and  the  captious  arguments 
I  if  the  philoso])li('rs.  .  .  .  Moreover,"  so 
this  chai-itaVile  and  enlightened  author 
priic  fds,  "  liow  is  the  soul  profited  by 
tlic  -ti  iieol'  Hector,  or  the  argumentation 
(if  Plato,  ^n•  the  poems  of  Virgil,  or  the 
elegies  of  Ovid,  who  now,  with  their  like, 
are  gnashing  their  teeth  in  the  prison  of 
the  infernal  Babvlon  under  the  cruel 
tyranny  of  Pluto  P  '  (;7;.  185).  It  is 
]ilain,  however,  tliai  thet^e  very  denuncia- 
tions witness  to  the  zeal  for  classical 
study  in  the  monastic  period.  Long  be- 
Ibre,  ( )vigen  ("In  Levit."  Horn.  VII.  torn, 
ii.  p.  227)  had  compared  heathen  litera- 
ture to  the  beautiful  captive  whom  the 
Hebrew  might  espouse  after  her  head  had 
been  shaved  and  her  nails  pared;  and  this 
allegiirical  fancy,  as  Mr.  Maitland  himself 
allows,  was  the  standing  excuse  among 
niedi;eval  monks  for  indulgence  in  secular 
literature,  and  he  gives  an  extract  from 
the  letter  of  an  abbot,  written  about 
II.'jO,  which  treats  the  matter  in  a  more 
reasonable  and  manly  tone.  "  Nor  can  I 
bear,"  he  writes,  "  that  that  noble  genius, 
those  splendid  imaginations,  stich  great 
beauties  both  ofstyle  and  language,  should 
Ije  lost  in  iiblivion"  {ib.  p.  IZo).  Rut 
we  can  learn  more  from  in(juiring  wliat 
tile  acliuil  curriculum  of  the  Benedictine 
scIhimIs  ivallv  was,  and  to  this  (juestion 
(.'ardiual  Newman  has  furnished  a  full 
answer :  '•  In  the  monastic  school  the 
language,  of  course,  was  Latin;  and  in 
Latin  literature  first  came  Virgil;  next, 
Lucan  and  Statius ;  Terence,  Sallust, 
Cicero ;  Horace,  Persius,  Juvenal.  .  .  . 
Thus  we  find  that  the  monks  of  St.  Al- 
ban's,  near  Mayence,had  standing  lectures 
in  Cicero,  Virgil,  and  diIk  i-  authors.  In 
theschoolofPaderborn  there  were  lectures 
in  Horace,  Virgil,  Statins,  and  Sallust. 
.  .  .  Gerbert,  afterwards  Sylvester  the 
Second,  after  lecturing  his  class  in  logic, 
brought  it  back  again  to  Virgil,  Statius, 
Terence,  Juvenal,  Persius,  Horace,  and 
Lucan.  A  work  is  extant  of  St.  Ililde- 
bert's,  supposed  to  be  a  school  exercise ;  it 
is  scarcely  more  than  a  cento  of  Cicero, 


Seneca,  Horace,  Juvenal,  Persius,  Terence, 
and  other  writers.  Horace  he  must  have 
known  by  heart  "(Newman's  "Historical 
Sketches,"  ii.  p.  4G0).  Nor  were  the 
lessons  forgotten  in  maturer  age.  "  Let 
us  turn," says  Cardinal  Newman,  "to  the 
familiar  correspondence  of  some  of  those 
most  famous  Benedictines,  and  we  shall 
see  what  were  the  pursuits  of  their  leisure 
and  the  indulgences  of  their  recreation. 
Alcuin,  in  his  letters  to  his  friends, 
quotes  Virgil  again  and  again;  he  also 
quotes  Horace,  Terence,Pliny.  .  .Lupus 
quotes  Ibirace,  Cicero,  Suetonius,  Virgil, 
and  Martial.  Gevliert  quotes  Virgil, 
Cicr,.,  Ibuace,  Terence,  and  Sallust. 
Pet rus  Cellensis  (juntes  Horace,  Seneca, 
andTerence.  Ilildeliert  (|unte.-  Virgiland 
Cicero.  .  .  .  Hincijiar  nt'  1>' helms  quotes 
Horace.  Paschasius  Itadhert's  favourite 
t  autli(ii-s  were  Cicero  and  Teieiice.  Abbo 
of  h'leury  was  especially  familiar  with 
Terence,  Sallust,  Virgil,  and  Horace ; 
j  Peter  the  Venerable  with  ^'irgil  and 
1  Horace.  Ilepidann  of  St.  (iall  took 
Sallust  as  a  model  of  style  "  (ib.  p.  4(34, 
seq.).  In  their  c<irres]Hnidence  the  monks 
of  that  age  were  cnnsi  aul  1  y  he- - mg  the 
loan  (if  classical  manuscripts;  I  hey  raise 
(luestiiins  of  grammar,and  show  "a  loving 
curiosity  about  the  niceties  of  language." 
Their  igncirance  of  Greek  was  their  mis- 
fortune and  not  their  fault,  for  they 
eagerly  seized  the  rare  oj)portunities  of 
learnilig  it.  Tlius  Theodore  of  Tarsus 
bi'caine  Archbishop  of  Cant erbiuy  in  llie 
seventh  (enlui'V.  and  taught  it  to  the 
Au,eln-S.-o.n  vonth  (Bede,"ll.  E."iv.2), 
wliile  i;;ii  alius  Manrus  is  said  to  ha\e 
learned  it  IVinu  Theophilus  of  Ephesus. 
As  to  Latin  style  of  that  period,  it  falls 
fai-  short  of  the  strict  classical  standard, 
but  "it  is  gddd  Latin  both  in  structure 
and  ill  ididui.  At  any  rate,  the  change 
is  w  ■iiidei  riil  when  we  jiass  fniiii  the 
BeiiedicI  me  ci'iitiiries  te  the  Iliiniinican 
wllicll  tullnwed  "  (Newman,  p.  470). 

III.  The  Period  of  the  Midiaval 
Universities. — In  the  later  middle  ages, 
the  period  of  the  universities,  1150-1^50, 
it  seems  to  be  admitted  on  all  hands  that 
classical  study,  though  it  did  not  wholly 
perish,  languished  and  decayed.  The 
old  tradition  was  maintained  by  John  of 
Salisbury  and  his  disciple  Peter  of  Bhiis 
(died  about  1200).  In  the  college  of 
Navarre,  founded  at  Paris  in  lo04,  the 
classics,  accordiii;^  to  the  (estiniony  of 
Peter  d'Ailly,  were  slndied,  and  Cer.soii, 
educated  there,  shows  a  considerable  ac- 
quaintance with  the  ancients.    But  the 


CLASSICS 


CLERGY,  CLERICAL  STATE  209 


ruling  passion  was  for  dialectic  or  philo- 
sophy, not  for  grammar— «.e.  literature. 
The  ancients  were  valued  for  their  matter, 
not  for  their  style;  and  Aristotle, read  in 
barbarous  translations,  ruled  the  schools. 
The  faculty  of  arts  was  separated  from 
that  of  grammar,  and  in  1456  the 
"  grammarians  "  were  excluded  from  the 
privileges  of  universities  and  the  title  of 
"  regents." 

Everyone  knows  the  triumph  which 
the  scholars  of  the  Renaissance  obtained 
over  the  old  Scholasticism,  how  the  Greek 
Muses,  driven  from  their  ancient  homes, 
found  refuge  in  Italy,  how  the  "  new 
learning"  brought  new  insight  into  anti- 
quity, witli  a  marvellous  mastery  of  the 
Latin  tongue,  and  how  powerful  it  was 
for  good  and  evil.  All  this  does  not 
concern  us  here,  except  so  far  as  these 
new  influences  affected  the  Church.  "  In 
itself,"  says  Cardinal  Hergenrother, 
("  Kirchengeschichte,"  ii.  p.  172),  "  the 
new  tendency  was  not  hurtful  to  the 
Church  or  theology,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
beneficial.  For  that  reason  it  was  en- 
couraged by  Popes,  bishops,  and  theolo- 
gians." After  the  strife  between  the 
Humanists  and  theologians  had  broken 
out,  the  Church  maintained  the  classical 
discipline  in  her  schools:  nay,  the  seventh 
rule  of  the  Index  pronmlgated  by  Pius 
IV.  in  l.")64,  after  prohibiting  licentious 
books,  says  of  classical  authors,  even  if  of 
inimorul  character,  "  propter  sermonis 
elegantiam  etproprietatem  permittuntur, 
nulla  tanien  ratione  pueris  pr;ielegendi 
>unt."  This  implies  a  fortiori  that  these 
writings,  when  free  from  moral  stain  or 
when  objectionable  passages  have  been 
removed,  are  a  valuable  instrument  of 
education.  The  Jesuits  in  their  '•  Ratio 
Studiorum  "  adopted  this  principle,  and 
attained  brilliant  success  as  teachers  of 
the  classics.  The  "Delphin  Classics" 
and  the  "  Gradus  ad  Parnassum  "  may  be 
mentioned  among  books  familiar  to  the 
Protestant  schoolboy  thirty  years  ago 
which  were  due  to  the  Society.  Among 
works  of  a  higher  class  we  may  mention 
1  he  famous  book  of  the  Jesuit  Viger,  "  De 
Praecipuis  Graecse  Dictionis  Idiotismis " 
(Paris,  1628).  It  appeared  in  numerous 
editions,  it  was  perfected  by  the  care  of 
Dutch  scholars,  and  the  gi-eat  Hermann 
edited  it  with  annotations  of  his  own. 
The  studj-  of  the  classics  is  still  pursued 
at  all  the  higher  Catholic  schools.  In 
P'rance,  various  provincial  councils  {e.g. 
tliiit  of  Lyons  in  1850)  have  recommended 
that  the  students  for  the  priesthood  in 


seminaries  should  read  treatises  of  the 
Fathers  as  well  as  the  heathen  classics. 
The  Abb6  Gaume  and  Veuillot,  then 
editor  of  the  Paris  "  Univers,"  wished  to 
exclude  the  studj-  of  tlie  classics  alto- 
gether. The  cause  of  huni:nie  letters  was 
defended  by  the  celebrated  Bisliop  Dupan- 

I  loup;  and  when  Veuillot.  wlmse  journal 
had  been  ]irohibitc(l  liv  tli.'  Aivliliisliop  of 
Paris,  ai)]ii':ilr(l  tn  i;.nu.',  l'iu>  [X,.  in  an 
encyclical  nf  to  the  Fiendi  ejii- 

scopate,  expressed  his  wish  that  the  youth 
should  be  trained  in  the  knowledge  of  the 
best  heathen  as  well  as  of  tlie  best 
Christian  authors  :  the  former,  however, 
were  to  be  expurgated,  if  necessary,  for 
moral  reasons.  Some  zealots,  such  as 
Father  Ventura  in  his  Lent  discourses  at 
the  Tuileries  for  1857,  tried  to  maintain 
the  war  against  the  classics  without  con- 
tradicting the  encyclical,  but  the  contro- 
versy was  virtually  ended.' 

[On  the  whole  history,  Daniel,  "Etudes 
Classiques  "  ;  Pohle's  article  in  the  new 
edition  of  the  "  Kirchenlexikou."  P'orthe 
Patristic  period,  Petavius,  "  Dogm.  Theol. 

I  Prolegom."  vii. ;  Stephensky,  in  Krau.s' 
"  Real-Encyclop."    For  the  Iknedictine 

1  period,  Newman;  Guizot,  "Hist.  Civil." 
vol.  ii.  For  the  modern  controversy, 
Hergenrother.  Neander  treats  of  the 
subject  incidentally,  but  always  with 
learning,  and  in  that  Christian  and  kindly 
spirit  which  is  peculiarly  his  own.] 
C1.ATJSURA.    "See  Enclositee.I 

CI.ERCY,  CX.ERZCAX.  STATE, 
CXiERIC,  CXiERK,  &.C.  The  clerical 
State  is  the  rank  or  condition  of  tliose 
who  are  separated  from  the  mass  of  the 
faithful,  attached  in  a  special  manner  to 
the  divine  service  and  made  ca]ial)le  of 
administering  the  power  of  the  Church. 

The  word  is  of  course  derived  from 
the  Greek  xXT^poy,  a  lot,  a  word  which 
frequently  occurs  in  its  literal  sense  in 
the  LXX  and  Xew  Testament.  But  how 
did  the  word  lot  come  to  denote  "  the 
clergy"?  The  answer  to  this  question 
is  very  far  from  easy.  St.  Jerome's 
beautiful  explanation,  that  the  clergy  are 
so  called  because  the  Lord  himself  is  tlie 
lot,  i.e.  the  portion,  of  clerics,  does  not 
seem  to  be  borne  out  by  the  history  of 
the  word.  The  Pontifical,  it  is  true, 
evidently  alludes  to  this  mj-stical  signifi- 
cation, and  no  one  will  deny  that  such 
an  application  may  most  fitly  and  natur- 
ally be  made  ;  but  it  is  quite  another 
thing  to  maintain  that  the  name  was 
1  The  facts  in  the  last  paragraph  are  from 
Hergenrother,  Kirc/iengesclnehte,  ii.  p.  9!<9. 


210  CLERGY,  CLERICAL  STATE 


CLERK 


first  given  among  Christians  for  the 
reason  assigned  by  Jerome.  The  follow- 
ing seems  to  us  on  the  whole  the  way 
in  which  the  term  "  clergy "  gradually 
assumed  a  technical  and  restricted  sense. 
The  notion  of  lot  easily  led  to  the  sense 
of  oltice  allotted.  Thus  St.  Peter  says 
of  Judas,'  "he  received  the  lot  of  this 
ministry"  (toi/  kXT^/jov  r^y  buiKovias 
TavTt]s)  and  Irenpeus  says  of  Pope  Hygi- 
nus  that  he  held  "  the  ninth  lot  of  epi- 
scopal succession  from  the  Apostles" 
{€i>uaTou  xXripo)/) ;  of  Eleutherus  that  he 
obtained  "  the  lot  of  the  episcopate."-  A 
little  later  than  Irenseus — viz.  in  Clement 
of  Alexandria  ^  and  Tertullian  * — we  meet 
^^■ith  the  word  in  its  modern  sense.  The 
former  relates  of  St.  John,  that  he  travelled 
from  Ephesus  through  the  surrounding 
country,  "in  some  places  to  establish 
liishops,  in  others  set  up  entire  churches, 
in  others  to  admit  some  one  individual  to 
the  ranks  of  the  clergy  (xXijpo)  eva  ye  nva 
K^r^poiaaiv)  of  those  who  were  signified  to 
him  by  the  Spirit:"  i.e.  when  a  college  of 
presbyters,  &c.,  already  existed,  St.  John 
admitted  a  fresh  member.  Tertullian 
speaks  of  those  who  are  pufi'ed  up  "  ad- 
versus  clerum  " — i.e.,  as  is  clear  from  the 
context,  "  against  the  clergy."  Thus  the 
word  appears  to  have  meant  (1)  a  lot; 
(2)  an  office  allotted ;  (3)  as  early  at  least 
as  the  close  of  the  second  century,  those 
who  held  the  office,  or  perhaps  to  whom 
the  office  was  allotted — viz.  the  clergy.  It 
may  be  objected  that  the  technical  use  of 
the  word  is  much  earlier,  and  that  we 
tind  an  exaui])le  in  1  Pet.  v.  3,  where  we 
rea'l  ill  till' advice  given  to  the  "ancients," 
"  lu  iiliri-  :i>  (liiiiiiiu'rring  over  the  clergy, 
but  1)1111-  iiiudf  a  ]iattern  of  the  flock 
from  the  heart."  But  "  dominaiites  in 
cleris  "  {KdTdKvpievovTes  twv  xXr/ptot')  can- 
not have  the  meaning  given  to  it  in  the 
Douay  version.  This  is  shewn  both  by  the 
connection,  and  by  the  fact  that  the  word 
is  in  the  ]>lural.  Estius  calls  attention  to 
each  of  these  points  and  interprets  the 
passage  as  a  prohibition  forbidding  the 
"aiK-icnts  "  to  domineer  over  the  "lots," 
or  congregations  placed  under  their  care. 
Thi'  word  "  cleris  "  is  parallel  and  equiva- 
lent to  the  "gregis"  or  "flock"  which 
occurs  in  the  latter  half  of  the  verse.* 

I  Acts  i.  17.  ■-'  Ir.  n.  i.  27.  1  ;  iii.  3,  3. 

3  Clem.  Al.  De  Dicit.  Survandn,  c.  42. 

^  TertuU.  J)e  3Innog.  c.  12. 

'■>  This  fixplaniuion  aKrei's  im  the  whole 
■with  that  given  by  Dr.  LiL;titte(>t,  Cummentary 
on  I'liitippiiius.  Baur  (KiicliKngtsch.  tier  drei 
erstcn  Jahrhunderte.  p.  26ti)  makes  the  word 
meau  (1)  lot  or  order  ;  (2)  rank  or  station— iu  i 


"While,  however,  the  name  is  wanting 
in  the  New  Testament,  the  thing  intended 
by  the  name  is  there.  The  very  fact  that 
the  epistles  of  St.  Paul  mention  bishops 
who  "are  to  rule  the  Church  of  God,"  and 
:  prelates  whom  the  faithful  are  to  "obey" 
and  to  whom  they  are  to  "  be  subject," 
is  proof  conclusive  that  the  distinction 
between  clergy  and  laity  was  fully  recog- 
nised by  the  Apostles.  The  Church  did 
but  act  in  accordance  with  the  revelation 
entrusted  to  her,  when  she  separated  the 
clergy  from  the  laity  by  outward  marks, 
and  gave  certain  privileges  to  the  former. 
[For  the  privileges,  decorum,  &c.,  see 
Clebk.] 

CI.ERXCZ  VAGATTTES.  Ecclesi- 
astical law  has  required  from  the  earliest 
times  that  before  admission  to  holy  orders 
a  cleric  shall  possess  a  title — that  is,  a 
benefice  sufficient  for  his  subsistence,  or 
else  a  patrimony,  belonging  to  him  in  his 
own  right,  and  competent  to  support  him. 
Btit  this  requirement  was  often  waived 
in  particular  cases,  especially  when  a 
bishop  wished  to  send  priests  to  a  remote 
and  unsettled  part  of  his  diocese,  or  to 
preach  to  the  heathen  in  a  neighbouring 
country.  Such  priests  would,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  obtain  settled  cures  in 
the  districts  whither  they  went ;  but  those 
who  did  not  succeed  in  doing  so  had  no 
choice  but  to  return  home  and  put  them- 
selves at  the  disposal  of  their  bishop. 
Thus  a  class  of  "  roving  "  or  unattached 
priests  was  gradually  formed,  the  members 
of  which  as  a  general  rule  could  be  use- 
fully employed  in  supplementing  the 
regular  diocesan  work.  But  it  was  inevit- 
able tbat  abuses  should  arise  out  of  such 
a  state  of  things ;  and  to  put  an  end  to 
these,  the  Council  of  Trent  decreed  that 
"no  one  should  in  future  be  ordained  who 
was  not  attached  to  that  church  or  pious 
institution  for  the  needs  or  convenience 
of  which  he  was  selected,  so  that  he  might 
discharge  his  functions  there,  and  not 
wander  about  having  no  fixed  abode."' 
(Ferraris,  Clericus,  Ordo,  Titulus.) 

CXiERK.  In  a  general  sense,  and 
when  we  are  considering  who, are  entitled 
to  enjoy  clerical  privileges,  the  name  of 
cleric  or  clerk  is  a]i])lipable  to  the  whole 
body  of  the  secular  clergy,  including  per- 
sons in  minor  orders  (Council  of  Trent, 
sess.  xxiii.  c.  6,  De  Ref.) ;  also  to  monks 
and  nuns,  to  lay  institutes  following  a 

1  Pet.  V.  3,  "not  domineering  over  the  diflerent 
rank.s "  ;  (3)  the  rank  par  excellence,  i.e.  the 
clerfcy. 

I  Sess.  xxui.  c.  16,  De  Ref. 


CLERK 


CLERK 


211 


relif;ious  rule,  to  hermits  leading  their 
lift'  under  authority,  to  the  Knights  of 
Malta,  &c.  In  the  stricter  sense,  and 
wlu-n  penalties  are  under  consideration, 
tlit>  name  is  only  applicable  to  the  inferior 
ranks  of  the  secular  clergy,  and  does  not 
include  bishops,  canons,  or  any  eccle- 
siastical di;j;iiitary. 

In  the  middle  ages  "  clerk  "  was  used 
loosely  for  "  man  of  learning,"  the  latter 
class  being  almost  ■wholly  comprised 
within  the  former.  Thus  Henry  I.  of 
England  was  called  Beauclerk,  and 
Chaucer  writes — 

'•  Fraunce\  s  Petrark,  the  laureate  poete, 
Highte'  this  clerk;" 

and  Wyclif,  or  some  other,'  says,  "  Lin- 

colne  'Robert.  Grnssetete]  and  other 
rifrkix  proven,"  where  all  that  is  meant 
is  '■  learned  men." 

Till  rect'iit  times,  secular  rulers  and 
legislators  lecnpnix-l  the  fundamental 
character  of  this  disrinction,  as  investing 
the  Catholic  clergy  with  cf-rtain  immu- 
nities, and  furnishing  a  sutticient  p-ound 
for  a  separate  system  of  ecclesiastical  law, 
towlneh  clerical  things  and  persons  should 
be  subject.  rSee  Peiviiege,  IjoirxiTT.] 
The  tribunals  in  which  this  law  was  ad- 
ministered were  the  forum  externum  of 
the  Church,  and  all  clerics,  high  and 
low,  enjoyed  the  pnvile(/iiim  fori — that 
is,  the  right  of  trial  according  to  the 
canon  law.  The  various  national  codes 
having,  through  the  constant  pressure  of 
Christianity  and  the  action  of  the  canon 
law.  Iiecome  in  most  things  rational  and 
hunijine,  modern  statesmen  tend  to  the 
doctrine  that  all  subjects  of  the  State 
should  be  treated  alike — that  the  law 
should  be  the  same  for  all,  and  civil 
burdens  be  borne  by  all  indiscriminately. 
Yet  the  failure  to  recognise  a  distinction 
of  status  which  is  real  and  fundamental, 
and  rests  on  divine  institution,  can  but 
lead,  wherever  found,  to  trouble,  confu- 
sion, and  the  depravation  of  morals.  If 
in  every  Catholic  country  having  the 
conscription,  the  so-called  Liberals  suc- 
ceeded in  destroying  the  clerical  immu- 
nity from  military  service,  as  they  have 
done  in  France,  a  great  decrease  would 
soon  thin  the  ranks  of  the  clergy,  accom- 
panied by  unspeakable  distress  and  damage 
to  Christian  souls.  The  Church  in  Europe 
has  lost  the  tithe,  the  greater  portion  of 
her  property,  and  much  of  the  considera- 

'  ^V'as  called. 

-  Unprinted  English  TVorkt,  frc,  Matthew, 
1880. 


tion  which  she  formerly  received  from 
society ;  the  mixed  motives  which  once 
tended  to  fill  the  ranks  of  the  clergy  no 
longer  operate ;  the  laljourers  are  few, 
and  their  fair  hire  is  withheld  from  them. 
Under  such  circumstances,  it  would  be 
the  wisdom  of  the  Governments  to  smooth 
the  way  for  young  men  to  enter  the  clerical 
state,  and  to  lessen  the  hardships  which 
siuTound  them  in  that  state.  Yet  we  see 
modem  society,  in  too  many  once  Catholic 
States,  taking  the  opposite  course  :  and 
"Liberal"  statesmen  legislating  against 
the  clergy  as  if  they  were  some  destructive 
anti-social  caste,  instead  of  the  necessary 
and  divinely-appointed  guides  by  whom 
human  beings  are  prepared  in  time  to 
face  eternity.  Thej-  may  succeed  in 
nipping  in  the  bud  many  vocations,  but 
they  will  not  succeed  in  making  men 
happier  and  better,  nor  in  strengthening 
the  bases  of  social  order,  which,  when 
religion  languishes,  are  inevitably  im- 
perilled. 

According  to  the  canon  law,  the  dress 
of  the  cleric  must  be  sober  in  form  and 
colour.  Trade  and  secular  business  are 
forbidden  to  him.  He  is  required  to  use 
groat  caution  in  frequenting  the  company 
of  the  other  sex,  and  must  not  be  present 
at  public  balls  or  mas(juerades.  In  the 
J)ecretum  there  is  a  prohibition  against 
the  attendance  of  clerics  at  stage  plays  of 
every  description.  Hut  in  the  course  of 
ages  a  contrary  custom  has  arisen,  which 
causes  this  prohibition  no  longer  to  bind 
under  mortal  sin,  unless  enforced  by  some 
diocesan  or  provincial  law.  Grambling 
and  games  of  hazard  are  forbidden  to 
clerics,  though  some  modification  has 
been  introduced  in  later  times,  and  an 
approved  canonist  quoted  by  Ferraris  * 
says  that  "clerics  who  play  seldom  and 
moderately,  for  amusement's  sake,  are 
altogether  excused  from  sin  if  the  diocesan 
law  does  not  prohibit  to  them  games  of 
chance,  and  local  custom  sanctions  it." 
Clerics  must  not  carry  arms  without  just 
and  necessary  cause ;  hence  shooting,  un- 
less for  the  sake  of  procuring  food,  woidd 
seem  not  to  be  allowed  ;  but  a  moderate 
indulgence  in  hunting  and  fishing  is  not 
forbidden. 

Till  quite  lately,  the  server  at  Mass 
used  to  be  called  the  "clerk,"  even  though 
a  layman,  by  English  and  Irish  Catholics, 
because  he  did  clerk's  work  ;  just  as  the 
boys  at  Mass  are  called  "  acolytes," 
though  not  really  so,  because  they  do- 
acolytes'  work.  (Ferraris,  Clcricus.) 
•  Layman. 

p2 


212       CLERKS,  REGULAR 


CLOISTER 


CXiERKS,  Rx:cvx.ii.R.  The  idea 
of  a  Regular  Clerk  is  that  of  a  combina- 
tion of  functions  :  that  a  man,  while  as 
clerk  he  converses  with  the  world,  should 
by  obeying  a  rule  of  life  attain  to  the 
virtues  of  a  monk.  This  combination  is 
generally  ascribed  to  St.  Augustine.  The 
history  of  St.  Lawrence  shows  us  what 
great  and  saintly  characters  could  ari.se 
among  the  clergy  of  the  Roman  Church 
in  the  third  century  ;  but  we  hear  of  no 
definite  rule  of  life  to  which  they  all  con- 
formed. In  the  fourth  century  the  life 
of  cities,  espf'cially  in  the  eastern  por- 
tions of  the  empire,  seems  to  have  been 
So  turbulent,  so  full  of  distractions  and 
alarms,  that  it  would  have  been  difficult 
to  introduce  in  any  urban  clergy  a  ju  acf- 
ful  methodical  ])lan  for  the  disi  l  ilml  ion  ( i|' 
their  hours.  About  the  end  of  tlir  lom-th 
age  Roman  Africa  was  very  pcaeei'ul  and 
pro.sperous  ;  and  when  St.  Augustine,  in 
Sit"),  was  elected  to  the  bisliojiric  of 
IIi])]>o,  it  seemed  to  him  that  the  religious 
intmests  of  the  city  would  best  be  pro- 
moted if  all  its  clergy  were  to  live  under 
the  .same  roof  with  himself ;  mini.ster,  each 
in  his  own  place  and  station,  to  the 
spiritual  needs  of  the  po])ulation ;  and 
ob>erYe  a  common  way  of  life,  so  far  as 
was  com])atil)lc  with  this  ministration,  in 
what  regarded  j)rayi'r,  dirt,  sleep,  and 
other  matters.  The  saint,  with  that 
force  of  character  and  intelligence  which 
distinguished  him  in  all  things,  soon 
cari  ied  out  his  purpose ;  see  his  "  De 
Moribus  Eccl.  Cath.,"  and  the  Life  by 
Pos.sidius.  "  He  harmonist  d,"  says  Tho- 
massin,'  "in  a  wonderful  union  the  func- 
tions of  clerics  with  the  virtues  of  monks." 
This  is  considered  to  have  been  the  first 
original  and  jiattern  of  all  bodies  of  regu- 
lar clerks  and  canons  that  have  since 
existed  in  the  Church  [Augustiniax 
C.\NONs].  Under  the  former  designation 
fall  the  Regular  Clerks  of  Somascha, 
i'ouiuled  by  St.  Jerome  ^Emiliani,  the 
J.arnabites  (.see  that  article),  and  other 
communities. 

CX.XM-ZCAX.  BAPTISM.  A  name 
given  in  the  early  Church  to  baptism 
received  on  the  bod  of  sickness,  those  who 
reci'ived  it  being  called  clinici  or  kXivlko'i. 
Tl)r  fir>t  nni  ii'c  wliieh  \ve  have  of  baptism 
so  conl'rrivd  is  cniit.'ilnrd  in  a  letter  of 
P(i]i.'  (.'oi-iirliii.,  \\riit>'n  about  the  middle 
of  t  he  third  century  to  Fabius  of  Antioch. 
The  subject  is  important  from  two  distinct 
points  of  view,  for  it  throws  light  both 

*  Vetut  et  Nova  Ecdtsite  Disciplina,  i.  3,  2. 


on  the  doctrine  and  the  discipline  of  the 
early  Church. 

With  regard  to  the  former,  the  custom 
of  conferring  clinical  baptism  proves  that 
baptism  given,  not  by  immersion,  but  by 
sprinkling  the  recipient,  or  by  pouring 
water  over  him  (by  aspersion  or  perfusion), 
although  unusual,  was  still  considered 
valid.  This  validity  is  clearly  laid  down 
by  Cyprian,  in  Ep.  Lxix.,  when  he  answers 
the  question  whether  those  who  had  not 
been  "washed  with  the  water  of  salvation, 
I  but  had  had  it  poured  over  them,"  were 
"Christians  in  the  strict  sense"  {legitimi 
Christiant).  He  replies  that  we  need 
not  he  concerned  because  the  baptised 
person  incase  of  sickness  hasheen  sprinkled 
or  had  water  poured  over  him  (instead 
of  being  immersed),  since  in  any  case  he 
receives  the  "  grace  of  the  Lord." 

However,  the  discipline  of  the  Church 
made  a  difieivnce  between  cliniei  and 
other  Christians,  and  did  not  allow  the 
former  to  he  ordained,  on  the  ground  that 
they  probably  had  received  the  sacrament 
rather  from  fear  than  from  a  higher 
motive.  In  the  letter  already  mentioned 
Cornelius  states  that  it  was  against  the 
law  for  one  who  had  received  clinical 
ba]itisni  to  onter  the  ranks  of  the  clergy.' 
Thr  Ciimicll  of  Neocaesarea  (can.  12),  in 
the  ]iurt  of  the  fourth  century, 

rl•nl■^^s  this  .■mcient  prohibition,  making, 
hdw.  nil  rxi-cption  in  the  case  of 
clinici  w'hd  signalised  themselves  ]>y  zeal, 
and  for  times  when  there  was  great  want 
of  clergy.  This  canon  was  received  into 
the  "  Coiiius  Juris,"  c.  1.  Dist.  57.^ 

CZiOZSTER.  An  enclosed  space, 
usually  square,  surrounded  by  covered 
passages,  which  have  continuous  walls 
on  the  outer  side,  and  rows  of  pillars  on 
the  inner  side  facing  the  square,  in  con- 
nection with  monastic,  cathedral,  or 
collegiate  buildings.  We  do  not  possess 
any  in  this  country  of  earlier  date  than 
the  thirteenth  century.  They  doubtless 
first  appeared  in  monasteries,  furni-shing 
monks  with  the  means  of  exercise  under 
cover  in  wet  weather.  The  interior  space 
was  sometimes  used  for  a  cemetery,  as  at 
Salisbury.  Schools  are  said  to  have  been 
held  in  them,  though  they  can  scarcely, 
at  any  rate  in  this  climate,  have  been 
very  suitable  for  the  purjjose.  lu  no 
country  in  Europe  have  .so  many  fine 
specimens  of  Gothic  cloisters  been  pre- 
served as  in  England.  That  at  Gloucester 
is  of  remarkable  beauty  ;  the  cathedrals 

1  Euseb.  .H.  .E.  vi.  43, 17. 

2  Hefele,  Concil.  i.  p.  249. 


CLUNY,  CONGREGATION  OF 


COADJUTOR 


213 


of  Durham,  York,  and  Lincoln,  and  New 
Collefre,  Oxford,  furnish  fine  examples. 
CX.VXO'T,  COSrCRECATZOXr  OF. 

This  branch  of  the  Benedictine  order 
attained  in  the  middle  ages  to  a  pitch  of 
greatness  and  influence  which  entitle  it 
to  a  separate  article.  It  was  founded  by 
Bernn,  ablxit  of  (4igny,  in  912,  with  the 
assistance  of  "William  Duke  of  Aquitaine, 
•who  endowed  the  new  monastery  with 
his  whole  domains,  forests,  meadows, 
vineyards,  &c.,  at  Cluny,  fifteen  miles 
from"  Macon-sur-Saone.  A  succession  of 
great  and  saintly  abbots — Odo,  Avmard, 
St.  ilayeul,  St.'Odilo,  and  St.  Hugh- 
procured  for  the  Abbey  of  Oluuy  a  world- 
wide reputation,  gi-eat  wealth  and  political 
influence,  and  a  filiation  of  many  hundred 
monasteries.  The  bond  of  (lependence 
was  strictly  maintained  in  all  the  houses 
founded  from  or  connected  with  Cluny ; 
in  nearly  e\ery  instance  they  were 
governed  by  priors,  not  abbots.  Urban 
II.,  the  Pope  who  preacluMl  the  first 
cru.sade,  had  been  educated  at  Cluny 
under  St.  Hugh.  The  great  Earl  of 
"Warenne,  the  friend  and  companion  in 
arms  of  the  Conqueror,  founded  the  first 
Cluniac  house  in  England,  at  Lewes,  in 
1077,  dedicating  the  church  in  honour  of 
St.  Pancras.  LTnder  Peter  the  Venerable, 
the  ninth  abbot,  the  contemporary  and 
friend  of  St.  Bernard,  Cluny  reached  its 
apogee.  Peter  drew  up  a  reformed  rule; 
two  thousand  convents  recognised  him 
as  their  superior;  and  in  1131  the  Pope 
himself.  Innocent  11.,  came  to  Cluny  and 
consecrated  the  new  church,  the  master- 
piece of  Gothic  architecture  and  one  of 
the  wonders  of  the  world.  At  the  Revo- 
lution, the  town  of  (^luny  bought  the 
church  from  the  Republican  Government, 
and  pulled  it  down ;  nothing  but  the  two 
towel's  and  a  few  other  fragments  were 
left  standing.  Some  time  afterwards  the 
people  of  Cluny  invited  Napoleon  to  visit 
their  town;  the  emperor  replied,  "No, 
no,  you  are  Vandals." 

There  were  thirty-two  Cluniac  houses 
in  England  at  the  time  of  the  suppression; ' 
the  list  is  given  below.'-    Only  one  was 

'  The  Chiniac  houses  in  EngLand  were 
orisinally  ^ubjent  to  the  abbot  of  Cluny,  on 
which  account  many  of  them  were  su|)iiressei1 
in  the  fourteenth  century  as  '■.■ilicn  I'riorie.s." 
Those  that  remained  wpregraduallv'-ilisoliarired 
from  all  manner  of  subjection  and  oltedieme  " 
to  the  mother  house,    i'auner's  Xotilia,  xv. 

'  Nunneries  are  distinguished  bv  an  asterisk ; 
cells  by  tlie  letter  C. 

Barnstaple  (Dev.)  i  Bretton  Monk,  near 
Bermondsey  (Sur.)     |      Barnsley  (York.) 


an  abbey — Bermondsey ;  the  rest  were 
priories  or  cells.  (Hefele's  art.  in  Wetzer 
and  Welte  ;  Tanner's  "  Notitia.") 

COASTVTOR.  One  who  helps  a 
prelate,  or  a  priest  holding  a  benefice,  in 
discharging  the  duties  of  his  bishopric  or 
benefice.  Coadjutorship  may  ))e  of  two 
kinds:  one  temporary  and  revocable, 
allowed  on  account  of  sickness  or  other 
incapacity,  and  implying  no  right  of  suc- 
cession;  the  other  perpetual  and  irrevoc- 
al)le,  and  carrying  with  it  the  right  to 
succeed  the  person  coadjuted.  In  this 
latter  sense  it  is  expressly  forbidden  l)y 
the  Council  of  Trent;'  nevertheless  the 
Pope,  for  special  causes,  sometimes  con- 
cedes it,  the  plenitude  of  his  apostolic 
power  enabling  him  legally  to  dispense 
with  the  law.  If  a  coadjutor  is  required 
for  a  parish  priest,  it  is  for  the  bishop  of 
the  diocese  to  nominate  one ;  if  for  a 
bishop,  the  nomination  belongs  to  the 
Pope,  any  usage  to  the  contrary  notwith- 
standing. In  the  case  of  a  priest,  if  the 
incapacity  is  temporary  or  curable,  he 
must  a1)point  a  vicar  or  substitute,  not  a 
coadjutor.  The  various  infirmities  which 
justify  coadjutorship — serious  and  in- 
curable illness,  leprosy,  loss  of  speech,  itc. 
— are  specified  in  the  canon  law.  In  the 
case  of  a  bishop,  the  terms  "adminis- 
trator "  and  "  suffragan  "  mean  much  the 
same  as  coadjutor,  the  differences  being, 
that  the  administrator's  function  ceases 
when  the  bishop  resumes  charge  of  the 
diocese  or  dies,  and  a  suffragan  assists  the 
bishop  in  things  which  relate  ti~i  his 
ministry,  but  has  no  jurisdiction  ;  while  a 
coadjutor  has  jurisdiction,  and  his  rights 
mail,  as  we  have  seen,  by  special  Papal 
permission,  subsist  after  the  death  of  the 
coadjuted.  Vai-ious  points  affecting  the 
precedence,  dignity,  and  ceremonial 
attaching  to  a  coadjutor  bishop  have  been 


Bromeholni,  near  North 

Walsham  (Norf.) 
Castleacre  (  Xorf.) 
Clilloni  (Heref.),  C 
Davcntrv  (Northants.) 
Derby,  C 

Dudley  (Wore),  C 
Ilitcliam  (Norf.),  C 
Dolme  (Dors.),  C 
Horksley  (Essex).  C. 
Ilorton,    near  Hvthe 

(Kent),  C 
Kershall  (Lane),  C 
KerswelKDev.),  C. 
Lenten  (Notts.) 
Lewes  (Su-s.) 
Malpas  (Mourn.),  C 
Melton  Mowbray,  C 

'  Sess.  XXV.  c 


Mendham  (Suff.) 
Monkton  Farlev 

(Wilts.),  C 
Montacute  (Som.) 
Norniansbereh.  near 

Fakenham  (Noi-f.),  (; 
Northampton,  .St..\ndr. 
Northampton.  De  la 

Pre  • 
Pontefraet  (York.) 
Prittlewell  (K~sex) 
Slewsham,  ne.-iv  I\Ieth- 

wold  (Nort.),  »' 
Stanesg:ite,  near  Mal- 

Tl'.e'tfovd"(Norf) 
Waugford  (Sutf.),  C 
Weidock  (Salop) 
7.  De  Ref. 


214 


COADJUTOR 


G(EN0B1TE 


settled  from  time  to  time  by  the  Congre-  i 
gation  of  Rites.    (Ferraris,"  Coadjutor.) 

COAT,  THE  HOIiy  {tunica  incon- 
stitilts,  der  heilige  Rock,  la  sainte  Robe). 
This  celebrated  relic  is  in  the  treasury  of 
the  cathedral  of  Treves,  and  a  very  an- 
cient tradition  asserts  it  to  be  identical 
■with  the  seamless  coat  which  our  Saviour 
wore  at  the  time  of  his  Passion.  The 
empress  Helena,  having  come  into  pos- 
session of  it  in  the  Holy  Land,  is  said  to 
have  given  it  to  the  city  of  Treves,  where 
she  resided  for  a  considerable  time.  The 
earliest  written  testimony  tn  this  effect  is 
found  in  the  Gesta  Trevii-orum,  a  chroni- 
cle of  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century, 
where  Helena  is  said  to  have  presented 
the  relic  to  the  church  during  the  epi-  [ 
scopate  of  Agritius  (314-334).  Several 
other  notices  of  the  Holy  Coat  are  found 
in  documents  mounting  up  to,  or  nearly  ; 
to,  tlie  twelfth  century.  But  the  most 
remarkable  and  interesting  piece  of 
evidence,  in  support  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  relic,  is  an  ancient  ivory  belonging 
to  the  cathedral  (lost  for  some  time  but 
recovered  in  1844),  on  which  the  Empress 
is  figured,  seated  at  the  church  donr,  and 
awaiting  the  arrival  of  a  procession 
closed  by  a  chariot  in  which  are  two 
ecclesiastics  guarding  a  chest.  Above  the 
chariot  is  the  face  of  Christ,  by  which 
some  relation  between  our  Lord  and  the 
contents  of  the  chest  seems  to  be  indicated. 
This  ivory  was  examined  by  the  Archpeo- 
logical  Society  of  Franlrfort  in  1846,  witli 
the  result  of  fixing  its  date  at  the  end  nf 
the  fourth  or  beginning  of  the  fifth  century. 

We  read  of  the  translation  of  the 
relic  from  the  choir  to  the  high-altar  of 
the  cathedral  in  1196.  After  an  interval 
of  more  than  three  hundred  years,  it  was 
exposed  in  1512,  and  on  several  other 
occasions  in  the  sixteenth  century,  for  the 
veneration  of  the  faithful.  During  the 
wars  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  it  was  deposited  for  safety  in 
the  castle  of  Ehrenbreitstein,  or  at  Augs- 
h\irg.  In  1810,  with  the  permission  of 
Napoleon,  the  bishop  of  Treves,  Mgr. 
Maunay,  brought  the  sacred  relic  bade 
from  Augsburg  to  his  own  city ;  and,  in 
spite  of  the  confusion  of  tlie  times,  a 
multitude  of  pilgrims  numbering  over 
two  hundrfd  thousand  visited  Treves  to 
celelirate  this  joyful  restoration.  But  the 
most  striking  and  successful  exposition 
was  that  of  1844,  when  eleven  bishops 
and  iiinro  than  a  million  of  the  laity 
floclied  to  Treves  from  all  sides  during 
•he  period  (from  August  18  to  October  6) 


for  which  the  Holy  Coat  was  exhibited. 
Several  miraculous  cures  were  reported, 
and  the  joy  and  piety  of  the  believing 
throng  must  have  been  a  very  moving 
sight.  Certain  unstable  Catholics,  with 
a  secret  leaning  to  rationalism,  took 
offence  at  the  proceedings,  and  wrote 
against  the  authenticity  of  the  Holy  Coat. 
Among  these  were  Czerski,  an  ecclesiastic 
from  Posen,  and  Ronge,  a  suspended 
priest  of  Breslau.  A  long  controversy 
arose,  in  the  course  of  which  these  men 
seceded  from  the  Church  and  founded  a 
sect  which  they  called  the  "German 
Catholic  Cliurch."  The  movement  made 
a  great  noise  at  the  time,  but  is  now 
seldom  heard  of.  The  well-known 
(^'atholic  writer,  Giirres,  published  a 
pamphlet  on  the  question,  entitled  "  The 
Pilgrimage  of  Treves,"  in  1845. 

At  the  period  at  which  we  write 
(Sept.  1891),  another  exhibition  of  the 
Holy  Coat  is  going  on  at  Treves,  under 
the  sanction  of  MgT.  Korum,  the  bishop. 
A  million  pilgrims  have  visited  the  relic 
up  to  the  middle  of  this  month.  Several 
cures,  apparently  miraculous,  are  re- 
ported.   ["WetziT  and  Welte.] 

COBEX  CAKTON-Vni  ECCX..  AF- 
RZCATTJE.  This  collection  of  canons,  138 
in  number,  consists  substantially  of  the 
disciplinary  decisions  of  the  great  African 
council  which  sat  at  Carthage  between 
419  and  422.  Dionysius  Exig-uus  [see 
Caxon  Law]  admitted  the  greater  part  of 
them  into  his  first  collection.  The  synod 
in  Trullo  (691)  approved  and  adopted 
these  canons,  with  thf)se  of  many  other 
councils,  as  suitalile  for  use  in  the  East. 
They  were  fii-st  pulilished  at  Paris  by 
Justeau  in  Kil");  Mansi  included  them  in 
his  collection ;  tlu'v  have  been  discussed 
by  the  brothers  Ballerini,  De  Marca,  itc. 

CODEX  CAXrOM-iriVI  ECCX..  vttx- 
VERSa:.  Under  this  title  the  two 
Justeau  (1610-1661)  published  the 
canons  of  which  the  Fathers  of  Chalcedon 
made  chief  use  (namely,  those  of  Nicaea, 
Ancyra,  Neo-Cscsarea,  Gangra,  Antioch, 
;  Laodicea,  Constantinople  II.,  and  Ephe- 
sus)  on  the  implied  assumption  tliat  they 
intended  to,  and  did  in  fact,  erect  these 
canons,  along  with  their  own  twenty-nine, 
into  a  code  receivable  and  binding 
throughout  the  Church.  For  such  an 
assumption  there  was  no  foundation.  The 
collection  contains  altogether  207  canons. 
!  CSN'OBITE.  St.  Jerome  distin- 
;  guislii  s  co  nnbites  from  anachorites  or 
hermits.  He  translates  the  former  word 
by  "  in  communi  viventes."   The  word  is 


COGNATE 


COLLEGIATE  CHURCH  215 


derived  from  Kotvhs  /3tW,  common  life. 
The  place  in  which  they  lived  was  called 
ccenobium  or  koiv6i3iou,  and  the  superior, 
Koivo^idpxris.  Ccenobites  were  also 
named  a-woSiTai,  which  answers  to  tlie 
Latin  conventuahs.  The  word  coenobite 
is  thus  equivalent  to  our  word  "monk." 
(Kraus,  "  Kcal-Encvcl.") 

cocxr ATE  ;  COX.X.ATX:RA&.  [See 

COXSAXGIIXITY.] 

COXiXiATZoW  TO  A  BENSFXCE. 

This,  as  we  have  seen  [I3ishop,  II.],  is  a 
right  ordinarily  beloiiping  to  bishops.  It 
may  be  either  free  and  ^  oluntarj'  {collafio 
libera),  or  restricted  to  the  institution  of  a 
clerk  presented  by  a  third  person  [collatio 
necemtria,  non  libera).  Collation  by  lay 
persons  is  null,  except  in  a  few  cases 
where,  by  a  special  privilege  granted  by 
the  Holy  See,  a  king  or  an  abbess  confers 
a  particular  benefice  as  the  procurator  or 
vicar  of  the  Pope. 

The  right  of  conferring  the  higher 
ecclesiastical  dignities  is  now  in  the 
greater  part  of  Europe  regulated  by  Con- 
cordat between  the  Holy  See  and  the 
respective  Governments.  In  Austria  the 
Emperor  has  the  right  of  nominating  to 
most  canonries ;  occasionally  this  right  is 
exercised  by  the  municipality.  In  France 
the  nomination  as  well  as  collation  to  all 
benefices  is  usually  in  the  hands  of  the 
archbishii])s  and  bishops ;  but  the  appoint- 
ments made  are  subject  in  the  ease  of  the 
eures  cantomnu:  to  the  approbation  of  the 
Government ;  which  on  the  other  hand 
nominates  to  the  almonerships  of  public 
establishments,  subject  to  episcopal  ap- 
proval. 

"The  rulers  of  the  Church,"  says 
Soglia,  "  confer  benefices  by  a  triple  right, 
plenary,  ordinary,  or  delegated :  the  Pope 
by  his  plenary,  the  bishops  by  their 
ordinary,  cardinals  and  others  holding  a 
Pajial  indult  by  their  delegated  right." 
(Soglia,  "Instit.  Jur.  Can."  !ii.  l>,  18.) 
cox.l.ATZOxr.  [See  Fasting.] 
COIiXiECT  (collecta)  occurs  in 
several  senses  in  ecclesiastical  ■wTiters. 
(1)  It  signifies  "collection."  Thus  ^St. 
Paul  mentions  the  "coUectre  quae  fiunt 
apud  sanctos,"  where  the  Greek  has  Xoyt'a. 
{■2)  For  the  assembly  of  the  faithful. 
Thus  we  meet  with  "collectam  agere," 
"adesse  ad  collectam,"  &c.  Hence  (3) 
for  the  prayer  said  in  the  Mass  after  the 
Gloria  and  before  the  Epistle.*  The  name 

1  "  Ideo  Collecta  dioitur.  ([uia  populo  in  unum 
congregato  et  collecto  recitatur,  vcl  quia  sacerdog 
legatione  apud  Deum  pro  (iinnibus  fungens 
omnium  vota  in  unum  colligit,  vel  quia  ex 


so  used  {colhctio  or  collecta)  is  found  in 
the  Mozarabic  Missal  and  in  the  old 
Sacramentiiries.  Many  of  the  collects 
now  said  in  the  Mass  were  composed  by 
St.  Gelasius  or  St.  Gregorv. 

Originally  only  one  collect  was  said. 
Ritual  writers  lay  it  do^vn  that  the  num- 
ber of  collects  must  not  exceed  seven. 
They  must  always  be  unequal,  the  odd 
number,  it  is  said,  denoting  unity.  In 
the  Roman  Church  the  collect  used  to  be 
followed  by  certain  other  prayers,  for  the 
Pope,  Emperor,  &c.,  which  prayers  were 
called  "laudes." 

Almost  all  the  collects  are  addressed 
to  tilt'  Father,  and  cud  with  the  words 
"  through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  &c. ; 
o!iIy  a  few  and  tliose  of  recent  date  are 
addrcsst'd  t^  the  Son  :  none  to  the  Holy 
Ghost.  "The  Mass,"  says  Cardinal  r>ona, 
"represents  the  oblation  by  which  Christ 
offered  Himself  to  the  Father,  and  there- 
fore the  pravers  of  the  liturpy  are  directed 
to  the  Father  Himself."  (Benedict  XIV. 
"De  Missa,"  ii.  h.) 

COZiliECE.  Collegia,  i.e.  corpora- 
tions or  guihls  of  persons  united  in  pur- 
suit of  a  common  object,  were  common  in 
the  Roman  empire  from  its  commencement. 
Tlie  Government  took  cognisance  of,  and 
controlled  tliem.  When  Christianity  ap- 
licared  everywhere,  the  churches,  regarded 
by  jurists  as  collegia,  were  held  to  be 
unlawful  (collegia  illicit  a)  and  to  belong 
to  them  was  reckoned  a  misdemeanour. 
(Smith  and  Cheetham.) 

COX.I.ECE,  THE  EWGIiZSK.  [See 
English  College.] 

COX.X.ECE,  THE  IRISH.  [See 
Ieish  College.] 

COI.I.ECE.  THE  ROMAxr.  [See 
RoMAx  College.] 

COX.X.EGE,  THE  SCOTCH.  [See 
Scotch  College.] 

COX.X.EGIATE  CHURCH.  After 
the  practice  had  become  general  for  the 
clergy  of  cathedral  churches  to  live  in 
common,  under  the  rule  formulated  bv 
the  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (816),  and 
with  the  title  of  canons,  the  churches  of 
many  large  towns,  besides  those  wliich 
werg  the  residences  of  bishops,  adopted 
a  similar  organisation,  and  were  called 
collegiate  churches.  [See  Canon.]  Thus 
Darlington,  to  which  some  of  the  canons 
whom  the  bishop  William  of  St.  Carilef 
(1080-1096)  replaced  by  monks  at  Hur- 

selectis  S.  Scripfuraj  et  Kcclesite  verbis  com- 
pcndiosa  brevitate  collii;itur,  vol  quia  omnes 
coUectis  animis affectus  sunset,  mentem  ad  Ucum 
attollunt."  Card.  Bona,  Rer.  Liturq.  II.  5.  §  3. 


21G  COLTJMBANUS,  ST.,  RULE  OF 


COMMANDMENTS  OF  GOD 


ham  retired,  became,  -with  Papal  sanction, 
a  colleg-iate  church  with  dean  and  pre- 
bendaries, and  flourished  as  such  till  the 
Reformation.  At  that  time  (1547)  a 
great  number  of  collegiate  churches  in 
this  countrj'  were  suppressed,  and  their 
revenues  confiscated,  with  the  exception 
of  a  small  portion  employed  in  founding 
schools,  of  which  King  Edward  VI. 's 
School  at  Birmingham  is  an  instance. 
Since  the  seventeenth  century  it  has  been 
invariably  ruled  that  a  colk^iate- church 
can  only  be  erected  with  Papal  sanction. 
Anidiig  the  conditions  for  obtaining  this 
sanction  are — that  the  locality  should  be 
of  sufficient  importance ;  that  there  be  a 
numerous  and  well-disposed  population 
and  a  large  body  of  cU'r:;y  :  that  the 
endowment  be  suiliririit  :  that  the  church 
bf  of  suitable  size  and  dignity;  and  that 
all  things  necessary  for  the  divine  worship 
be  provided  in  abundance.  (Ferraris,  Col- 
legium ) 

COZ.VMBATrVS,  ST.,  RVX.E  OF. 

The  "Regula  Monachorum"  of  St.  Colum- 
ban  (t615)  was  printed  by  Ooblast  from 
a  St.  (?all  IMS.  in  his  "Para>.irtici 
Veteres"  (Insulte,  1(!()4).  It  consists  of 
only  fourteen  short  chapter.^.  Though 
it  speaks  much  of  the  beauty  of  modt-ra- 
tiiui  and  discretion,  and  of  the  preser- 
vation of  a  mean  between  excess  and 
defect,  practically  it  prescribes  a  life 
of  extreme  austerity.  The  keynote  is 
obedience  to  the  abbot  (capp.  1,2,  3,  14); 
when  a  monk  acts  in  obedience,  even  if 
what  he  does  i.s  open  to  censure,  he  can- 
jiot  lie  blamed  ;  while,  if  he  act  on  his  own 
responsibility,  though  he  may  take  the 
right  course,  his  indocility  deprives  him 
of  all  merit.  Chapter  4  prescribes  per- 
])etual  silence,  except  so  far  as  speech  is 
absolutely  necessary.  The  one  meal 
(caj).  5)  is  to  be  taken  at  even ;  it  was  to 
consist  of  common  vegetables,  pulse, 
dough,  and  a  small  twice-baked  loaf 
("  cum  parvo  pane  paxmate  ").  The  true 
"  mortincatio "  of  a  monk  (cap.  14)  ex- 
tended to  his  thoughts,  his  words,  and 
bis  movements;  he  should  be  ready  al- 
ways to  say  to  his  superior,  even  when 
giving  contrary  orders,  "Not  as  I  will, 
but  as  thou  wilt." 

COMB.  The  liturgical  use  of  the 
comb  is.  so  far  as  we  know,  mentioned 
once  on  in  our  present  books — viz.  in 
the  Poni  ifical,  where  the  rubrics  for  the 
consecration  of  a  bishop  require  an  "  ivory 
comb "  to  be  provided.  But  Ducange 
{ad  voc.  "  Pecten")  shows  that  its  use  was 
once  far  more  general.    "  It  was,"  lie  says, 


"  counted  among  the  sacred  instruments, 
and  was  used  priests  and  clerics  for 
combing  their  hair  before  they  went  ^from 
the  sacristy]  into  the  church."  Thus 
Ducange  quotes  a  will  of  Count  Everard, 
A. D.  837,  leaving  a  comb  among  the  other 
"  ornaments  i>f  his  chapel."  So  in  the 
will  of  Bishop  Riculfus,  A.D.  915,  a 
charter  of  1231,  a  charter  of  John,  bishop 
of  Capua,  A.D.  1301.  Mr.  Maskell  ("Mon. 
Rit."  ii.  p.  256)  gives  other  examples — 
e.ff.  from  an  inventory  of  St.  Paul's, 
Londim,  A.D.  1295 — and  he  quotes  a  rubric 
from  the  Pontifical  of  Archbishop  Bain- 
bridge  of  York,  which  directs  the  ])ishop, 
wheu  about  to  say  Mass,  to  comb  his  hair 
after  putting  on  his  sandals,  and  before 
he  assumes  the  amice.  The  combing  of 
the  l)ishop's  hair  was  as  much  a  part  of 
the  ceremonials  as  putting  on  his  mitre, 
and  was  done  by  the  deacon  or  subdeacon, 
sonirtinies  liv  both.  (Mabillon.  "Museum 
Italicuni,"  ii'.  p.  292.^ 

comniAxrBiMCEii'TS  of  gob  (in 
Hebrew  of  E.vodus  xxxiv.  28,  Deut.  iv.  13, 
x.  -I.  "the  ten  words,"  of  which  "the 
Decalogue,"  ol  SeVa  Xoyoi,  ra  8(Kti  Xoyia,  ra 

5(/cu  piffj-ara,  is  a  verbal  translation)  were 
given  to  Miises  by  God  on  Mount  Sinai. 
They  were  written  by  the  finger  of  God 
on  two  tables  of  stone,  which  were  placed 
in  the  Ark.  Thus  the  commandments 
formed  the  centre  and  kernel  of  the 
Jewish  religion.  They  were  given  more 
directly  by  God  than  any  other  ])art  of 
the  Jewish  law,  and  they  were  placed  in 
the  most  holy  place,  which  none  but  the 
high-priest  could  enter,  and  lie  onlv  once 
a  year.  Tlie  1  Ionian  Cat.'eliisni  (iii.  1.  1), 
qiiotieg  St.  An.ii-tiii.'.pointsout  tliat  all 
theivst  of  tbr  -Mosaic  law  depeiuls  on  the 
decalogue,  while  the  ten  commandments, 
in  their  turn,  are  based  on  two  precepts 
— the  love  of  God  with  the  whole  heart, 
and  the  love  of  our  neighbour  as  ourselves. 

Two  questions  about  the  connnand- 
ments  must  be  mentioned,  the  former  of 
which  concerns  the  binding  force,  the 
latter  the  division  and  arrangement,  of 
thedecalogue. 

As  to  the  former  question,  the  Council 
of  Trent  defines,  against  antinomian 
heretics  of  ancient  and  modern  times, 
that  the  ten  commandments  bind  the 
consciences  of  all  mankind,  Christians 
included.  "  If  anyone  say  that  the  ten 
commandments  have  nothing  to  do  with 
Christians,  let  him  be  anathema."  "  Ii 
anyone  say  that  a  man,  though  justified 
and  ever  so  jjerfect,  is  not  bound  to  obser\  .■ 
the  commandments   of   God  and  the 


COMMANDMENTS  OF  GOD 


COMMANDMENTS  OF  GOD  217 


Church,  let  him  be  anathema.'"  The 
reason  on  •which  this  obligation  rests  is 
manifest.  God  did  not  give  a  new  law 
to  Moses;  He  only  republished  a  law 
written  originally  on  the  conscience  of 
man,  and  obscured  by  his  sinful  ignorance. 
The  ten  comniaudnients,  then,  did  not 
begin  to  bind  when  proclaimed  to  the 
people  of  Israel,  and  they  have  not  ceased 
to  do  so  now  that  Christ  has  done  away 
with  the  Jewish  law.^ 

The  second  question  turns  on  the  divi- 
sion of  the  commandments,  and  here  there 
are  three  principal  views.  It  is  well  to 
remind  the  reader,  first,  that  there  are 
several  diH'erences  in  the  exact  words  of 
the  commandments  as  given  in  Exodus 
XX.  and  Deuteronomy  v.,  one  of  which  is 
of  special  moment.  In  Exodus,  the  last 
prohibitions  run,  "  Thou  shalt  not  covet 
thy  neighbour's  bouse :  thou  j^lialt  not 
covet  thy  neighbour's  wii'e,  nor  his  ser- 
vant, nor  his  maid,  nor  his  ox,  nor  his  ass, 
nor  anything  that  is  thy  neighbour's."  In 
Deuteronomy,  the  order  is  changed  thus : 
■"  Thou  shalt  not  covet  tliy  neighbour's 
wife;  and  thou  shalt  not  desire"  [a  dif- 
ferent word  in  Hebrew  from  that  trans- 
lated "covet,"  though  the  Vulgate  ob- 
literates the  distinction]  "  his  field,  or  his 
servant,  or  his  maid,  his  ox,  or  his  ass, 
or  anything  that  is  thy  neighbour's." 
We  may  now  proceed  to  consider  the 
■different  modes  of  division. 

(1)  Philo  and  Josephus,  followed  by 
Origen  and  other  early  Christians,  by  the 
Greek  Church,  and  all  Protestants  except 
Lutherans,  divide  the  commandments  into 
two  tables,  containing  each  five  precepts: 
viz.  1,  on  strange  gods ;  2,  on  image 
worship ;  3,  on  taking  God's  name  in 
vain ;  4,  on  the  Sabbath ;  5,  on  honouring 
parents ;  6,  on  murder ;  7,  on  adulteiy ;  8, 
on  stealing;  9,  on  false  witness ;  10,  on 
«ovetousness. 

(2)  The  Talmud,  the  Targum  of 
Jonathan,  and  many  rabbinical  com- 
mentators, make  the  preface,  "  I  am  the 
Lord  thy  God,"  &c.,  the  first  "  word  ;  " 
they  regard  the  prohibition  of  strange 

•  Concil.  Trident.  sess.vi.De.Justif.cHU.  19,20. 

'  Cat.  Rom.  iii.  1,  3.  An  exception  must 
be  made  of  that  clause  m  the  third  com- 
mandment which  fixes  the  seventh  day  for 
divine  worship.  As  to  the  apparent  prohibi- 
tion of  image.s,  see  Petav.  De  Incarn.  xv.  6. 
Here  it  is  enough  to  say  that  if,  with  Josephus, 
we  hold  that  the  commandment  absolutely  pro- 
hibits sculpture  and  paintin;;,  so  that  Solomon 
broke  it  when  he  made  the  twelve  oxen  under 
the  l)razen  sea  or  the  lions  for  his  thnme,  then 
we  nuist  also  hold  that  this  ceremonial  part  of 
the  commandment  no  lonj^er  binds. 


gods  and  images  as  one  single  "  word,' 
Tiz.  the  second;  for  the  rest  they  agree 
with  the  division  of  Philo,  .fee. 

(3)  Augustine  places  in  the  first  table 
three  commandments,  relating  to  God — 
viz.  1,  on  strange  gods  and  images  (so  that 
he  regards  the  prohibition  of  idols  as  a 
mere  application  of  the  principle,  "  Thou 
shalt  not  have  strange  gods  before  me  ")  j 
2,  the  name  of  God ;  3,  the  Sabbath.  In 
the  second  table  he  places  seven  precepts, 
relating  to  our  neighbour — viz.  command- 
ment 4,  on  parents  ;  5,  on  murder ;  6,  on 
adulteiy  ;  7,  on  stealing ;  8,  on  false  wit- 
ness ;  9,  on  coveting  our  neighbour's  wife  ; 
10,  on  coveting  our  neighbour's  goods. 
This  division  has  prevailed  in  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  has  been  retained  by  the 
Lutherans,  except  that  they,  following 
the  order  in  Exodus,  make  commandment 
9,  on  coveting  our  neighbour's  house ;  10, 
on  coveting  his  wife  or  goods :  a  division 
to  which  Augustine  himself  in  some  places 
gives  support. 

^^'llat  has  been  already  said  shows 
that  ignorance  alone  can  charge  Catholics 
with  introducing  a  new  mode  of  division 
in  order  to  give  less  prominence  to  the 
prohibition  of  idol-worship.  The  division 
was  cui-rent  long-  before  any  strife  on 
images  had  ai'iscu  in  the  Church. 

Next,  the  Catholics,  in  this  division  of 
the  first  and  second  commandments,  have 
the  whole  weight  of  rabbinical  tradition 
on  their  side. 

Thirdly,  the  modern  Catholic  division 
is  the  only  one  consistent  with  the  Hebrew 
text,  as  usually  found  in  MSS.  and  printed 
editions.  The  text  is  divided  into  ten 
sections,  which  correspond  precisely  with 
our  Catholic  division.  These  sections  are 
admitted  to  be  very  ancient,  older  even 
than  the  Masoretic  text,  and  the  Protes- 
tant scholar  Kennicott  found  them  so 
marked  in  460  out  of  694  MSS.  which 
he  collated.' 

Lastly,  the  wording  of  the  text  both 
in  Exodus  and  Deuteronomy  strongly 
favours  the  Catholic  division.  ,  The  pro- 
mises and  threats,  "I  am  the  Lord  thy 
1  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  prohibition  of 
polytheism  and  of  imn<;e-worship  always  forms 
one  section.  In  some  MSS.,  however,  of  ICxniUis 
there  are  only  nine  sections  in  the  text  of  the 
decalogue,  our  ninth  and  tenth  commandMifnls 
fonnintc  one  section.  Kennicott,  says  Kiil,  ti>iiii(l 
the  division  wanting  in  234  out  of  C'.'l  .MSS. 
which  he  collated,  and  an  examination  of 
Kennicott's  Bible  contirnis  Ki'il's  statement. 
Dillniann's  assertion  that  Kennicott  found  the 
division  between  the  ninth  and  •cuth  com- 
mandments wanting  in  most  of  his  MSS.  seems 
to  be  wholly  inaccurate. 


21 S  COMMAXDMENTS  OF  CHURCH 


COMMEMORATIONS 


God,  mighty,  jealous,"  &c.,  are  much  more 
suitable  on  the  theory  that  the  prohibi- 
tion of  .-^tranpe  oods  and  idols  forms  one 
commandment,  while  in  Deuteronomy, 
after  the  prohibition  of  coveting  our 
neighbour's  wife,  the  change  of  the  verb 
mentioned  above  seems  to  indicate  the 
beginning  of  a  new  commandment ;  nor 
is  there  any  difficult}'  in  distinguishing 
carnal  desire  from  coveting  another  man's 
goods.  (The  facts  as  here  given  will  be 
found  in  Kalisch,  Knobel,  and  Keil  in 
their  commentaries  on  Exodus.  The  first 
is  a  very  learned  Jew,  the  second  a 
Rationalist,  tlir  tlilnl  an  orthodox  Pro- 
testant. All  aiv  (.iniiised  to  the  Catholic 
mode  of  (li\  isimi.  i  tiUmann's  Commen- 
tary (1881)  has  also  l)een  consulted.) 

COMMAM'DniSXI'TS  OF  THE 
CHURCH.  Parents,  and  other  persons 
invested  with  lawful  authority,  have 
power  to  make  rules  for  those  placed 
under  them,  so  that  things  lawful  in 
themselves  become  unlawful  by  their 
prohibition.  The  Scripture  teaches  plainly 
that  the  Church  has  this  power.  We  are 
to  hear  the  Church  (Matt,  xviii.  17).  The 
Holy  Ghost  has  placed  bishops  to  "  rule 
the  Church  "  (Acts  xx.  28).  St.  Paul  com- 
manded Christians  to  keep  the  "  precepts 
of  the  Apostles  and  the  ancients"  (Acts 
XV.  41). 

The  Roman  Catechism  makes  no  spe- 
cial enunu'ration  of  the  commandments 
of  the  Church;  but  such  an  enumeration 
is  prjifialiy  I'niind  in  popular  Catechisms, 
winch  lia\i'  loUowed  in  this  respect  the 
exainiilc  m  I  by  the  Catechism  ofCanisius. 
The  English  Catechism,  like  the  French 
ones  of  Fleury,  &c.,  counts  six  command- 
ments of  the  Church.  Many  other  Cate- 
chisms reduce  them  to  live.  In  our 
English  Catechism  they  are  given  as 
follows:  1,  to  keep  the  Sundays  and 
holidays  of  obligation  holy,  by  hearing 
Mass  and  resting  from  servile  works; 
'J,  to  keep  the  days  of  fasting  and  absti- 
nence apjinintcd  by  tlie  Church;  3,  to  go 
to  confession  at  least  once  a  year;  4,  to 
receive  tin-  IJlr^s-d  Sacrament  at  least 
once  a  year,  and  that  at  Easter  or  there- 
abouts; 5,  to  contribute  to  the  sup])ort 
of  our  pastors;  6,  not  to  marry  within 
certain  degrees  of  kindred  nor  to  solemnise 
marriage  at  the  forbidden  times. 

COMMEnXORATZOIO'S  OF  FEASTS 
&c.  As  the  Church  celebrates  many 
feasts,  some  moveable,  some  fixed,  it  may 
often  happen  that  two  of  them  fall  on 
the  same  day  ;  or  again  the  Church  may 
institute    the   feast  of   a  saint,  just 


canonised,  on  a  day  already  occupied  by 
the  feast  of  another  saint.  Further,  as 
senii-dduliles  and  all  feasts  of  higher 
rank  lia\c  iirst  and  second  vespers,  the 
second  \  e>]iers  of  one  least  would  often 
have  to  be  said  at  the  same  time  as  the 
first  vespers  of  another.  As  it  would  be 
difficult  to  say  the  Mass  and  office  of  two 
feasts  on  the  same  day,  the  Church,  as  a 
rule,  celebrates  the  greater  feast,  and 
merely  commemorates  the  inferior  one.' 

We  must  begin  by  distinguishing 
special  from  common  commemorations, 
the  former  being  subdivided  into  partial 
and  complete  commemorations. 

Partial  commemorations  are  made 
when  the  fii'st  vespers  of  one  feast  coin- 
cide with  the  second  vespers  of  another. 
In  that  case,  the  vespers  of  the  feast 
higher  in  rank  are  said,  while  the  other 
feast  is  commemorated  by  the  recital  of 
the  antiphon  before  the  Magnificat,  the 
versicles  and  the  prayer. 

Complete  commemorations  are  made 
when  two  feasts  fall  on  the  same  day. 
In  that  case,  the  collects  of  the  lesser 
feast  are  added  in  the  Mass  of  the  day, 
and  on  certain  occasions  (e.ff.  if  a  Sunday 
,if  greater  feria  is  commemorated)  the 
Gospel  from  the  Mass  of  the  day  com- 
memorated is  said  at  the  end  of  Mass 
instead  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  John.  More- 
over, the  antiphous  for  the  Benedlctus 
and  Magnificat,  with  the  \  ersicles  in  the 
office  omitted,  are  added  in  the  lauds  and 
vespers  of  the  office  which  is  said.  Finally, 
the  Gospel  of  a  Sunday  or  greater  feria, 
with  the  homily  and  the  lections  of  a 
simple  feast  containing  the  life  of  the 
saint  (provided  such  lessons  are  "  proper  " 
and  not  merely  taken  from  the  conmion) 
are  substituted  for  the  ninth  lection  in 
matins.  Supposing  that  a  simple  feast 
and  a  Sunday  or  greater  feria  have  both 
to  be  commemorated,  the  ninth  lection  is 
taken  from  the  latter  in  preference  to  the 
former.  The  life  of  the  saint  com- 
memorated is  also  omitted  if  the  matins 
of  the  office  said  does  not  end  with  the 
Te  Deum.* 

The  common  commemorations  consist 
of  antiphons,  versicles  and  prayers  re- 
lating to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  St.  Joseph, 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  the  Patron  or 
title  of  the  church,  and  peace  ;  such  com- 
memorations are  made  on  semi-doubles, 
simples,  and  ferias,  at  Ijhe  end  of  lauds 

1  A  f^reater  feria  or  octave  may  also  have 
to  be  commemorated. 

2  Gavant.  sect.  iii.  11,  33,  "  De  Commemo- 
rationibus." 


COMMEMORATION 


COMMENDATORY  LETTERS  219 


and  Tespers,  except  during  octaves,  and 
except  from  the  first  Sunday  of  Advent 
till  the  octave  of  the  Epiphany,  and  from 
Passion  Sunday  till  Trinity  Sunday. 
They  are  preceded  on  ferias  by  a  com- 
memoration of  the  Cross ;  while  in  Paschal 
time  a  special  commemoration  of  the  Cross 
is  made,  although  the  other  commemora- 
tions are  omitted. 

Commemorations  are  made  in  the  fol- 
lowing order :  a  double  is  commemorated 
first,  then  a  Sunday,  then  a  semi-double, 
an  octave,  a  greater  feria,  a  simple ;  last 
of  all  come  the  common  commemorations. 

Many  of  the  rules  on  this  subject, 
some  of  which  are  very  elaborate,  have 
been  left  out  here  for  want  of  space. 
They  are  fully  discussed  by  Gavantus 
and  Meratus.    "V\'e  may,  however,  men-  j 
tion  the  general  principle,  tliat  the  greater  ; 
the  solemnity  of  a  day  or  season,  the 
more  it  absorbs  attention  and  therefore 
tends  to  exclude  commemorations.  (See 
Gavantus,  with    Meratus'  note,  p.  11,  1 
sect.  iii.  cap.  11.)  ' 

COnfMETCORATZOIO'  OF  TBS 
XiZVIirC  AND  OF  THE  DEAD  ZU 
THE  MASS.      See  DlJ'TYCHS.] 

COnxMENDA.  It  is  a  Low  Latin 
word,  formed  from  the  verb  commcndare, 
signifying  the  custody  of  a  church  or 
convent  in  the  absence  of  a  regular  in- 
cumbent. A  church,  i.'vrc.,  so  treated,  was 
said  to  be  held  in  commendam.  This 
commendation  had  nothing  abusive  in  its 
origin,  which  was  perfectly  natural :  thus 
when  a  bishop  of  Fundi  was  driven  from 
his  see  by  the  barbarians,  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great  nominated  him  to  the  vacant 
see  of  Terracina,  at  the  same  time  com-  | 
mending  Fundi  to  his  care.  A  Council  ; 
of  Merida  commended  to  the  metropolitan 
the  churches  of  certain  bishops  who  had  j 
been  ordered  to  retire  i'vom  their  sees  and  ; 
do  penance,  for  absenting  themselves 
from  a  provincial  council.  In  process  of 
time  the  Roman  See  claimed  the  right  of 
allowing  a  bishop,  or  other  dignitary,  to 
hold  other  benefices  in  commendani  w  ith 
his  own  preferment.  For  this  there 
might  often  be  reasonable  and  sufficient 
cause ;  but  the  practice  became  much  too 
common.  Matthew  Paris  complains 
(a.  1246)  of  this  permission  to  a  well- 
beneficed  ecclesiastic  to  retain  his  bene- 
fices in  commi-ndnm  with  a  bishopric  to 
which  he  might  be  appointed,  as  an  abuse 
of  recent  origin.  The  Council  of  Con- 
stance, in  its  last  year  (1417),  strove  to 
put  an  end  to  reservations,  expectatives, 
and  commendams,  but  only  succeeded  in 


ottaining  from  the  new  Pope  (Martin  V.) 
a  promi.se  that  all  these  favours  should 
be  brought  under  more  strict  control. 
]>ut  political  reasons  {e.g.  the  au^er  or 
good  will  of  an  emperor  or  king,  iiu  iirrt-d 
by  thwarting  or  gTatifying  his  \\i>lies 
res])ecting  the  cumulation  of  l)eneficrs  on 
some  favourite  churchman)  niadi',  or 
seemed  to  make,  the  complete  abolition 
of  the  practice  impossible.  Even  the 
Council  of  Trent,  honestly  zealous  as  it 
was  for  reform,  ventured  no  more  than 
to  express  its  confidence  that  "  the  Roman 
Pontiff'  in  his  piety  and  prudence  would, 
so  far  as  he  satv  the  times  could  hear  it, 
set  over  monasteries  at  present  held  in 
commendam  [by  seculars]  monastic  per- 
sons belonging  to  the  respective  orders, 
capable  of  representing  and  ruling  the 
communities."  ' 

Since  the  destruction  of  Church  pro- 
perty which  recent  times  have  witnessed, 
the  practice  of  commendation  has  greatly 
dwindled,  if  not  wholly  ceased,  through- 
out Europe. 

COnXMEIO-DATZOM'  OF  THE 
SOUK  {Ordo  cojnmendationis  anima). 
A  form  of  prayer  for  the  dying  contained 
in  the  Roman  Ritual.  The  practice  of 
bringing  the  priest  to  the  bed  of  dying 
persons  is  coeval  with  the  Chui'ch  itself, 
and  Amalarius  tells  us  that  several  of 
the  ancient  Antiphonaries  contained 
prayers  for  the  dying.  Parts  at  least  of 
the  present  form  are  very  ancient.  The 
words  "  Subvenite,"  kc,  "  Come  to  his 
help,  all  ye  saints  of  God ;  meet  him,  all 
ye  angels  of  God,"  &c.,  occur-  in  the 
Antiphonary  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great; 
I  the  beautiful  address,  "  Go  forth,  O 
i  Christian  soul,"  &c.,  is  found  in  a  letter 
of  St.  Peter  Damian,  written  to  a  friend 
j  of  his  who  was  near  death. 

COnsnXEIlirDATORY  BETTERS 
{crvtrTariKai  (TrtaroXat,  2  Cor,  in.  1).  The 
Christians  of  Ephesus,  when  Apollo  the 
newly  converted  Jew  wished  to  pass  into 
Achaia,  wrote  to  theii-  fellow-believers 
at  Corinth,  that  they  should  receive  him 
(Acts  xviii.  17).  'While  the  general 
society  of  the  empire  was  still  heathen, 
I  the  bond  between  believers  was  close, 
I  and  the  distinction  between  Christians 
and  non-Christians  had  to  be  firmly  and 
shar]>ly  drawn.  Commendatory  letters 
— "  letters  of  introduction"  as  we  should 
now  say — were  required  for  everyone 
who  travelled  to  a  foreign  countiy,  if  he 
wished  to  receive  hospitality  there,  and 
to  be  admitted  to  communion.  They 
1  Sess.  XXV.  c.  21,  De  Re£. 


220  COMMrSSAKT 


COMMUNION 


were  given  by  the  bishop.  For  a  long 
time  after  the  conversion  of  Constantine 
the  prevalence  of  Avianism  and  other 
heresies  made  it  necessary  still  to  adhere 
to  the  practice,  lest  those  should  be 
unawares  admitted  to  communion  whom 
St.  John  had  warned  Christians  not  so 
much  as  to  bid  Go(jl-speed  to  (2  John  i. 
10).  It  is  the  crowning  argument  of  St. 
Austin  against  the  Donatists,  that  "  their 
letters  would  not  be  received  in  any 
churches  but  their  own."  The  Councils 
of  Elvira,  Chalcedon,  and  Ai'les  framed 
regulations  about  these  letters,  on  which 
!-o  much  importance  came  to  be  laid  that 
no  one,  whether  clerk  or  layman,  was 
received  in  any  city  who  came  unprovided 
with  tliem.  They  were  also  called 
cnn'iiiu  fc,  and  communicatoria.  The  eVi- 
(TToXfil  (IprfviKcu  recommended  the  bearer 
specially  for  alms.  The  dn-oXvrtAtat  {di- 
mii<f<irice),  first  mentioned  in  the  Council 
in  TruUo  (691),  referred  to  a  permanent 
settlement  of  the  bearer  in  the  country 
visited  ;  the  truo-rart/cal  to  a  tempoi'ary  so- 
journ. Commendatory  letters  are  still 
given  to  a  cleric  passing  from  one  diocese 
to  audtlier.  'Hirv  testily  not  only  to  his 
lawful  (irdinatii)ii  and  freedom  from 
canonical  fault.-,  Ijiit  also  to  his  character 
and  al.iility.  (Sinilli  and  Cheetham,  art. 
by  I'l'ot'.  riuniptre.) 

conXMlsSARY.  An  ecclesiastic 
who,  by  delegation  from  the  bishop, 
exercises  a  portion  of  the  episccipal  juris- 
diction in  a  particular  part  of  the  diocese, 
especially  with  reference  to  licences, 
institutions,  the  examination  of  wit- 
nesses, vS;c. 

COMMON-.  rSeeBEEviARY,  Missal.] 

COMMON^  I.IFE,  CXiERKS  AWD 

BROTHERS  OP  THE.  A  holy  deacou 
of  Deventer  in  th(>  Xetherbinds,  Gerhard 
Groot  (t]?)84),  was  the  founder  of  this 
remarkable  institute.  He  had  sat  at 
the  feet  of  liiiysbroek,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  myst  ics  of  that  age,  and  had  been 
deeply  impressed  by  the  spectacle  of  love, 
peace,  and  joyful  co-operation  presented 
by  the  August inian  brotherhood  which 
he  directed.  Not  long  before,  Ruysbroek 
had  obtained  a  similar  influence  over  the 
celebrated  Tauler.  Gerhard  applied  his 
fortune  to  the  work  of  establishing  and 
endowing  a  building  to  receive  clerics, 
and  <ilso  laymen,  who,  without  taking 
perpetual  vows,  were  desirous  of  leading 
an  austere  Christian  life  in  common. 
Great  preachers,  besides  Gerhard  himself, 
came  forth  from  this  institute ;  among 
them  was  Thomas  k  Kempis,  or  of 


Kempen  (tl471),  supposed  by  many  to 
be  the  author  of  the  "  Imitatio  Christi." 
In  the  schools  of  Deventer  was  also  trained 
Nicholas  of  Cusa,  afterwards  Cardinal, 
the  most  learned  theologian  at  the  Council 
of  Basle,  author  of  "  Concordantia  Catho- 
lica  "  and  many  other  works.  Gerhard's 
chief  convent  wasat  Windesheim;  whence 
some  of  the  canons  were  invited  into 
France  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  established  at  Chateau 
Laudon.  The  order  spread  far  and  wide 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  was  not  unknown 
in  Germany.  Houses  of  nuns  were 
aggregated  to  the  institute,  which  is 
represented  by  celebrated  monasteries  in 
Belgium  even  at  the  present  day.  (Ile- 
lyot,  vol.  iv. ;  Mohler,  "  Kirchengesch.") 
COMMVirZCATZO  ZDZOMATVM 
^also  contmunio  idiomatum — and  in  the 
Greek  Fathers  dvrl^oa-is).  The  appro- 
priation of  divine  attributes  to  Christ  as 
man,  and  of  human  qualities  to  Christ  as 
God,  because  one  and  the  same  Person  is 
at  once  God  and  man.  Thus  we  may 
say  "  God  died,"  "  Mary  is  the  Mother  of 
God,"  though  it  was  as  man  that  Christ 
died  and  had  a  mother;  or  again,  "The 
man  Chi-ist  Jesus  is  the  Creator  of  the 
world."  This  usage  is  consonant  with 
Scripture,  which  speaks  of  the  Lord  of 
glory  as  being  crucified;  of  the  Son  of 
God  as  being  delivered  for  us,  &c. ;  and 
with  the  definition  of  the  Council  of 
Ejihesus,  that  Mary  is  the  Mother  of  God. 
The  reason  on  which  the  usage  rests  is 
that  "  the  man  Christ "  implies,  not  only 
human  nature,  but  also  the  divine  Person 
united  with  it ;  "  God,"  when  we  think 
of  God  the  Son  incarnate,  implies,  not 
only  the  divine  Person,  but  also  the 
human  nature,  which  he  made  proper 
(idwv,  hence  Ibloifia)  to  himself.  Olj- 
serve,  however,  that  we  cannot  say  "the 
Divinity  sufiered,"  "the  Manhood  is 
eternal,"  &c.  (See  Petavius,  "  De  Incam." 
iv.  15.) 

COMMVirzOM'.  That  the  body,  soul 
and  divinity  of  Christ  are  given  in  the 
Communion,  and  that  Christ  is  received 
whole  and  entire  under  either  kind— j.e. 
under  the  form  of  bread  alone,  or  wine 
alone — is  an  article  of  the  Catholic  faith, 
explained  and  proved  under  the  article 
Eucharist.  In  this  place  we  shall  only 
treat  of  the  rite  according  to  which  Com- 
munion is  given.  At  every  Mass  the 
celebrant  is  bound  to  communicate,  be- 
cause his  communion  is  necessary  for  the 
completion  of  the  sacrifice.  [See  Euch- 
ABIST,  II.]    In  the  Roman  rite,  the 


COMMUNION 


COMMUNION  221 


priist,  after  the  words  "Domine,  non 
sum  dignus,"  bowing  low,  but  still  stand- 
ing, receives  the  body  of  Christ,  saying 
"  Corpus  Domini  nostri,"  &c.,  "  May  the 
body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  preserv  e 
my  soul  unto  everlasting  life."  Then, 
having  collected  any  particles  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  which  may  remain  on 
the  corporal  or  paten,  lie  puts  them  into 
the  chalice  and  takes  the  precious  blood 
with  tlie  words,  "May  the  blood  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  &c.  Afterwards,  if 
any  of  the  people  desire  to  communicate, 
the  clerk  says  the  Confiteor,'  the  priest 
pronounces  a  form  of  absolution,  holds 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  before  the  people, 
saying,  "  Behold  the  Lamb  of  God,"  &c., 
and  finally  gives  them  communion  under 
the  form  of  bread,  usina-  the  words  "  ]\Iay 
the  body  of  our  Lord  Je^us  Christ,"  Sec. 
The  clergy,  servers,  ^tc,  usually  com- 
municate on  the  altar-sti  ps  ;  the  people 
at  the  altar-rails,  on  whic  h  a  white  cloth 
is  placed  for  the  communicants  to  hold 
up  near  the  face  and  so  to  prevent  any 
particle  from  falling  to  the  gi-ound.  In 
some  churches  a  small  tray,  can-ied  by 
the  clerk  from  one  communicant  to 
another,  is  substituted  for  the  white  cloth 
— (this  is  in  reality  a  return  to  the  more 
ancient  custom :  Benedict  XIV.  "  De 
Miss."  iii.  22,  3).  Communion  is  given 
to  all  who  are  sufficiently  old  to  under- 
stand the  nature  of  the  Sacrament ;  and, 
although  the  communion  of  the  people  is 
in  no  way  essential,  either  to  the  integrity 
or  lawfulness  of  the  sacrifice,  still  the 
Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  xxii.  cap.  6)  desires 
that  the  faithful  should  communicate  at 
every  Mass.  Of  course  this  desire  implies 
as  a  condition  that  the  faithful  should  be 
fervent  enough  to  communicate  often 
with  advantage.  Communion  may  be 
2;iven  on  all  days  of  the  year,  except 
Good  Friday — (the  ancient  usage  per- 
mitted the  faithful  to  comnumicate  even 
on  Good  Friday:  Benedict  XIV.  "De 
Fest."  i.  .3.39) — when  it  cannot  be  given 
except  in  dangerous  sickness :  and  at  any 
hour  of  the  day :  not,  however,  at  night.* 
Communion  may  be  given  out  of  Mass, 
by  the  priest,  wearing  a  sui-plice  and 

1  This  practice  came  in  during  the  thir- 
tfenth  ccntiuy,  through  tlie  influence  of  the 
bogging  friars.— Benedict  XIV.  Ue  Miss.  iii. 
22,  2. 

-'  Manual.  Decret.  S.  Hit.  Cniipr.  n.  969- 
971,  whore  the  Communifm  of  the  faithful 
at  midnight  M.nss  on  Christmas  Eve  is  pro- 
hibited. On  Holy  Saturday,  Communion  may- 
be ;,'iven  after,  "but  not  "during,  Mass.— 76. 
1088-90. 


I  stole  of  the  colour  of  the  day  (a  red  stole 
1  is  used  in  the  Ambrosian  rite),  and  with 
almost  the  same  form  of  words  which  is 
used  in  giving  Communion  during  Mass, 
I  except  that  he  adds  the  antiphon  "  O 
j  sacred  banquet,  in  which  Christ  is  taken," 
and  concludes  by  blessing  the  people. 
This  blessing  is  omitted  if  the  priest  gives 
Communion  before  Mass  in  black  vest- 
ments. 

We  may  now  go  on  to  trace  the  his- 
tory of  the  administration  of  Communion. 
The  essential  points  have  remained  un- 
changed from  the  time  of  the  Apostles ; 
still  several  striking  changes  have  un- 
doubtedly been  made. 

(1)  The  ordinary  minister  of  the 
Sacrament  is  the  priest,  nor  can  a  mere 
deacon,  accord  iiig  to  the  present  discipline, 
give  communion  without  grave  necessity.* 
In  early  times,  leave  to  administer  this 
Sacrament  was  given  to  deacons  much 
more  freely.  Justin  ("  Apol."  i.  65)  speaks 
of  them  as  distributing  the  consecrated 
bread  and  wine.  A  little  later,  Cyprian 
("  De  Laps."  2-5)  and  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions (viii.  12)  describe  the  celebrant 
as  administering  the  body  of  Christ,  while 
the  deacons  gave  the  chalice.  The  Council 
of  Nicaea,  canon  18,  forbids  deacons  to 
give  Communion  to  the  priests — who, 
according  to  the  wont  of  that  time,  joined 
with  the  bishop  in  celebrating  Mass — or 
to  receive  Communion  themselves  before 
a  bishop  who  might  be  assisting  at  the 
sacrifice."  In  times  of  persecution,  the 
faitliful  took  the  Blessed  Sacrament  away 
witli  tliem,  so  that  even  women  gave 
t]ien)selves  Communion  at  home.^  Ordi- 
narily, the  deacons  conveyed  the  Holy 
Connnunion  to  the  sick,  but  sometimes 
even  laj  men  did  so.*  Pius  V.,  in  modern 
times,  is  said  to  have  allowed  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots  to  receive  Communion  from  her 
own  hands  in  prison. *  By  the  present 
law  of  the  Church,  the  parish  priest  is 
bound  to  give  his  parishioners  the  oppor- 
tunity of  communicating,  and  no  other 
priest  can  lawfully  give  Communion 
without  his  consent,  except  in  case  of 
necessity.  In  England,  where  there  are 
no  parishes,  the  leave  of  the  priest  in 
charge  of  the  mission  is  required  in  order 
to  give  Communion. 

(2)  All  baptised  persons,  who  are  in 
1  S.  Liguor.  vi.  n.  237.    The  necessity  need 

not  be  extreme. 

-  See  the  oxjilanation  of  the  canon  in  Hefele, 
ConcU.  X.  p.  A-:  \  s,  ,,. 

3  Tertull.  .I<l.  I'ror.  ii.  5. 

*  Euspb.  H.  E.  vi.  44. 

*  Billuart,  De  Eucli.  diss.  vii.  a.  8. 


COMMUNION 


COMMUNION 


a  state  of  grace,  ami  fasting,  and  who  are 
{-uffioii'utly  instructed,  may  receive  com- 
vnniloii.  In  .■iiicient  t  inu>s  all  who  assisted 
at  Mass  were  oliliLit'il  tii  conimunicate, 
and  It  was  oi\ly  tlu'  liigliest  class  of  peni- 
tents who  did  not  come  under  this  rule.' 
However,  in  Chrysostom's  time  the 
charity  of  Christians  had  already  grown 
cold,  and  many  heard  ^lass  without  com- 
municat  iiiL;-.  Afterwards,  the  faitliful 
wefe  ojdy  reiiuired  to  communicate  three 
times  in  the  year;  and  finally  the  Fourth 
Lateran  Council  introduced  the  present 
rule  of  communicating  once  at  least  in 
the  year,  and  that  al)out  Easter  time. 
Further,  it  is  to  this  day  the  custom  in 
the  East  to  conmiunicate  infants  ju^t  after 
baptism,  and  this  use,  Fleury  >ays,  con- 
tinued in  the  West  tilltlie  opening  of  the 
ninth  -  centurv,  wliile  even  in  the  thir- 
tt-enth  Communion  wa>  given  to  children 
in  dangrrof  .h'atli.  Thc'Couneil  of  Trent 
(Si'>s.  xxi.  ca]>.  4,  l>i'  ('<immun.)  dct-lares 
that  childivn  who  lia\e  not  come  to  the 
lise  of  i-fa>oii  11, 'I'd  not  receive  (_''om- 
munlon.  At  jii-csi'iit .  cliildren  usually 
makr  their  tirst  Communion  lii't\\ii.ii  ten 
and  t\vcl\>>  years  of  age.  'S'cry  oftni 
this  first  ( 'oinmunioii  is  accoin]iaiiit d  wit  li 
the  renewal  of  liajili-uial  \  (n\  s  :  iIp' 
children  hold  light rd  lanilli's  in  tlirir 
hands,  and  an  adiln  -.^  is  made  to  thfiii 
by  their  pastor,  but  uone  of  tlu>se  obser- 
vances are  prescribed  by  the  Church. 

QT)  The  church  was  the  jilacc  of 
admin istraf  1011,  :\\thimir]i  in  sicliiiess  and, 
as  we  have  seen,  in  times  of  jiei'secution 
Communion  was  given  in  pri\ate  houses. 
I'siially,  the  jirit'sts  and  deacons  coni- 
muiiieated  at  the  altar,  the  re-t  of  the 
clergv  in  the  (dioir,  tlie  l.aity  ont-ide  the 
choir.     r.ul  in  the  Ivist  t  he'  iMiijien ir  liy 

ancil'Ilt   ])I'i\-ilege,  AN  hen  lie  lll.'ide  his  olfel- 

ing,  ii]i]iroa<  bed  and  remained  at  t  he  altar'; 
while  in  some  parts  of  (Jaul  the  laitj' 
generally  did  the  same.^ 

(4)  The  time  for  Communion  was 
usually  early  in  the  nmrninu.  .ind  it  was 
always,in  \  irt  iie  ,,f.-iii  Apostolic  tradition, 
received  fdslin-i.  The  mie  and  iiid\  ex- 
ception was  tlie  jirartiee  in  the  African 
church  of  celehratiiie  Mass  and  eiving 
Communion  ou  tlie  exeuiug  of  Maundy 
Thtirsday  [.see  Agapi;].  Natural  reverence 

'  Can.  Apos.  9,  10.  Concil.  Ancyr.  (anno 
••514).  .  an.  ."j. 

Fliurv,  Ixxxiv.  0  Tlie  remain*  of  the 
saiircMl  s|iiTio.'i  wcro  m\\pn  te  cliilitrcn  at  Con- 
Btaiiliie.ple  l.ite  a-  the  leint I'ciith  centurv. 
See  VWu'  v.  xx^iii.  -11 

5  Trull.  Syii.  can.  G'.). 

*  Council  of  Tours  (anno  507),  an.  4. 


forbade  Christians  to  receive  the  body  of 
Christ  after  common  food. 

(5)  The  ceremonies  in  the  adminis- 
tration have  varied  considerably  and  still 
are  very  difl'erent  in  different  rites.  At 
the  cry  "ILdy  things  to  the  holy,"  Chris- 
tians drew  near  with  1)ent  body  but  still 
standing,  and  received  the  Holy  Sacra- 
ment in  the  hollow  of  the  right  hand, 
supporting  it  with  the  left.'  When  the 
administrant  said,  "The  body,  the  blood 
of  Christ,"  the  communicant  answered 
"Amen."'-  The  longer  form,  now  em- 
jiloyed,  viz.  "The  body  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  preserve  thy  soul  unto  everlasting 
life,"  came  into  use  in  the  time  of  Gregory 
the  Great,  though  even  after  this  date  the 
form  of  words  was  by  no  means  uniform 
throughout  the  West.  Under  Pope  Aga- 
petus  (tr)-'56)  the  custom  began  of  placing 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  the  mouth;  a 
council  of  Kouen,  a^'giied  l,y  Maiisi  to 
the  niidiUe  of  the  ,-eveiii  li  cent  ury.  forbids 
it  to  be  given  in  any  nt  lier  way.''  1  leiiedict 
XIV.-*  nieiitieii-  I'li,.  faet  that  th,'  I'opes 
in  solemn  Mass  used  to  communicate 
>iitiiie  on  their  throne  and  facing  the 
people.  At  present,  the  Pope,  on  these 
oei-,i^ioiis,  conimunicates  standing  at  his 
throne  |irofonntlly  inclined;  but  Benedict 
Nn\  dor-  ii.it  sav  when  this  change  in 
the  Tap.-.l  rite  was  made. 

(6)  We  now  come  to  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  changes  in  the  discipline  of 
the  Church  on  this  matter.  Down  to  the 
middle  ages,  the  faithful  throueliont  the 
whole  church  usually  i-ecei\ed  the  Eu- 
charist under  both  kinds.  Tliat  the  cele- 
brating priest  should  con>eer.ite  and 
receive  under  both  kinds  is  of  divine 
institution  and  thendore  unalterable  [Eu- 
cii.AKiST,  II.].  Cut  wrileiv  of  the  eleventh 
.and  following  cent  uries  notice  the  custom 
springing  up  in  the  Latin  (.'hure'i.  of 
giving  the  Eticharist  to  all  communicants 
except  the  celebrant  under  the  form  of 
bread  alone,  jiartly  to  counteract  the 
heretical  error  that  Chri>t  is  not  recei\  ed 
whole  anil  entire  under  either  liind, 
partly  to  prevent  the  .-].illiim  of  the  Pre- 
cious" lilood.  St.  Thomas  ■  (tlL'74)  ,says 
that  in  his  day  ( 'ominiin ion  under  one 
kind  2'revailed  "  in  >onie  (  linrches."  The 
Council  of  (/onstaiie;-.  to  meet  the  errors 

I  Dionv^.  A\.  I'.i.-rl..  vii.  I).  TertuU. 
De  hill.  7,  Avhcic  Hie  ieM|.ti(iii  in  tlie  hands 
and  the  st.iinHn;;-  |io,sture  are  mentioned. 

-  Tcrtull.  I)k  Spectac.  25.  Coiistit.  Apo: 
vii.  !2. 

3  Hefele.  Coucil.  ii.  p.  97. 

4  De  Miss.  ii.  21,  4. 

5  III.  Ixxx.  12. 


CO-MMUXIOX 


COMMUNION  OF  SAINTS  223 


of  Hus  and  Jerome  of  Prague  made  this 
custom  of  universal  obligation  in  the 
AVest  '#ee  Hussites]  ;  this  decree  was 
renewed  bv  the  Council  of  Basle  against 
the  Taborites  and  Calistines,  and  by  that 
of  Trent  against  the  Lutherans  and  Cal- 
vinists.  Exceptions  have  been  made  by 
special  privilege.  Thus,  Clement  VI.  gave 
the  kings  of  France  leave  to  communicate 
under  both  kinds.  In  solemn  Mass  cele- 
brated by  the  Pope,  the  deacon  and  sub- 
deacon  receive  the  Precious  Blood,  and  so 
even  in  the  last  century  the  deacon  and 
subdeacou  \ised  to  on  Sundays  and  solemn 
feasts  in  the  church  of  St.  Denis  near 
Paris,  and  in  the  church  of  Clugny." 

We  take  for  granted  here  that  Christ  is 
given  wlio'i  md  entire  under  either  kind 
[see  ErciiAKiSr" ;  but  it  is  often  alleged 
that  in  any  case  the  Church  has  altered  the 
custom  of  communicating  under  both 
kinds  which  was  impii>ed  by  our  Lord. 
To  this  we  reply  with  the  Council  of  Trent 
that  there  is  no  divine  precept  binding 
anyone,  except  the  celebrant,  to  receive 
both  species.  Communion  under  one  or 
both  kinds  is  a  matter  of  discipline,  which 
the  Church  may  alter  as  she  sees  fit. 
This  Catholic  truth  is  indicated  in  Scrip- 
ture and  fully  certified  by  tradition.  It 
is  indicated  in  Scripture,  for  our  Lord 
says,  on  the  one  hand,  "  Unless  ye  eat  the 
fiesh  of  the  Son  of  Man  and  drink  his 
blood,  ye  will  not  have  life  in  you;"  "He 
who  eateth  my  flesh  and  drinketh  my 
blood,  hath  eternal  life;"  but  also,  on  the 
other  hand,  "  If  anyone  eat  of  this  bread 
he  shall  live  for  ever ; "  "  The  bread, 
which  I  shall  give,  is  my  flesh  for  the  life 
of  the  world,"  '•  He  who  eateth  this  bread, 
will  live  for  ever."  It  is  fully  certified 
by  tradition,  because  the  Church,  from  the 
begiiming,  has  permitted  both  modes  of 
communicating.  Children  received  Com- 
munion under  tlie  fnnu  of  wine  alone the 
sick,  and  the  faithful  generally  who  com- 
municated at  home,  under  the  form  of 
bread  alone.-  True,  Popes  Leo  and  Ge- 
lasius  emphatically  condemned  persons 
who  abstained  from  the  chalice,  but  this 
because  they  did  so  on  private  authority 
and  in  consequence  of  the  Manichean 
error,  which  made  them  look  on  wine 
as  evil.  Moreover,  the  present  use  of  the 
Greek  and  Oriental  Churches  makes  it  as 

'  Benedict  XIV.  speaks  of  all  these  privi- 
leges as  continuing  in  his  time. 

-  Cvprian.  J)t  Laps.  25. 

5  Tertull.  Ve  Orat.  19;  Ad  Uxor.  ii.  5. 
Dionys.  Al.  apud  Euseb.  H.E.  vi.  44.  Cyprian, 
De  Laps.  25. 


clear  as  day  that  they  do  not  consider  it 
a  matter  of  necessity  to  give  Communion 
under   both   kinds,  though  it  is  their 
usual  practice  to  do  so.  Thus  the  Church 
has  ever  faithfully  maintained  the  same 
I  principles  on  this  matter ;  her  discipline 
'  has,  indeed,  changed  from  time  to  time,  but 
never  in  any  essential  particular;  while, 
I  on  the  contrary,  tho:~e  who  rli;trgeherwith 
I  innovation  are  themseh  i-s  convicted  of 
I  introducing   a   new    principle,  directly 
I  opposed  to  the  unanimous  teaching  of 
I  antiquity.     (In  the  works  of  Bo>>uet, 
I  there  is  a  short  but  ma>terly  treatise  on 
Communion  under  one  kind.  On  the  whole 
subject  of  Communion  much  interesting 
matter  will  be  found  in  Benedict  XIV.  "De 
Missa";  Denzinger,  "IJitus  Orientalium  "; 
Chardon,  "Histoire  des  Sacrements,"  &c.) 

COniniVlJ'XOIV  (llturgrical  term). 
The  antiphon  which  the  priest  says  after 
the  iiblutions,  at  the  Epistle  side  of  the 
altar.  Formerly,  it  used  to  be  >ung,  while 
the  people  communicated :  hence  the  name. 
The  "  Communion  "  is  mentioned  in  the 
Roman  Ordines.  Cardinal  Th^iuiasius 
quotes  an  example  of  a  "Communion 
Psalm,"  which  was  sung  in  alternate 
verses,  till  the  Pontiff,  the  people  having 
communicated,  gave  the  choir  a  sign  to 
end  with  the  "Gloria  Patri,"  after  which 
the  antiphon  was  repeated. 

COMIVIXrM'ZON'    OP    SAZirTS  is 
I  mentioned  in  the  ninth  article  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed,  where  it  is  added,  accord- 
ing to  the  Koman  Catechism,  as  an  ex- 
planation of  the  foregoing  words,  "  I  be- 
lieve in  the  holy  Catholic  Church."  The 
communion  of  saints  consists  in  the  union 
which  binds  together  the  members  of  the 
,  Church  on  earth,  and  connects  the  Church 
I  on  earth  with  the  Church  sufiering  in 
Purgatorv"  and  triumphant  in  heaven. 
(1)  The  faithful  on  earth  have  com- 
I  munion  with  each  other  because  they  par- 
'  take  of  the  same  sacraments,  are  under 
one  head,  and  assist  each  other  by  their 
prayers  and  good  works.    Even  the  per- 
sonal merits  of  a  just  man  profit  his 
brethren,  because  the  greater  his  good- 
ness, the  greater  the  eflicacy  of  his  prayer 
lor  others,  the  more  fitting  it  is  that,  as 
he  does  God's  will,  so  God  should  deign 
to  do  his  by  increasing  the  graces  or 
[  converting  the  souls  of  those  for  whom 
he  prays. 

Catholic  commentators  understand  St. 
Paul  to  refer   to    this   conuimnion  in 
good  works  when  he  encourages  the  Corin- 
thians to  help  their  needy  brethren  at 
,  Jerusalem.    ''  Let  your  abundance,"  lie 


COMPLINE 


concxa^t: 


says  (2  Cor.  viii.  14),  "  supply  their  "vrant, 
that  their  abundance  also  may  be  the  fill- 
ing up  of  your  want " — t.e.  that  you  may 
share  in  their  spiritual,  as  they  have 
shared  in  your  temporal,  riches.^  Again, 
God  spares  his  people  for  the  sake  of  the 
saints  among  them,  just  as  He  was  ready 
to  spare  Sodom  had  ten  just  men  been 
found  in  it;  or  forgave  Job's  friends 
at  the  sacrifice  and  prayer  of  Job  him- 
self; or  so  often  restrained  his  wrath 
against  his  people  for  his  servant 
David's  sake.  Of  course  also  many  graces 
are  given  primarily  for  the  edification  of 
the  Church. 

(2)  We  communicate  with  the  souls  in 
Purgatory  by  praying  for  them.  [See 

PUKGATORT.] 

('■\)  With  the  blessed  in  Heaven  by 
obtaining  their  prayers.  [See  Saints, 
Intekcessiok  of  the.] 

COMPI.ZI1-E.    [See  Breviaet.] 

cosrcEXiBBRATZOxr.  Under  the 
head  of  ErcHAKiST  and  the  subdivision 
Ministration,  it  will  be  found  that  in  early 
days  the  bishop  in  conjunction  with  his 
presbytery  celebrated  Mass.  Until  about 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  it 
was  customary  for  several  priests  to  unite 
in  oflering  the  same  Mass,  concelebrate, 
on  the  more  solemn  festivals  of  the  year. 
The  custom  .still  prevails  in  the  Oriental 
Churches,  but  the  only  vestige  of  it  in 
the  Latin  Church  is  found  in  tlie  Masses 
said  by  priests  on  the  day  of  their  ordina- 
tion and  by  bishops  on  the  day  of  their 
consecration. 

coircEPTZOxr.  [See  Immaculate 
Conception.] 

conrciiA.VE  (Lat.  conclave;  pro- 
|i(-'rly,  a  chamber  that  can  be  closed  with 
one  key).  The  term  is  applied  both  to  the 
place  where  the  Cardinals  assemble  for  the 
election  of  a  new  Pope,  and  to  the  assem- 
bly itself.  Several  questions  relating  to 
the  ('lection  of  Popes — e.g.  whether  the 
Popian  Pontiff  can  legally  nominate  his 
successor  ;  who  is  or  is  not  eligible;  what 
would  happen  in  the  event  of  all  the 
Cardinals  dyivig  before  the  election;  &c. — 
are  considered  under  Pope;  in  this  article 
we  shall  treat  excliisiM  ly  of  the  mode  of 
election,  as  finally  settled  by  Gregory  X. 
In  the  course  of  the  dark  ages  the  secular 
rulers  of  Rome  made  various  attempts  to 
interfere  with  the  freedom  of  Papal  elec- 
tions.   A  statement  even  appears  in  the 

'  See  Estius,  ad  Inc.  Meyer,  who  attacks 
this  interpretation,  admits  thai  it  is  the  tradi- 
tional one  ;  and  it  has  been  adopted  by  eminent 
Protestants,  e.g.  by  Bengel. 


Decretum  of  Gratian  (and  was  used  in  ar- 
gument by  James  I.  and  Bishop  Andrewes, 
when  attempting  to  justify  the  subjection 
of  the  Anglican  Church  to  the  crown),  to 
the  effect  that  Pope  Hadrian  granted  to 
Charlemagne  the  right  of  electing  the 
Pope  and  regulating  the  Apostolic  See. 
But  this  canon  was  shown  by  Bellarmin 
to  be  spurious  ;  it  was  probably  invented 
by  Sigismond  of  Gemblours,  a  strong  sup- 
porter of  imperial  pretensions,  and,  laeing 
found  in  his  chronicle,  imposed  upon  the 
unwary  Gratian.  Another  canon  also 
found  in  Gratian,  which  states  that  Leo 
VIII.  granted  a  similar  privilege  to  Otho 

I.  ,  soon  after  the  commencement  of  the 
revived  "  Holy  Roman  Empire,"  at  once 
falls  to  the  ground  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  Leo  VIII.,  for  the  unan,?wei-- 
able  reasons  given  by  Baronius,  is  not  to 
be  accounted  a  true  Pope.  In  1059  an 
important  decree  was  made  by  Nicholas 

II.  in  a  council  at  Rome,  assigning  the 
election  of  future  Popes  to  the  Cardinal 
Bishops,  with  the  consent  of  the  other 
Cardinals  and  the  clergy  and  people  of 
Rome,  saving  also  the  honour  due  to 
Henry,  King  of  the  Romans,  and  to  any 
of  his  successors  on  the  imperial  throne  in 
whose  favour  the  Holy  See  should  make 
the  same  reservation.  This  partial  recog- 
nition of  a  right  to  interfere  in  the 
election  proved  to  be  fertile  in  antipojies 
and  vexations  of  every  kind;  and  Alex- 
ander III.,  having  experienced  what 
trouble  an  arbitrary  emperor  could  cause, 
in  his  long  struggle  with  Frederic  Bar- 
barossa,  resolved  with  a  wise  boldness 
to  take  away  from  the  imperial  line  the 
locjis  standi  in  Papal  elections  which  the 
canon  of  1059  had  allowed,  and  to  vin- 
dicate her  ancient  freedom  for  tlie  Oliurch. 
In  a  General  Council  held  at  the  Lateran 
in  1179,  it  was  decreed  that  the  election 
should  thenceforth  rest  with  the  Cardinals 
alone,  and  that,  in  order  to  be  canonical, 
it  must  be  supported  by  the  votes  of  two 
thirds  of  their  number.  In  the  following 
century,  the  Lateran  decree  was  contirnied 
and  developed  at  the  Council  of  Lyons 
(1274)  presided  over  by  Gregory  X.;  and 
in  all  its  substantial  features  the  disci- 
pline then  settled  is  still  observed. 

In  the  election  of  a  Pope,  it  is  obvious 
that  there  are  certain  conditions  the 
exact  fulfilment  of  which  is  of  the  utmost 
consequence.  These  are  such  as  the  fol- 
lowing:— that  all  those  qualified  to  vote, 
and  only  tliose,  should  take  part  in  the 
election;  that  the  election  should  not  be 
unnecessarily  delayed ;  that  it  should  not 


CONCLAVE 


COXCOEDAT  226 


\iQ precipitated;  that  the  electors  should 
be  in  no  fear  for  their  personal  safety, 
•which  -would  prevent  the  election  from 
ha'mg  free;  lastly,  that  they  should  be 
subjected  to  no  external  persuasion  tend- 
ing to  make  them  vote,  or  at  least  come 
under  the  suspicion  of  voting,  from  mo- 
tives lower  than  those  which  ought  to 
actuate  them.  All  these  conditions,  the 
regulations  for  the  conclave  fixed  in  1274 
endeavour,  so  far  as  human  forethought 
can  ensure  it,  to  cause  to  be  observed. 
After  the  death  of  a  Pope  the  Cardinals 
who  are  absent  are  imineiliately  to  be  sum- 
moned to  the  conclave  by  one  of  the  sec- 
retaries of  the  Sacred  College;  the  election 
is  to  begin  on  the  tenth  day  after  the  death. 
In  whatever  city  the  Pope  dies,  there  the 
election  must  be  held.  Within  the  ten 
days  the  conclave  must  be  constructed  in 
the  Papal  palace,  or  in  some  other  suitable 
edifice.  The  large  halls  of  the  palace  are 
so  divided  by  wooden  partitions  as  to 
furnish  a  number  of  sets  of  small  apart- 
ments (two  for  an  ordinary  Cardinal, 
three  for  one  of  princely  rank),  all  open- 
ing upon  a  corridor.  Here  the  Cardinals 
must  remain  until  they  have  elected  a 
Pope.  On  the  tenth  day  a  solemn  Mass 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  said  in  the  Vatican 
church,  and  after  it  the  Cardinals  form  a 
procession  and  proceed  to  the  conclave, 
taking  up  their  respective  apartments  as 
the  lot  has  distributed  them.  For  the 
rest  of  that  day  the  conclave  is  open ; 
crowds  of  persons  flock  in  and  circulate 
among  the  apartments  and  corridors; 
and  the  ambassadors  and  delegates  of 
foreign  States,  besides  their  personal 
friends,  visit  the  Cardinals  for  the  last 
time.  In  the  evening  everyone  is  turned 
out  except  the  Cardinals  and  those  autho- 
rised to  remain  with  them,  and  the  con- 
clave is  closed.  This  is  done  imder  the 
superintendence  of  two  guardians  of  the 
conclave — one  a  prelate  previously  appoin- 
ted by  the  Sacred  College,  wlio  is  called 
the  (jovernor;  the  other  a  lay  official, 
designated  the  marsluil.  Each  Cardinal 
is  allowed  to  have  two  members  of  his 
liousehold  in  personal  attendance  upon 
him ;  these  are  called  conclavists.  A 
number  of  other  attendants  and  minor 
officials — a  carpenter,  a  mason,  a  sacrist, 
a  monk  or  friar  to  hear  confessions,  two 
barbers,  eight  or  ten  porters  and  mes- 
sengers, and  several  others — are  in  the 
common  service  of  the  whole  body  of 
Cardinals.  All  the  entrances  to  the 
building  but  one  are  closed:  that  one  is 
in  the  charge  of  officials  who  are  partly 


prelates,  partly  officials  of  the  munici- 
pality, whose  business  it  is  to  see  that  no 
unauthorised  person  shall  enter,  and  to 
exercise  a  surveillance  over  the  food 
brought  for  the  Cardinals,  lest  any  written 
communication  should  be  conveyed  to 
them  by  this  channel.  After  three  daj-s, 
the  siijijily  of  food  sent  in  ig  restricted ; 
if  five  days  more  elapse  without  an  elcc- 
tiou  being  made,  the  rule  used  to  be  that 
the  Cardinals  should  from  that  time  sub- 
sist on  nothing  but  bread,  wine,  and  water ; 
but  this  rigour  has  been  somewhiit  modi- 
fied by  later  ordinances.  Morning  and 
evening,  the  Cardinals  meet  in  the  chapel, 
and  a  secret  scrutiny  by  means  of  voting 
papers  is  usually  instituted,  in  order  to 
ascertain  whetlier  any  candidate  has  the 
required  majority  of  two-thirds.  A  Car- 
dinal coming  from  a  distance  can  enter 
the  conclave  after  the  closure,  but  only 
if  he  claim  the  right  of  doing  so  within 
three  days  of  his  arrival  in  the  city. 
Every  actual  Cardinal,  even  though  he 
may  lie  under  a  sentence  of  excommuni- 
cation, has  the  right  to  vote,  unless  he 
has  not  yet  been  admitted  to  deacon's 
orders.  Even  in  this  case,  tlie  right  of 
voting  has  sometimes  been  conferred  by 
special  Papal  indult.  There  are  three 
valid  modes  of  election— by  scrutiny,  by 
compromise,  and  by  what  is  called  qitasi- 
inspiration  [see  Acclamation].  Com- 
promise is,  when  all  the  cardinals  agree 
to  entrust  the  election  to  a  small  com- 
mittee of  two  or  three  members  of  the 
body.  Scrutiny  is  the  ordinary  mode; 
and  although,  since  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, elections  have  usually  been  made 
by  this  mode  with  reasonable  despatch, 
yet  in  times  of  disturbance,  the  difficulty 
of  obtaining  a  two-thirds  majority  has 
been  known  to  protract  the  proceedings 
over  a  long  period,  as  in  the  celebrated 
instance  of  the  conclave  of  1799,  described 
in  Consalvi's  Memoirs,  which  lasted  siz 
months,  resulting  in  the  election  of  Pius 
VII.  (Ferraris,  Papa ;  ZoepfFel,  "  Die 
Papstwahlen,"  Gottingen,  1871). 

cozrcoiaxTAM-CE.  [See  Eucha- 
rist I.  6.] 

coircoRBAT  (Lat.  concordata, 
things  agreed  upon).  A  treaty  between 
the  Holy  See  and  a  secular  State  touch- 
ing the  conservation  and  promotion  of 
the  interests  of  religion  in  that  State. 

It  were  to  be  wished  that  Christendom 
did  not  require  concordats,  for  a  treaty 
between  two  powers  implies  some  felt 
divergency  of  sentiment  and  principle, 
which,  having  already  resulted  in  oppo- 


22C  CONCORDAT 


CONCUPISCENCE 


sition  and  contention  more  or  less  serious, 

dictates  to  the  contracting  parties  the 
necessity  of  coming  to  an  understanding 
a>t(i  the  limits  beyond -which  neither  will 
gi\  (■  way  to  the  other.  Such  divergency 
of  sentiment  only  arises,  speaking  gene- 
rally, when  the  secular  State  aims  at 
excluding  the  Church  from  its  rightful 
share  of  control  over  hunmn  affairs — an 
aim  which  familiar  e\]>erience  shows  to 
he  eminently  pernicious  and  disastrous. 
"When  Ethelljerts  or  St.  Louises  rule  in 
temporals,  we  do  not  hear  of  concordats 
with  the  Holy  See,  for  such  rulers  desire 
to  se."  i-fliMidu  more,  not  less,  in  the 
a>ci'iL(lint  ainnng  their  subjects.  Never- 
thi'lfs,-,  (  iiiiMilfring  the  actual  condition 
of  things  in  Europe  and  America,  it  is 
generally  a  subject  of  congratulation 
when  the  Pope  concludes  a  ficsh  con- 
cordat ;  we  know  that,  at  any  ratf  for  a 
time,  religion  and  its  ministers  will  l)e 
treated  with  some  justice  and  modera- 
tion in  the  treaty-making  State  ;  that  if 
the  Church  has  been  robbed  there  in 
time  past,  some  modicum  of  a  yearly 
grant  ^\  ill  now  be  given  by  way  of  resti- 
tution; and  that  the  churches  and  con- 
vents will  be  made  over  to  her — at  any 
rate  till  the  next  revolution. 

Among  the  more  celebrated  concordats 
of  former  times  are  the  following : — 

1.  'I'hat  of  "Worms  in  1122,  between 
Calixtus  II.  and  the  Emperor  Henry  V., 
hy  which  the  aliiisive  right  of  appointing 
bish(jps  and  abbots  "by  ring  and  crosier," 
long  usurped  by  the  emperors,  was  re- 
t-igni'd,  and  only  the  investiture  by  the 
sci'jitrt',  in  token  of  the  gTaut  of  their 
temjjoialit  ir>.  retained.  On  the  lines  of 
this  cnncordat  the  question  of  investiture 
wa-  si  iilc.l  throughout  Europe  in  such  a 
wa\  :i-  to  |ra\e  intact  in  theory  the  uni- 
vri  -:il  |ia~iorate  of  the  successors  of  Peter, 
how  iM  v  seriously  it  may  have  been  here 
and  tlifi-e  eomjiromised  in  practice. 

1'.  That  of  I'rankfort  or  Vienna 
(im;  S),  .  allrd  the  Concordat  with  the 
rinniaii  Nation,  }>y  which  the  Popes 
l']n-i  )iiii,-  l\  .  and  Nicholas  V.,  employing 
Nirholas  of  Ciisa  l;\si,i;,  Oouxril,^  and 
..'Eneas  Sylvius  a,-  n.  -, ,i  i;it ors,  aLir^MMl 
with  the  emiieror  I'n  iN  i  ic  111.  todu  idc 
in  a  partic  dar  manner  the  patronage  of 
ecclesiastic  d  dignities  in  Germany,  and 
as  to  the  payment  of  firstfruits  and  other 
matters. 

3.  That  of  1515,  between  Leo  X.  and 
Francis  I.,  by  which  the  latter  agreed  to 
abolish  the  pragmatic  sanction  of  Charles 
VII.  (limiting  appeals  to  Rome,  and  pre- 


tending to  set  a  general  council  above  the 
Pope),  and  the  former  resigned  to  the 
crown  of  France  the  nomination  to  vacant 
bishoprics  and  abbeys,  with  the  proviso 
that  the  persons  named  should  be  accept- 
able to  the  Holy  See. 

In  later  times,  the  concordat  of  1801, 
between  Pius  VII.  and  the  first  Napoleon, 
restoring  to  the  French  nation  the  public 
practice  of  the  reliffion  of  their  fathers, 
which  the  detestable  wickedness  of  the 
revolutionists  had  proscribed  since  1790, 
is  a  treaty  of  primaiy  importance.  Under 
its  terms  the  Holy  See  agreed  to  a  new 
demarcation  of  the  boundaries  of  French 
dioceses,  reducing  their  number  from  over 
100  to  about  80,  and  declared  (art.  13) 
that  neither  the  reigning  Pope  nor  his 
successors  would  molest  the  purchasers 
j  or  grantees  in  the  peaceable  possession  of 
!  Church  lands  alienated  up  to  that  date. 
!  On  the  other  hand  the  French  Govern- 
ment agreed  to  the  free  and  public  exer- 
cise of  the  "Catholic,  Apostolic,  and 
Roman"  religion  in  France;  consented 
(art.  4,  5)  to  the  canonical  institution  by 
the  Po})e,  under  the  ancient  discipline,  of 
the  bishops  whom  the  Government  should 
nominate ;  promised  (art.  14)  a  suitable 
annual  grant  for  the  support  of  the 
French  bishops  and  clergy ;  and  undertook 
to  facilitate  (art.  15)  fresh  endowments 
on  the  part  of  any  French  Catholics 
desiring  to  make  them.  These  were  the 
principal  articles  of  the  concordat  signed 
by  the  Papal  envoys  on  behalf  of  the 
Holy  See.  The  Government  of  Napoleon 
soon  afterwards  added  to  the  concordat  a 
number  of  clauses  called  "organic  arti- 
cles," the  tenor  of  which  was  of  course 
highly  Erastian,  and  by  which  it  has  been 
often  maintained  by  the  French  and  other 
publicists  that  the  French  clergy  are 
bound.  This,  however,  since  the  Holy 
See  never  ratified  the  "organic  articles," 
is  not  the  case. 

In  an  interesting  supplementary  article 
in  vol.  xxvi.  of  Wetzer  and  "\^'elte's 
Dictionary  on  Concordats,  the  text?  of 
several  modem  conventions  of  this  kind 
(with  Russia,  1847  ;  with  the  republic  of 
Costa  Rica,  1852;  with  Austria,  1855)  is 
given  in  full. 

(Ferraris,  Concordata ;  Soglia,  i.  4, 
De  jure  novissimo ;  Mohler's  "  Kirchen- 
geschichte.") 

coircvPZSCBircE.  Concupiscence 
according  t  o  St .  Thomas,  1"  2*,  qu.  30,  a.2, 
is  tlie  a]i])i  tlte  which  tends  to  the  gratifi- 
cation ol'  the  senses  ("  bonum  delectabile 
abseus").  This  tendency  is  in  itself  neither 


CO^TUPISCEXCE 


CONFERENCES  OF  CLERGY  227 


good  nor  evil,  because  the  object  may  be 
either  lawful  or  unlawful.  The  desire  of 
eating  and  drinking  in  moderation  is 
goxl :  that  of  eating  and  drinking  to  excess 
is  evil ;  but  in  the  one  case  and  in  the 
other  we  have  an  instance  of  concupis- 
cence. However,  the  word  concupiscence 
is  constantly  used  for  that  appetite  which 
exists  in  fallen  man  and  is  an  incentive  to 
sin,  because  it  seeks  forbidden  objects,  or 
permissible  objects  in  a  forbidden  way. 
St.  Paid,  in  Kom.  vii.,  speaks  of  it  as 
"  the  flesh,"  and  again  as  the  "  law  of  sin, 
that  is  in  my  members."  Such  concu- 
piscence, in  rebellion  against  reason  and 
against  the  commandments  of  God,  did 
not  exist  in  Adam,  till  he  had  fallen  from 
original  justice.  From  him  it  has  passed 
to  all  his  descendants ;  it  remains  even 
in  those  who  have  been  bom  again  by 
baptism,  so  that  the  saints  themselves 
have  had  to  fight  against  this  tendency 
in  the  sensual  apjietite  to  forbidden  plea- 
sures, without  being  able  to  eradicate  it. 

We  now  come  to  the  diflereiice  on 
this  matter  between  Catholic  doctrine  and 
the  tenets  of  the  Reformers.  The  latter 
taught  that  concupiscence,  even  if  the  will 
did  not  consent  to  harbour  or  encourage 
it,  had  the  nature  of  sin.  Cathol  >■ 
doctors  on  the  other  hand,  following  the 
principle  of  St.  Thomas,  that  no  action 
can  be  moral  or  immoral  except  so  far  as 
it  depends  on  the  free-will  of  the  agent, 
deny  that  concupiscence  which  remains, 
in  s])ite  of  the  eflbrts  made  by  the  will  to 
.-ubdue  it,  is  to  be  considered  sin.  Tt  is 
plain  that  the  Catholic  doctrine  is  the 
only  one  consistent  with  belief  in  the 
moral  freedom  of  man.  It  is,  moreover, 
the  only  one  consistent  with  experience 
and  common  sense :  for  who  can  believe 
that  a  man  engaged  in  heroic  struggle 
with  the  temptations  of  the  flesh,  is  all 
the  while  ofl'ending  God?  The  Council 
')f  Trent  hays  down  the  doctrine  of  the 
Church  with  great  clearness,  in  the  fol- 
lowing words  : — "  This  holy  synod  con- 
fesses that  concupiscence  or  the  fuel  of 
sin  {fomex  peccafi)  remains  in  the  bap- 
tised; but  since  it  is  left  that  they  may 
strive  against  it,  it  cannot  hurt  those  who 
give  no  consent,  but  resist  manfully  by  the 
grace  of  Jesus  Christ ;  nay,  more,  he  who 
strives  lawfully  will  be  crowned.  The 
boly  synod  declares  that  this  concupis- 
cence, which  the  Apostle  sometimes  calls 
sin  (R(mi.  vi.  \2,  vii.  8),  has  never  been 
understood  b}  the  Catholic  Church  to  be 
ro  called  because  it  is  truly  and  properly 
sin  in  the  regenerate,  but  because  it  is 


I  from  sin  and  inclines  to  sin.  But  if  any 
I  man  hold  a  contrarj-  opinion,  let  him  bo 
anathema." '  Propositions  of  Baius  re- 
newed the  error  of  the  Reformers  with 
a  diflerence  of  terminology — e.ff.  Prop. 
Ixxv. :  "The  evil  motions  of  concupiscence 
have  been  prohibited  for  the  state  of 
fallen  man  [in  the  words],  Thou  shalt  not 
^  covet.  Whence,  a  man  who  feels  them 
and  does  not  consent,  transgresses  the 
precept.  Thou  shalt  not  covet ;  although 
the  transgression  is  not  reckoned  as  sin." 

COsrCTTRSirs.  An  examination 
into  the  qualifications  of  candidates  for 
ecclesiastical  benefices  with  cure  of  soids. 
The  Council  of  Trent  ordered^  that  a 
board  of  six  examiners  should  be  ap- 
pointed every  year  in  the  diocesan  synod  ; 
and  that  when  any  parisli  bfcame  vacant, 
within  ten  days,  or  such  period  as  the 
bishop  might  appoint,  candidates  having 
been  duly  invited  to  attend,  an  examina- 
tion should  be  held  by  any  three  selected 
by  the  bishop  from  tlie  board  above  men- 
tioned. A  list  of  those  found  (jiialified 
having  then  been  made  by  the  examiners, 
it  was  competent  for  the  person  rn-  per- 
sons to  whom  the  patronape  appeitained 
to  select  from  among  these  the  candidate 
of  their  choice,  and  pre^ent  him  to  the 
bishop  for  institution.  (Art.  by  Perma- 
neder  in  Wetzer  and  Welte.) 

CONFEREM-CES  OF  THE 
CKERGT.  In  the  ninth  century  when 
dioceses  became  much  larger  than  they 
had  been  in  early  times,  the  diocesaiii 
synods  were  no  longer  sufficient  for  the 
maintenance  of  discipline,  ecclesiastical 
spirit,  kc,  among  the  clergy.  Accord- 
ingly in  many  parts  of  Europe — e.(/.  in 
France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  England — 
the  clergy  of  each  district  were  required 
to  meet  under  the  archpriest  or  dean,  and 
these  meetings  were  called  "Calendars" 
(because  held  on  the  first  of  every  month), 
also  consistoria,  synodi,  sessiones.  The 
clergy  were  summoned  originally  by  the 
archpriest  or  archdeacon.  They  consulted 
on  difiicult  cases  of  conscience  and  the 
like,  but  besides  this  they  often  investi- 
gated crimes  which  had  occuned  since  the 
last  meeting,  and  announced  the  penal- 
I  ties  attached  to  them  by  the  Church. 
I  These  Calendars  seem  to  have  fallen  out 
'  of  use  about  the  thirteenth  century.  The 
last  mention  of  them  is  said  to  be  found 
!  in  the  Acts  of  a  council  held  at  Loudon 
in  1237. 

St.  Charles  Borromeo  revived  these 

*  Concil.  Trident,  sess.  v.  De  Peccat.  Origin. 
8  Sess.  xxiv.  c.  18,  De  Reform. 

(l2 


228  CONFESSION,  SACRAMENTAL 


CONFESSION 


assemblies  of  the  clergy,  or  rather  intro- 
duced conferences  in  the  modern  sense  for 
the  discussion  of  questions  in  morals, 
ritual,  &c.,  with  the  object  of  providing 
that  the  clergj-  engaged  in  the  cure  of 
souls  should  have  the  knowledge  neces- 
sary for  their  duties.  Tlie  example  of 
St.'  Charles  was  followed  very  soon  by 
councils  in  France,  Italy,  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, &c.  Such  conferences  again  fell 
into  disuse  at  the  end  of  the  last  century, 
but  have  been  once  more  revived  in  many 
countries.  All  the  dioceses  of  England 
are  now  divided  into  districts,  each  with 
its  conference,  which  meets  at  stated 

COM-FESSZOItr,  SACRAMSirTAX.. 

This  consi>ts  in  accusing  ourselves  of  our 
sins  to  a  priest  who  has  received  authority 
to  give  absolution.  It  is  the  pinns  custom 
of  thefaitliful  to  accuse  thfuisrhes  of  all 
post-baptismal  sins,  mortal  or  M-iiial,  sn 
far  as  they  can  remenibrr  thcni,  and  the 
priest,  if  duly  commissioned,  has  power  to 
absolve  from  all.  But  there  is  an  absolute 
obligation  imposed,  not  only  by  the  law 
of  the  Church,  but  also  bv' divine  insti- 
tution, upon  all  (.'hristians,  of  confessing 
all  mortal  sins  counnitted  at'tm-  bajitism, 
so  far  as  the  penitent  is  able  to  recall 
them  by  diligent  examination  of  his  con- 
science. So  the  Council  of  Trent  has 
deKned  (sess.  xiv.  can.  7). 

The  proofs  of  this  obligation  from 
Scripture  and  tradition  will  be  found 
below  in  the  article  on  the  Sacrament  of 
Penance.  Here  it  suffices  to  say  that 
sacramental  confession  must  be 

(1)  Entire.  It  must  include  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  mortal  sin  committed  and 
the  number  of  sins  under  each  class,  so 
far  as  it  can  be  ascertained.  One  mortal 
sin  wilfully  concealed  vitiates  the  whole 
confession.  If,  however,  mortal  sins  are 
omitted  unintentionally  and  without  fault, 
they  are  forgiven  when  absolution  is  pro- 
nounced ;  only,  if  they  occur  to  the 
penitent's  recollection  afterwards,  he  must 
mention  them  in  his  next  confession. 
Further,  various  causes  may  excuse  from 
this  completeness  of  enumeration.  Thus 
in  ship\vreck,  before  a  battle,  when  the 
penitent  is  unable  to  speak,  or  can  only 
say  very  little  from  physical  weakness,  a 
very  general  confession  of  sin  may  be 
enough  for  absolution;  but  the  confession 
must  be  completed  afterwards,  if  the 
opportunity  offers  itself. 

(2)  It  must  bp  vocal,  though  for  a 
grave  reason  the  penitent  may  make  it 
by  presenting  a  written  paper,  or  by  signs. 


(:3)  It  must  be  accompanied  by 
supernatural  sorrow  and  firm  purpose  of 
amendment. 

(4)  It  should  alflo  be  humble  and 
sincere;  as  short  as  is  consistent  with 
integrity ;  in  language  which  is  plain  and 
direct,  but  at  the  same  time  pure  and 
modest. 

The  form  of  confession  is  as  foUows. 
The  penitent,  kneeling  at  the  confessor's 
feet,  says,  "  Pray,  Father,  bless  me,  for 
I  have  sinned."  The  priest  gives  the 
blessing  prescribed  in  the  Roman  Ritual, 
"  The  Lord  be  in  thy  heart  and  on  thy 
lips,  that  thou  mayest  truly  and  humbly 
confess  thy  sins,  in  the  Name  of  the 
Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost."  The  penitent  then  recites  the 
first  part  of  the  Confiteor,  enumerates  the 
sins  of  which  he  has  been  guilty  since 
his  last  confession,  and  then  adds,  "  For 
these  and  all  my  other  sins  which  I 
cannot  now  remember  I  am  heartily  sorry ; 
I  purpose  amendment  for  the  future,  and 
most  humbly  ask  pardon  of  God,  and 
penance  and  absolution  of  you,  my  spirit- 
ual Father." 

C07I-FESSZ0N'  (THE  TOMB  OF 
A  MAETYB).  The  word  was  used  from 
early  times  as  equivalent  to  fiaprvfiiov,  the 
actual  tomb  in  which  a  martyr  was  buried. 
If  an  altar  was  erected  over  the  grave, 
then  the  name  "  confession "  was  given 
to  the  tomb,  the  altar,  and  the  cubiculum 
or  subterranean  cham1)er,  in  which  they 
stood.  In  later  times,  a  basilica  was  some- 
times erected  over  the  cubiculum  or 
chamber  beneath;  the  high-altar  was 
placed  over  the  altar  on  the  tomb  below, 
and  so  this  high-altar  also  was  called  a 
"  confession,"  though  it  was  not  till  the 
middle  ages  that  the  entire  building 
received  the  name  of  "  confession."  Some- 
times, when  the  "basilica"  was  set  up  in 
a  different  place,  the  relics  of  the  martyr 
were  removed  to  it,  and  the  name  "  cou- 
fessio"  was  transferred  to  the  spot  in 
which  the  remains  rested.  In  such  cases, 
the  relics  were  placed  in  a  crvpt  under 
the  high-altar,  or  else  they  were  deposited 
in  a  hollow  space  under  the  high-altar  in 
the  church  itself,  this  hollow  space  l)eing 
enclosed  with  a  grating  or  with  perforated 
marble,  and  room  left  for  the  faithfid  to 
approach  and  touch  the  shrine  with  cloths 
(Brandea).  Such  an  arrangement,  which 
was  possible  because  Mass  was  said  at 
the  further  side  of  the  altar,  is  still  found 
in  the  Roman  churches  of  St.  Clement 
and  St.  George  in  Velabro.  Lastly,  the 
name  "confession"  was  given  to  that 


CONFESSIONAL 


CONFIRMATION  229 


part  of  an  altar  in  which  the  relics  are 
placed.  Thus  the  Pontilical,  even  in  its 
present  form,  speaks  of  "  the  confession, 
i.e.  the  sepulchre  of  the  altar." 

The  most  famous  "  confession  "  is  that 
of  St.  Peter  in  the  Vatican  basilica. 
Anacletus  is  said  to  have  constructed  "  the 
monument  of  the  Blessed  Peter ("  memo- 
riam  B.  Petri");  it  is  mentioned  by  Caius,^ 
a  writer  of  the  second  or  the  beginning 
of  the  third  century,  while  a  new  "  con- 
fession "  was  set  up  by  Constantine  when 
he  built  the  Vatican  basilica.  On  this 
"confession"  the  reader  may  consult 
Card.  Borgia's  work  "  Vaticana  Confessio 
B.  Petri,  chronologicis  tarn  veterum  quam 
recentiorum  scriptorum  testimoniis  illus- 
trata"  (Romae,  1776).  (Kraus,  "Real-En- 
cyclopndie.") 

COTTFESSlOXrAXi.  The  seat  which 
the  priest  uses  hen  hearing  confessions. 
According  to  the  Roman  Ritual  it  ought 
to  be  placed  in  an  open  and  conspicuous 
part  of  the  church,  and  to  have  a  grating 
between  the  priest  and  the  penitent. 
"The  present  form  of  confessionals  is 
somewhat  recent  in  the  Church,  for  in 
more  ancient  times  people  confessed  in 
the  open  church  (a  decouvert),  kneeling 
before  the  priest  or  simply  seated  by  his 
side,  as  is  still  usual  among  the  Greeks. 
The  division  fof  the  confessional]  into 
compartments  cloes  not  appear  to  go  back 
further  than  the  sixteenth  century  and  the 
time  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  who  left 
ordinances  on  that  matter,  but  this  ar- 
rangement did  not  become  general  till 
the  following  century."  (Mgr.  de  Mon- 
tault,  "Traite  pratique  de  la  Construction, 
&c.,  des  E<rlises,"  i.  p.  233.) 

COWFESSOR  (species  of  Saint). 
A  name  used  from  the  earliest  times  for 
personswho  confessed  the  Christ  ianfaith  in 
times  of  persecution,  thus  exposing  them- 
selves to  danger  and  suffering,  but  who  did 
not  undergo  martyrdom.  For  a  time  the 
martyrs  were  the  only  saints  who  received 
special  and  public  honour  after  death 
from  the  Church,  and  martyrs  only  (with 
the  Blessed  Virgin  and  the  Apostles)  are 
mentioned  in  the  canon  of  the  Roman 
Mass,  though  the  Ambrosian  canon  has 
tlie  names  of  other  saints  also.^  But  at 
tlie  beginning  of  the  fourth  century, 
public  honours  were  also  given  to  persons 
of  heroic  sanctity  even  if  they  had  not 
been  martyred.  Thus  St.  Antony,  as  St. 
Jerome  tells  us,  directed  that  his  body 
after  death  should  be  concealed,  because 
»  Euseb.  H.E.  ii.  2.5,  7. 
»  Benedict  XIV.  De  Miss.  ii.  13,  24. 


he  did  not  wish  a  "  martyriuni "  erected 
in  his  honour.  Hilarion  kept  the  vigil 
and  feast  of  St.  Antony;  he  himself  after 
death  received  the  same  honour.  Thus 
the  name  "  Confessor  "  got  the  technical 
meaning  which  it  now  has  in  the  Missal 
and  Breviary — i.e.  it  was  applied  to  all 
male  saints  who  do  not  fall  under  some 
special  class,  such  as  Martyr,  Apostle, 
Evangelist.  The  names  of  confessors 
were  added  to  the  Martyrology  after  the 
time  of  Gregory  the  Great.'  St.  Martin 
was  the  first,  or  at  least  among  the  first, 
of  the  Confessors  whom  the  Church 
honoured  with  an  office  and  feast. - 

In  the  office  on  Good  Friday  "con- 
fessor "  means  "  singer,"  because  in  the 
Scriptures  "  confessing  to  God  "  is  used 
for  singing  His  praises.  That  "confessor" 
had  this  meaning  is  certain  from  the  6th 
canon  of  a  coimcil  of  Toledo  which  met 
in  the  year  400.' 

CONFESSOR  (in  Sacrament  of 
Penance).  The  priest  who  hears  con- 
fessions. He  must  have  received  facul- 
ties from  the  ordinary  of  the  place. 
Formerly  by  the  canon  "law  the  faithful 
were  bound  to  confess  once  in  the  year  to 
their  parish  priest  ("proprio  sacerdoti") 
Aftei-wards,  various  religious  orders  re- 
ceived privileges  which  enabled  them  to 
hear  confessions  of  seculars  at  all  times ; 
and  by  the  present  law  seculars  may 
always  choose  any  approved  priest  for  their 
confessor.  (St. Liguori, "Theol.Moral." vi. 
564;  where,  however,  another  interpreta- 
tion of  the  words  "  proprio  sacerdoti "  is 
given.) 

cONFiRAXaTZOSr.  A  sacrament 
of  the  new  law  by  which  grace  is  con- 
ferred on  baptised  persons  which 
strengthens  them  for  the  profession  of 
the  Christian  faith.  It  is  conferred  by 
the  bishop,  who  lays  his  hands  on  the 
recipients,  making  the  sign  of  the  cross 
with  ckrism  on  their  foreheads,  w-hile  he 
pronounces  the  words  "  I  sign  thee  with 
the  sign  of  the  cross  and  confirm  thee 
with  the  chrism  of  salvation,  in  the  Name 
of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost."  Besides  conferring  a  special 
grace  to  profess  the  faith,  it  a. so  sets  a 
seal  or  character  on  the  soul  [see  Cha- 
Eaciee],  so  that  this  sacrament  cannot  be 
reiterated  without  sacrilege. 

Protestants  have  universally  denied 
that  confirmation  is  a  sacrament ;  either 

1  This,  at  least,  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of 
Gavaiitus,  ii.  p.  178. 

2  Thomassin,  Traite  des  Festes,  1.  8,  19. 
5  Het'ele,  Concilien,  ii.  p.  78. 


230  COX  FILIATION 


CONFIRMATION 


rejecting  it  altogetlior,  or  retaining  a  | 
spurious  imitation  of  it,  in  wliicli  young 
people  renew  and  confirm  tlic  promises 
made  for  tbem  in  baptism.  In  oi)])osition 
to  this  error,  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
vii.)  defines  that  it  is  a  "true  and  proper  ' 
sacrament,"  and  we  shall  endeavour  to 
establish  this  point  from  Scripture  and 
tradition  before  entering  upon  questions 
of  detail. 

We  read  in  Acts  viii.  that  when 
Philip  the  Evangelist  had  baptised  tlie 
Samaritan  converts,  St.  Peter  and  Si. 
John,  going  down  from  Jerusalem,  "  laid 
their  hands  upon  them,  and  they  received 
the  Holy  Ghost."  Thus  the  gifts  con- 
veyed to  the  Apostles  and  their  first 
converts  at  Pentecost  were  imparted  by 
the  ministry  of  the  Church  to  all  Chris- 
tians willing  to  receive  them.  It  is  true- 
that  when  the  Ajiostles  imposed  their 
luinds  miraculous  gifts  often  accompanied 
the  communication  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
But  this  was  an  accident,  and,  just  as  the 
miraculous  signs  promised  at  the  end  of  I 
St.  Mark's  gospel  to  those  "who  believe" 
aftei-wards  ceased  without  prejudice  to 
faith,  so  when  miraculous  signs  no  longer 
accompanied  the  imposition  of  hands, 
confirmation  still  bestowed  the  presence 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  increased  measure  ; 
it  still  gave  that  power  and  courage  to 
make  confession  which  will  always  be 
essential  to  the  Christian  calling.  Hence 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  the  "laying 
on  of  hands"  is  numlicred  among  the 
elementary  articles  of  the  ( 'lii-lsl  i;in  reli- 
gion, and  placed  in  inimrdiatc  j)i()ximity 
to  baptism,  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  "laying  on  of  hands"  in  Holy  Order. 
In  allusion  to  the  same  sacrament  of  con- 
firmation, the  Epistlf  lo  the  Hebrews,  in 
the  same  context,  drsci  ilirs  Christians  as  ' 
"partakers of  the  Holy  tilio>t ;"  and,  with 
at  least  a  probable  reference  to  confirma- 
tion, St.  Paul  tells  Christians  that  they 
were  "sealed  with  the  Holy  Spirit  of 
])romise." '  Thus  the  miraculous  gifts 
were  only  intended  to  make  men  recognise 
and  believe  in  a  presence  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  which  was  afterwards  to  be  recog- 
nised liy  i'aif  li  alone. 

'I'hi-  Sei-ipture  is  thus  in  perfect  keep- 
ing Willi  the  Trident  ine  doctrine  that 
coiiliniial  ion  is  a  •'ti-iii'  and  ])i-opiT  sacra- 
ment." W  e  have  the  outward  sign,  viz. 
the  laying  on  of  hands  ;  the  inward  grace, 
viz.  the  communication  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
already  given  in  baptism,  with  greater 

»  Ephes.  i.  13. 


fullness;  divint;  institution,  for  the  Apo- 
stles could  not  have  used  an  outward 
sign  as  a  certain  means  of  giving  grace, 
unless  they  had  received  authority  to  do 
so  from  Christ,  the  author  of  grace ; 
lastly,  the  sign  and  the  grace  which 
accompanied  it  were  to  continue  perma- 
nently in  the  Church,  as  ap^iears  from 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  The  earliest 
tradition  illustrates  the  teaching  of  Scrij)- 
ture  on  this  liead.  Thus  Tertullian 
niriitions  the  imposition  of  liaiiils  on  the 
li^qili-r,]  which  ".•iiUr.l  an,!  invitr,!  the 
Holy  Gh.ist."'  Klsrwheiv,'  in  a  n mark- 
able  passage,  he  places  "ilir  -.  mIIu^  of 
the  soldiers  on  the  forthcad"  hciwi-m 
baptism  and  the  Holy  Eucliavist,  jilainly 
indicating  that  he  belie\  ed  confirmation 
to  be  a  true  sacrament.  Many  quotations 
might  be  added  from  Cyprian.'  In  the 
earliest  councils  we  meet  with  formal 
legislation  on  confirmatiiui,  but  hvvr  one 
instance  will  sufllce.  The  Council  of 
Elvii-a,  in  oOO,  in  canon  38,  decrees  that 
jiersons  ))aptised  in  case  of  necessity  by 
laymen  are  al'tiTwards  to  lie  brought  to 
the  bislioii>  and  "  pn-frctcl  bv  the  inqxi- 
sition  of  han.l,-."  Ih  iv  thi'  otlrit  of  the 
sacrament  (\\  hich  iiialies  iis  perfect  Chris- 
tians), and  il>  oidinai-y  minister  (viz.  the 
bishop),  nrr  plalnlv  expressed.  Further, 
the  fact  that  llic  Church  never  allowed 
the  sacrament  to  he  reiterated  pro\  es  the 
ancient  belief  in  the  imli'lihlc  character 
or  mark  with  which  confirmation  stamps 
the  soul. 

We  will  now  examine  certain  points 
with  regard  to  this  sacrament,  following 
as  our  chief  guide  in  the  historical  por- 
tion Cliardon,  in  the  sicoiul  volume  of 
his  "Hist. lire  de  S.acivnimt s." 

(1)  The  ordinary  minister  of  the 
sacrament  is  a  lii>hop,  as  is  defined  by 
the  Council  of  Ti-rnt,  and  this  statement 
is  gTounded  on  Scri]il  iiiv,  which  speaks 
of  the  A]iosth's,  hut  nc\cr  of  siin]ile 
priests,  as  imposing  lln-ii-  hands  to  give 
the  Holy  (ihost.  In  the  West,  confirma- 
tion has  always  been  given  by  bishops. 
Permission,  however,  to  confirm  was 
given  to  some  abbots— e.,^.  to  the  abbot 
of  Monte  Cassino — and  there  was  an 
exception  to  the  general  rule  of  the  West 
in  Sardinia,  where  Pope  Gregory  I,  for  a 
time  I'orhade,  lint  later,  to  avoid  greater 
evils,  jierniitted,  simple  priests  to  confirm. 
In  Chrysostom's  time  it  was  customary 
in  the  East  also  to  reserve  the  administra- 

1  J)(i  Baptism.  ^  Prescript.  40. 

5  Sw  .il.sd  IiiiKioeiit  I.  in  his  \Mvr  Ad  De- 
leiitium  (Albaii  Butler,  July  2S). 


CON'FIKMATIOX 


CONFTKMATION 


i'31 


tinn  of  this  sacrament  to  bishops.  But  a 
writer  of  the  fourth  century — the  author 
of  a  coniinentarv  on  St.  Paul  at  one  time 
attributed  to  St".  Ambrose— remarks  that 
"in  Egypt  priests  confirm  (cimsii/nant) 
in  the  bishop's  absence."  This  custom 
nnist  have  been  well  established  before 
the  schism,  for  Photius  reproached  Pope 
Xicholas-\vith  causing  the  l?iili:arians  who 
liad  been  conlirmed  bv  priests  to  be  recon- 
hnned.  At  Florence  nothing  was  done 
to  alter  the  Greek  custom  of  allowing 
priest-  to  confirm  (tbniigh  the  Latin 
usage  had  been  inipi  si'd  at  Constanti- 
nople by  Innocent  III.  and  in  Cyprus  by 
Innocent  IV.),  and  at  present  it  continues 
not  only  among  the  Greeks,  but  also 
among  the  Oriental  Christians  generally. 

Stich  are  the  facts,  and  the  following 
are  the  principles  held  by  Catholic  theo- 
logians on  tlie  minister  of  confirmation. 
In  ordinary  cases,  a  bishop  only  can  con- 
firm, but  the  Pope  may  empower,  and 
has  repeatedly  empowered,  a  simple  priest 
to  do  so,  provided  at  least  the  chrism 
which  he  uses  has  been  consecrated  by  a 
bishop.  It  is  commonly  held  that  the 
Pope  alone  can  give  simple  priests  this 
power,  so  that  if  they  attempt  to  confirm 
without  permission  from  the  Pope,  or  in 
any  case  without  his  tacit  consent,  the 
act  is  null.^  Confirmation  given  by  a 
bishop  according  to  the  rite  of  the  Church 
is  always  valid,  but  it  is  unlawful  unless 
given  by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  or 
with  his  leave. 

(^)  There  has  been  much  dispute 
among  theologians  as  to  the  essential 
matter  of  confirmation.  Some,  with  the 
learned  Jesuit  Sirmond,  make  it  consist 
in  the  mere  imposition  of  hands,  arguing 
that  this  alone  is  mentioned  in  Scriptnre, 
and  appealing  to  the  canon  of  Elvira, 
already  quoted,  as  well  as  to  the  Council 
of  Orange  (anno  441),  canon  2,  which 
seems  to  deny  in  express  terms  that 
anointing  with  chrism  is  necessarj-.'^ 
Others,  and  they  are  much  more  nu- 
merous, contend  that  anointing  with 
chrism  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  sacra- 
ment. They  irrge  that  the  Greeks  have 
no  special  imposition  of  hands,  apart 
from  the  unction ;  that  St.  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
salem in  his  third  "Catechesis"  never 
mentions  the  imposition  of  hands,  though 
this  "  Catechesis "  is  entirely  occupied 
with  confirmation ;  that  the  Greeks  have 
always  regarded  the  chrismation  as  the 
principal  matter ;  that  Cyprian  makes  the 
>  BiUuart,  l>e  Confirmat.  a.  7. 
'  See  Hefele,  ConcU.  ii.  p.  292. 


I  unction  a  matter  of  iiei  rs.vity ;  while  it  is 
j  prescribed  in  all  Latin  Saeramentaries. 
This  latter  opinion  seems  far  the  7nore 
])robable.  Unction  is  almost  certainly 
needed  for  tlu'  validity  of  the  sacrament, 
imposition  of  hands  being  also  required, 
Imt  only  such  imposition  as  is  implied 
in  tlie  act  of  putting  the  chrism  on  the 
forehead. 

The  ))resent  form  of  confirmation 
In  the  West  has  been  already  given  ;  tlie 
(ireek  form  is,  "The  seal  of  the  gift  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,"  and  this  they  have  em- 
ployed from  very  ancient  times.  The 
present  Latin  form,  on  the  contrary,  is 
not  older  than  the  twelfth  century.  In 
an  Ordo  Romauus  of  the  eighth  century 
we  find  the  form,  "  I  confirm  thee  in  the 
Kame  of  the  Father,"  &c. ;  in  a  Pontifical 
of  Egbert,  Archbishop  of  York,  "  Receive 
the  sign  of  the  holy  cross  with  the  chrism 
of  salvation  in  Christ  Jesus  unto  eternal 
life;"  in  the  Sacramentarv  of  Gelasius, 
"The  sign  {sig7itnn)  of  the  cl■..^s  with 
eternal  life."  All  of  these  forms  have 
been  permitted,  because  all  sufiiciently 
indicate  the  grace  given,  and  were  there- 
fore valid. 

(4)  All  baptised  persons  are  capable 
of  receiving  this  sacrament,  though  to 
receive  it  with  fruit  they  must  be  in  a 
state  of  grace.  The  Greeks  and  Orientals 
give  it  immediately  after  baptism,  and  in 
the  West  down  to  the  thirteenth  century 
a  child  was  confirmed  as  soon  after  bap- 
tism as  possi})le.  A  synod  of  Worcester 
(1240)  forlilds  parents,  under  pain  of 
exclusion  from  church,  to  leave  their 
children  without  confirmation  more  tlian 
a  year.  But  the  Roman  Catechism  ad- 
vises that  confirmation  should  not  be 
given  till  the  age  of  reason,  wlien 
Christians  have  to  begin  their  warfare 
with  sin,  and  it  sugge.'its  the  twelfth  year 
as  a  suitable  time  for  confirmation.  This 
sacrament  is  not  necessary  for  salvation, 
though  so  great  a  means  of  grace  cannot 
be  neglected  without  sin. 

(5)  The  ceremonies  accompanying 
confirmation  are  these.  The  bishop,  wlio 
wears  an  amice,  stole  and  cope,  of  white 
colour,  spreads  his  hands  over  those  be 
is  to  confirm,  praying  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
may  descend  on  them ;  immediately  after 
confirming  them,  he  gives  them  a  slight 
blow  on  the  cheek,  in  token  that  they 
must  be  ready  to  suffer  for  Christ,  and 
finally  dismisses  them  with  his  blessing. 
Those  to  be  confirmed  are  brouglit  to  the 
sacrament  by  their  god-parents  (s])ecially 
appointed  for  this  sacrament,  each  mala 


232 


CONFITEOR 


CONFRATERNITY 


having  a  god-father,  and  each  female  a 
god-mother),  and,  if  old  enough  to  do  so, 
place  their  foot  on  the  right  foot  of  the 
god-parent.  In  ancient  times  a  white 
cloth  bound  round  the  forehead  after 
chrismation  was  kept  on  for  seven  days 
afterwards.  This  custom  is  mentioned 
in  Egbert's  Pontifical  and  in  many  other 
places.  The  ceremony  of  the  blow  on 
the  cheek  is  comparatively  modern.  It 
is  usual  to  take  another  Christian  name 
at  confirmation,  which,  however,  is  not 
used  afterwards  in  signing  the  name ;  and 
the  Pontifical  says  the  "confirmandi" 
should  be  fasting. 

(6)  The  place  for  giving  confirmation 
is  the  church.  Formerly  it  was  some- 
times given  in  the  baptistery,  but  occa- 
sionally the  old  basilicas  hiid  a  special 
place  between  the  baptistery  and  the 
church  called  "  Consiguatorium  " — i.e. 
place  for  giving  the  seal  of  confirmation. 
Such  a  "  Consigiiatorium  "  may  still  be 
seen  at  Salona. 

COTTFZTEOR.  A  form  of  prayer 
("I  confess  to  Almighty  God,  to  blessed 
Mary  ever  Virgin,"'  &c.)  used  in  the 
sacrament  of  pi  nance  and  on  many  other 
occasions,  particularly  by  the  priest  in 
the  Roman  rite  at  the  beginning  of  ^Ia<s, 
before  he  ascends  the  steps  of  the  altar. 
This  practice  of  making  some  general 
coni't'ssiiin  before  Mass  is  grounded  on 
llir  .Jr^\i^ll  Use  of  malting  confession 
before  sacrifice,  and  is  very  ancient,  being 
found  in  the  liturgies  of  St.  James,  St. 
Mark,  St.  Chrysostom,  St.  Basil,  &c., 
although  (at  least  in  the  liturgies  of  St. 
James  and  St.  Chrysostom)  this  confes- 
sion was  made  by  the  priest  while  pre- 
])aring  for  Mass,  and  before  approaching 
the  altar.  The  present  form  of  the  Con- 
fiteor  came  into  general  use  during  the 
thirteenth  century.  A  council  of  Ra- 
venna (anno  1314)  mentions  that  a 
variety  of  forms  was  cun-ent,  and  imposes 
the  present  one.  A  difficulty  has  been 
raised  by  Protestants  against  confessing 
to  the  IBlessed  '^'iigin  and  the  saints. 
But  it  is  reasonahlr  to  do  so,  not  only 
because  we  nml  thi'ii-  ]ira vers  for  pardon, 
but  also  becausr  thr  >aints,  as  St.  Paul 
tells  us,  will  jii<l^;i'  the  world.  (From 
Merati,  "Nova>  Ohservat.  in  Gavant." 
tom.  i.  p.  174.) 

CONFRATERTTZTT.  An  associa^ 
tion,  generally  of  laymen,  having  some 
work  of  devotion,  charity  or  instruction 
for  its  object,  undertaken  f)r  the  glory  of 
God.  The  Roman  jurisprudence,  instinct 
as  it  was  with  the  spirit  of  centralisation, 


looked  with  little  favour  on  independent 
c  orporatious ;  originally  a  Christian  church 
was  in  its  eyes  a  collegium  illicitum ;  and 
in  the  face  of  this  strong  political  senti- 
ment it  was  a  great  thing  that  the  Church, 
the  diocese,  and  the  parish,  did  in  the 
CO  use  of  the  first  four  centuries  succeed 
.11  establishing  their  rii^ht  to  exist,  grow, 
and  energise  by  their  own  hn\  s,  and  not 
according  to  the  dictation  of  the  State. 
The  Roman  empire  was  broken  up  ;  its 
centralisation  gave  place  to  feudalism ; 
underwhich  local  privileged  corporations, 
circumscribed  in  area,  but  all  the  more 
intensely  active  within  that  area,  tended 
to  multiply  themselves  over  the  face  of 
Europe.  Thei-e  now  arose,  by  the  side  of 
the  organisation  of  the  parish,  which 
on  the  whole  had  survived  the  storm  of 
barbarian  invasion,  minor  organisations, 
governed  by  by-laws  and  endowed  with 
privileges,  which  laboured  earnestly  to 
repair  the  ravages  and  reform  the  confu- 
sion of  the  times.  Hence  arose  confra- 
ternities ;  which,  under  the  names  Gil- 
'  (lonue  and  Confvafrice,  appear  to  be  first 
mentioned  in  tlie  writings  of  Hincmar, 
Ai-chbisliop  of  Rheims  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury. Hinemar  laid  down  rules  for  them, 
prescribing  to  the  members  frequent  obla- 
tions, alms,  prayers,  and  Masses.  They 
were  to  interest  themselves  in  every  reli- 
giouswork  and  ministration — inpro\  iding 
lights,  ordering  funerals,  in  the  collection 
and  distribution  of  alms,  &c.  If  they 
desired  to  meet  together,  it  was  to  be  in 
the  presence  of  the  parish  priest,  who 
was  to  exhort  them  to  concord,  give  them 
bread  to  eat,  and  after  one  drink  dismiss 
them  ("  semel  potos  dimittat ").  In  the 
three  succeeding  centuries  little  is  on 
record  as  to  the  progress  of  confraternities. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  they  received  a 
sudden  and  amazing  development.  Odo, 
Bishop  of  Paris  (tl208),  is  recorded  as 
having  fixed  the  annual  fete  for  a  Confra- 
ternity of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  his  diocese. 
In  Italy  the  Confraternity  of  the  Standard 
{del  Gonfalone)  was  erected  at  Rome 
about  1260,  and  the  example  was  so 
extensively  followed  that  in  a  short  time 
there  was  no  city  or  town  in  Italy,  and 
hardly  even  a  parish,  that  was  without 
its  confraternity. 

Canon  law  contains  a  great  number  of 
decisions  given  for  the  regulation  of  con- 
fraternities. Thus  it  is  forbidden  to  erect 
more  than  one  confraternity  of  the  same 
kind  in  the  same  place  :  they  may  not 
have  processions  without  the  licence  of 
the  ordinary  ;  nor  can  the  members  have 


CONGREGATIO  DE  AUXILIIS         CONGREGATIO>'S,  ROiL^^'  233 


confessors  whom  he  has  not  approved.  In. 
maiiv  other  ways  their  free  action  ia 
subjected  to  the  assent  of  the  bishop. 

^I'he  ends  which  confraternities  pro- 
pose to  themselves  are  extremely  various : 
they  include  personal  sanctification  by 
means  of  special  religious  practices  and 
exercises,  and  works  of  charity  of  many 
kinds,  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  and  sick, 
the  payment  of  the  last  rites  to  the  dead, 
the  support  of  orphan  and  abandoned 
children,  &c.,  &c. 

When  a  confraternity  reaches  the 
stage  at  which  filiations,  similar  to  itself, 
are  Ibrmed  in  other  places,  and  adopt  its 
rules,  it  takes  the  name  of  arch-confra- 
teniity,  and  acquires  certain  particular 
privileges. 

The  most  important  arch-confrater- 
nities at  present  existing  are — that  of 
the  Most  Holy  and  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary  for  the  conversion  of  sinners,  founded 
in  1S37  by  the  saintly  Abb6  Desgenettes, 
cur€  of  !Notre  Dame  des  Victoires,  Paris ; 
that  of  the  Scapular  [see  Scapulae]; 
that  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  or  of  the 
Missions,  instituted  to  assist  in  the  work 
of  the  propagation  of  the  faith ;  aud 
that  of  Christian  Mothers  (1S59),  insti- 
tuted by  the  Abb^  Theodor  Ratisboune. 
Confraternities  of  the  Most  Holy  Rosary 
can  only  be  established  with  the  sanction 
of  the  authorities  of  the  Dominican  order. 
The  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  [see 
that  article[  is  really  an  arch-confi-ater- 
nity  ;  and  the  "  Conferences  "  of  which 
it  consists  are  confraternities.  (Ferraris, 
Confratei-v.it as ;  Thomassin,  "  V.  et  N. 
Disciplina  Eccl."') 

CONGREGATZO  DE  AVXZX.ZZS. 
[See  Grace.' 

COirCREGATZOIirS,  REXiZCZOVS. 
A  congregation  is  a  community  or  order 
bound  together  by  a  common  rule,  either 
without  vows  (as  the  Oratorians,  the 
Oblates  of  St.  Charles,  &c.),  or  without 
solemn  vows  (as  the  Passionists,  tho 
Redemptorists,  &c.). 

In  France  this  term  is  extended  to  lay 
associations,  whether  of  men  or  women, 
which,  having  a  religious  end  in  view, 
devote  themselves  to  some  work  of  in- 
struction or  charity.  So  understood,  it 
would  comprise  all  confraternities.  In 
England,  the  use  of  the  term  is  in  practice 
more  restricted,  and  perhaps  the  only  lay 
association  to  which  it  is  here  applied  is 
that  of  the  Christian  Brothers,  founded  by 
the  Yen.  J.  B.  de  la  Salle,  which,  how- 
ever, since  the  brothers  take  the  three 
■vows,  partakes  of  the  monastic  character. 


Among  the  more  noted  congregations  are 
the  following : — 

1.  The  Oratorians  of  St.  Philip  Neri, 
a  congregation  of  secular  priests  founded 
in  1564.    [See  OEiioBr  op  St.  Philip.] 

2.  The  French  Oratorians,  founded  bv 
Cardinal  de  B^ruUe  in  1611.    [See  Oea- 

lOET,  IHE  FeENCH.] 

3.  The  Dames  Anglaises,  founded  by 
the  Countess  Luigia  Torelli  in  1530. 

I  [See  Ls-sTiiuTE  of  the  B.  V.  M.l 

4.  The  "Fathers  of  the  Mission," 
!  founded  by  St.  Vincent  of  Paul  in  1624; 

they  are  usually  called  Lazarists,  q.c. 

0.  The  Oblates  of  St.  Charles,  founded 
by  St.  Charles  Borromeo.  [See  Oblates.] 

6.  The  Passionists,  founded  in  1720 
by  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross.    [See  Pas- 

SlOIflSIS.] 

7.  The  Redemptorists,  founded  by 
St.  Alphonsus  Liguori.  [See  Eebemp- 
toeists.] 

8.  The  Marists,  founded  by  some 
priests  of  Lyons  in  1836.  [See  Maeists.] 

9.  The  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools,  founded  in  1681  by  the  Blessed 
J.  B.  de  la  Salle.  [See  Cheistiax^  Beo- 
ihees.] 

.Inother  kind  of  religious  congregation 
is  a  gToup  of  monasteries  belonging  to 
some  great  order,  which  agree  together  to 
I  practise  the  rule  more  strictly  in  theii-  re- 
I  spective  houses,  and  to  unite  themselves 
together  by  closer  ties  of  government  aud 
discipline.  Such  was  the  great  congi-ega- 
tion  of  Cluiiy  [Cltjxx],  that  of  St.  Maur 
Blxlhii  riXEs",  and  that  of  La  Trappe 

CiSIEEClANS.  TraPI'ISTS]. 

COSrCRECiiTION-S,  BOMAXT. 

From  the  earliest  times  the  chair  of  Peter 
has  been  resorted  to  by  Christians  who, 
being  in  doubt  on  some  matter  of  religion, 
desired  an  authoritative  solution  of  that 
doubt.  In  later  times  the  number  of 
converted  nations  aud  tribes  having  on 
the  whole,  in  spite  of  the  losses  of  the 
sixteenth  centuij,  been  much  increased, 
and  the  means  of  communication  ex- 
tended— the  amount  of  business  of  all 
kinds  which  the  divinely  appointed  cen- 
trality  of  the  Holy  See  brings  upon  it 
has  become  far  too  great  to  be  dealt 
with  except  by  means  of  an  organisation, 
planned  and  framed  with  consummate 
prudence  and  skill,  which  pennits  the 
Pope  to  use  the  eyes,  ears,  and  judgments 
of  a  great  number  of  trained  and  om- 
petent  assistants,  while  retaining  that 
initiative  and  that  complete  coafiiisance 
in  every  question,  of  which  he  cannot 
divest  himself.    This  organisation  con- 


234   CONGREGATIONS,  ROMAN 


CONGREGATIONS,  ROMAN 


sists  in  the  main  of  the  congregations 
into  -which  the  Cardinals  are  distributed. 
The  decisions  of  these  congregations, 
■when  duly  authenticated,  are  final  in 
any  case  for  the  individual,  and  must  be 
taken  as  the  decisions  of  the  Pope  him- 
self. If,  however,  they  pass  beyond  in- 
terpretation, and  grant  or  forbid  anything 
beyondwhat  thewords  of  the  lawwarrant, 
they  have  not  the  force  of  a  general  law 
unless  they  are  issued  by  the  special 
mandate  of  the  Pope. 

According  to  the  enumeration  of  Fer- 
raris, the  Roman  congregations  are  the 
following : — 

1.  The  Congregation  of  the  Consistory 
(constsfortalis).  [See  Consistoet.1  Its 
duty  is  to  prepare  the  business  (chiefly 
relating  to  the  erection,  removal,  and  dis- 
continuance of  churches,  and  to  the  pre- 
conisation  or  translation  of  bishops)  which 
is  to  be  brought  before  the  Consistory. 

2.  The  CongTegation  of  the  Holy  Oliice 
of  the  Inquisition.    [See  Inquisition.] 

3.  That  of  the  Index  {Indicis  librorum 
prohibitorum).  This  congi-egation,  estab- 
lished by  St.  Pius  v.,  consists  of  a  com- 
petent number  of  Cardinals,  with  a  secre- 
tary belonging  to  the  Dominican  order, 
and  a  number  of  eminent  theologians  as 
Consultors.    [See  the  article  Index,  &c.] 

4.  The  Congregation  of  Rites  {sacroi  um 
Rituum)  was  instituted  by  Sixtus  V.  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  Council  of  Trent  (sess.  xxv.)  ordered 
that  the  bishops  and  metropolitans  should 
watch  with  anxious  care  all  that  was 
done  respecting  the  invocation  of  saints, 
and  the  use  of  images  and  relics,  and 
sanction  no  novelty  without  consulting 
the  Roman  Pontiff.  Moreover  it  defined, 
with  especial  reference  to  t'.ie  Mass,  that 
the  Church  has  instituted  certain  rites 
and  ceremonies,  "  such  as  mystical  bene- 
dictions, lights,  incense,  vestments,  and 
many  other  things  of  the  like  nature,  in 
accordance  with  Apostolical  discipline 
and  tradition,  so  that  both  the  majesty 
of  so  gi-eat  a  sacrifice  might  be  recom- 
mended, and  the  minds  of  the  faithful 
aroused  by  these  visible  signs  of  religion 
and  piety  to  the  contemplation  of  those 
deep  and  high  things  which  are  hidden 
in  this  sacrifice."'  The  object  of  the 
CongTegation  is  to  promote  a  general 
uniformity  (which  is  consistent,  however, 
with  the  permission  of  innumerable  difier- 
ences  of  detail,  according  to  the  customs 
and  traditions  of  difi'erent  nations)  in  the 
externals  of  divine  worship,  since  by  this 

^  Sess.  xxiL  c.  5. 


I  uniformity  the  unity  of  faith  is  mirrored 
and  more  easily  retained.  "With  regard 
I  to  all  such  matters  the  congregation  is 
I  ordinary,  and  is  assisted  only  by  Con- 
I  suitors,  among  whom  are  the "  Papal 
Sacrist  and  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  ;  with  regard  to  the  beatification 
!  and  canonisation  of  saints  it  is  extra- 
\  ordinary  and  is  assisted  by  a  promotor 
I  Jidei,  three  auditors  of  the  Rota,  theolo- 
gians, medical  men,  professors,  &c.  [See 
Beatification.] 

5.  The  Congregation  of  Immunities 
{immunitaiis  Ecclesi<e  et  controversim-um 
jurisdictiunalium),  instituted  by  Urban 
VIII.    All  matters  connected  with  the 

'  right  of  asylum  and  clerical  immunity 
cume  imder  this  congregation,  but  this 
branch  of  its  business  is  less  important 
than  formerly,  owing  to  the  tendency  of 
modern  civil  legislation  to  do  away  with 
all  these  immunities.  It  is  now  chiefly 
concerned  with  matters  relating  to  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction,  where  it  comes  in 
contact  with  the  civil  power.  Before  the 
time  of  Sixtus  V.  there  was  a  special  con- 
gregation of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  but 
it  was  abolished  by  that  Poutifl".' 

6.  The  Congregation  of  the  Fabric 
{reverendce  Fabricce  D.  Petri),  founded  by 
Clement  VIII.,  has  under  its  charge 
everything  that  relates  to  the  conservation 
of  the  Vatican  basilica. 

7.  That  of  the  Coxmcil  {intei-pretum 
Co7icilii  Tridentini).  In  its  last  session 
the  Fathers  of  the  Council  of  Trent  ex- 
pressed their  confidence  that  the  Roman 
Pontiif  would  take  care,  if  doubts  and 
difficulties  should  arise  with  regard  to  the 
meaning  and  due  execution  of  anything 
contained  in  their  decrees,  that  these 
should  be  solved  and  smoothed  away  by 
whatever  means  might  seem  to  him  most 
suitable  for  the  pui'pose.  Pius  IV.  ac~ 
cordingly,  soon  after  the  dispersion  of  the- 
Council,  instituted  the  above-named  con- 
gregation for  the  purpose  of  interpreting 
such  of  its  decrees  as  related  to  discipline ; 
of  those  concerning  faith  he  reserved  the 
intei-pretation  to  himself  and  his  succes- 
sors. 

8.  The  Congregation  of  Bishops  and 
Regulars  {episcopurum  et  regularium). 
This  also  was  instituted  by  Sixtus  V. ;  its 
chief  business  is  to  take  cognisance  of  the 
differences  that  arise  from  time  to  time 
between  bishops  and  the  regular  com- 
munities within  their  dioceses,  in  regard 
to  exemption,  visitation,  and  other  mat* 
ters. 

1  Kanke,  Hist,  of  the  Pupes,  bk.  iv. 


COXC^REnATIONS  (COXCTL.) 


CONSANGUINITY  2.^^ 


0.  Tilt'  ConsTPfjntion  of  Discipline 
dixfipliiia  reffiilari),  established  by 
Innocent  XII.,  superintends  all  that  re- 
lates to  the  interior  discipline  of  monastic 
conimuiiities. 

10.  That  of  Propaganda  {propayanda 
Ji-lei)  will  be  treated  in  a  separate  article. 
[See  Proi'.\ga>-da.] 

11.  The  Conureofation  of  Iniliilpcnces 
{induli/mtiuritm  ct  relir/innnu))).  cstnlv 
lished  by  Clement  IX.,  siipri-iiitt'iids  the 
t'.Kamination  of  relics  and  the  certification 
of  their  auth(>nticity,  as  well  as  the  grant 
of  indulgences,  any  abuses  connected 
with  which  it  is  required  to  check. 

Two  other  congifgntions  of  minor  im- 
portance are — that  of  the  heads  of  orders, 
presided  over  by  the  Pope,  which  selects 
the  subjects  which  are  to  be  brought 
before  the  consistory:  and  that  oi prelates, 
attached  to  the  Cmigregation  of  the 
Council  by  Pii'nedlcl  XI V.,  to  assist  them 
in  their  niultila'rii)u,s  labours. 

The  Honiau  PinitifV  sometimes  con- 
stitutes a  f-]iecial  cougrpgation  ad  hoc; 
this  was  lately  done  by  His  ITi)liness 
Leo  XIII.,  who  selfctivi  carilin;ils  from 
the  congregations  of  Bishops  and  lirgulars, 
and  of  Propagamla.  and  formed  tlu'ni  into 
a  special  coiivi'^^nt  iiui  t'l  iwamiin'  -niidiy 
points  of  com  i-MMi-v  \„->.\x,-vu  tin-  lu^liops 
and  regular  mi.-Monaiifs  of  iMiylaiul  and  i 
Scotland.  See  the  Constitution  7iV?«rv//(i.? 
Prnif.ifices  of  May  8,  1881.  (Ferraris, 
Congrei/ationes.') 

CON'GRfiGi'.TZOllI-S  AT  CENE- 
RAK  COVn-CZX.S.  When  a  Council 
meets,  congregations  of  bishops  must  be 
appointed,  by  or  with  the  approval  of  the 
Pope,  for  drawing  up  rules  for  the 
orderly  despatch  of  business,  determining 
when  and  where  tlii>  M's^ions  shall  be 
held,  preparing  tin  (|ii(-t  Mm-,  to  be  de- 
bated, and  many  mlin  nuitt.rs  of  the 
same  kind.  A  ditil  ivnt  kind  of  congre- 
gation came  prominently  into  view  at 
the  Council  of  Constance — that  of  tli" 
Nations.  The  Latin  Church  was  at  that  j 
time  understood  to  be  divided  into  four 
nations — theIlalians,Fivncli,Eiigl!>]i,and 
Germans — and  the  vote  was  taki'U  in  the 
Council  by  nations,  not  by  individuals. 
The  bishops  of  each  nation,  therefore, 
formed  themselves  into  a  congregation,  in 
order  to  prediscuss  all  questions  about  to 
come  before  the  Council,  in  the  light  of 
their  bearing  on  the  interests  of  their 
respective  countrymen, 

coxrcRiTZSM.    rgee  Grace.] 

COSrSASTGTTZM'ZTT  is  taken  here  in 
its  widest  sense,  to  include  all  that  theo- 


logians mean  by  co^wai'w.  Natural  con- 
sanguinity {cof/natio  rarnalix)  is  the  lioud 
between  persons  d(  ~(  (  iii].'il  I'nimtln-  >ame 
stock.  By  the  law  of  natuiv.  inarnage 
is  prohibited — ami,  in.lerd,  a  tint-  mar- 
riage is  in]po>sil  !i — lii'twct'U  ]iart')it  and 
child.  :>Iaiiy  thrologianseoiisidt-r  fui'tluT 
that  tlif  law  of  nature  nnllitifs  mari-iage 
bctwt'.'U  all  ]»'i-sons  n-latcd  in  the  "  diivet 
line" — i.e.  l/rtwpen  oi-anil-])ai>'nt  and 
grand-child^anil  als,.,  in  tli,.  ■•collat-Tal" 
line,  between  lu'otliers  and  >i>ti  r<.  They 
argue  from  tlu'  horror  nf  >iuli  unions 
which  nature  itself  >crnis  to  in-pir'-. 

The  Levitical  law  forbids  a  man  to 
"a])proach  "  one  who  is  a  blood  relatioTi, 
and  sjiecially  interdicts  mairiagc  with  the 
mother,  grand-daughter,  sister  or  half- 
sister  and  aunt.'  Proljalily  the^f  ]>i'o- 
hibitions  are  no  more  than  instaiici'S, 
meant  to  be  e.xtended  on  analogy,  for  the 
mariiage  of  a  man  with  his  daugliti-r  is 
omitted;  and  we  can  scarcely  sujipose 
that  this  is  an  enormity  which  did  not 
require  to  be  considered,  since  it  is  not 
more  unnatural  than  the  marriagf  of  a 
man  with  his  mother,  and  vi't  I  hat  is 
specially  forbidden.  As  a  matter  uf  fact, 
the  Levitical  prohibitions  were  extfuded 
by  the  Talmudists.2 

In  the  1  toman  law  the  degrees  of  col- 
lateral relationship  are  calculated  by  sum- 
ming up  tile  iiimiljer  of  persons  in  each 
line,  omitting  tlie  ]ier-on  from  •w  hom  they 
descend.  Thus,  limtliers  and  si.-tei's  are 
akin  in  the  second,  cousins  in  the  tourth 
degree.  Several  changes  were  nuule  in 
the  Roman  prohibitions  of  marriage. 
That  between  cousins  was  not  allowed  in 
early  times,  though  not  infrequent  after 
the  second  Punic  war. 

Such  a  union  was  prohibited  by  Theo- 
dosius,  though  Ills  son  Arradlus  rejiealed 
this  interdict  and  Justinian  adliejed  to 
the  more  lenient  vie\v.  Marriage  ln-i  w  eeu 
uncle  and  niec<'  was  unlawful  anioiiL;  the 
Komans.  Claudia.--,  to  contract  a  mar- 
riage of  this  kind,  exercised  strone  pi-es- 
sure  on  the  senate,  and  so  got  the  law 
altered  on  this  point:  and  later  authorit  ies 
restored  this  general  prohibition. 

In  the  Eastern  Church,  the  Council  in 
Trullo  forbade  marriage  between  cousins. 

1  The  most  complete  list  is  given  in  Levit. 
xviii.  6  seq.\  but  see  also  Deut.  xxvii.  22; 
Levit.  XX.  17  seq. 

3  However,  only  to  a  very  slight  extent. 
Marriages  between  uncle  and  niece  were  en- 
rouraued  by  the  rabbins.  But  the  Karaite*, 
the  great  opponents  among  the  Jews  of  rab- 
binical tradition,  objected  to  the  marria-v  of 
cousins. 


236 


COXSAXGUINITY 


CONSCIENCE 


Under  the  Isaurian  emperors,  Leo  and 
Constantinus,  alliances  were  interdicted 
between  persons  standing  in  the  sixth 
degree  of  consanguinity  according  to 
Roman  computation — i.e.  between  the 
graiidcliildren  of  brothers  and  sisters. 
Not  long  afterwards  the  seventh  degree 
like-\vise  was  forbidden,  and  so  the  law 
stands  to  this  day  among  the  Greeks. 

In  the  West,  the  old  Teutonic  mode 
of  computing  collateral  consanguinity 
obtairpd,  according  to  which  brothers  and 
sisters  are  related  in  the  first  dogree, 
cousins  in  the  second,  uncle  and  niece 
in  the  second,  &c.  The  canon  law 
prohibited  maiTiage  to  the  seventh  de- 
gree of  kindred,  a  prohibition  which, 
though  in  words  the  same  as  the 
Greek  rule,  did  in  reality  extend  the 
prohibited  degrees  twice  as  far.  In  the 
year  1216,  Innocent  III.,  in  the  Fourth 
Lateran  Council,  reduced  the  prohibition 
to  the  fourth  collateral  degree.  This 
ordinance  continues  in  firce,  and  hence  at 
jiresent  a  man  cannot  marry  any  woman 
from  wliom  he  is  descended  or  who  is  de- 
-cended  from  him,  nor  again  anyone  who  is 
related  to  him  colliiterally  (cousin,  second- 
cousin,  niece,  grand-niece,  &c.)  as  far  as 
the  fourth  degree  inclusive.  The  changes 
made  in  the  church  law  by  Protestant 
sects  and  Governments  are  very  numerous 
and  diverse.  (See  any  of  the  ordinary 
treatises  on  Moral  Theology;  and  for  the 
historical  facts  the  very  learned  essay  of 
Kalisch  on  Matrimonial  Laws  in  his 
"  Commentary  on  Leviticus,"  vol.  ii, 
p.  354  seq.) 

Besides  real  consanguinity,  the  Church 
also  recognises  such  relationships  as  are 
spiritual  and  legal  {cognatio  spiritualis  et 
legalis).  Spiritual  consanguinity  is  an 
impediment  to  marriage  between  the  god- 
parent and  the  god-child,  and  between 
the  god-parent  and  the  natural  parents 
of  the  cliild,  and  again  between  the 
minister  and  receiver  of  the  sacraments 
of  baptism  and  confirmation.  Such  is 
the  present  law  of  the  Church.  Spiritual 
relationship  first  appears  as  an  impediment 
to  marriage  in  the  sixth  century,  and 
there  have  been  important  changes  in  the 
law  respecting  it.  Among  the  Greeks 
the  impediment  from  this  kind  of  affinity 
extends  much  further  than  among  the 
Latins,  but  among  the  former  it  can  only 
arise  from  baptism,  for  they  have  no  con- 
firmation sponsors.  Legal  affinity  im- 
pedes marriage  (1)  between  the  adopter 
and  the  adopted  and  his  children,  so  long 
as  these  children  are  under  their  parent's 


I  control ;  (2)  between  the  adopted  and  the 
j  children  of  the  adopter,  so  long  as  they 
are  under  their  parent's  control;  (3)  be- 
tween the  adopter  and  the  wife  oi  the 
adopted,  as  well  as  between  the  adopted 
1  and  the  wife  of  the  adopter  [see  Aiop- 
tion]. 

j  COM-SCZEN-cx:.  The  word  "con- 
scientia"  is  used  in  the  Vulgate  as  the 
translation  of  a-welBrjms,  the  latter  word 
being  scarcely  found  in  classical  writers, 
though  it  frequently  occurs  in  the  New 
Testament.  St.  Thomas  and  other  theo- 
logians define  conscience  as  "  the  judg- 
ment or  dictate  of  the  practical  intellect, 
which  [arguing]  from  the  general  prin- 
ciples [of  morals]  pronounces  that  sduie- 
thing  in  particular  here  and  now  is  to  be 
avoided,  inasmuch  as  it  is  evil,  or  to  be 
done,  inasmuch  as  it  is  good." 

A  few  words  are  needed  to  explain 
this  definition  and  to  point  out  how  St. 
Thomas's  conception  of  conscience  differs 
from  others  common  among  modern 
philosophers.  The  reader,  then,  will  ob- 
serve that  conscience  denotes  an  act,  and 
so  is  very  different  from  the  "  faculty  of 
conscience,"  of  which  Bishop  Butler  '  and 
others  speak.  Further,  it  is  concerned 
with  a  judgment,  not  on  general  prin- 
ciples, but  on  an  act  to  be  done  or 
omitted.  Conscience,  for  example,  does 
not  tell  me  that  theft  is  sinful.  General 
principles  are  perceived,  according  to  St. 
Thomas,  by  the  intellect,  and  the  mind 
recognises  primarj'  moral  truths  without 
any  process  of  reasoning,  through  a  habit 
congenital  to  it,  which  the  scholastics 
call  synderesis  (i.e.  a-wTfiprja-is).  Con- 
science is  the  conclusion  from  premisses 
ultimately  derived  from  this  synderesis. 
Thus,  knowing  that  evil  acts  are  to  be 
avoided,  and  that  theft  is  an  evil  act,  I 
form  the  practical  conclusion,  "I  am 
hound  to  avoid  this  particular  act  of 
theft."  Lastly,  conscience  is  an  act  of 
the  intellect,  not  of  the  will,  though  the 
will  influences,  in  more  ways  than  one, 
the  formation  of  conscience. 

From  the  definition  given  it  is  plain 
that  conscience  is  not  an  infallible  guide 
of  action.  As  in  speculative  questions, 
so  in  morals,  the  reason  may  start  from 
false  principles  or  may  argue  wrongly 
from  true  principles.  Hence  conscience 
is  said  to  be  true  or  false;  and,  again, 

'  The  writer  attributes  this  to  Bishop  Butler 
from  recollection,  without  pledging  himself  to 
its  accuracy.  But  anyhow,  the  opinion  that 
conscience  is  a  special  faculty  has  been  main- 
tained. 


CONSCIENCE 


CONSECRATION  237 


Cr-rtain  and  doubtful,  so  far  as  the  con- 
clusion is  formed  with  or  without  doubt ; 
also  scrupulous,  if  an  action  is  judged  or 
feared  to  be  evil  on  grounds  unworthy  of 
serious  consideration  :  nnd  lax,  if  a  judg- 
ment is  formed  on  trifling  grounds  that 
an  evil  action  is  permissible  or  that  a 
great  sin  is  a  little  one.  Other  divisions 
of  conscience  are  of  less  importance  or 
are  really  included  in  those  already  given. 
Thus  a  "  doubtful  conscience  "  is  either 
absolutely  doubtful— t.e.  the  intellect, 
because  it  can  see  no  reasons  for  enabling 
it  to  decide,  or  else  reasons  equally 
balanced  on  both  sides,  suspends  judg- 
ment— or  "  probable,"  i.e.  the  intellect 
forms  an  opinion  on  grounds  good,  as  far 
as  they  go,  but  not  positively  convincing. 

Two  gi-eat  principles  concerning  con- 
science are  laid  down  by  Cutbolic  ines. 
First,  a  man  is  always  bound  to  follow 
his  conscience,  even  if  false  and  erroneous. 
Thus  St.  Paul,  speaking  of  eating  food 
which  it  was  really  la^-ful  to  eat,  says, 
"He  who  distiuguisheth  [i.e.  this  food, 
as  unbtwful,  from  other  food],  if  he  eatetli 
is  condemned,  because  it  is  not  from  faith 
[i.e.  as  is  evident  from  the  context,  be- 
cause it  is  not  from  conscience]  ;  but  all 
which  is  not  from  faith  is  sin."  '  The 
reason  is  obvious.  We  apprehend  the 
law  of  God  in  the  particular  case  through 
the  dictate  of  conscience,  and  liere  a  dis- 
obedience to  conscience  is  an  act  of  re- 
bellion against  God;  just  as  a  man  who 
believed  that  the  governor  of  a  province 
conveyed  the  command  of  tlie  sovereign 
would,  even  if  the  L'overnor  had  altered 
the  connnand,  he  guilty  of  disobedience 
to  the  sovereign  if  he  set  the  order  inti- 
mated to  liini  at  nought.  Accordingly,  a 
Protestant  who  is  seri^msly  convinced  that 
it  is  a  sin  to  hear  Mass  or  to  speak  to  a 
priest  would  undoubtedly  commit  sin  by 
so  doing.  Nor  can  any  injunction  of  any 
authority,  ecclesiastical  or  civil,  make  it 
lawful  for  a  man  to  do  that  which  his 
conscience  unhesitatingly  condemns  as 
certainly  wicked.  God  Himself,  Billuart 
says,  cannot  make  it  lawful  for  a  man  to 
act  against  his  conscience,  because  to  do 
so  without  sin  is  a  contradiction  in  terms. 

Secondly,  a  man  is  bound  to  form  his 
conscience,  or,  in  other  words,  his  judg- 
ment on  the  moral  character  of  bis  ac- 

'  Rom.  xiv.23.  So  the  Vulgate.  The  Greek 
really  means, "  he  who  doubts  is  condemned, "  i.e. 
by  Go  I.  Cf.  for  the  sense  of  StaKplveaSai.  iv.  20. 
and  iKirlaTews  =  from  Cliristian  faith,  informing 
the  conscience.  But  this  does  not  affecc  the 
argunient  we  have  dr.iwn  from  the  text. 


tions,  with  great  care.    It  is  not  always 

a  sufficient  excuse  to  say  that  one  who 
does  wrong  is  following  his  conscience. 
If  a  person  has  grave  grounds  for  sus- 
pecting that  his  conscience  is  erroneous, 
he  is  under  a  strict  obligation  of  looking 
well  into  the  matter.  He  is  bound  to 
take  all  reasonable  means — such,  in  other 
words,  as  good  and  honest  men  do  take 
when  there  is  danger  of  offending  God. 
He  ought  to  pray  and  also,  according  to 
his  opportunities,  to  consult  others,  par- 
ticularly those  set  over  him,  to  reconsider 
the  grounds  on  which  his  conscience  was 
formed,  &c.  If  after  the  due  use  of  means 
his  ignorance  cannot  be  overcome,  it  is 
plain  that  he  is  not  responsible  for  the 
error  into  which  he  has  fallen.  The 
diligence  spent  on  the  inquiry  need  not 
be  the  greatest  possible.  The  amount 
required  depends  on  the  gravity  of  the 
matter,  the  strength  of  his  motives  for 
doubting  whether  he  is  right,  and  the 
circumstances  of  the  agent.  (From  St. 
Thomas,  I.  Ixxix.  12  and  13;  Billuart, 
"  De  Actibus  humanis,"  diss,  v.) 

COM-SECRii.TZOif.  The  form  of 
words  by  which  the  bread  and  wine  in 
the  Mass  are  changed  into  Christ's  body 
and  blood.  This  technical  use  of  the 
word  first  occurs  in  Tertulhan,  "  De  An." 
17.'  The  form  for  the  consecration  of  the 
bread  in  the  Roman  Missal  is,  "  Hoc  est 
enim  corpus  meum ;  "  that  of  the  wine, 
"Hie  est  enim  calix  sanguinis  mei,  novi 
et  seterni  testamenti,  mysterium  fidei,  qui 
pro  vobis  et  pro  multis  effundetur,  in  re- 
mlssionem  peccatorum."  Some  reckon 
tlie  following  words,  "  Hjbc  quotiescunque 
feceritis  in  mei  memoriam  facietis,"  as  also 
pertaining  to  the  form.  Probably  the 
mere  words  "  This  is  my  body,"  "  This  is 
my  blood,"  would  suffice  for  validity.  The 
opinion  of  Scotus,  that  the  words  imme- 
diately preceding  the  form,  viz.  "  who 
the  day  before  he  suffered,"  &c. ;  or  of 
Toutt^e  and  Le  Brun,  that  the  validity  of 
the  consecration  depends,  not  only  on  the 
words  of  Christ,  "  This  is  my  body,"  &c., 
but  also  on  the  prayers  of  the  Church, 
need  not  be  discussed  here.  But  it  is 
necessary  to  say  something  on  a  special 
difficulty  with  regard  to  the  words  of 
consecration.  It  arises  from  the  liturgies 
of  the  Greeks. 

In  these  liturgies,  as  well  as  in  those 

'  St.  Ambrose  makes  St.  Lawrence  say  that 
Pope  Xystus  had  entrusted  to  him,  though  only 
adeacon,  •' doniinii  i  sanguinis  consccrationem," 
i.e.  probalily  '•  the  consecrated  blood  of  oul 
Lord,"  viz.  for  distribution  to  the  people. 


238  CONSECRATIOX  OF  ALTARS  CONSTANCE,  COUNCIL  OF 


of  otlier  Orientals,  we  find  prayers,  after 
the  consecration,  imploring  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  descend  on  the  gifts,  making 
the  bread  the  body  of  Christ,  and  the 
wine  His  blood.  This  has  led  some  of 
the  schismatic  Greeks  to  make  the  con- 
secration depend  on  these  prayers.  But 

1.  No  mention  is  made  of  prayers  after 
the  words  of  consecration  by  any  one  of 
the  synoptic  evangelists  or  by  St.  Paul. 

2.  The  earliest  Fathers,  Justin,  Ire- 
nffius,  Tertullian,  Ambrose,  Chrysostom,' 
evidently  make  the  consecration  depend 
on  the  words  of  consecration. 

3.  The  Greeks  themselves  at  the 
Council  of  Florence  unanimously  ad- 
mitted that  the  change  was  effected  by 
the  words  of  consecration,  "Hoc  est 
coi-pus,"  &c.  convinced,  as  they  said,  by 
the  words  of  their  great  doctor  Chij- 
sostom.^ 

4.  The  Oriental  liturgies  admit  of  a 
satisfactory  interpretation.  The  prayers 
referred  to  are  really  a  petition  that  what 
has  been  bread  and  wine  may  manifest 
itself  by  the  efl'ects  produced  on  the  souls 
of  the  communicants  as  the  true  body  and 
bloi^d  of  Christ :  or,  again,  the  prayer  for 
the  change  of  the  gifts  may  be  regarded 
as  one  act  with  the  consecration.  These 
interpretations  will  not  appear  forced  to 
anyone  familiar  with  the  language  of  the 
Eastern  liturgies.  Thus  in  a  Ritual  of 
Severus  God  is  asked  after  the  actual 
baptism  to  sanctify  the  baptised  persons 
with  the  laver  of  regeneration.  Simi- 
lar examples  are  collected  by  Meratus. 
(There  is  a  special  Catholic  treatise  on 
this  subject,  "  Die  Eucharistische  Wand- 
lung  und  die  Epiklese,"  by  Dr.  Joseph 
Franz.) 

COnrSECRATZOM-  OF  AX.TAaS. 

Altars  and  altar-stones  are  consecrated 
by  the  bishop  with  ceremonies  prescribed 
in  the  Pontifical.  The  most  essential 
part  of  the  rite  consists  in  the  anointing 
with  chrism  (to  indicate,  according  to 
Gavantus,  the  richness  of  grace),  and  the 
placing  of  relics  in  the  sepulchre  or  re- 
pository made  in  the  altar-stone  and 
afterwards  senlrd  up.  The  consecration 
endures  till  the  altar-stone  is  broken  or 
the  seal  of  relics  broken.  Cardinal  Bona 
contends  that  the  practice  of  consecrating 
altars  is  of  Apostolic  origin.  Putting 

1  TertuUian's  statement  is  explicit :  "  He 
made  the  bread  his  body,  saving,  This  is  mv 
body."— ^do.  Marc  iv.  40.  The  difficulty  in 
the  words  which  follow  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  question  before  us. 

2  Hefele,  Concil.  vii.  p.  740. 


aside  doubtful  decrees  of  early  Popes,  we 
find  such  consecration  first  mentioned  by 
the  Fathers  of  the  fourth  and  councils  of 
the  sixth  century.  [From  Gavantus,  and 
Kraus,  "  Real-Encyclopadie."  See  also 
Dedication  of  Chueches.] 

COSrSECRATZOIO-  OF  BISHOPS. 

[See  Ordee,  Holy.] 

COSrSECRATZOSr  OF  CHVRCHES. 

[See  Dedication  of  Chueches.] 

COHrSECRATZOSr  OF  CHAXZCE 
AWS  PATEN  is  made  by  the  bishop 
with  chi-ism,  the  prayers  to  be  used  being 
given  in  the  Pontifical.  This  rite  is  very 
ancient,  being  found  in  the  Gregorian 
Sacramentary,  the  most  ancient  Ordines, 
&c.,  where,  however,  no  mention  is  made 
of  the  chrism. 

cozrszSTORY  (Lat.  consistoi-ium). 
A  meeting  of  official  persons  to  transact 
business,  and  also  the  place  where  they 
meet.  The  word  is  classical,  and  was 
used  of  the  privy  council  of  the  Roman 
emperors.'  Before  the  Reformation  every 
English  bishop  had  his  cousistoiy,  com- 
posed of  some  of  the  leading  clergy  of  the 
diocese,  presided  over  by  his  chancellor. 
The  name  is  still  retained  in  the  Anglican 
Church,  but  the  consistory  is  with  them 
a  court  and  nothing  more.  In  the 
Catholic  Chm-ch  the  term  is  now  seldom 
used  except  with  reference  to  the  Papal 
consistoiy,  the  ecclesiastical  senate  in 
which  the  Pope,  presiding  over  the  whole 
body  of  Cardinals,  deliberates  upon  gi-ave 
ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  communicates 
to  his  venerable  brethren,  and  through 
them  to  Christendom,  the  solicitudes  and 
intentions  of  the  vicar  of  Christ  as  to  the 
condition  of  some  Christian  nation,  or 
the  definition  of  some  Catholic  doctrine. 
The  ordinary  meetings  of  the  consistory, 
held  about  once  a  fortnight,  are  secret ; 
they  are  usually,  but  not  invariably, 
presided  over  by  the  Pope.  Public  con- 
sistories are  held  from  time  to  time,  as 
occasion  may  require  ;  they  are  attended 
by  other  prelates  besides  the  Cardinals, 
and  by  the  representatives  of  foreign 
Courts.  In  them  the  resolutious  which 
the  Pope  has  arrived  at  in  secret  con- 
sistory are  announced,  and  an  allocution 
on  some  matter  of  pressing  importance  is 
commonly  delivered  by  the  Pontifl'  to  the 
assembled  Cardinals. 

coM-STAiircE,  covxrczx.  OF. 
An  attempt  had  been  made  early  in  the 

'  A  usonius  (  Grat.  Act.  29),  addressing  the 
Emperor  Gratian,  speaks  of  "  ilia  sedes,  ut  ex 
more  loquiinur,  consistorii,  ut  ego  seutio,  sacrarii 
tui." 


CONSTANCE,  COUNCIL  OF 


CONSTANCE,  COUNCIL  OF  239 


fifteenth  century  to  close  the  schism  in 
the  Papacy  by  the  convocation  of  a 
general  council  at  Pisa  (1409).  Twenty- 
tour  Cardinals  assembled  there  had 
claimed  to  depose  both  Gregory  XII. 
and  the  antipope,  Peter  de  Luna,  and 
had  elected  Cardinal  Philargi,  who  took 
the  title  of  Alexander  "\^.  On  the  death 
of  Alexander  in  a  fetv-  months  at  Bologna, 
the  Cardinals  chose  B.althasar  Cossa,  then 
governor  in  that  portion  of  the  Papal 
States,  to  succeed  him.  Balthasar  took 
the  title  of  John  XXIII.  Neither  Gregory 
nor  Peter  de  Luna  consented  to  make  a 
renunciation  in  favour  of  John ;  hence 
there  were  three  persons  each  claiming 
to  be  the  true  Pope,  and  the  action  of 
the  Council  of  Pisa  had  nuly  resulted, 
for  the  moment,  in  making-  the  confusion 
worse  than  before.  The  emperor  of 
Germany,  Sigismund  of  Luxemburg, 
formed  the  praiseworthy  determination 
to  use  every  means  in  his  power  to  ter- 
minate so  di.sastrous  a  state  of  things. 
In  concert  with  John  XXIII.  he  sum- 
moned a  general  council,  with  the  three- 
fold object  of  terminating  the  schism, 
extii-pating  heresy,  and  reforming  the 
Church  in  head  and  members.  Constance, 
an  imperial  city  on  the  lake  so  named, 
was  fixed  upon  as  the  place  of  meeting. 
John,  though  his  blemished  character 
made  him  shrink  from  facing  the  council, 
had  been  able  to  find  no  excuse  against 
the  emperor's  importunity ;  but  he  trusted 
that  it  would  meet  somewhere  in  Italy, 
and  that  the  great  pre])i)nderance  of 
Italian  bishops,  many  of  whom  were 
bound  to  him  in  various  ways,  would 
suffice  to  screen  him  from  attack.  His 
heart  sank  when  he  heard  that  his  legates 
had  consented  to  the  selection  of  a  city 
beyond  the  Alps,  and  he  went  to  the 
council  with  a  reluctance  which  the 
result  completely  justified. 

All  through  the  autumn  of  1414, 
whatever  was  most  illustrious  in  Europe 
for  piety,  learning,  power  or  enterprise — 
the  princes  of  the  empire,  the  Emperor 
and  Pope,  Cardinals,  statesmen,  bishops, 
theologians,  merchants,  artists,  repre- 
sentatives of  every  rank  and  every  calling 
in  the  then  civilised  world — was  stream- 
ing fix)m  all  directions  along  the  roads 
that  led  to  Constance.  Among  the 
English  bishops  the  chief  was  Ilobert 
Hallam,  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  France 
was  represented  by  Peter  d'Ailly,  the 
Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Cambray,  and 
Gerson,  the  famous  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Paris.  Among  the  Italians, 


nonewas  of  greaterweight  thanZabarella, 
the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Florence;  he, 
with  D'Ailly,  soon  came  to  the  front,  and 
took  the  lead  in  the  deliberations  of  the 
fathers. 

The  council  was  opened  by  John 
XXin.  on  November  5 ;  the  first  public 
session  was  held  on  the  16th  of  the  same 
month.  With  regard  to  the  form  in 
which  business  should  be  carried  on,  it 
was  prearranged  that  the  bishops  should 
be  divided  into  congregations  answering 
to  the  nationalities  to  which  they  be- 
longed (Italians,  French,  English,  Ger- 
man.-^a  fifth  was  added  for  Spain  in 
1416),  and  that  the  voting  in  the  council 
should  be  by  nations,  not  by  individuals. 
The  object  of  this  was  to  neutralise  the 
overwhelming  numbers  of  the  Italian 
bishops,  who  would  othervs'ise  have  been 
able  to  outvote  all  the  rest.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  objects  for  which 
the  council  met  were  to  a  large  extent 
political  and  disciplinary ;  there  was  as 
yet  no  real  schism  on  a  grand  scale  with 
regard  to  any  point  of  faith.  Hence 
a  mode  of  voting-  which  would  have 
been  improper  at  Trent  might  offer  the 
best  solution  of  existing  difficulties  at 
Constance. 

John  Huss,  rector  of  the  University 
of  Prague,  who  had  adopted  many  of  the 
opinions  of  Wyclif,  and  was  to  justify 
himself  if  he  could  before  assembled 
Christendom,  arrived  at  Constance  just 
before  the  opening  of  the  Council,'  fur- 
nished with  a  safe-conduct  from  the 
Emperor.  Other  Bohemian  ecclesiastics 
also  came,  and  denounced  the  preaching 
of  Huss;  before  the  end  of  the  month 
the  council  ordered  that  he  should  be 
arrested  and  put  in  custody.  A  commis- 
sion of  three  theologians  was  appointed 
to  examine  his  teaching.  In  the  following 
March  he  endeavoured  to  escape,  but  was 
retaken. 

The  more  the  antecedents  of  John 
XXIII.  became  kno-wn,  the  more  evident 
appeared  his  unfitness  for  the  Pontifical 
office ;  and  the  majority  of  the  council 
came  before  long  to  the  conclusion  that 
he,  with  the  other  two  claimants,  must 
resign  his  pretensions,  so  that  the  Cardi- 
nals might  proceed  to  a  new  election. 
This  John  agreed  to  do  (1415,  March  2), 
provided  Gregory  and  Peter  de  Luna 
would  do  the  same.  Soon  after,  finding 
that  his  past  career  was  being  inquired 
into,  he  secretly  witlidre-w  (March  21) 

1  Nov.  3, 1414,  not,  :is  Milmnn  states  (£a<m 
Chnstianity,  xiii.  8),  Dec.  3. 


1^40  CONSTANCE,  COUNCIL  OF 


CONSTANCE,  COUNCIL  OF 


from  Constance,  and  -went  to  Sol'.aff- 
hausen,  to  be  within  reach  of  his  friend 
Frederic,  the  Archduke  of  Austria.  Long 
negotiations  ensued;  at  length  (1415, 
May  29,  Sess.  xii.),  John  having  failed 
to  make  the  cession  of  his  office  in  the 
form  prescribed  —  the  commission  ap- 
pointed to  inquire  into  the  charges 
brought  against  his  cliaracter  having 
also  reported  most  unfavourably,  arid 
John  himself  having  admitted  tlie  truth 
of  a  portion  of  those  charges  — tlie  council 
declared  him  guiltv,  and  (li']Miscd  hiui 
from  tlic  rontificr.l  .  tlic,  of  wlilcli  he 
slinrtly  nl'ti'i  \\  :ir(l>  iii.ii'.r  the  formal  resig- 
natiiin  lli.'it  lie  h:i(l  jiniiniM'd. 

Ill  thr  I'oiiith  and  liftli  sessions 
(^laicli  -'to,  April  6)  di'crees  were  ado]ir<'d 
declaring  that  the  council,  representing 
the  Catholic  Church,  held  its  jhiwi'V 
immediately  fmni  Jesus  Chr;,-t,  and  tliat 
everyduc,  even  the  Pope  liiuiself,  was 
bound  to  oliey  it  in  all  that  concerned 
the  t';iitli,  the  extinction  of  tlu'  schism, 
and  the  reform  of  the  Church  in  its  head 
anil  members.  These  decrees  liaxc  often 
l.erii  ,|ii,.ted  as  if  tliey  involved  a  dog- 
matic definition  subordinating  tlie  I'ope 
to  a  geui'ral  council.  Attentively  cou- 
s'.dered,  they  appear  to  lie  carefully 
restricted  in  their  range,  and  to  ap]'ly  in 
thiTr  fullness  only  to  that  jKniicuiiir 
grouji  of  circumstances  which  tliev  wi  re 
inteiuled  to  remedy.  Im  en  so  intfu-jireted. 
they  must  be  regardeil  a.-  unl enable,  and 
as  excluded  from  the  guarded  and  limited 
confirmations  given  by  Martin  V.  and 
Eugenius  IV.  Still,  in  the  midst  of  the 
uncertainty  which  prevailed  as  to  who 
was  the  true  Pope—  an  uncertainty  which 
the  best-disposed  Christians,  owing  to 
the  obscurity  of  the  facts,  often  could 
not  clear  up  for  themselves — it  may  be 
admitted  that  there  is  much  to  be  said 
in  extenuation  of  the  violent  and  un- 
canonical  acts  and  speeches  which  appear 
on  the  conciliar  record ;  since,  unless  the 
council  could  succeed  in  enforcing  obe- 
dience to  its  decisions,  there  seemed  to 
be  no  hope  of  restoring  unity  to  the 
Church.' 

The  commission  whicli  had  been  ap- 
pointed to  examine  the  opinions  of  Wyclif 
and  the  LoUards  was  aided  by  the  learning 

I  The  learned  Cardinal  de  Tnrrecremata, 
who  was  present  at  the  council,  writes  : — "Ma- 
nifeste,  decretum  illorum  Patrum  non  loquitur 
universalitcT,  sed  de  ilia  [synodo]  singulariter, 
jiro  cujus  tempore  non  erat  in  Ecclesia  unus 
ji  istor  totius  Kcclesise  indubitatuB."  (Quoted 
in  Bail's  Summa  Conciliorum,  i.  485.) 


I  and  zeal  of  the  great  English  Carmelite, 
Thomas  Walden,  authorof  the  "  Doctrinale 
Fidei  "  and  the  "  Fasciculi  Zizaniornm." 
The  wild  and  monstrous  opinions  to  which 
Wyclif  had  set  his  hand  were  maturely 
examined,  and  the  rejiort  of  the  com- 
mission was  made  aboiit  this  time  to  the 
council.  In  the  eighth  session  (May  4) 
the  memory  of  Wyclif  was  ■  solemnly 
condemned,  and  it  was  ordered  that  his 
remains  should  be  exhumed,  and,  as  those 
of  an  impenitent  heretic.  Cast  forth  from 
the  place  of  Christian  burial  in  which 
they  lay. 

In  the  thirteenth  session  (1414,  June 
]•'))  the  lawfulness  and  evjiedimcy  of 
gi\"ing  coiiiiiuniioii  to  the  laity  under  oiii; 
sjiieies  \\eiv  aliirii;>-il,  and  those  who 
ohsf  iiiately  maim  ;i;ueil  the  contrary  were 

to  he  Ireateil  a>  heretics. 

Ill    the     fourterllth     sessiou    (Julv  4), 

Creuorv  XII.  gave  in  Ins  resignalion  of 
the  I'apacy.  The  aiiti]"  i]ie,  Peter  de  Luna, 
in  sjute  of  the  entreaties  of  the  king  of 
Ai'agon,  refused  to  renonnce  his  preten- 
sions. I  le  was  consequently  disregarded, 
anil,  alianiloued  by  nearly  all  his  adhe- 
rents, he  w  as  h  it  to  fulminate  idle  cen- 
sures fi  ^'ui  the  rock  of  Peniscola. 

In  the  (ifteeiith  session  (July  f!)  the 
docU  iiie  of  Jean  Petit,  who  had  written  a 
'  lio'.k'  to  .justify  the  assassination  of  the 
!  Dulie  of'  OrleaiK  hv  the  order  of  the 
Duke  of  lairjiiiiilv  iu  '407,  was  part-ally 
com], -mm  ,!.  A  I'ondemuation  of  lluss, 
who  hail  refused  to  recant  his  heretical 
ii|iinions,  was  at  the  same  time  puhlished, 
and  he  \\  as  ile]i\ered  to  the  secular  arm. 
lie  was  burnt  at  the  stake  on  the  same 
day.  An  outcry  being  raised  on  the 
ground  of  the  violation  of  the  safe-con- 
duct given  him,  the  council  (sess.  xviii. 
Aug.  17)  adopted  a  decree  by  which  the 
emperor  was  exonerated  from'  all  blame. 
He  had  done,  it  was  said,  all  that  de- 
pended on  him  to  keep  his  word ;  and  if 
lluss  had  been  less  obstinate,  he  would 
have  gone  and  returned  in  safety.  But  the 
emperor  had  not  the  power,  nor  did  he 
intend,  to  control  the  course  of  ecclesi- 
astical discipline,  which,  when  defied,  * 
executed  itself  by  the  means  regarded  in 
that  age  as  efficacious. 

About  the  same  time  the  case  of  the 
margraviate  of  Brandenbiu-g,  vacant  by  the 
death  without  heirs  of  the  last  margrave 
of  the  house  of  Pallenberg,  was  brought 
before  the  council.  The  qualifications  of 
several  princes  having  been  discussed,  the 
choice  of  the  council  fell  on  the  young 
Conrad  of  Ilohenzollern,  an  insignificant 


CONST-^'TINOPLE 


C0NST.\2sTtX0PLE  HI 


principality  in  South  Germany.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  the  extraordinary 
rise  of  that  now  celebrated  and  imperial 
hou>e,  which  has  of  late  years  dealt  so 
hardly  with  the  Church  to  which  it  owes 
its  greatness. 

The  years  1416  and  1417  were  chiefly 
taken  up  with  negotiations  respecting  the 
election  of  a  Pope,  and  endeavours  to 
remedy  ecclesiastical  abuses.  The  Enghsh 
and  Germans  wished  to  postpone  the 
election  of  a  Pope  till  after  the  completion 
of  the  reforms ;  the  French  and  ItaUan 
nations  took  the  opposite  view.  The 
latter,  in  the  opinion  of  Moehler,  were 
clearly  in  the  right.  At  last  (1417,  Nov. 
11),  the  Cardinal  Otto  Colonna  was 
elected  Pope  by  tweuty-three  cardinals 
and  a  representative  delegation  of  thirty 
prelates,  six  for  each  nation,  Spain  being 
now  included.  Cardinal  Colonna,  who 
took  the  name  of  Martin  V.,  was  a  man 
of  great  integrity  and  ability,  and  of  irre- 
proachable morals.  The  new  I'ope  con- 
lirmed  the  coimcils  acts,  limiting  his 
confirmation  to  what  had  been  done  "  con- 
cihariter  in  materiis  fidei,  et  non  aliter  nec 
alio  modo." 

The  bishops  were  now  weary  of  their 
conciliar  labours,  and  anxious  to  return 
to  their  dioceses.  Concordats  between 
Rome  and  the  principal  nations,  regu- 
lating future  relations  and  cutting  otf 
some  of  the  worst  abuses,  were  hastily 
framed,  and  the  council  was  dissolved  in 
its  forty-fifth  session,  April  22,  1418. 
(Fleury,  "  Hist.  Eccl. ;  "  Bail,  "  Summa 
Conciliorum ; "  Moehler,  "  Kirchenge- 
schichte.") 

COSTS  TAM-TZIirOPX.E,COTra-CXZiS 
or.  {l)G(iieral  Councils. — The  Second 
General  Council  (1st  of  CP.)  A  council 
of  150  Eastern  bishops,  which  met  in  381. 
It  was  presided  over  first  by  Meletius  of 
Antioch,  then  by  Gregory-  of  Xazianzus, 
who  bad  re-estabUshed  the  orthodox  faith 
in  the  city.  The  true  faith  was  main- 
tained against  Arianism  iu  all  its  manifold 
varieties,  as  well  as  against  ApoUinarian- 
ism  and  Macedonianism.  The  last  heresy 
—  named  from  Macedonius,  a  semi-Arian 
bishop  of  Constantinople,  deposed  by  the 
Catholics  in  .360 — consisted  in  a  denial  of 
the  Holy  Ghost's  perfect  Godhead.  To 
meet  this  error  the  council  added  to  the 
Xieene  Creed  the  words  "and  in  the 
Holy  Ghost,  the  Lord  and  life-giver, 
who  proceedeth  from  the  Father,  who 
with  the  Father  and  Son  is  together  wor- 
shipped and  glorified,  who  spake  by  the 
prophets."    This  council  had  in  itself  no 


claim  to  be  oecumenical,  but  it  was  gene- 
rally recognised  as  such  since  the  sixth 
century,  because  its  doctrinal  definitions 
(not  its  disciplinary  canons)  were  accepted 
throughout  the  Church. 

The  Fifth  General  Council  (2nd  of 
OP.)  met  in  553  with  165  bishops.  It 
condemned  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  the 
erroneous  portions  in  the  writings  of 
Theodoret,  aud  the  letter  of  Ibas,  because 
of  their  Nestorian  tendency.  [See  Three 
Chapters.]  There  was  no  explicit  con- 
demnation of  Origen's  errors,  though  he 
was  named  and  anathematised  among  ot  lier 
heretics.  The  decrees  of  this  council  were 
received  by  Popes  Vigilius  and  Pelaglus, 
but  it  was  long  before  its  wcumeuical 
character  was  acknowledged  throughout 
the  West.    [See  Three  CH.iPTERs.  1 

Sixth  General  Council  (3rd  of  "CP.), 
convoked  in  680  by  Constantine  Pogonat  us 
in  union  with  Pnpe  Agatho,  and  presided 
over  by  the  Papal  legates.  It  accepted 
Pope  Agatho's  definitions  of  "  two  physi- 
cal wills  [i.e.  in  Christ],  without  division, 
change,  partition,  confusion,  the  two  wills 
not  being  contrary  to  each  other,  but  the 
human  will  being  subject  to  the  divine." 
rSee  MoNOTHELiTEs.j  Sergius,  Cyrus, 
Honorius  [see  the  article],  Pj-rrhus,  Paul, 
were  anathematised.  Pope  Leo  II.  con- 
fii-med  tlie  decrees. 

Eighth  General  Council  (4th  of  CP.) 
met  in  869,  and  endeavoured  to  heal  the 
schism  which  threatened  to  separate'  the 
East  from  Rome,  by  deposing  Photius  and 
restoring  Ignatius  lawful  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople. The  Greeks  finally  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  council,  substituting  for 
it  a  council  of  879,  in  which  the  conduct 
and  ordination  of  Photius  were  approved. 

(2)  Particular  Councils.  —  Special 
mention  is  due  to  the  synod  in  Trullo, 
which  met  in  691.  It  passed  102  canons 
dealing  with  numerous  questions  oC  dis- 
cipline, and  partly  with  the  worship  of  the 
Eastern  church.  The  decrees  betray  a 
strong  animus  against  Rome,  and  though 
regarded  as  oectunenical  hj  the  Greeks,  it 
was  never  received  in  the  West.  The 
name  "  in  Trullo indicates  the  domical 
building  in  which  it  was  held.  It  was 
also  called  irfvOiia-rf  or  quinise.vta,  because 
it  was  meant  by  its  disciphnaiy  decrees 
to  complete  the  labours  of  the  fifth  and 
sixth  councils. 

(3)  Of  schismatical  councils  we  may 
name  two,  held  in  1638  and  1642,  against 
the  Calvinistic  errors  of  Cyril  Lucar. 

COSrSTAM'TZirOPX.B.PATRZA.R- 
CHATE  or.   The  church  of  liyzaiitium 


242  CONSTANTINOPLE 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


was  originally  a  simple  bishopric,  subject 
to  the  metropolitan  see  of  Heraclea.  A 
new  state  of  thing?  began  when  the  city 
became  the  seat  of  the  imperial  Court ; 
the  metropolitan  of  Heraclea  could  no 
longer  exercise  his  authority  over  his 
suffi-agan  of  Constantinople ;  and  in  381 
canon  3  of  the  Second  General  Council 
assigned  to  the  see  of  Constantinople  a 
primacy  of  honour  {npeape'ia  Trjs  rifirji) 
after  that  of  old  Rome.  The  Greek 
canonist  Zonaras  frankly  admits  that  this 
canon  acknowledges  the  superiority  of 
the  Roman  bishop.  But  did  it  give  real 
patriarchal  power  to  the  bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople? De  Marca  answers  in  the 
negative ;  so  does  Cardinal  Hergenrother ; 
but  Hefele  considers  it  more  lilcely  that 
this  canon  gave,  not  only  a  primacy  of 
honour,  but  also  real  jurisdiction  in  the 
district  of  Thrace  to  the  Bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople. 

With  this  power  the  bishops  of  Con- 
stantinople were  not  content,  and  they 
found  it  easy  to  extend  their  jurisdiction. 
In  the  AVest,  Cyprian,  the  Council  of 
Sardica,  and  other  authorities,  accepted 
the  principle  expressed  by  St.  Augustin 
when  he  says,  "  The  Lord  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  his  Church  in  the  Apostolic  sees," 
and  to  such  foundation  Constantinople 
could  make  no  plausible  claim.  But  in 
the  East  the  notion  prevailed  that  the 
ecclesiastical  should  correspond  with  the 
civil  dignity  of  a  city,  a  principle  clearly 
implied  in  the  9th  canon  of  the  Synod  in 
Encseniis,  which  met  at  Antioch  in  341. 
Moreover,  bishops  came  from  all  parts  of 
till'  East,  to  lay  their  petitions  before  the 
eni])('ror.  He  often  referred  them  to  the 
bisiiop  of  the  place,  i.e.  of  Constantinople, 
and  the  latter  settled  the  matter  in  a  avv- 
oSos  (vbr]ixov(Ta  composed  of  the  bishops 
who  happened  to  be  in  the  capital,  over 
which  .synod  he  himself  presided.  Thus 
very  often  the  affairs  even  of  other  patri- 
archates were  tried  by  agreement  of  the 
contending  parties,  and  soon  this  custom 
led  to  a  flaim  as  of  right.  This  power 
grew  undi  r  St.  John  Chrysostom,  of 
whom  Thi'.jdoret  says  that  he  ruled 
Thiacr,  A-ia  and  Pontus,  in  all  twonty- 
ci^lit  provinces.  Atticus,  the  second 
bishop  after  Chrysostom,  was  empowered 
by  an  imperial  edict  to  consecrate  metro- 
politans even  beyond  Thrace.  In  the 
earlier  part  of  the  fifth  C(>ntury  we  find 
Proclus  of  Constantinople  ordaining 
bishops  for  Pontus  and  Asia.  About  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century  Anatolius  of 
Constantinople  actually  appointed  Maxi- 


mus  bishop  of  Antioch  and  thus  assumed 
authority  over  the  ancient  patriarchal  see. 
True,  opposition  was  made  to  these  pre- 
tensions, but  without  permanent  effect, 
and  at  the  Fourth  General  Council,  Ana- 
tolius tried  to  get  the  claims  of  his  see 
fully  and  formally  acknowledged.  The 
time  singularly  favoured  such  a  project. 
The  bishoprics  of  Alexandria  and  Ephesus 
were  vacant.  Maximus  of  Antioch  was 
a  creature  of  Anatolius,  while  Juvenal  of 
Jerusalem  was  specially  indebted  to  him. 
Accordingly,  in  canon  28  of  Chalcedon, 
the  decree  of  the  Second  Council  placing 
Constantinople  next  in  dignity  to  Rome 
was  confirmed,  and  further  it  was  deter- 
mined that  the  bishop  of  Constantinople 
should  consecrate  the  metropolitans  of 
Pontus,  Asia  Proconsularis,  and  Thrace, 
and  also  the  bishops  in  "  barbarous  coun- 
tries." Pope  Leo  absolutely  refused  to 
confirm  this  canon,  as  his  predecessors 
had  ignored  canon  2  of  Constantinople,' 
and  for  long  the  Greeks,  who  had  ac- 
knowledged that  it  needed  Papal  confir- 
mation, omitted  it  in  their  collection. 
Still  the  see  of  Constantinople  did  in  fact 
exercise  the  power  assigni'J  to  it  at  Chal- 
cedon and  continued  to  do  so,  iu  spite  of 
repeated  protests  on  the  part  of  the  Popes. 
Gregory  the  Great  had  to  protest  vigor- 
ously against  the  assumption  of  the  title 
"  fficumenical  Patriarch  "  by  John  the 
Faster  (about  587).  Justinian  confirmed 
the  rank  of  Constantinople ;  while  the 
Greek  synod  in  Trullo  repeated  canon  28 
of  Chalcedon.  Illyria  during  the  Icono- 
clastic controversy  was  torn  from  the 
Roman,  and  united  to  the  Constantino- 
politan  Patriarchate,  under  which  it 
continued  when  the  strife  on  images  was 
over ;  and  finally,  after  the  schism  of  the 
East,  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
became  independent  head  of  the  whole 
(schismatic)  Eastern  chiirch,  with  the 
provinces  of  Pontus,  Asia,  Thrace,  and 
Illyria  in  immediate  subjection  to  himself. 
Later,  he  also  obtained  a  primacy  over 
Russia,  in  accordance  with  the  canon  of 
Chalcedon,  which  placed  the  territory  of 
barbarians  under  his  care. 

However,  in  modern  times,  political 
causes,  which  had  originally  established, 
grievously  diminished  the  power  of  Con- 
stantino] Tie.  In  the  sixteenth  centuiy 
(158'.)),  a  Russian  patriarchate  was  insti- 
tuted at  Moscow,  and  although  it  exists 
no  longer,  the  Russian  church  is 
governed  by  a  "holy  synod"  (1721)  in- 
'  On  tlie  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  in  the  East, 
I  see  Fleury,  xviii.  7. 


CONSTITUTIONAL  CLERGY  CONSTITUTIONAL  CLERGY  243 


dependent  of  Constantinople.  The  church 
of  the  kingdom  of  Greece  also  secured  its 
independence  in  consequence  of  the  revo- 
lution of  1821.  The  Greek  schismatical 
bi.~hop8  in  the  Austrian  territory  are  also 
independent  of  Constantinople.  So  now 
are  the  schismatics  of  Bulgaria  and  Mon- 
tenegTo,  and  the  patriarch's  jurisdiction 
is  limited  to  Tui-key  in  Europe  and  all 
those  dioceses  in  Asiatic  Tm-key  which 
do  not  belong  to  the  other  three 
patriarchates. 

A  Latin  patriarchate  was  founded  at 
Constantinople  during  the  time  of  the 
Latin  rule  there  (1204-1261).  The  title 
is  still  borne  1iv  nne  of  the  high  dignitaries 
of  the  Pap;il  C.mrt.  There  is  also  u  Vicar 
Apostolic  for  the  Latins.  In  the  Fourth 
Lateran  Council  Innocent  III.  gave  the 
second  place  among  the  sees  of  Christen- 
dom to  the  Greek  Patriarchate,  and  this 
privilege  was  renewed  in  the  Second 
( 'niincil  of  Lyons  and  in  the  Council  of 
Florence.  (See  Le  Quien,  "  Oriens 
Christianus ;  "  Hefele,  "  Concil."  vol.  ii., 
and  for  the  present  state  of  things  an 
article  on  the  Greek  Church  by  Professor 
Lamy  in  the  "  Dublin  Review  "  for  July 
1880.  See  also  Cardinal  Hergenrother's 
"Photius.") 

COia-STZTTrTZON-A.!.  CX-ERC-r. 
This  was  the  name  given  to  that  portion 
of  the  French  clergy  which  gave  in  its 
adhesion  to  the  "  civil  constitution  "  pro- 
vided for  them  by  a  law  of  the  National 
Assembly  passed  in  August  1790,  and 
took  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  it  in  the 
maimer  prescribed  in  the  law  itself. 

The  committee  which  ;  .-.  w  up  this 
notable  scheme  were  not  atheists,  nor 
deists,  nor  Protestants ;  they  were  what 
would  be  called  now  bad,  or  liberal. 
Catholics.  They  aimed  at  introducing 
what  they  considered  principles  of  liberty 
into  the  religious  life  of  the  nation,  by 
releasing  the  bishops  trom  their  obedience 
to  the  Pope,  and  the  inferior  clergy  from 
their  dependence  on  the  bishops.  Yet  ' 
they  did  not  desire,  like  the  English  ! 
reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century,  abso- 
lutely to  reject  the  Pope  and  break  ott" 
communion  with  him.  For  the  19th 
article  of  the  Civil  Constitution,  after 
forbidding  a  newly-elected  bishop  to 
obtain  any  confirmation  from  Rome,  pro- 
ceeds : — "  But  he  shall  write  to  him  [the 
Pope',  as  to  the  chief  of  the  universal 
Church,  in  testimony  of  unity  of  faith  and 
of  the  communion  which  he  is  bound  to 
maintain  with  him."  Some  priests, 
steeped  in  Galilean  opinions,  such  as  the 


Abb^  Expilly  and  Dom  Gerle,  and  Jan- 
senist  advocates,  like  Chasset  and  Marti- 
neau,  were  members  of  the  committee, 
and  bore  an  active  part  in  framing  the 
new  law,  whUe  all  the  time  professing 
great  reverence  for  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  a  determination  not  to  sever  France 
from  her  communion. 

The  French  clergy,  to  relieve  the 
distress  of  the  nation,  had  voluntarily 
renounced  tlieu-  tithes;  of  their  landed 
property  tliey  had,  on  the  motion  of  the 
notorious  Bishop  of  Autun,'  been  stripped 
by  a  decree  of  the  National  Assembly. 
The  Assembly  recognised  the  oliligation 
under  which  it  lay,  having  expropriated 
the  landed  property  of  the  clergy,  to  sup- 
port them  by  a  competent  annual  sub- 
vention from  the  public  revenue.  Had 
the  bishops  and  the  Holy  See  been  allowed 
to  frame  the  new  arrangements  which 
the  change  in  the  mode  of  supporting  the 
clergy  rendered  necessary,  it  is  probable 
that  no  serious  difficulty  would  have 
arisen.  But  the  Galilean  party  thought 
they  saw  their  opportunity  of  erecting  a 
church  almost  entirely  national  and  self- 
governed  ;  they  seized  it  eagerly,  and  the 
result  of  their  action  was  a  terrible  in- 
crease in  the  distractions  of  France,  and 
a  potent  stimulus  to  the  horrors  and 
abominations  of  the  Revolution. 

The  new  constitution  suppressed 
many  of  the  French  dioceses  (which  at 
that  time  were  about  130  in  number), 
and  pretended  to  assign  the  boundaries 
of  others,  without  the  concurrence  of  the 
ecclesiastical  authority.  It  decreed  that 
the  bishops  should  be  elected  by  local 
conventions  of  the  clergy,  and  confirmed 
by  the  metropolitans,  without  having 
recourse  to  the  Holy  See  for  canonical 
institution.  It  prescribed  a  number  of 
minute  regulations  for  the  internal  govern- 
ment of  the  French  church,  of  which  it 
is  enough  to  say  that,  whether  good  or 
bad  in  themselves,  they  were  such  as  no 
secular  authority  had  any  right  to  impose 
without  the  consent  of  the  ecclesiastical 
authority.  Moreover,  all  beneficed  and 
employed  clergy,  whether  bishops,  priests, 
or  others,  were  required  to  take  an  oath 
to  maintain  "  the  constitution  decreed," 
on  pain  of  deprivation  ipso  facto  if  the 
oath  were  refused. 

The  Pope  (Pius  VI.),  on  learning  the 
nature  of  the  law  that  was  passing  through 
the  Assembly,  wrote  to  Louis  XVI.,  and 
to  the  archbishops  of  Bordeaux  and 
Vieime,  urging  the  inevitable  fall  into 
'  Talleyrand. 


244  CONSTITUTIONAL  CLERGY 


CONSTITUTIONAL  CLERGY 


schism  which  must  be  the  result  of  such 
legislation.  Thirty  bishops,  who  had  seats 
in  the  National  Assembly,  signed  a  paper 
called  "  Exposition  of  Principles  on  the 
Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy,"  which 
was  drawn  up  in  a  sense  antagonistic  to 
the  constitution  by  M.  de  Boisgelin,  arch- 
bishop of  Aix.  Nearly  all  the  French 
bishops,  and  the  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne, 
adhered  to  this  Exposition,  and  the  gTeat 
niiijority  of  the  inferior  clergy  followed 
llicir  example.  This  fidelity  is  in  re-  ] 
nmrk.ible  contrast  with  the  conduct  of 
the  English  bishops  under  Henry  VIIL,  ■ 
and  with  that  of  the  majority  of  the 
beneficed  clergy  at  the  accession  of , 
Elizabeth. 

The  constitution  was  finally  decreed  ! 
on  August  24, 1790,  and  the  period  termi-  I 
Dating  on  January  4, 1791,  was  named  as  | 
that  within  which  the  oath  must  be  taken. 
The  day  came,  and  all  the  eccli-ia.  I  ic  s  In 
the  As.-finbly,  whether  bishops  or  priests, 
refused  the  oath,  and  lost  their  seats  in 
consequence.  In  the  provinces  also  the 
oath  was  very  generally  refused  ;  the  only 
archbishop  who  took  it  was  Lomenic  de 
Brienue,  archbishop  of  Toulouse,  whose  [ 
weakness  was  imitated  hy  three  bishops, 
those  of  Autim,  Orleans,  and  Viviers. 
One  hundred  and  twenty-seven  prelates 
remained  firm  and  refused  the  oath. 
Among  the  inferior  clergy  a  similar  con- 
stancy was  manifested ;  still  the  influence 
of  the  Government,  of  a  lay  society  much 
infected  by  unbelief,  and  of  the  old  Gal- 
ilean prejudices,  was  strong  enough  to 
induce  a  large  number  of  priests  to  take 
the  oath.  These  were  the  "jurants,"  the 
"  pretres  assermentes,"  or  "  constitution- 
nels;"  while  the  other  side  were  called 
"  dissidents,"  "  pretres  non  asserment6s," 
&c.  Between  the  two  parties  a  violent 
conflict  arose.' 

The  Pope  acted  with  great  vigour ;  in 
briefs  dated  in  March  and  April,  1791,  ^ 
and  addressed  to  the  clergy  and  people  of  \ 
France,  he  discussed  the  terms  of  the  ' 
constitution,  showed  how  repugnant  they 

'  Carlylc  <lcsaribe3  with  evident  satisfaction 
the  l)lows  and  insults  wliich  the  "dissident" 
|)ricsts  had  to  cnduif  at  the  hands  of  revolu- 
tionarj'  citnyennes  in  Paris.  He  sums  up  the 
quarrel  as  amounting  to  this:  that  one  party 
heM  that  a  bishop,  "his  creed  and  formularies 
boint;  h'ft  quite  as  thev  were,  can  swear  lidelity 
til  Viwii,  Law,  and  Sation;''  the  other,  that 
"he  cannot,  but  that  he  must  become  an  ac- 
cursed thing."  The  extreme  unfairness  of  this 
■way  of  ])utting  the  matter  is  apparent  even 
from  the  short  sketch  of  the  facts  that  we 
have  given.  {French  Revolution,  vol.  ii.  book 
iv.  1,  2.) 


were  to  the  just  freedom  of  the  Church, 
and  how  inconsistent  with  the  rights 
of  that  divine  institution  which  Jesus 
Christ  established  upon  earth,  and  laid 
under  the  ban  of  religion  both  those 
among  the  actual  clergy  who  had  taken 
the  oath,  and  those  who,  in  order  to 
obtain  clerical  emolument  and  position, 
might  in  future  take  it.  He  also  degraded 
LomiSnie  de  Brienne  from  the  cardinalate, 
as  one  who  had  soiled  the  Roman  purjjle 
by  swearing  in  a  sense  contrary  to  those 
sacred  and  venerable  oaths  by  which  he 
was  before  bound. 

Nevertheless,  the  schism  continued  to 
extend  itself  in  France;  new  pretended 
bishops  were  consecrated  by  Talleyrand 
and  his  accomphces,  according  to  the 
forms  prescribed  by  the  civil  constitution, 
and  the  Government  soon  lent  its  weight 
to  the  persecution  which  the  revolutionaiy 
sect  had  commenced  against  the  faithful 
priests.  The  Legislative  Assembly  decreed 
(Nov.  1791)  that  priests  refusing  the  oath 
should  be  reputed  under  sii>picion  of  revolt 
against  the  law  and  disallectl.ni  to  their 
country ;  that  they  should  be  deprived  of 
all  salaiy,  and  imprisoned  in  sucli  places 
as  the  departmental  administrations  mi  Li  lit 
appoint.  Further  decrees  in  the  course  of 
the  following  summer  condemned  all  eccle- 
siastics "non-asserment6s"  to  banishment. 
More  than  fifty  thousand  of  the  clergy 
came  under  this  proscription;  they  left  or 
prepared  to  leave  the  country  in  great 
numbers.  The  hatred  and  fear  of  the  revo- 
lutionists were  aroused,  and  a  massacre 
of  the  priests  began  simultaneously  in 
many  parts  of  France. 

The  schism  took  the  dovraward  course 
usual  with  such  movements ;  before  long 
several  of  the  constitutional  bishops  and 
priests  married ;  those  of  them  who  had 
seats  in  the  Convention  nearly  all  voted  for 
the  king's  execution ;  and  in  Novemljer 
1793  the  Bishop  of  Paris  (Gobet)  and  his 
grand-vicars  publicly  abjured  Christianity 
in  the  hall  of  the  Convention.'  Yet  these 
unhappy  men  did  not  save  their  lives  by 
their  apostacy;  the  greater  number  of 
them  fell  victims  either  to  private  ven- 

•  "  Le  citoyen  Gobet  alia  done,  accomijaiine' 
de  ses  grands  vicaires,  abjurer  au  sein  de  la 
Convention  toutes  les  h^rdsie-  que  les  pretres 
avoientpr^chdesdepuisdix-huit cents ans  contra 
la  loi  et  contre  la  religion  naturelle.  Son  dis- 
cours  dlectrisa  toutes  les  ames.  .  .  .  Tous  les 
pretres  de  la  Convention  (et  il  y  en  avoit  Ijeau- 
oimp)  abjurerent  leurs  erreurs.eurcnt  rimnneur, 
quoique  tardif.  de  se  ddpretriser,  de  se  ddpisco- 
i  piser." — Prudhomrae,  Revolutions  de  Paris, 
I  vol.  XV. 


CONSlTBSTANnAL 


CONTRITION 


246 


geance  or  to  the  sanguinary  patriotism  of 
the  Jacobin  Government.  Merged  in  the 
more  horrible  revolt  against  all  law  and 
"  all  that  is  called  God/'  into  which  the 
Satanic  energy  and  determination  of  the 
Jacobins  plunged  the  whole  French  nat  ion, 
the  less  criminal  schism  of  the  consti- 
tutionals almost  disappears  from  sight. 
The  worship  of  Reason  and  Nature  was 
solemnly  inaugurated  in  the  church  of 
Notre  Dame;  wherever  the  Convention 
had  power  the  voice  of  religion  was 
silenced,  and  the  churches  closed.  "SMien 
in  1801  the  First  Consul  concluded  a  con- 
cordat with  the  Holy  See  for  the  resto- 
ration of  Christian  worship,  twelve  con- 
stitutional bishops  were  allowed  to  have 
sees,  but  only  upon  making  the  following 
declaration :  "  I  declare  before  God  that 
I  profess  adhesion  and  submission  to  the 
judgments  of  the  Holy  See  on  the  ecclesi- 
astical affairs  of  France."  (TS'etzer  and 
Welte,  article  Constitution  Civile  du 
Clerge.) 

COSrStrBSTAia'TZA.&  {ojxoova-iot). 
The  word  used  by  the  Fathers  of  Nicnea, 
to  estabhsh  the  true  Godhead  of  the  Sou, 
inserted  by  thera  in  their  Creed,  and  ever 
since  the  watchword  of  those  who  have 
true  faith  in  the  divinity  of  Christ.  A 
man  may  be  said  to  be  of  one  substance 
with  another  because  he  has  the  same 
specific  nature :  but  the  Son  is  consul)- 
stantial  with  the  Father  in  another  sense, 
for  his  nature  is  numerically  one  with 
that  of  the  Father :  else,  there  would  be 
two  Gods.  Hence,  when  we  say  that  the 
Son  is  consubstantial  with  the  Father,  we 
confess  Hi."  perfect  equality  and  co-eter- 
nity with  the  first  Person  of  the  Trinity 
and  at  the  same  time  exclude  all  imper- 
fection from  His  eternal  generation.  A 
human  son  receives  an  individual  nature 
and  is  separate  from  his  father;  but  God 
the  Son  is  ever  in  the  Father  and  the 
Father  in  Him. 

The  word  had  long  been  used  in  the 
Church.  Tertullian  (Adv.  Prax.  13  and 
4)  says  the  Son  is  "  of  one  substance  "  and 
"  from  the  substance  of  the  Father,"'  and 
closely  similar  phrases  occur  in  Clement 
of  Alexandria  and  Novatian.^  At  the 
same  time  Paul  of  Samosata  had  used  the 
word  in  an  heretical  sense,  and,  so  under- 
stood, it  had  been  cojulemned  by  an  ortho- 
dox council  at  Antioch.  Probably,  as 
Hefele,  following  St.  Epiphanius,  thinks, 
Paul  made  the  Son  (apart  from  His 
humanity)  a  mere  attribute  of  God.  not  a 

'  See  Cardinal  Xewman's  note  on  Athanas. 
Dt  Deer.  Nic.  cap.  v.  §  64. 


distinct  Person  from  the  Father,  and 
expressed  his  view  by  the  word  consub- 
stantial.' 

At  Nicaea,  the  word  was  chosen 
because  it  did,  which  other  and  Biblical 
terms  did  not,  exclude  the  Arian  error, 
beyond  possibility  of  evasion.  The  Arians 
were  willing  to  allow  that  the  Son  was 
from  God,  His  power,  His  image,  even 
that  He  was  eternal,  because  their  so- 
phistical skill  enabled  them  to  rob  these 
words  of  their  natural  meaning,  and  to 
show  that  they  might  in  a  certain  sense 
be  applied  to  creatures.  Accordingly,  to 
put  their  meaning  and  faith  beyond  all 
doubt,  the  Fathers  of  Nicsea  chose  the 
word  consubstantial. - 

COXrSVBSTANTZATZOXr.  [See 

Etjcha.eist.~ 

CON'TEMPX.ATZOM-.  A  word  used 
to  describe  the  life  of  those  (religious  and 
others)  who  devote  themselves  to  prayer 
and  meditation,  rather  than  to  active 
works  of  charity.  No  doubt  such  a  life,  in 
order  to  be  real,  implies  a  vocation  of  no  or- 
dinary kind.  But  when  Protestants  or  ill- 
instructed  Catholics  condemn  such  a  life 
as  useless,  &c.,  they  oppose  themselve--  to 
the  tradition  of  the  Church,  since  the  earli- 
est religious — the  Fathers  of  the  desert, 
&c. — devoted  themselves  to  the  cnnt  empla- 
tive  life  and  were  venerated  throughout 
the  Christian  world  for  doing  so.  More- 
over, reason  itself  may  teach  us  that  a 
contemplative  is  not  a  useless  life.  Man's 
merit  consists  in  loving  God  and  man  for 
God's  sake.  And  in  itself  the  life  which 
is  occupied  directly  in  the  love  of  God  is 
more  meritorious  than  that  which  is  occu- 
pied chiefly  in  the  love  of  our  neighbour 
for  God's  sake.  Protestants  who  accuse 
contemplative  orders  of  idleness  really 
take  for  granted  that  the  love  of  God  is 
no  part  of  man's  dnty,  whereas  it  is  the 
noblest  occupation  in  which  lie  can  pos- 
sibly engage.  And  whereas  the  ministries 
of  the  active  life  cease  after  death,  the 
contemplative  life  is  perfected  and  con- 
tinued in  heaven.  It  is  that  "be-t  part"' 
which  Mary  chose  and  which  will  never  be 
taken  away.  It  may  of  course  happen 
that  a  person  merits  more  by  resigning 
the  sweetness  of  contemplation  for  a  time 
in  order  to  obev  the  call  of  God  to  the 
active  life.    (St".  Thnm.  2»  2»,  181,  2.) 

COirTItZTZOW.  in  its  wide-t  sense, 
is  defined  by  the  Council  of  Trent  as 
"grief  of  mind  and  detestation  of  sin 
committed,  with  a  purpose  of  sinning  no 

1  Hefele.  ConciL  i.  p.  140. 
»  Ibid.  p.  306. 


246   CONVERSION  OF  NATIONS 


CONVOCATION 


more."  Thus  understood,  it  includes  at- 
trition [see  the  article] ;  but  in  its  nar- 
rower sense  contrition  is  used  for  that 
sorrow  for  sin  which  arises  from  consi- 
deration of  God's  goodness'  which  sin 
has  outraged,  and  which  includes  a  resolu- 
tion never  to  offend  God  (at  least  mortally) 
because  God  so  deserves  our  love.  The 
Council  of  Trent  declares  that  "contrition 
perfected  by  charity,"  and  accompanied  by 
a  desire  to  confess  and  be  absolved,  may 
reconcile  the  sinner  with  God  even  before 
he  receives  the  sacrament  of  penance. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  the  grief  for  sin 
arising  from  the  love  of  God  should  be 
more  intense^  than  other  and  natural 
sorrow ;  it  is  enough  for  reconciliation 
with  God,  apart  from  the  sacrament  of 
penance,  if  the  sinner  would  rather  en- 
dure any  evil  or  sacrifice  any  good 
than  offend  so  good  a  God.  Thus,  for 
example,  a  man  may  feel  more  intense 
sorrow  for  his  wife's  death  than  for  all 
his  mortal  sins,  but  this  is  not  inconsistent 
with  perfect  contrition,  unless  it  implies 
that  he  would  sin  mortally  against  an  all- 
holy  God  if  by  this  course  he  could  undo 
the  calamity  which  has  fallen  upon  him. 
(From  St.  Liguori,  "Theol.  Moral."  vi. 
tract.  4,  cap.  1.) 

cowvERSzoir  OF  n-ATxoiirs. 
[See  Missioxs  to  the  Heathen.] 

COirVBN'T.  The  hermitages  and 
"  lauras  "  [Lauea]  of  the  first  ages  gra- 
dually gave  place  to  the  coenobite  mode  of 
life  :  only  in  the  orders  of  Chartreuse  and 
Camaldoli  has  the  solitary  Ufe  been 
partially  retained  to  this  day.  Monachism 
was  firmly  planted  in  Western  Europe 
by  St.  Benedict  of  Aniane  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tur\',  and  from  that  time  the  name  "  con- 
ventus"— applied  alike  to  communities  of 
men  and  women  living  under  a  rule  and 
practising  the  evangelical  coimsels — came 
into  common  use. 

Different  orders  preferred  different 
sites  for  their  convents.  The  Culdees  of 
lona  chose  islands  or  lonely  spots,  re- 
moved from  the  beaten  tracks  of  trade 
and  travel ;  this  pious  instinct  is  attested 
by  the  position  of  lona,  Lindisfame, 
and  Old  Melrose.  The  Benedictines 
were  said  lo  prefer  hillsides;  the  Cister- 
cians chose  quiet  valleys;  the  mendicant 
orders,  who  depended  on  alms,  and  made 
jireaching  one  of  the  great  aims  of  their 

'  So  thp  inajority  of  theolo^n.ins  ;  hutothers 
think  the  consideration  of  any  flivine  attribute 
may  supply  a  sulhcient  motive  for  contrition. 

^  This  may  now  be  considered  an  admitted 
jioiut,  though  it  was  once  keenly  debated. 


institution,  repaired  to  the  cities  and 
towns.  The  Society  of  Jesus,  as  a  rule, 
is  found  in  cities : 

fiernardus  valles,  montes  Benedictus  amabat, 
Oppida  Fracciscus,  magnas  Ignatius  urbes. 

In  illustration  of  these  preferences,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  hsts  of  old  Eng- 
lish monasteries  which  he  will  find  under 
Cistercians,  Franciscans,  Dominicans, 
&c. 

The  parts  of  a  convent  are :  1.  the 
church ;  2.  the  choir,  viz.  that  portion  of 
the  church  in  Avhich  the  members  say 
the  daily  office ;  3.  the  chapter-house,  a 
place  of  meeting  in  which  the  rule  is 
read,  elections  made,  and  community 
business  discussed  ;  4.  the  cells  ;  5.  the 
reft'ctory  (in  old  English,  fraitour,  or 
frnter) ;  6.  the  dormitory ;  7.  the  in- 
firmary ;  8.  the  parlour,  for  the  reception, 
of  visitors ;  9.  the  library ;  10.  the 
treasury;  11.  the  cloister;  12.  the  crypt. 

The  legislation  on  convents  forms  a 
large  and  important  section  of  canon  law. 
Among  the  chief  regulations  is  the  law 
of  enclosure,  which  "  separates  the  con- 
vent from  the  world  by  the  prohibition  or 
restriction  of  intercourse  from  without."^ 

coirvEN'TVAi.s.  [See  Francis- 
cans.] 

COTrvocATXOiO'.  The  assembly  of 
the  clergy,  in  the  provinces  of  Canter- 
bury and  York,  chiefly  for  purposes  of 
taxation.  Blackstnne  says  '  : — "  The 
convocation,  or  ecclesiastical  synod,  in 
England,  differs  considerably  in  its  con- 
stitution from  the  synods  of  other  Chris- 
tian kingdoms :  those  consisting  wholly 
of  bish(i]>s  :  whereas  with  us  the  convo- 
cation in  each  province  is  the  miniature 
of  a  parliament,  wherein  the  archbishop 
presides  with  regal  state :  the  upper 
house  of  bishops  represents  the  house  of 
lords ;  and  the  lower  house,  composed  of 
representatives  of  the  several  dioceses  at 
large,  and  of  each  particular  chapter 
therein,  resembles  the  house  of  commons 
with  its  knights  of  the  shire  and  burgesses. 
This  constitution  is  said  to  be  owing  to 
the  pohcy  of  Edward  I."  The  origin  of 
Convocation  is  treated  of  in  Burn's 
"  Ecclesiastical  Justice  "  and  Hody's 
"  History  of  Convocation."  It  seems  to 
have  assumed  its  peculiar  form  owing  to- 
the  endeavour  of  Edward  I.  to  organise 
the  clergy  as  a  third  estate  of  the  realm, 
which  should  meet,  deliberate,  and  grant 
the  king  taxes,  concurrently  with  the  two 
other  estates,  the  lords  and  the  commons. 


1  Commeiita 


,i.7. 


COPE 


COPTS  247 


The  writ  of  summons  which  he  addressed 
to  tlie  archbishops  and  bishops,  requiring 
them  to  call  tofrether  the  elergr  of  their 
respective  dioceses,  received,  from  the  first 
word  of  it,  the  name  of  the  prwvumientes 
writ.  He  experienced  great  resistance 
from  the  clerg-y,  who  were  indisposed  to 
admit  any  right  in  the  civil  power  to 
summon  them  together;  and  at  last  it 
was  settled  that  while  the  Icing  issued 
his  writ  of  summons  to  the  archbishops, 
they  should  issue  their  writs,  as  of  their 
own  authority,  to  the  bishops,  deans, 
archdeacons,  colleges,  and  diocesan  clergy 
of  the  province,  calling  them  together  in 
Convocation.  The  mode  of  obeying  this 
summons  was  ultimately  arranged  thus: 
the  bishops,  deans,  and  archdeacons  were 
to  attend  in  person,  the  chapters  and 
colleges  to  be  represented  by  one  proctor 
each,  and  the  clergy  of  each  diocese  to 
be  represented  by  two  proctors.  The 
archbishops  and  bishops  sat  separately  in 
an  upper  house,  corresponding  to  the 
House  of  Lords.  The  P'nglish  clergy 
were  in  those  days  so  careful  to  guard 
the  rights  and  freedom  of  the  Church 
that  they  frequently,  without  waiting  for 
the  king's  writ,  met  in  Convocation  under 
the  archbishop's  writ  alone,  and  trans- 
acted business.  For  the  national  Chureli 
created  at  the  Reformation  this  was 
rendered  impossible  by  the  Act  of  Sub- 
mission (25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  19),  which, 
starting  with  the  false  assertion  that 
Convocation  had  always  been  assembled 
only  by  the  king's  writ,  purports  that 
the  clergy  will  never  presume  thereafter 
to  meet  in  Convocation  except  by  royal 
authority,  nor  ever  attempt  to  pass  any 
canons  or  ordinances  there  unless  with  the 
sovereign's  assent.  For  the  later  history 
of  Convocation,  in  Anglican  times,  see 
Hody. 

COPE  {cnppa,  pluviale).  A  wide 
vestment,  of  silk,  &c.,  reaching  nearly  to 
the  feet,  open  in  front  and  fiistened  by  a 
clasp,  and  with  a  hood  at  the  back.  It 
is  used  by  the  celebrant  in  processions, 
benedictions,  &c.,  but  never  in  the  cele- 
bration of  Mass,  for  the  Church  reserves 
the  chasuble  for  the  priest  actually  en- 
gaged in  offering  sacrifice,  and  thus  care- 
fully distinguishes  between  Mass  and  all 
other  f\nictions.  The  cope  is  used  in 
processions  by  those  who  assist  the  cele- 
brant, by  cantors  at  vespers,  &c.,  so  that 
it  is  by  no  means  a  distinctively  sacerdotal 
vestment.  Mention  is  made  of  the  cope 
in  the  ancient  Ordo  Romanus  for  the 
consecration  of   bishops.     No  special 


blessing  is  provided  for  the  cope.  (From 
Gavantus  and  Meratus.) 

COPTS.  The  Monophysite  Christians 
in  Egypt.  Dioscorus,  the  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria,  was  deposed  by  the  council 
of  Chah'cdon  in  451,  because  he  main- 
tained that  there  was  oulv  one  nature  in 
Christ.  Orthodox  Patriarclis  and  other 
(ifHeials,  ecclesiastical  and  cix  il,  were  sent 
from  Constantinople  to  ]*'gypt,  hut  the 
mass  of  the  people  were  fauutically  at- 
tached to  Monophysite  error.  Manv  tied 
to  Upper  Egypt  or  took  refuge  among  the 
Arabs,  and  at  last,  when  the  occasion 
came,  the  Copts  betrayed  Egypt  to  the 
Saracens,  who  drove  Greeks  and  Romans 
out  of  the  land,  and  for  a  time  treated 
the  Copts  well.  But  it  was  only  for  a 
time,  and  under  successive  Mohammedan 
dynasties,  the  Copts  were  subjected  to 
cruel  oppression,  and  had  to  pay  an  ex- 
tortionate price  for  leave  to  practise  their 
religion. 

At  present  they  form  about  a  tenth  of 
the  population  in  the  country.  They 
represent  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Egypt,  and  celebrate  Mass  in  the  old 
Coptic  language.  In  doctrine  they  agTee 
I  on  the  whole  with  Catholics,  excejit  on 
I  the  single  point  which  led  to  their  sepa- 
ration from  the  Church,  viz.  the  two 
natures  of  Christ.  Their  supreme  head  is 
the  Monophysite  Patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
who  has  great  authority  and  who  is 
chosen  from  the  monks.  Then  come  the 
bishops,  priests,  deacons,  inferior  clergy, 
and  monks.  The  priests  are  allowed  to 
live  with  their  wives,  and,  as  they  re- 
ceive scarcely  any  support  from*  the 
church,  generally  pursue  an  ordinary 
trade.  They  are  obliged  to  acquire  some 
acquaintance  with  Coptic,  for  this,  the 
language  of  the  liturgy,  is  a  dead  lan- 
guage, Arabic  being  the  vulgar  tongue. 
They  have  four  fasting-seasons  which 
they  observe  with  remarkable  strictness. 
Their  Lent  begins  nine  days  earlier  than 
ours,  and  during  it  they  abstain  from 
eating,  drinking,  and  smoking,  till  the 
service  in  the  church  is  over,  i.e.  till 
about  one  o'clock.  The  princip-il  pecu- 
liarity in  their  ritual  is  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  sacrament  of  extreme  unction, 
which  they  give  along  with  the  sacrament 
of  penance,  to  lieal  the  diseases  of  the 
soul  even  when  there  is  no  bodily  illness. 
They  have  also  a  custom  of  blessing  large 
tanks  of  water  in  which  the  ]ii'ople  bathe. 
They  have  adopted  circumcision,  probably 
to  satisfy  Mohammedan  prejudice. 

The  Egj-ptian  Abbot  Andrew  went  to 


248  CORDELIERS 


CORPT'S  JURIS  CI^^LIS 


the  Council  of  Florence  to  seek  reunion 
for  the  Monophysites  with  the  Roman 
Ghurch.  But  most  of  the  Copts  adhere 
to  their  heresy.  There  is  lunvever,  a 
Catholic  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Coptic  rite 
■who  has  about  1J,000  Catholic  subjects. 

CORBEXtZERS.  fSee  Fkanciscans.] 

COROMATXOM'. "  The  Jewish  kino-s 
were  anointed  for  their  office,  and  the 
Church  has  instituted  the  same  ceremony 
for  Christian  sovereigns.  The  ceremony, 
as  given  in  the  Pontifical,  chiefly  consists 
(1)  in  the  admonition  which  the  bishop 
(usually  a  metropolitan)  gives  on  the 
duties  of  the  royal  dignity,  and  the  pro- 
111  i>.'  on  the  part  of  the  sovereign  elect  to 
fulfil  them;  (2)  the  Litany  of  the  Saints 
is  sung  while  the  sovereign  elect  lies  pro- 
strate before  the  altar :  (3)  the  bishop 
anoints  the  king  with  oil  of  catecliumens 
on  the  right  arm  and  between  the 
shoulders;  (4)  the  bishop,  after  Mass 
has  liegun,  presents  him  witli  the  sword, 
places  the  crown  on  his  head  and  the 
sce]ttre  in  his  hand,  and  enthrones  him. 
Finally,  the  new  king  malies  the  bishop 
an  ottering  of  gold  at  the  oli'ertory,  and 
afterwardsreceives  Communion,  the  bishop 
also  giving,  him  wine  (not  the  Precious 
Blood)  from  the  chalice. 

Theodosius  was  the  first  Christian 
emperor  to  receive  the  blessing  of  the 
Cliurch.  The  Gothic  Wamba  was 
aiKiiuted  with  the  holy  oil  at  Toledo  in 
672,  and  "  this,"  says  Flemy,'  "  is  the 
first  example  that  I  find  of  the  unction 
of  kings." 

coROM'ATXOxr  OP  POPE.  [See 
Pon:.] 

CORPORA,!!.  The  linen  cloth  on 
■which  the  body  of  Christ  is  consecrated. 
It  used  to  cover  the  whole  surface  of  the 
altar,  as  may  be  gathered  from  an  Ordo 
Rnmanus  where  the  corporal  is  said  to  be 
S]iread  on  thi-  altar  by  two  deacons.  The 
chalire  also  was  covered  by  the  coqioral, 
a  custom  still  maintained  by  the  Carthu- 
sians. The  corporal  isau  '  must  be  blessed 
by  the  bishop  or  by  a  priest  with  special 
faculties.  It  represents  the  winding- 
sheet  in  which  Christ's  body  was  wrapped 
by  Jo.se])li  of  Arimathea. 

CORPVS  CHRZSTX.  From  Apo- 
stolic tiin.'s  the  Church  has  celebrated 
the  institution  of  the  Eucharist  on 
Thursday  in  Holy  Week.  But,  since  the 
Church  at  that  season  is  occujiied  with 
the  consideration  of  Christ's  Passion,  it 
was  desirable  that  another  day  should 
he  set  apart  as  the  feast  of  the  Blessed 
1  xxxix.  61. 


Sacrament.  The  B.  Juliana,  a  holy 
religious  of  Liege,  believed  that  she  had 
seen  a  vision  encouraging  her  to  use  her 
influence  with  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties for  the  introduction  of  this  feast. 
In  1230,  when  she  became  prioress  of  her 
order,  she  consulted  several  theologians 
and  Church  dignitaries  on  the  matter, 
among  others  the  Archdeacon  of  Liege, 
who  afterwards  became  Pope  with  the 
title  of  Urban  IV.  An  office  was  com- 
posed, and  in  1246  Robert,  Bishop  of 
Liege,  ordered  the  day  to  be  kept 
throughout  his  diocese. 

After  Juliana's  death.  Eve,  a  holy 
woman  who  had  been  in  her  confidence, 
induced  Henry,  the  next  bishop  of  Liege, 
to  petition  Urban  IV.  for  the  celebration 
of  the  feast  throughout  the  Church. 
Urban  IV.  assented,  moved  in  part  by 
the  miracle  of  Bolsena  [see  the  articlel, 
jKirtlv  by  his  former  knowleilt;''  of 
Juliana.  ])artly  by  his  desire  to  stem  the 
heresy  of  Berengaritis,  which  consisted 
in  the  denial  of  transubstantiation  ;  and 
in  1264  he  pul)lished  a  bull  commanding 
the  celebration  of  the  feast  on  the 
Thursday  following  the  first  Sunday  after 
Pentecost  throughout  the  Church.  How- 
ever, Urban  IX.  died  shortly  afterwards, 
and,  as  Durandus  (who  lived  twenty-two 
years  after  Urban)  is  silent  on  the  feast 
of  Cor})us  Christi,  probably  the  bull  was 
never  executed,  although  undoubtedly 
Urban  himseli'  and  the  Roman  Court 
celebrated  the  feast.  Clement  V.  in  the 
Council  of  Vienne  confirmed  Urban's 
constitution.  John  XXII.,  who  suc- 
ceeded Clement  in  1316.  took  great  pains 
to  secure  the  celebration  of  the  feast; 
while  Martin  V.  and  Eugenius  IV.  pro- 
moted the  devotion  to  Cori)us  Christi  by 
grants  of  indulgences.  The  Council  of 
Trent  speaks  of  Corpus  Christi  as  a 
triumph  over  heresy,  and  in  Sess.  xiii. 
can.  6,  anathematises  those  who  censure 
the  feast  or  procession  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament.  This  custom  of  carrying  the 
Blessed  Saciaiiieiit  in  procession  on  Cor- 
pus Christi  lias  been  almost  from  the  first 
a  recognised  part  of  the  ceremonial,  if  it 
was  not,  as  many  authors  think,  actually 
instituted  by  Urban  IV.  The  office  which 
is  still  used  was  composed  by  St.  Thomas 
of  Aquin  at  the  bidding  of  IJrban  IV. 

CORPUS  JVRZS  CZVXI.ZS.  The 
body  of  the  Roman  law,  as  it  %yas  codified 
and  reduced  to  order  by  Justinian,  in  the 
sixth  century  alter  Christ.  It  consists  of 
(I)  the  Digest,  a  classified  compilation  of 
the  decisions  of  the  best  Roman  juriscon- 


COTTA 


COUNCIL  249 


eulis  on  all  points  of  disputed  law:  this, 
when  translated  into  Greek,  was  called 
"  Pandectas " ;  (2)  the  Code,  a  general 
collection  of  the  laws  then  in  force  in  the 
empire ;  (3)  the  Institutes,  a  treatise, 
founded  on  the  Digest,  on  the  first  prin- 
ciples and  elem<^iits  of  law ;  (4)  the  Novels, 
a  collection  of  the  constitutions  and  edicts 
published  by  Justinian  himself,  whereby 
great  innovations  and  alterations  were 
made  in  the  ancient  law.  In  imitation  of 
the  Roman  lawyers,  the  canonists  have 
digested  the  great  body  of  decisions  and 
decrees  constituting  the  canon  law  [see 
that  article]  into  a  Corpus  juris  canoiiici. 

COTTA.  Cot(s  (the  form  Coti  is  also 
found)  are  mentioned,  as  an  ordinary 
garment  worn  by  laymen,  in  the  synod 
of  Metz,  anno  888.  But  in  the  thirteenth 
century  cota  were  regarded  as  identical 
with  surplices,  and  the  14th  Roman  (3rdo 
says  the  Pope's  chaplain  must  wear  a 
cotta  or  surplice  ("  cottam  seu  superpelli- 
cium").  The  word  cotta  is  commonly 
used  now  in  Italy  for  surplice,  and  is 
also  employed  by  some  English  Catholics. 
(Ilofele,  "  Beitr'age,"  vol.  ii.  p.  178.  See 
under  Stieplice.) 

COlTircn.  Concilium  and  o-vi/oSor 
are  synonymous,  and  denote,  first,  meet- 
ings of  any  kind,  and  next,  in  a  more 
restricted  sense,  assemblies  of  the  rulers 
of  the  Church  legally  convoked,  for  the 
discussion  and  decision  of  ecclesiastical 
afl'airs.  We  find  concilium  employed  in 
this  technical  sense  by  Tertullian  about 
200  A.D.,  and  o-vvobn';  perhaps  a  century 
later  in  the  Apostolic  Canons.  Acts 
XV.  furnishes  the  fijst  example  of  such 
a  council,  and  we  may  conclude  that  the 
Apostles  held  it  in  consequence  of  a 
divine  commission;  otherwise  they  would 
not  have  dared  to  say  "  It  hath  seemed 
pood  to  the  Holy  Ghost  and  to  us." 
Language  of  the  same  kind  is  frequently 
used  by  or  applied  to  later  councils. 
Thus  Constantine  professed  to  revere  the 
decision  of  the  Nicene  Fathers  as  "the 
Sentence  of  the  Son  of  God."'  Athanasius 
and  Augustine  ex])ress  themselves  in  the 
same  way,  while  Gregory  the  Great 
compares  the  authority  of  the  first  four 
councils  with  that  of  the  four  Gospels. 
After  the  Apostolic  Council,  held  accord- 
ing to  the  most  probable  chronology  in 
A.D.  ol,  we  next  hear  of  councils  which 
met  in  Asia  about  150  and  were  occa- 
sioned by  the  Montanist  controversy. 

I .  Classijication  of  Councils. 

(a)  (Ecumenical  councils  are  those  to 
■which  the  bishops  and  others  entitled  to 


vote  [see  below]  are  convoked  from  the 
whole  world  {oiKovixivrf)  under  the  pre- 
sidency of  the  Pope  or  his  legates,  and 
the  decrees  of  which,  having  received 
Papal  confirmation,  bind  all  Christians. 
The  definition  assumes  the  ])o>slbility  that 
a  council  oecumenical  in  its  convocation 
may  not  succeed  in  getting  its  decrees  ac- 
knowledged as  of  oecumenical  authority. 
Such  was  the  case  with  the  Robber-synod 
of  440,  and,  in  part,  with  the  councils  of 
Constance  and  Basle. 

(/3)  Synods  of  the  East  or  of  the  West. 
The  first  Council  of  Constantinople  was 
originally  a  mere  Council  of  the  East  and 
ranks  as  oecumenical  only  because  its  de- 
crees on  faith  were  tiltimately  received  in 
the  West  also. 

(y)  Patriarchal,  national,  and  prima- 
tial  councils,  representing  a  whole  patri- 
archate, a  whole  nation,  or,  lastly,  the 
several  pro\  inces  subject  to  a  primate.' 

(S)  Pr'viiicial  councils,  under  the 
metropolitan  of  a  province. 

(e)  Diocesan  synods,  consisting  of 
the  clergy  of  the  diocese  and  presided 
over  hy  the  bishop  or  vicar-general. 

We  may  add  two  other  kinds  of 
council,  which  are  abnormal,  viz. — 

{()  Councils  held  at  Constantinople 
and  consisting  of  bishops  from  any  part 
of  the  world  who  happened  to  be  at  the 
time  in  that  imperial  city.  They  were 
called  crvvo^ioi  evhrjyLova-ai. 

{tj)  Mixed  councils,  meeting  to 
settle  both  spiritual  and  civil  matters. 
They  were  composed  of  secular  as  well 
as  ecclesiastical  dignitaries.  Sometime>, 
though  not  always,  the  clergy  and  laity 
voted  in  separate  chambers.  Such  coun- 
cils were  held  during  the  early  middle 
age  in  Italy,  France,  England,  Germany, 
and  Spain. 

II.  Convocation  of  Councils.  —  The 
right  of  the  bishop  to  convoke  diocesan, 
the  metropolitan  to  convoke  provincial, 
the  patriarch  or  primate  to  convoke 
national  synods,  &c.,  has  always  been 
clear  and  undoubted.  Logically  and 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  thing,  the 
convocation  of  general  councils  must 
proceed  from  the  head  of  the  universal 
Church,  viz.  from  the  Pope.  This  prin- 
ciple was  recognised  in  ancient  times,  for 
Socrates  tells  us  that  Pope  Julius  I.,  about 
the  year  341,  stated  the  acknowledged 
law  of  Christendom  to  be,  that  "the 
churches  must  not  pass  laws  {Kavovl^(t.v) 

1  Another  class  may  be  .added,  viz.  those  re- 
presenting certain  neighbouring  provinces,  but 
not  all  the  provinces  subject  to  the  primate. 


200 


COUNCIL 


COUNCIL 


contrary  to  the  judgment  of  the  Bishop 
of  Rome."  However,  in  early  times, 
the  emperors,  who  often  defrayed  the 
travelling  expenses  of  the  bishops,  wen- 
allowed  to  take  a  great  part  in  convoking 
g.'ni'ral  councils.  "The  first  eight  general 
cruincils  were  convoked  by  the  emperors. 
All  the  later  ones,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
called  and  summoned  by  the  Popes  :  but 
even  in  the  earlier  councils  we  see  the 
Popes  taking  a  certain  part  in  their  con- 
vocation, and  this  share  wliich  the  Popes 
took  in  summoning  them  appears  more 
or  less  prominently  in  individual  in- 
stances." (Hefele,  "  Einleitung  Concil." 
§  3).  All  general  councils  from  the 
ninth  onwards  were  directly  convoked  by 
the  Popes ;  although,  even  in  the  West, 
lesser  councils  were  convoked  by  emperors 
and  kings.  In  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council 
(Sess.  xi.)  Leo  X.  put  great  stress  on  the 
principle  that  the  right  of  convoking,  re- 
moving and  dissolving  general  councils 
belongs  to  the  Popes. 

III.  Members  of  Councils. — The  dio- 
cesan synod  must  be  distinguished  from 
all  other  .synods  or  councils.  It  consists 
(putting  aside  the  bishop  of  the  diocese), 
as  a  rule,  only  of  the  inferior  clergy.  The 
bishop  alone  decides,  the  other  members 
having  at  most  a  consultative  vote.  The 
bishop  is  bound  to  summon  the  deans, 
arch-priests,  vicars  foran,  the  vicar-gene- 
ral, the  clt-rgy  with  cure  of  souls,  and, 
according  to  the  later  canon  law,  the 
canons  of  the  cathedral  and  collegiate 
churches,  with  their  provosts,  and  the 
abbates  saculares.  Cathedral  prebendaries 
who  are  not  canons  need  not  be  sum- 
moned, but  are  bound  to  attend  if  called 
upon  to  do  so.  The  "  simple  clerics  " — 
i.e.  those  without  cure  of  souls  or  dig- 
nity— need  not  attend,  unless  the  object 
of  the  synod  is  to  reform  the  clergy,  or  to 
communicate  the  decrees  of  a  provincial 
council.  Members  of  exempt  reUgious 
orders,  if  their  monasteries  are  connected 
with  others  and  placed  under  a  general 
chapter,  need  not  attend,  unless  they  have 
cure  of  souls.  In  other  cases,  religious 
must  be  present  at  the  synod. 

As  to  other  councils,  they  are  com- 
posed 

(fi)  Of  bishops.  Chorepiscopi  appear 
at  early  synods.  Whether  titular  bishops 
are  entitled  to  vote  has  been  disputed. 
They  had,  however,  equal  rights  with 
other  bishops  at  the  Vatican  Council, 
where  117  such  bishops  were  present. 

0)  Priests  and  deacons  had  a  decisive 
vote  in  a  council  if  they  represented 


absent  bishops,  as  appears  from  innumer- 
able instances  in  the  acts  of  early  councils. 
At  the  Council  of  Trent  this  ri^lit  was 
given  to  the  procurators  of  absent  bishops 
only  with  great  limitations.  At  the  Vati- 
can Council  such  procurators  were  not 
even  admitted  to  the  Council  Hall.  Other 
clerics  have  been  employed  from  early 
times  as  notaries. 

(y)  The  archimandrites,  even  if 
priests,  had  no  voice  at  the  early  councils. 
From  the  seventh  century  the  practice 
with  regard  to  admitting  the  votes  of 
abbots  began  to  vary ;  and  archdeacons 
sometimes  were  allowed  to  vote,  even  if 
their  bishop  was  present.  At  the  end  of 
the  mediieval  period  it  was  generally  held 
that  Cardinals,  even  if  not  bishops,  and 
!il)lK)ts  were  entitled  to  vote,  and  this 
right  they  have  maintained;  while  a  like 
privilege  is  extended  to  the  generals  of 
regular  orders.  At  the  last  general 
council  Abbots  Nullius  {i.e.  of  quasi-epi- 
scopal jurisdiction),  mitred  abbots  of  whole 
orders  or  congi'egations  of  monasteries, 
generals,  ko..,  of  clerics  regular,  mendicant 
and  monastic  orders,  were  allowed  to  vote. 

(S)  Theologians  {e.cj.  doctors  in  theo- 
logj^  and  canon  law)  were  also  called  to 
consult  at  synods.  But  it  was  only  in 
exceptional  circumstances — e.g.  in  times 
of  storm  and  confusion  such  as  prevailed 
during  the  Synods  of  Constance  and 
Basl( — that  they  voted. 

(e)  Although  the  earliest  councils 
were  composed  merely  of  bishops,  still  in 
the  third  century  laymen  began  to  attend 
in  Africa  and  Italy ;  and  even  in  1 508,  the 
Congregation  of  the  Council  expressly 
declared  that  distinguished  and  well- 
instructed  laymen  might  be  invited  to 
attend  provincial  councils.  Lay  people, 
however,  were  merely  present  to  give 
advice,  make  complaints,  assent  to  the 
decisions,  &c.  They  had  no  claim  to  a 
decisive  vote,  and  usually  did  not  sign  the 
decrees.  We  even  find  the  Abbess  St. 
Hilda  present  at  the  Council  of  Whitby, 
in  664,  and  her  successor  ^Elfleda  at  a 
Northumbrian  council.  The  Roman 
emperors,  personally  or  by  their  repre- 
sentatives, attended  general  councils.  We 
also  find  kings  or  their  commissaries  pre- 
sent at  national  and  provincial  synods. 
However,  Rome  holds  fast  to  tlie  prin- 
ciple that  no  royal  commissary  may  be 
present  at  any  council,  except  a  general 
one  in  which  "  faith,  reformation,  and 
peace  "  are  in  question. 

IV.  The  Presidency  at  Councils.— T\ie> 
bishop  of  right  presides  at  diocesan,  the 


COUNCIL 


COrNCIL 


251 


metropolitan  at  provincial,  the  Pope  or 
Lis  legates  at  general  councils.  True, 
ancient  authorities  do  undoubtedly  at- 
tribute a  presidency  at  general  councils 
to  the  Emperor.  However,  this  is  but 
an  apparent  difficulty.  The  presidency 
of  the  emperor  was  a  mere  presidency  of 
honour.  It  was  his  place  to  provide  for 
peace  and  order,  to  assist  in  giving  effect 
to  the  concihar  decrees ;  but  it  was  the 
Papal  legates  who  presided  over  the  coun- 
cil when  occupied  in  it.i  proper  business 
of  deciding  questions  on  faith  and  dis- 
cipline. Thus  the  Emperor  Theodosius  II. 
says,  in  his  edict  addressed  to  the  Council 
of  Epliesus,  that  he  had  sent  Count 
Candidian  to  represent  him,  but  that  this 
commissary  of  his  was  to  take  no  part  in 
dogmatic  disputes,  since  "  it  is  unlawful 
for  one  who  is  not  enrolled  in  the  list  of 
the  most  holy  bishops  to  mingle  in  eccle- 
siastical inquiries."  That  the  Papal 
legates  did  as  a  matter  of  fact  preside  at 
the  early  councils  is  proved  at  length  by 
Ilefele.  The  Council  of  Chaleedon  ac- 
knowledged that  Pope  Leo,  by  his  legates, 
presided  over  it  — "  tlie  head  r>vi  r  the 
meml)ers."  At  Nu  ien.  r)-iii>,  ^  im^,  and 
Yincentius,  as  Papal  Irwair,-,  ,m;.|„.,.1  hrfore 
all  other  members  of  the  eijuocil.  It 
would  be  useless  to  multiply  evidence  on 
this  point  from  later  councils. 

V.  The  C'oiijirmation  of  Conciliar 
Decrees. — The  decrees  i)f  general  councils 
have  no  binding  authority  till  confirmed 
by  the  Pope.  This  admits  of  easy  proof 
from  the  nature  of  the  case,  because  a 
council  cannot  be  said  to  represent  the 
teaching  (Church  till  the  visible  head  of 
the  Church  has  given  his  approval.  At 
the  same  time,  the  evidence  on  this  point 
with  regard  to  early  councils  is  not  always 
conclusive,  a  fact  which  need  not  sui-prise 
us  when  we  rememlier  that  the  Popes 
were  accustomed  to  send  legates  with  full 
instructions,  and  that  usually  the  Pope 
had  already  made  his  own  mind  clear  on 
the  points  in  debate,  so  that  the  formal 
approbation  of  the  Pope  did  not  attract 
special  notice.  Still,  the  principles  of 
the  early  were  identical  with  those  of  the 
present  Church  on  this  point.  It  cannot 
be  denied  that  the  Council  of  Chaleedon 
considered  the  Papal  confirmation  of  its 
decrees  a  matter  of  absolute  necessity ;  and 
the  strong  language  in  which  this  tlecla- 
ration  is  made  shows  that  the  Pope's 
right  of  confirmation  was  an  understood 
thing  in  the  Church.  Taking  this  for 
granted,  we  may  well  believe  that  the 
Koman  synod  of  485  has  preserved  the 


true  tradition  of  historical  fact  in  its 
statement  that  the  Fathers  of  Nicisa 
"reserved  the  confirmation  and  authorisa- 
tion of  their  proceedings  to  the  holy 
Roman  Church" ("confirmationeni  reiMim 
atque  auctoritatem  sanctaj  Romanre 
ecclesiae  detulerunt"),  strengthened  asthis 
statement  is  by  the  words  of  Julius  I. 
quoted  above. 

VI.  The  infallibility  of  general  coun- 
cils so  confirmed  follows  from  that  of  the 
Church  [see  the  article].  "What  God," 
says  St.  Athanasius,  "has  spoken  through 
the  Council  of  Nicaea  remains  for  ever." 
St.  Leo  considered  the  "  consent "  of  the 
Council  of  Chaleedon  to  be  irretractabilis 
— i.e.  to  exclude  all  further  question — and 
denies  that  anyone  who  rejected  its  de- 
crees could  be  counted  a  Catholic. 

VII.  Order  and  Method  of  Voting.— 
Usually  bishops  took  theu'  places  accord- 
ing to  the  rank  of  their  sees,  though  in 
Africa  they  sat  according  to  the  date  of 
their  ordination.  At  the  Vatican  Council 
the  members  were  arranged  in  accordance 
with  their  liierarehieal  rank.  First  came 
the  five  cardinal  legates  (unless,  of  course, 
the  Pope  himself  was  there),  then  the 
Cardinals,  patriarchs,  primates,  arch- 
bishops, bishops  (according  to  seniority), 
abbots,  generals  of  orders,  &c.  As  a  rule, 
the  voting  at  councils  has  always  been  by 
single  voices.  At  Constance,  however, 
in  order  to  keep  the  Italian  prelates  from 
outweighing  the  rest,  the  voting  was  by 
nations  [see  the  article  Constance.]  At 
Basle  the  members  were  divided  into  four 
deputations,  which  met  separately.  De- 
crees passed  by  three  deputations  were 
accepted  as  conciliar.  At  Trent  the 
matters  to  be  discussed  were  first  delmted 
and  prepared  for  the  council  in  special 
comniitssions,  so  that  no  disputations 
appear  in  the  Tridentine  acts.  A  similar 
method  was  pursued  at  the  Vatican 
Council. 

VIII.  Numbe)-  and  Names  of  CEcume- 
nical  Councils.— (!)  Nicaja,  325 ;  (2)  First 
of  Constantinople,  381 ;  (3)  Ephesus,  431 ; 
(4)  Chaleedon,  451  ;  (5)  Second  of  Con- 
stantinople, 553;  (G)  Third  of  Constanti- 
nople, 680;  (7)  Second  of  Nicaea,  787  :  1 8) 
Fourth  of  Constantinople,  809;  (U)  First 
Lateran,  1123;  (10)  Second Lat. Tan.  1  l:5i>: 
(11)  Third  Lateran,  1179;  (li')  l  ourth 
Lateran,  1215;  (13)  First  of  Lyons,  1245; 
(14)  Second  of  Lyons,  1274 ;  (15)  Vienne, 
1311 ;  (16)  Constance,  1414-1418.  This 
council  was  only  oeciiraenical  in  its  last 
sessions  (42-45  inclusive)  and  with  respect 
to  certain  decrees  of  earlier  sessions,  ap- 


252 


COWL 


CREATION 


proved  by  Martin  V.  (17)  Basle,  1431  and 
following-  years,  only  oecumenical  tiU  the 
end  of  the  25tli  session,  and  of  these 
decrees  Eugeniiis  IV.  approved  such  only 
as  dealt  with  the  extirpation  of  heresy, 
the  peace  of  Christendom  and  the  reform 
of  the  Church,  and  which  at  the  same  time 
did  not  derogate  fi-om  the  rights  of  the 
Holy  See.  (18)  Ferrara-Florence,  1438- 
144i*:  reaUy  a  continuation  of  Basle. 
(19)  Fifth  Lateran,  1512-1517;  (20) 
Trent,  1 545-1563;  (21)  Vatican,  Decem- 
ber 8,  1869,  to  July  18,  1870 :  still  un- 
finished. 

IX.  Collections  of  Councils. — Early 
collections  bv  Merlin  (Paris,  1523,  in  one 
folio);  Crab'be  (Cologne,  1538,  in  two 
folios) ;  Surius  (1667,  Cologne,  four  folios) ; 
Binius  (Cologne,  1C06,  four  folios).  The 
Roman  edition  of  1608-1612  only  contains 
general  councils  ;  in  it  the  Greek  text  of 
very  many  conciliar  acts  was  for  the  first 
time  printed.  Tbis  Roman  edition  formed 
the  babis  of  all  the  later  collections,  of 
which  the  chief  are  the  CoUectio  Regia 
(Paris,  1644,  in  thirty-seven  folios) ;  the 
colb'ctiini  of  the  Jesuit  Ilardouin  (Paris, 
1715,  ill  1  wive  folio,) ;  and  that  of  Mansi, 
who.  building  on  the  foundations  of 
Lalilii_',  Cossart,  and  Colet,  published  at 
Florence  in  1759  and  the  following  years 
his  great  collection  consisting  of  thirty- 
one  fohos.  This  is  the  most  perfect  of  all 
the  collections,  but  it  only  reaches  to  the 
fifteenth  century.  Hardouin,  which  goes 
down  to  1714,  and  is  more  correct  in  the 
printing  than  Mansi,  is  still  much  used. 
(From  lletele's"EinieitungConcil."vol.i.) 

COWli  {ciccullm,  cuculla).  Cuc/dliis 
is  classical;  in  a  well-known  passage  in 
Juvenal's  sixth  satire  "nocturni  cuculli" 
mean  a  cap  or  hood  enveloping  the  head, 
and  at  the  wearer's  will  conceahng  the 
features.  In  p"st -classical  and  medinsval 
writer^  fiictillii  is  the  more  usual  form. 
The  ^•()^\  1  was  a  garment  with  a  hood, 
cestis  lajiuttafa,  black  or  grey  or  brown, 
varying  in  length  in  difierent  ages  and 
according  to  the  usages  of  dlHerent  orders, 
but  having  these  two  ])ermanent  charac- 
teristics, that  it  covered  the  head  and 
shoulders,  and  that  it  was  without  sleeves. 
Cassian,  speaking  of  the  sohtaries  of 
Egypt  about  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century,  says  that  they  used  very  small 
cowls  (covering  the  head,  but  barely 
reaching  the  shoulders),  which  they  wore 
both  day  and  night.  St.  Benedict  of 
Aniane,  about  a.d.  800,  finding  that  his 
monks  had  adopted  the  practice  of  wear- 
ing the  cowl  very  long,  so  as  to  reach  the 


heels,  ordered  that  for  the  future  it  should 
not  exceed  two  cubits  in  length.  In  the 
fourteenth  century  the  cowl  was  some- 
times confounded  with  the  frock ;  whence 
Clement  V.  at  the  Council  of  Vienne 
said,  "We  declare  that  we  understand  by 
the  name  of  coiol  {cueulla),  a  habit  long 
and  full,  but  without  sleeves;  and  by 
frock,  a  long  habit  with  long  and  wide 
sleeves."    (Ducange,  Cucullus.) 

CRBATZOir.  Making  out  of  nothing. 
That  God  did  so  create  out  of  nothing  is 
the  great  doctrine  which  is  expressed  in 
the  first  verse  of  the  Bible,  and  which 
became  a  cardinal  doctrine  of  the  Jewish 
and  afterwards  of  the  Christian  faith. 
The  belief  in  creation  is,  indeed,  a  tenet 
peculiar  to  revealed  religion.  Heathen 
religions  attributed  the  origin  of  the  world 
to  emanation,  or  else  represented  it  as 
made  out  of  pre-existing  matter.  The  doc- 
trine of  ancient  philosophers  is  summed 
up  in  the  famihar  axiom,  "Nothing  is 
made  out  of  nothing." 

It  is  true  that  neither  the  Hebrew 
word  nor  the  Latin  crenre,  by  which 
it  is  rendered  in  the  Vulgate,  means  of 
itself  to  make  out  of  nothing.  Creare 
may  mean  to  "  bear  a  child,"  as  in  Virgils 
line,  "  Silvieolce  Fauno  Dryope  quam 
uympha  crearat,"  and  which  pro- 

bably meant  originally  to  "  hew  out,"  '  is 
employed  to  express  all  that  God  pro- 
duces in  the  kingdom  of  nature  (Num. 
xvi.  30),  or  of  grace  (Ex.  xxxiv.  10, 
Ps.  li.  12),  even  if  such  prodn.  tion  does 
not  answer  to  the  idea  ni  creai  i..n  iu  the 
strict  sense.  But  that  (Tcuesis  means  to 
teach  that  the  world  was  made  out  of 
nothing  is  plain,  because  it  is  said  that 
"  God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth," 
the  Hebrew  phrase  for  the  entire  uni- 
verse, and  also  because  the  mention  of 
chaos  ("  the  earth  was  without  form  and 
void")  is  ])laced  significantly  after  that  of 
God's  creative  act. 

The  Fourth  Lateran  Council  defines 
that  God  created  everything  out  of  nothing, 
and  that  the  world  is  not  eternal,  but  had 
a  beginning.  God  created  by  his  free 
act  and  without  any  change  in  his  own 
nature.  According  to  the  common  teach- 
ing of  theologians,  no  creature  can  receive 
power  to  create,  because  it  needs  an  in- 
finite might  to  bridge  over  the  infinite 
distance  between  nothing  and  being. 
Whether  we  can  suppose,  without  involv- 

1  If  at  least  we  may  judge  from  the  use  of 
the  Piel  in  Jos.  xvii.  15.  The  Piel  is  used  only 
of  the  slow  work  of  man  ;  the  Kal  only  of  the 
free  act  of  God.   See  Ewald,  Grammar,  §  126  a. 


CREDENCE 


CREED 


253 


int  ourselves  in  contradiction,  that  God 
could,  had  it  so  pleased  him,  have  created 
fix)m  all  eternity,  so  that,  e.g..  angels 
■would  have  been  eternal  by  participation, 
is  a  question  freely  di>puted  in  the  schools. 
We  are  only  required  to  believe  that  as  a 
matter  of  fact  God  did  not  so  create. 

The  scientific  difficulties  in  the  six 
days  of  creation  cannot  he  discussed  here. 
But  we  have  a  few  words  to  say  on  the 
latitude  of  intei-pretation  permitted  in 
the  Church.  (1)  St.  Augustine  interprets 
the  six  days  in  a  purely  figurative  and 
mystical  sense;  and  St.  "Thomas,  though 
he  does  not  actually  adopt  this  view, 
treats  it  with  marked  respect.  In  com- 
paratively modern  times  C'ajetan  gave  an 
interpretation  which  agrees  at  least  on  the 
main  point  with  that  of  St.  Augustine, 
for  he  taught,  according  to  Petavius,  that 
"  all  was  produced  in  a  moment :  but  that 
the  history  of  creation  was  aiTauged  by 
Moses  in  six  days,  that  he  might  adapt 
his  narration  to  six  grades  of  natiu-al  per- 
fection.'' (2)  Although  undoubtedly  the 
scholastics  as  a  rule  understood  the 
"  days "  as  natural  days  of  twenty-four 
hours,  still  many  Catholic  wi-iters  in 
modem  times  have  intei-jireted  the  days  as 
geological  periods,  and  this  without  incur- 
ring any  censure.  "Since  the  divine 
Scripture,"  says  St.  Thomas,  "maybe  ex- 
pounded in  many  ways,  it  is  not  right  to 
attach  oneself  so  strictly  to  any  one 
opinion  as  still  to  maintain  it  after  sure 
reason  has  proved  the  statement,  sup- 
posed to  be  contained  in  Scripture,  false; 
lest  on  this  account  Scripture  be  derided 
by  infidels,  and  tlie  way  to  faith  closed 
against  them."  (See  St.  Thomas,  Par.  I. 
qu.  Ixxiv.,  and  Petavius,  "  De  Opere  VI 
l);erum."  The  last  quotation  from  St. 
Thomas  is  taken  from  a  note  to  Petavius 
in  the  edition  of  1S66.) 

CBEBEWCE.  A  table  on  which 
the  cruets  with  wine  and  water,  the 
htmieral  veil  for  the  subdeacon,  the  burse, 
chalice,  the  candlesticks  home  by  the 
acolytes,  &c.  &c.,  are  placed  during  High 
Mass,  and  from  which  they  are  taken 
■when  required  for  use  in  the  function. 
The  credence  should  be  on  the  epistle  side 
of  the  altar.  It  should  be  covered  with 
a  linen  cloth,  but  neither  cross  nor  images 
should  be  placed  upon  it.  In  ancient 
times,  when  the  oblations  were  presented 
by  the  faithful  during  Mass,  there  was 
not  the  same  necessity  for  the  use  of  a 
credence.    (Gavant.  torn.  I.  p.  ii.  tit.  2.) 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  Italian 
credenzare,  to  taste  meats  and  drinks 


1  before  ofltring  them  to  another  for  the 
purpose  of  sho\ving  him  that  he  might 
believe  them  free  from  poison  and  whole- 
some. This  practice  is  still  observed 
when  the  Pope  celebrates  Mass.  The 
wine  and  altar-breads  are  tasted  before 
being  brought  to  him  at  the  olfertory. 

J  C&EES.  A  summai-y  of  the  chief 
articles  of  faith.  Various  names  are  used, 
to  signify  what  we  now  mean  by  the 
word  Creed,  in  early  ■writers.  Clement 
of  Alexandria  speaks  of  the  ttiVtu  or 
"  faith "  which  served  as  the  basis  of 
catechetical  instruction.'  Origen,  in  the 
L^tin  translation  of  Rufinus,  describes 
the  Creed  as  a  "  compressed  word 
("verbum  breviatum "),  in  allusion  to 
Romans  ix.  28.  Tertullian  -  speaks  of 
the  "words  of  the  oath"  ("verba  sacra- 
menti"),  perhaps ■svith reference  tothecon- 
fessiou  of  faith  made  in  baptism.  Lastly, 
in  Cyprian's^  time  we  meet  with  the 
word  "  symboliun  "  or  token,  by  -which  a 
man  might  be  known  and  recognised  as 
a  Christian ;  and  this  term  has  been  ever 
since  familiar  in  the  Church.  Our  "Credo" 
or  Creed  of  course  simply  indicates  the 
word  with  which  most  such  professions  of 
faith  begin. 

Four  Creeds  are  at  present  used  in  the 
Catholic  Church,  viz.  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
the  Nicene,  the  Athanasian,  and  that  of 
Pius  IV. 

I.  The  Apostles'  Creed. — It  is  certain 
from  the  Acts  that  persons  desirous  of 
baptism  were  questioned  as  to  their  faith. 
"S^Tien  the  Ethiopian  eunuch  wished  to 
be  baptised,  "Philip  said:  If  thou  be- 
I  lievest  with  thy  whole  heart,  thou  mayest. 
And  he  an>wering,  said:  I  believe  that 
Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son  of  God."  Thus 
even  in  Apostolic  times  a  profession  of 
faith  was  made  in  baptism,  and  from  this 
no  doubt  the  so-called  "  Apostles'  Creed  " 
arose.  But  neither  Scripture  nor  any 
single  writer  of  the  first  three  centuries 
gives  at  length  the  profession  of  faith 
j  made  at  baptism.  However,  in  Irenaeus 
I  and  Tertullian  -we  meet  -with  allusions 
from  which  we  can  construct  a  form  used 
at  baptism  and  approaching  very  nearly 
to  the  "Apostles' Creed"  in  its" present 
shape.  It  is  impossible,  for  example,  to 
beheve  that  in  the  following  passage  of 

I  >  Clem.  Al-  Piedag.  i.  1,§38;  Strom,  vii. 
'  10,  §  .=56.    So  Probst  interprets  theise  pa&iages ; 

but  the  allusion  to  a  definite  Creed  seems  far 

from  certain. 

-  Tertullian,  Ad  Martyr.  3.    Here  again 

Probst's  interpretation  is  precarious. 
I      *  Cypri;.n,  Epp.  ed.  Hartel.  Isix.  §  7. 


254 


CREED 


CREED 


Irenseus  tlie  coincidence,  in  words  and 
order  of  idea;!,  with  our  present  Creed  is 
accidental.  He  says  that  in  virtue  of 
Apostolic  tradition  all  who  belong  to  the 
Church  have  the  same  faith,  since  "  all 
teach  one  and  the  same  God  the  Father, 
and  believe  the  same  economy  of  the 
Incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,  and  know 
the  same  gift  of  the  Spirit,  and  meditate 
on  the  same  precepts,  and  maintain  the 
same  form  of  constitution  with  respect  to 
the  Church,  and  look  for  the  same  coming 
of  the  Lord,  atid  wait  for  the  same  sah-n- 
tion  of  the  whole  man — that  is,  of  the 
soul  and  body." '  The  supposition  tluit 
Irenseus  had  a  formula  like  the  Apostles' 
Creed  in  his  mind  when  he  wrote  is  con- 
firmed by  a  statement  which  he  makes 
elsewhere,  that  the  catechumens  received 
the  unchangeable  rule  of  the  faith 
in  baptism  ;  and  by  the  fact  that  other 
traces  of  the  formula  appear  in  Clemt-nt 
of  Alex.andria  and  in  Tertullian.  At  a 
later  time,  Rufinus  ft  410)  wrote  an  ex- 
position of  the  "  symbol "'  of  the  Apostles, 
and  from  this  work  we  receive  definite 
inf  )rmation  on  the  form  of  words  in  use. 
Rutinus  says  that  whereas  in  other 
churches  changes  were  made  in  tlie 
Apostles'  Creed  in  order  to  meet  new 
heresies,  the  Roman  Church,  on  the  con- 
trary, bad  preserved  the  original  form, 
partly  because  no  heresy  hn,d  ever  ari.sen 
in  that  city,  partly  because  there  the  cate- 
chumens had  to  recite  the  Creed  publicly 
l)efore  receiving  baptism,  'i'lie  Roman 
form  according  to  Rufinus  ran  thus:  "I 
believe  in  ftod  the  Father  Almighty,  and 
in  Jesus  Christ,  his  only  Son.  mir  Lord, 
who  was  born  from  (de)  the  Holy  Ghost, 
of  {ex)  the  Virgin  ^lary,  cruciiied  under 
Pontius  Pilate  and  buried,  rose  the  third 
day  from  the  dead,  aseeniled  into  heaven, 
thence  he  will  come  to  judge  the  living 
and  the  dead.  And  in  the  Holy  Ghost, 
the  holy  Church,  the  forgiveness  of  sins, 
the  resurrection  of  the  flesh.''  Thus  the 
articles  "de.scended  into  hell,"  "  tlie  com- 
muninn  of  saints/'  "  eternal  life,"  and  the 
words  " sufliTcd,'  "catholic,"'  "amen," 
wer*'  not  in  the  original  form  of  the  Creed. 
They  were  added  in  the  fifth  century. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  answer 
the  question.  How  far  does  the  "  Apostles' 
Crepd  "  desei've  its  name  ?  It  is  rightly  so 
called,  if  we  undei-stand  tlie  title  to  signify 
that  it  is  a  sumuiarv  ^f  Apn>;tolic  teaching; 
and  tiiere  are  at  h>ast  ]inilialili'  grounds 
for  the  hypotlicsis  that  it  is  ihc  iv\triision 
of  a  form  used  from  the  Apo*ties'  time 
•  Iren.  i.9,  4. 


in  baptism.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
legend  that  each  of  the  Apostles  contri- 
buted one  of  the  twelve  articles  to  the 
Creed  is  not  supported  by  good  evidence 
and  is  hard  to  reconcile  with  attested  fact. 
It  probably  arose  from  a  misinterpretation 
of  the  word  "collatio,"  which  Rufinus  used 
to  translate  "  symbolum."  He  explaias 
"collatio"  to  mean  that  which  several 
collect  together  ("  id  quod  plures  iu  unum 
conferunt "),  so  that  the  "  symbol  "  was  a 
summary  of  the  faith  common  to  all  the 
Apostles.  But  the  word  "  collatio  "  led 
to  the  notion  that  the  Apostles  actually 
contributed  articles  to  the  Creed ;  and  in 
a  sermon  falsely  attributed  to  Augustine 
we  actually  meet  witli  the  legend  that 
St.  Peter  said,  "I  believe  in  God  the 
Father,"  &c. ;  St.  Andrew,  "  and  in  Jesus 
Christ,"  &c. ;  and  St.  James,  "  who  was 
conceived  by  the  Holy  Ghost,"  &c.  Traces 
of  the  story  also  appear  in  letters  of 
St.  Peter  to  St.  James,  spurious  in  the  first 
instance,  and  then  interpolated  by  Pseudo- 
Isidore.  (See  Probst,  "Lehre  und  Ge})et 
in  den  ersteu  drei  Jahrhund.") 

II.  The  Nicene  Creed  ( really  the  Creed 
of  Nicaea  and  Constantinople). — The  fol- 
lowing Creed  was  put  forth  by  the  Fathers 
of  Xica?a  in  m25.  "  We  believe  in  one 
G,),l  the  Father  Alnii-lity.  Maker  of  all 
things  visil.le  and  in\i,-il)le,  and  in  one 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  the  Son  of  God,  only 
liegotten  from  the  Father,  i.e.  from  the 
substance  of  the  Father :  God  from  God, 
light  from  light,  true  God  from  true  God, 
begotten  not  made,  consubstantial  with  the 
Father,  through  whom  all  things  came  into 
being,  both  tlae  things  in  heaven  and  the 
things  in  earth  :  who  for  us  men  and  for 
our  salvation  came  down  and  was  made 
flesh,  became  man,  sufi'ered  and  rose  again 
ou  the  third  day  and  ascended  into  heaven, 
and  is  to  come  to  judge  the  living  and 
the  dead.  And  in  the  Holy  Ghost." ' 
Osius  of  Cordova,  according  to  St.  Athan- 
asius — Athanasius  himself,  according  to 
St.  Hilary — had  great  part  in  di-awiug  up 
this  Creed. 

At  Constantinople  in  381  a  Creed  with 
one  notable  exception  almost  precisely 
identical  with  what  we  are  accustomed 
to  call  the  Nicene  Creed  was  received. 
"We  say  received,  for  Tillemont  has  proved 
that  this  enlarged  form  of  the  Nicene 
Creed  was  in  use  some  years  before  the 
Council  of  Constant  iiiojjle.  Two  additions 
to  the  old  Nicene  formula  adopted  at 

1  The  toxt  is  t:ikcii  from  a  letter  bv  Kuse- 
bhis  of  Ca'^.iroa  to  his  Hock.  See  Hefeip,  Con- 
cil.i.  p.  314. 


CREED 


CREED 


255 


Constantinople  deserve  special  notice. 
The  clause  "of  whose  kingdom  there 
ahaU  be  no  end  "  was  added  against  Mar- 
ceUus  of  Ancyra,  who  denied  that  Christ's 
reign  would  continue  after  the  day  of 
judgment."  Again,  after  "and  in  the 
Iloly  Ghost,"  the  words  "  the  Lord  the 
life-giver,  who  proceedeth  from  the  Father, 
■who  with  the  Father  and  Son,"  &c.,  were 
appended  against  the  Macedonians  who 
denied  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

The  words  Filioque,  "proceeding from 
the  Father  and  the  Son,"  occur  in  Spanish 
confessions  of  faith  the  earliest  of  which 
was  drawn  up  in  447.  Pope  Leo,  at- 
tacking the  anti-Trinitarian  errors  of  the 
Priscillianists  in  a  letter  to  Turibius,  a  ! 
Spanish  bishop,  s])oke  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
as  proceeding  ''from  each,"'  i.e.  from  the 
Father  and  the  Son,  and  hence  the  for- 
mula "  proceeding  from  the  Father  and 
the  Son"  became  usual  among  Spanish 
Cathohcs,  and  was  added  by  them  to  the 
Nicene  Creed  in  the  Sym  d  of  Toledo 
(anno  653).  During  the  rei<;n  of  L'harle- 
magne  the  Nicene  Creed  wa>  sung  with 
the  addition  of  the  "Filioque"  in  the 
Frankish  church,  and  the  Latin  monks 
settled  on  the  Mount  of  Oliver  offfii.U-d 
the  Greeks  by  singing  the  Creed  as  they 
had  been  accustomed  to  hear  it  in  the 
imperial  chapel.  As  late  at  least  as  the 
ninth  century  this  addition  was  not  made 
to  the  Creed  in  Eome  itself.  In  fact  Leo 
m.,  though  he  approved  the  doctrine  that 
the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the  I'atlier 
and  the  Son,  refused  to  add  the  words 
"  Filioque  "  to  the  Creed,  even  when  urged 
to  do  so.  For  the  doctrine  of  the  double 
procession  we  must  refer  to  the  article  on  [ 
the  Trixity.  But  this  is  the  place  to  j 
mention  an  objection  made  by  the  Greeks  i 
to  the  addition,  upurt  from  the  dogmatic 
controversy.  Thty  >aid  that  the  Council 
of  Ephesus  had  e.xpressly  forbidden  any 
Creed  except  the  Nicene  to  be  used.  Pe- 
tavius  replies  that  the  council  meant 
simply  to  forbid  a  Creed  contrary  to  that 
of  Nicaea,  and  that  a  Creed  in  perfect 
agreement  with  that  of  Nicaea  is  not 
"another  Creed"  {irepav  ttI(ttiv)  in  the 
sense  of  the  Fathers  of  Ephesus.  They 
were  referring  to  a  new  and  heterodox 
Creed  concocted  by  Nestorius.  ^^'e  may 
add  that  even  if  the  council  had  meant  to 
interdict  the  use  of  another  Creed,  this 
■was  a  mere  disciplinary  rule,  and  that  it 
could  be  set  aside  at  any  time  by  com- 
petent authority.    At  Florence  it  was 

'  Petav.  De  Incanmt.  i.  3,  §  11.  Hefelc, 
ConcU.  ii.  p.  9  seq.,  i.  pp.  523,  527,  528. 


defined  that  this  addition  was  "  lawfully 
and  reasonably  "  made  to  the  Creed. 

On  all  Sundays  and  on  the  feasts  of 
our  Lord,  his  Blessed  Mother,  Apostles, 
doctors,  &c.,  the  Creed  is  sung  at  Mass 
immediately  after  the  Go-p.  l.  that  the 
people  may  show  their  faith  in  tin-  doc- 
trine of  Christ  which  the  Go>pi  ls  contain. 
It  is  fitting,  St.  Thomas  says,  that  it 
should  be  sung  on  the  feasts  of  our  Lord, 
the  Blessed  Virgin  and  the  Apostles, 
"who  founilfd  this  faith."  At  what  time 
the  Creed  l;r_,;ii  to  be  recited  in  the  Roman 
Mass  is  very  doubtful.  Apparently  it 
was  said  as  early  at  least  as  the  ninth 
centurj-,  though  it  was  not  sung  till  the 
beginning  of  the  eleventh.  In  the  East 
this  practice  was  introduced  much  earlier, 
viz.  in  the  fifth  or  sixth  century. 

III.  Athanasian  Creed. — By  this  name 
is  commonly  called  the  confession  of  faith 
in  the  breviary  (known  as  "Quicuuque 
vult,"  from  its  fir^t  words),  which  is  said 
on  Sunday  at  prime.  Its  proper  desig-na- 
tion  would  seem  to  be  "Fides  Catliolica," 
so  at  least  it  is  headed  in  the  Utrecht 
Psalter,  a  MS.  of  the  sixth  centiuy,  which 
contains  the  earliest  copy  known  to  exist. 
IIow  early  it  was  attributed  to  St. 
Athanasius,  among  whose  genuine  works 
it  does  not  appear,  it  is  difficult  to  say. 
A  canon  passed  by  a  Council  of  Autuu, 
in  the  time  of  Bishop  Leodegar,  about 
64:0,  enjoins  the  use  of  what  can  be 
nothing  else  than  this  Creed  under  the 
name  of  "  the  faith  of  the  holy  prelate 
Atliaiia.-ius  ;  "  but  >ome  doubt  "exists  as 
to  the  true  date  of  thi,-  canon.  The 
Creed,  being  in  Latin,  was  unknown  in 
the  East  for  many  centmies  after  it  had 
received  wide  diffusion  in  the  West.  The 
fact  of  its  being  ■s\;ritten  in  Latin  wa? 
accounted  for  by  the  Papal  envoys  who 
visited  the  East  in  12.3-3,  after  the  Latin 
conquest  of  Constantinople,  on  the  ground 
that  St.  Athanasius  composed  it  during 
the  period  of  his  exile  in  the  "West.  It 
was  after  this  translated  into  Greek,  and 
its  doctrine  was  admitted  by  the  Eastern 
Church.  In  this  theory  of  its  composi- 
tion while  Athanasius  was  in  exile  there 
is  nothing  intnu^ically  improbable  :  only 
it  lacks  direct  confirmation.  Waterland, 
who  wrote  a  learned  dissertation  on  this 
Creed  near  the  begimiing  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, was  inclined,  as  is  well  known,  to 
assign  its  authorship  to  St.  ILlaiA  of 
Aries  (about  430).  Others  have  given 
it  to  Yenantius  Fortunatus,  bishop  of 
Poitiers  in  the  sixth  century.  A  third 
conjecture,  of  greater  plausibility  than 


250 


CREED 


CREED 


either  of  the  former  two,  would  trace  it 
to  Tirgilius  of  Thapsus,  an  African  bishop, 
who  composed  a  treatise  ou  the  Trinity 
in  the  fifth  century.  This  perhaps  is  a 
matter  which  never  can  be  certainly  de- 
termined. A  far  more  important  fact 
about  the  Quicunque  is,  that,  whether 
written  by  Athauasius  or  not,  its  teach- 
ing is  distinctlj-  Athanasian.  This  was 
proved  to  demonstration  by  the  bite  Mr. 
Brewer,  in  the  work '  in  which  he  replied 
to  the  volume  by  Mr.  Ffoulkes  presently 
to  be  noticed.  It  has  also  been  often 
observed  that  the  cast  of  doctrine  which 
this  Creed  presents  stiits  the  second  half  of 
the  fourth  centui-y  better  than  any  earlier 
or  later  time.  It  is  difficult  to  believi-  that 
if  it  had  been  written  after  the  Council 
of  Ephesus  (431)  it  would  not  ba\  e  con- 
tained words  excluding  more  pointedly 
the  error  of  Xestorius  ;  still  more  that,  if 
later  than  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451), 
it  would  not  have  used  some  expression 
.about  thr  -'two  natures,"  coiulcmning 
more  distinctly  the  heresy  of  Ivityches. 
Again,  it  is  absolutely  silent  on  the  (jues- 
tions  agitated  in  the  gxeat  Pelagian  con- 
troversy, and  by  the  Mouothelites.  It 
seems  undeniable  that  it  might  have  been 
written  by  St.  Athanasius,  even  if  it  was 
not. 

An  elaborate  attempt*  was  made  a 
few  years  ago  to  prove  the  Quicunque  to 
be  a  forgery  of  the  age  of  Charlemagne! 
The  author  of  this  view,  after  reading 
Alcuin's  letter  to  Pauhnus  the  patriarch 
of  Aquileia,  written  about  800  (in  which 
our  countryman  thanks  Paulinus  for  hav- 
ing sent  him  a  "libellus"  containing  a 
description  [taxatio]  of  the  Catholic  faith, 
which  in  the  writer  s  opinion  might  with 
great  advantage  be  circulated  among  the 
clergy  as  a  "symboliim  fidei,"  and  com- 
mitted by  them  to  memory),  boldly  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  tract  here 
spoken  of — though  Alcuin  does  not  cite 
one  word  of  it — was  and  could  be  nothing 
else  tlian  the  Quicunque  vult !  He  stopped 
at  nothing  which  could  discredit  the 
nat  ural  objections  to  such  a  view,  charging 
Alcuin,  Paulinus,  and  Cluirlemagne  with 
being  leagued  in  a  conspii  acy  to  palm  off 
this  composition  of  Paulinus  upon  the 
whole  church  as  the  genuine  work  of 
Athanasius,  taxing  Alcuin  in  particular 
with  having  lent  himself,  out  of  mere 
cowardly  subserviency,  to  the  propagation 

1  Athanasian  Origin  of  the  Athanasian  Creed. 
1872. 

^  On  the  Athanasian  Creed,  Rev.  E.  S. 
Ffoulkes,  n.  d. 


of  the  forgery,  and  crediting  the  emperor 
alone  with  what  are  called  "the  damna- 
tory clauses."  Mr.  Brewer,  in  the  work 
already  cited,  pointed  out  that  Mr. 
Ffoulkes's  theory  rested  simply  on  a  sub- 
jective hypothesis,  and  that  not  a  single 
shred  of  positive  evidence  could  be  pro- 
duced in  its  support.  He  might  have 
added  that  the  concluding  portion  of  th& 
same  letter  of  Alcuin  on  which  Mr. 
Ffoulkes  relies  appears  to  be  inconsistent 
with  his  theory.  After  speaking  of  the 
"  symbolum  fidei "  com])osed  by  Paulinus, 
as  above  mentioned,  Alcuin  goes  on  to- 
speak  of  three  prevailing  errors:  one,  a 
revived  Adoptionism  springing  up  in 
Spain ;  the  second,  an  irregular  mode  of 
administering  baptism  which  had  come 
into  use  in  some  northern  region ;  the 
third,  a  wrong  view  as  to  the  condition 
of  the  souls  of  saints  before  the  day  of 
judgment.  "  But  it  is  thy  part,"  he  pro- 
ceeds, "0  chosen  pastor,  when  the 
Philistines  .  .  .  blaspheme  the  army  of 
the  living  God,  to  crush  them  all  ivith  a. 
single  stroke  of  truth  "  ("  uno  veritatis 
ictu  totos  contcrere ").  The  "hbellus" 
of  Paidinus,  thru,  contained  a  refutation 
of  tliese  three  iTvors;  if  so,  it  could  not 
be  thv  Atlianasian  Creed,  which  contains 
nothing  of  the  kind. 

But  the  tlicory  of  the  late  origin  of 
the  Creed  was  dr>tined  to  be  still  more 
elTectually  dfuidli-lii'd.  As  the  contro- 
versy raised  by  .Mr.  Ffoulkes's  book  pro- 
ceeded, it  transpired  that  there  was  in 
Holland  an  ancient  copy  of  the  Creed, 
known  as  the  Utrecht  Psalter.  Photo- 
graphs of  this  MS.  were  obtained,  and 
Lord  Romilly,  then  Master  of  the  Rolls, 
instructed  the  late  Sir  Thomas  D.  Hardy, 
Deputy- Keeper  of  the  Records,  to  prepare 
a  report  ou  the  subject  of  the  antiquity 
of  the  Psalter.  The  report — a  most  in- 
teresting and  valuable  dociunent — was 
prepared  accordingly.  For  our  present 
purpose  it  is  enough  to  say  that  it  records 
the  unhesitating  opinion  of  all  skilled 
palffiograpliists  who  had  seen  the  MS.  or 
the  photographs,  that  the  copy  of  the 
Quicunque  vult  which  it  contains  is  in  a 
handwriting  not  later  at  any  rate  than 
the  seventh  century.  The  words  of  Sir 
Thomas  Hardy — and  no  one  could  speak 
with  more  authority  on  such  a  matter — 
are,  "  The  handwriting  is  certainly  of  the 
sixth  century." 

It  is  well  known  that  Cranmer  and 
the  other  reformers,  far  from  rejecting 
the  Quicunque,  treated  it  with  great 
honoirr ;  and  to  this  day,  in  spite  of  many 


CREMATION 


CROSIER  267 


efforts  to  get  rid  of  it,  it  is  recited  on 
certain  specified  days  in  the  Anglican 
service.  The  disestablished  Irish  Church 
has  rendered  its  use  optional  instead  of 
compulsory.  In  the  Catholic  Church  it 
is  said,  as  above  mentioned,  on  Sundays 
at  prime,  except  on  those  Sundays 
(Easter  Day,  Pentecost,  and  others)  for 
■w  hich  there  is  a  .-pecial  office. 

IV.  The  Creed  of  Fius  JF.— The 
Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  xxv.  De  Reform, 
cap.  2)  required  archbishops,  bishops,  &c., 
in  the  next  provincial  council  to  promise 
true  obedience  tn  the  Pope,  and  to  ana- 
thematise all  hei-esies,  especially  those  con- 
demned at  Trent.  All  the  clcrgj-  bound  to 
attend  the  diocesan  synod  were  required 
to  make  the  same  protestation  at  the  first 
diocesan  synod  at  which  they  were  pre- 
sent ;  and  from  doctors,  masters,  &c.,  in 
xiniversities  an  oath  to  teach  according  to 
the  decrees  and  definitions  of  Trent  was 
to  be  exacted  at  the  beginning  of  each 
year.  Accordingly,  Pius  lY.,  in  the  year 
1564,  published  a  "  Profession  of  the  Tri- 
dentine  Faith."  It  consists  of  the  Nica;no- 
Constantinopolitan  Creed  with  a  summary 
of  the  Tridentine  definitions.  It  now  also 
contains  a  profession  of  belief  in  the  de- 
finitions of  the  Vatican  Council. 

CREAXATZOlff.  On  May  19,  1886, 
the  following  decree  was  issued  at  Rome  : 
"Several  bishops  and  prudent  members 
of  Christ's  flock,  knowing  that  certain 
men  possessed  of  doubtful  faith,  or 
belonging  to  the  Masonic  sect,  strongly 
contend  at  the  present  day  for  the  practice 
of  the  Pagan  custom  of  cremation,  found- 
ing special  societies  to  spread  this  custom, 
fear  lest  the  minds  of  the  laithful  may  be 
worked  upon  by  these  wiles  and  sophistries 
so  as  to  lose  by  degrees  esteem  and 
reverence  towards  the  constant  Christian 
usage  of  bui-ying  the  bodies  of  the 
faithful — a  usage  hallowed  by  the  solemn 
rites  of  the  Churcli.  In  order,  therefore, 
that  some  fixed  i  le  may  be  laid  dowTi 
for  the  faithful,  to  preserve  them  from  the 
insidious  doctrines  above  mentioned,  the 
Supreme  Congregation  of  the  Holy 
Roman  and  Universal  Inquisition  is 
asked: 

"  1 .  Is  it  lawful  to  become  a  member 
of  those  societies  whose  object  is  to 
spread  the  practice  of  cremation  ? 

"2.  Is  it  lawful  to  leave  orders  for  the 
burning  of  one's  own  body  or  that  of 
another  ? 

"Their  Eminences  the  Cardinals 
General  Inquisitors,  after  grave  and 
mature  consideration,  answered : 


"  To  the  first  question,  No ;  and  if  it  is 
a  question  of  societies  connected  with  the 
Masonic  sect,  the  penalties  pronounced 
against  this  sect  would  be  incurred.  To 
the  second,  No. 

"  When  these  decisions  were  referred 
to  our  Holy  Father,  Pope  Leo  XIII.,  His 
Holiness  approved  and  confirmed  them, 
and  directed  them  to  be  comniuuicated 
to  the  bishops,  in  order  that  they  miglit 
instruct  the  faithful  upon  the  detest;ible 
abuse  of  burning  the  bodies  of  the  dead, 
and  miglit  do  all  in  their  power  to  keep 
the  flock  entrusted  to  their  charge  from 
such  a  practice." 

We  have  given  this  decree  in  full,  so 
that  the  exact  position  of  the  Church's 
teaching  concerning  cremation  may  be 
clearly  seen.  There  is  nothing  intrinsic- 
ally wrong  in  burning  the  bodies  of  the 
dead.  The  practice  might  become  neces- 
sary at  times  of  excessive  mortality  or  of 
danger  tu  the  living,  e.g.  after  a  battle  or 
during  a  plague.  But  in  ordinary  times 
cremation  disturbs  the  pious  sentiments 
of  the  faithful ;  it  is  not  in  keeping  with 
the  beautiful  rites  of  Christian  burial ; 
and  it  has  been  introduced  by  enemies  of 
the  Church  for  the  purpose  of  shutting 
her  out  from  one  of  her  most  touching 
functions.  These  reasons  justify  the 
condemnation  above  quoted.  To  go  into 
the  various  sanitary,  legal,  and  economical 
I  arguments  for  and  against  cremation 
would  be  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present 
work.  (See  Dublin  Review,  April  1890  j 
Mo7M,  May  1884.) 

CRIB.  The  actual  crib  in  which 
Christ  was  born  is  said  to  have  been 
brought  from  Bethlehem  in  the  se\enth 
centuiy,  and  to  be  now  preserx  ed  in  the 
Liberian  basilica  at  Rome.  The  present 
custom  of  erecting  a  crib  in  the  churches 
at  Christmas  time  with  figures  represent- 
ing our  Lord,  the  Blessed  "S'irgiii,  St. 
Joseph,  &c.,  began  during  the  thirteenth 
centnrv  in  the  Franciscan  order.  (Bene- 
dict X'lV.  "De  Festis,"  i.  n.  041,  n.  (i7i».) 

CROSZSR  or  PASTORAXi  STAFF 
{baciiluspastornlis,pedvm,  cambuta).  The 
stafl'  given  tn  the  bishop  at  his  consecra- 
tion as  the  symbol  of  the  authority  with 
which  he  rules  his  flock.  It  is  said  that 
such  a  stafl' is  first  mentioned  bv  Isidore 
of  Seville  (t  6.36).  This  stafl'  is  curved  at 
the  top,  straight  in  the  middle,  and  pointed 
at  the  lower  end.  Hence  the  medi;eval 
line  quoted  by  Gavantus,  "  Curva  trahit, 
quos  dextra  regit ;  pars  ultima  pungit." 
The  Pope  alone  of  all  bishops  actually 
j  ruling  a  diocese  does  not  use  a  pastoral 


268      CROSS,  SIGN  OF  THE 

staff.  According  to  some,  this  is  because 
the  curvature  in  the  staff  is  a  token  of 
limited  jurisdiction  (?V 

CROSS  (siOTsr  or ;  aboratzoio- 

OF;  PARTZCXiES  OF  TRUE  CROSS; 
FEASTS  OF,  &.C.). 

I.  "  God  forbid,"  says  St.  Paul,  "  that 
I  should  glory,  save  in  the  cross  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  i.e.  in  the  sufferings 
and  death  of  our  Saviour.  No  wonder, 
then,  that  the  mere  form  cf  the  cross, 
which  could  remind  the  heathen  only  of 
a  horrible  and  ignominious  death,  should 
be  dear  from  the  first  to  the  Christian 
heart ;  no  wonder  that  Christians  began 
their  prayer  and  sanctified  each  action, 
with  that  sign  which  reminds  us  at  once 
of  that  Sacred  Passion,  which  is  the 
iount  of  all  grace  and  mercy.  "At  every 
step  and  movement,"  Tertullian  writes, 
"when  we  go  in  or  out,  when  we  dress  or 
put  on  our  shoes,  at  the  bath,  at  the  table, 
when  lights  are  brought,  when  we  go  to 
bed,  when  we  sit  down,  whatever  it  is 
whicli  occujnes  us,  we  mark  the  forehead 
with  the  sign  of  the  cross."  '  From  early 
times  the  image  of  the  cross  (the  cru.v 
e.xemplata,  as  distinct  from  the  c)-u.v 
usualis,  made  with  the  hand)  was  familiar 
to  Christians.  Constantine  placed  a  cross 
of  gold  with  precious  stones  in  the  chief 
hall  of  his  palace.^  Indeed,  so  great  was 
the  devotion  of  Christians  to  the  cross 
that  in  Tertullians  time  they  were 
charged,  just  as  Catholics  are  charged 
now,  with  worshipping  the  cross.*  , 

Two  points  witli  regard  to  the  Chui-ch's 
use  of  the  cross  need  explanation.   The  1 
former  of  these  points  is  connected  with 
the  Mass.    It  is  natural  that  the  Church, 
accustomed  to  bless  everything  with  the 
sign  of  the  cross,  should  so  bless  the 
unconsecrated  bread  and  wine.    But  it  is  . 
surprising  at  first  sight  that  the  sign  of 
the  cross  should  be  frequently  made  over  | 
the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.    Many  ex-  ] 
planations  have  been  given,  but  the  truth 
st>ems  to  be  that  no  single  explanation 
meets  all  the  difficulties,  and  that  the  sign 
of  the  cross  is  made  over  the  conser rated  ; 
S])ecies  for  several  reasons.    Usually  the 
rite  is  meant  to  indicate  the  blessing 
which  flows  forth  from  the  ))ody  and 
blood  of  Christ.    At  tlie  words  "Through 
whom,  0  ]>ord,  thou  dost  ever  create  all  ! 
these   good  things,  sancti  +  fiest  them, 
givest  them  +  life,  bless  +  est  them  and 

•  Tertull.  De  Coron.  3. 
'  Euseb.  Vita  Constant,  iii.  49. 
s  '  Qui  crucis  nos  religiosus  putat.' — Tertull. 
Apol.  16. 


CROSS,  SIGN  OF  THE 

bestowest  them  on  us,"  the  signs  of 
the  cross  were  originally  meant  to  be 
made  over  the  euhijia  or  blessed  bread 
placed  on  the  altar  and  then  given  to 
those  who  did  not  communicate.  Lastly 
the  signs  of  the  cross  made  with  the  Host 
at  the  words,  "Through  Hi  +  m,aud  with 
Hi  +  m,  and  in  Hi  +  m,  is  unto  thee,  God 
the  Father  +  Abu  ighty  in  the  unity  of 
the  Holy  +  Ghost,  all  honour  and  glory," 
probably  arose  from  the  custom  of  making 
the  sign  of  the  cross  in  naming  the  Per- 
sons of  the  Trinity.  Such  at  least  is  the 
result  of  Bishop  Hefele's  careful  investi- 
j  gation  of  the  subject.  The  mystical 
interpretations  of  (javantus  and  Merati 
deserve  all  respect,  but  scarcely  explain 
the  actual  origin  of  the  practice. 

The  second  point  concerns  the  "  ado- 
ration" of  the  cross  on  Good  Friday,  and 
the  well-known  statement  of  St.  Thomas, 
that  the  cross  is  to  be  adored  with  latria, 
i.e.  supreme  worship.  The  word  "  adore  " 
j  with  respect  to  the  cross  occars  from  early 
times — e.g.  in  a  verse  of  Lactantius 
quoted  by  Benedict  XIV.'  The  lanpuage 
of  St.  Thomas  '  need  create  no  difficulty 
if  properly  understood.  We  may,  he 
I  says,  regard  an  image  in  two  ways :  (1) 
in  itself,  as  a  piece  of  wood  or  the  like, 
I  and  so  "  no  reverence  is  given  to  the  image 
I  of  Christ ;  "  or  (2)  as  representing  some- 
thing else,  and  in  this  way  we  may  give 
to  the  cross  relatively — i.e.  to  the  cross  as 
carrying  on  our  mind  to  Christ — the  same 
honour  which  we  give  to  Christ  absolutely, 
i.e.  in  himself.  We  need  not,  as  Bossuet 
points  out,  in  a  letter  on  this  subject, 
adopt  St.  Thomas's  mode  of  expression, 
but  there  is  nothing  in  it  to  scandalise  a 
person  of  sense  and  candour. 

11.  Particles  of  the  true  Cross. — From 
the  time  that  the  cross  on  which  Christ 
died  was  found  by  Helena,  mother  of 
Constantine,  Christians  esteemed  it  a 
great  happiness  to  possess  a  particle  of  its 
sacred  wood.  St.  Panlinus  speaks  of  such 
a  particle  as  a  "protection  of  present  and 
pledge  of  eternal  salvation."  Many  such 
minute  particles  of  the  true  cross  are  still 
in  the  possession  of  religious  houses, 
churches,  or  even  private  persons.  Usually 
the  particle  is  placed  in  a  glass  like  a 
monstrance  which  is  closed  with  the  Pa- 
pal or  episcopal  seal.  The  faithful  usually 
show  their  devotion  by  kissing  this  glass; 
the  particles  may  be  placed  on  the  altar, 
incensed  at  solemn  Mass,  used  to  bless 
the  people,  &c. 

1  De  Fest.  i.  §  329.     *  III.  xxv.  a.  3  et  4. 


CROSS,  FEASTS  OF  THE 


CRUCIFIX 


259 


III.  Feasts  of  the  Cross. 

(a)  The  "Finding  of  the  Cross,"  a 
feast  kept  on  May  3rd,  commemorates  an 
event  which  occurred  iu  ^l'O.  The  heathen 
had  filled  up  our  Lord's  tomb  with  rubbish, 
and  Hadrian  had  erected  a  temple  of  Venus 
on  the  spot.  Constnntine  wrote  to  Ma- 
carius,  then  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  telling 
him  that  he  wished  to  erect  a  costly 
church  over  the  sepulchre,  and  in  326 
Helena,  mother  of  Constantine,  instituted 
a  search  for  this  holy  tomb.  Not  only 
did  she  find  the  tomb  itself,  but  also  three 
crosses  near  to  it,  with  nails  and  the 
inscription  on  our  Lord's  cross,  lyintr  apart. 
Macarius.  unable  to  discover  which  of 
the  three  was  the  cross  of  Christ,  brought 
a  lady  in  the  last  extremity  of  illness 
to  the  spot,  and  when  the  last  of  the 
three  crosses  touched  her,  she  was  sud- 
denly cured.  Helena  sent  the  nails,  the 
title'  and  a  considerable  part  of  the 
true  cross,  thus  miraculously  attested,  to 
Constantine.  The  rest  of  the  cross  was 
left  at  Jerusalem,  placed  in  a  silver  case, 
and  in  the  succeeding  age  it  was  shown 
once  a  year,  on  Good  Friday,  in  order  that 
it  might  be  venerated  by  the  faithful.  This 
finding'  of  the  cross  and  the  miracle  are 
attested  by  authors,  so  many,  of  such  high 
authority,  and  who  lived  so  near  the 
event  (viz.  Rufiuus,  Socrates,  Sozomen, 
Theodoret),  that  we  cannot  reasonablj' 
refuse  to  believe  it.  (See  Fleurj-,  xi.  32, 
and  Benedict  XIV.  "  L)e  Fest."  where  the 
references  are  given.)  The  BoUandists 
conjecture  that  the  feast,  which  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Sacramentary  of  St.  Gre- 
gory, was  first  kept  in  the  church  of 
Santa  Croce  at  Rome  and  that  gradually 
the  commemoration  spread  through  the 
West.  Gregory  XI.  ordered  a  special 
office  to  be  composed  for  this  feast.  Cle- 
ment VIII.  raised  it  to  a  double  of  the 
second  class,  and  removed  certain  parts  of 
the  old  office  which  were  founded  on 
apocryphal  "  Acts." 

(i3)  The  "Exaltation  of  the  Cross" 
was  celebrated  from  ancient  times  in 
memory  of  the  miraculous  apparition 
which  Constantine  saw  in  the  year  317 
as  he  was  preparing  to  fight  against 
Maxentius.  He  beheld  in  the  daylight  a 
luminous  cross,  with  the  inscription 
"  Conquer  by  this  "  (tovt<x>  vIko).  luise- 
bius  assures  us  that  he  had  lieard  the  story 
related    on  oath  by  Constantine  him- 

'  See,  however,  Fleury,  cxvii.  26.  It  is 
said  tliat  the  title  of  the  cross,  having  fallen  out 
of  sight,  was  found  in  a  vault  under  the  chureh 
of  Santa  Croce  at  Kome  in  1492. 


self.'  Thomassin  supposes  that  Constantine 
himself  may  have  caused  the  feast  to  be 
instituted.-  The  day  was  afterwards  kept 
with  greater  solemnity  when,  after  his 
victory  over  the  Persians  in  627,  Heraclius 
recovered  the  true  cross,  which  Chosroes, 
the  Persian  Emperor,  had  carried  away 
when  he  became  master  of  Jerusalem, 
three  years  before.  Coins  were  struck  to 
commemorate  the  recovery  of  the  cross. 
Heraclius  first  of  all  replaced  the  cross  iu 
Jerusalem,  and  then  for  the  sake  of  safety 
put  it  in  the  church  of  St.  Sophia  at 
Constantinople.  Clement  VIII.  made  the 
feast  of  the  Exaltation  (Sept.  14)  a  greater 
double. 

IV.  Q-oss  and  Cross-bearers  in  Pro- 
cessions.— The  cross  is  carried  between 
two  acolytes  bearing  lights.  The  cj'oss- 
bearer  in  the  more  solemn  processions 
should  be  a  subdeacou,  distinct  from  the 
subdeacon  of  the  Mass,  and  wearing  ttie 
vestments  of  his  order.  Regulars  carry 
the  cross  wnth  a  veil  hanging  from  it,  "t:> 
indicate,"  if  Gavantus  may  lie  trusted, 
"their  subjection  and  inferinrity  to  tlie 
secular  clergy.  The  back  o(  tlie  cross 
should  be  turned  to  the  crnss-ljearer,  as  a 
symbol  of  the  duty  laid  on  Christians  of 
following  their  Master;  but  the  Papal  or 
archiepiscopal  cross  is  turned  towards  the 
Pope  or  archbishop,  to  .-how  that  the 
thought  of  Christ  crucified  is  to  support 
them  in  their  toils."  The  use  of  the  cross 
in  processions  may  be  traced,  Baronius 
savs,  further  back  than  the  year  308. 
(Gavantus,  P.I.  tit.  19.) 

CRTTCZFZX.  The  cross,  as  we  have 
shown  in  an  earlier  article,  was  used  iu 
Christian  worship  from  the  earliest  times ; 
the  crucifix,  or  representation  of  Clnisr. 
crucified,  was  probably  introduced  miieli 
later.  No  crucifix  has  been  found  n  the 
Catacombs ;  no  certain  allusion  to  a  cru- 
cifix is  made  by  any  Christian  -m-iter  of 
the  first  four  centuries.  It  is  true  that 
in  excavations  made  on  the  Palatine  hill 
near  the  church  of  St.  Anastasia,  a  pic- 
ture was  found  on  the  wall  known  as 
the  "blasphemous  crucifix."  A  figure 
with  the  body  of  a  man  and  the  head 

j  of  an  ass  is  hanging  on  a  cross,  a  slave 
stands  by  adoring  the  figure,  and  the  in- 
scription,inGreek  uncials,  runs  'We^afifvoi 
a-('^(T([ai  ?]  6(6v,  Alexamenus  worshi])S 
[his] God.  ThiscaricaturebelongsnocU)uljt 
to  the  aute-Niceneage;  but  does  it  prove 
the  use  of  crucifixes  among  Christians  at 

I  that  time  ?    It  might  be  regarded  as  an 

>  Euseb.  Vita  Constan.  i.  28. 
2  Thomassin,  Traite  da  Festes.  ii.  24. 
'  s2 


260  CRUCIFIX 


CULDEES 


additional  proof,  were  other  and  more 
convincing  ones  forthcoming.  As  it  is, 
we  must  suppose  that  a  heathen,  having 
heard  that  the  Christians  worshipped  a 
crucified  God,  and  heing  also  familiar  with 
the  common  calumny  that  the  Christians 
worshipped  the  head  of  an  ass,  combined 
the  two  ideas  in  his  rude  fresco. 

In  the  first  four  centuries,  then,  there 
is  no  conclusive  evidence  that  Christians 
ever  placed  a  figure  on  the  cross.  In 
the  fifth  century  it  became  usual  to 
put  the  figure  of  a  lamb  or  even  a  bust 
of  Christ  on  the  cross,  sometimes  above, 
sometimes  below,  sometimes  in  the  middle, 
and  many  crucifixes  of  this  kind  still 
exist.  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola  (Ep.  32) 
describes  one  of  them  in  the  words 
"  Sub  cruce  sanguinea  niveo  Stat  Christus  in 
agno;  " 

so  that  the  cross  here  must  haye  been  red, 
the  figure  on  it  white. 

From  the  sixth  century  onwards  cru- 
cifixes in  the  strict  sense  were  in  use.  St. 
Gregory  of  Tours  ("De  Gloria  Martyrum," 
1,  '2,  'A),  towards  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century,  mentions  a  picture  of  the  cruci- 
fixion in  the  church  of  St.  Geiu-sius  at 
Isarbonne.  A  small  cross  of  l)ra;s  with 
the  figure  of  Christ  on  it  was  found  in  the 
grave  of  the  Fraiikish  sovereign  Chil- 
peric.  ASyriac  MS.of  the  Gospels,  written 
in  586,  and  now  in  Florence,  contains  a 
picture  of  the  crucifixion.  In  692  the 
Synod  in  Trullo,  recognising  a  custom 
which  had  already  become  predominant, 
decreed  (^can.  82)  that  tor  the  future, 
instead  ol  the  Lamb,  the  figure  of  Christ 
should  be  placed  on  the  cross. 

We  pass  on  to  speak  of  the  form 
given  tothe  crucifix.  In  the  Syriac  book  of 
the  Gospels,  Cbrist  is  completely  clothed, 
with  hands  and  feet  nailed,  each  foot 
being  fiustened  by  a  separate  nail.  In  the 
crucifix  at  Narboune  described  by  St. 
Gregory,  Christ's  body  was  almost  naked. 
But  in  one  point  all  the  earliest  crucifixes 
aijreed.  They  all  represented  Christ,  as 
nailed,  indeed,  to  the  cross,  but  with  open 
eyes,  in  dignified  repose,  and  without 
any  trace  of  pain  on  his  face.  Sometimes 
a  roval  crown  was  placed  on  bis  head. 
AVhen  the  Greeks,  though  not  before  the 
tenth  century,  painted  (Jlirist  on  the  cross, 
with  anatomical  correctness,  as  dying  or 
already  dead,  the  inno\iition  gave  great 
scandal  to  the  Latins.  Cardinal  Humbert 
attacked  the  Greeks  for  this  practice  in 
very  violent  language,  while  a  synod'  under 
»  Hefele,  Condi,  iv.  p.  737. 


the  schismatical  patriarch  Michael  Cerul- 
arius  speaks  of  godless  men  from  the 
West  who  anathematised  the  orthodox 
church  because  it  "  did  not  change  unna- 
turally the  form  of  man "  which  Christ 
took.  Gradually,  however,  the  Greek 
custom  prevailed  even  in  the  West, 
partly  because  it  was  reasonable,  partly 
because  Greek  artists  often  settled  in 
Western  Europe  ;  and  D'Agincourt  gives 
copies  of  Italian  crucifixes  from  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  which 
follow  the  Greek  fashion.  (From  Hefele, 
"  Beitrsige,"  &c.) 

CRVPT  {a-ypta,  from  KpvirTos).  The 
word  originally  meant  an  underground 
place,  natural  or  artificial,  suitable  for 
the  concealment  of  persons  or  things. 
Juvenal  gives  the  name  of  "  crypta  "  to  a 
sewer  (Sat.  v.  106) ;  Suetonius  uses  it  as 
equivalent  to  "  cryptoporticus,"  a  shel- 
tered shady  arcade  or  gallery  (Calig.  58) : 
A  itruvius  classes  "cryptje  "with"hon-ea" 
and"apothecse,''  with  the  general  notion 
of  cellar,  store-room,  or  granary.  Secret 
and  undergTOund  places,  crypta,  were 
often  used  for  Christian  worship  in  the 
;Loe>  fit'  persecution.  After  the  conversion 
(jf  Constantine,  churches  were  often  built 
over  the  ancient  crypts  ;  but  more  gener- 
ally crypts  were  excavated  beneath 
churches.  Besides  the  great  advantiipe 
of  securing  the  church  from  damp,  this 
arrangement  also  provided  a  space  which, 
when  furnished  with  altars, con'  '  -ubserve 
at  need  the  purposes  of  public  worship, 
or  might  be  used  as  a  place  of  interment 
for  the  ecclesiastics  serving  the  cluuch. 
Good  instances  of  the  crypt  may  be 
observed  at  Gloucester  Cathedral,  at  one 
of  the  churches  of  Bordeaux  (where  some 
remarkable  property  of  the  air  in  the 
crypt  preserves  bodies  from  decay),  and 
beneath  the  ancient  chapel  of  St.  Audry 
belonging  to  the  bishops  of  Ely,  in  Ely 
Place,  lately  recovered  for  Catholic  wor- 
ship.   (Ducange ;  Facciolati.) 

CVX.SEES.  A  Celtic  word  {ceile  De, 
servant  of  God)  denoting  those  who  had 
strictly  devoted  themselves  to  the  divine 
service,  whether  as  monks  or  seculars. 
It  is  commonly  applied  to  the  monks 
Avhom  St.  Cohunba  planted  at  lona,  and 
to  the  numerous  communities  which  grew 
out  of  that  foundation;  the  word,  how- 
ever, does  not  occur,  nor  is  it  in  any  v.-.\y 
referred  to,  in  the  writings  of  Beda.  A 
kind  of  hereditary  transmission  of  office 
is  sometimes  traceable  among  them,  for 
in  the  distraction  and  confusion  of  the 
dark  ages  the  discipline  of  celibacy  was 


CULTUS 


CURIA  IKJ.MANA  I'Ul 


much   neglected;  see  the  account  by  | 
Synieon  ol  Durham  of  the  custodians  of 
the  body  of  St.  Cuthbert  at  Lindisl'arne. 
("  Hist.  Eccl.  Duuelui."  ii.  U,  iv.  3.) 

CVXiTUS.  Veueratioii  or  worship. 
Catholic  theologians  distinguish  three 
kinds  of  Cultus.  Latria  (Xarpeia)  or 
supreme  worship  is  due  to  God  alone,  and 
cannot  be  transferred  to  any  creature 
without  the  horrible  sin  of  idolatry.  The 
vord  Xarpda  13  used  in  this  sense  by  the 
Greek  Fathers  and  corresponds  to  the 
Hebrew  m'ny-  Dulia  (bovXtia)  is  that 
secondary  veneration  which  Catholics  give 
to  saints  and  angels  as  the  servants  and 
special  friends  of  God.  The  same  idea  is 
expressed  by  Cyril  of  Alexandria  when  he 
speaks  of  the  "relative  veneration  and 
cultus  of  honour''  {ovTe  Trpoa-Kweiv 
(lOia-fitda  \aTf)(VTiK(os  aWa  crxf'i'KMS  K(U 
TitirjTiKas).^  Lastly,  hyperdulia,  which 
is  only  a  subdivisimi  of  dulia,-  is  that 
higher  veneration  which  we  give  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin  as  the  most  exalted  of  mere 
creatures,  though  of  course  Lntinitely  in- 
i'erior  to  God  and  incomparably  inferior  to 
Christ  in  His  human  nature. 

CURATE  {curat  us,  one  entrusted 
with  the  care  of  souls).  The  tenn  can 
hardly  be  said  to  be  in  use  among  Em^lish 
Catholics,  though  common  in  Ireland. 
Irish  curates,  acting  under  the  pai-ish 
priests,  appear  to  correspond  to  the 
"  capellani,  vel  vice-cm-ati  "  of  Ferraris, 
who  says  of  them  that  "  they  administer 
the  sacraments,  not  in  their  own  name, 
but  in  that  of  another — namely,  the  rector 
(parish-priest) — and  there  lb  re  they  ought 
to  be  called  assistants  (cooperafurc.-:),  not 
rectors,  although  they  have  cure  of  si.uls. 
When  it  is  said  that  there  ought  to  be 
oniy  one  rector  in  a  parish,  this  must  be 
understood  to  refer  to  ordinary  jurisdic- 
tion, not  to  delegated  jurisdiction,  such 
as  is  that  of  a  chaplain  or  vice-curate." 
(Ferraris,  Parochia.) 

CURE  or  SOUX.S.  [See  Parish 
and  Pakish-Peiest.]  As  now  understood, 
a  cure  of  souls  is  that  ixirtion  of  respon- 
sibility for  the  provision  of  sacraments 
to,  and  the  adequate  instruction  ol',  the 
Christian  faithful,  which  de\()l\rs  iqxm 
the  parish-priest  of  a  particular  dibtricl 
in  regard  to  the  souls  of  all  persons 
dwelling  within  the  limits  of  that  district. 
In  ancient  times  the  cure  of  souls  through- 

>  Petav.  De  Angel,  ii.  9. 

s  St.  Thomas,  -i^  •>«>,  103,4.  This  is  an  im- 
]>(>rlant  point,  for  we  must  not,  of  course,  put 
the  Blessed  Virgin  between  creatures  and  God. 
She  IS  herself  a  mere  creature. 


out  his  diocese  (often  called  paroecia)  was 
held  to  fall  upon  the  bishoji,  who  dis- 
charged his  responsibility  by  the  agency 
of  priests  sent  to  such  places  as  he  j  udge'd 
suitable,  supported  with  such  disbtirse- 
ments  as  he  thought  sufiBcient,  and  re- 
movable at  his  pleasure.  The  division  of 
dioceses  into  parishes  with  fixed  incum- 
bents and  permanent  revenues  caunot  be 
traced  back  beyond  the  fourth  century.' 
It  was  once  commonly  held  that  this 
change  was  introduced  by  Pope  Dionysius 
in  the  second  half  of  the  thu-d  century, 
but  the  statement  to  that  efiect  only  rests 
on  the  authority  of  the  Pseudo-Isidore. 

A  district  is  not  allowed  by  law  to 
have  a  parish  priest  appropriated  to  it, 
if  it  contain  fewer  than  ten  houses  or 
families.  There  can  be  only  one  parish- 
priest  or  rector  in  a  parish,  having  cure 
of  souls  by  ordinary  right.  (Ferraris, 
Parochia.) 

CURZA  ROMAirA.  The  Curia,  in 
the  stricter  sense,  designates  the  authori- 
ties which  administer  the  Papal  Primacj' ; 
in  a  wider  acceptation  it  embraces  all  the 
authorities  and  functionaries  forming  the 
immediate  entourage  or  Comt  of  the  Pope. 
The  following  sketch  of  its  history  is 
abridged  from  the  article  by  Buss  in  the 
"  Dictionnaire  Catholique  "  of  Wetzer  and 
Welte.  While  there  are  many  features 
in  the  Curia  which  resemble  an  ordinarj- 
episcopal  administration,  there  are  also 
certain  characteristics  which  from  the 
first  distinguished  it,  and  g:ne  to  it  a 
peculiar  elevation.  The  ancient  Presby- 
terium  of  Rome  was  gradually,  as  we 
have  seen  [Caedinal],  transformed  into 
the  Cardiualate.  The  power  of  the  arch- 
deacon, exercised  in  the  third  centmy  by 
the  martyr  St.  Laurence  (the  glory  of 
whose  virtues  shone  throughout  Christen- 
dom), passed  to  the  Cardinal  Camerarius, 
or  Camerlengo,  who  was  the  head  of  the 
Camera,  or  financial  department  of  the 
Apostolic  See,  and  as  representing  the 
ancient  archdeacons,  wielded  also  an  ex- 
tensive jurisdiction.  Otlier  great  oliicials 
in  ancient  times  were  the  arclipriest,  and 
the  Primicerius  of  the  Notaries.  The 
former  had  the  chief  charge  of  w  lial  re- 
lated to  worship,  and  ^\as  n  ])!.-  ii',f<!, 
as  the  cardiualate  developed  it>rlf,  iiy  the 
Cardinal  Vicar.  The  Priniiceriu.-.  'leing 
at  the  head  of  the  department  which 
came  in  due  time  to  be  called  the  Can- 
celleria,  or  Chancery,  corresponds  to  the 
Cardinal  Vice-Chancellor  presiding  over 
that  important  ministry.  But  there  were 
'  Soglia,  ii.  8,  «1. 


262 


CUBIA  ROMANA 


CURIA  ROMANA 


also  in  the  body  of  functionaries  by  whom  I 
the  Roman  PoutifF  was  surrounded  points 
of  resemblance  to  the  Imperial  Court  at 
Rome  or  Constantinople  ;  this  appears  in 
the  Familia,  or  household,  of  the  Pope 
{F<nni<iltu  P(mtijiti,i)  in  many  ways,  and 
is  also  observable  in  the  important  post 
of  rrirfectus  Apostolici  I'nlatn. 

In  the  middle  ages  the  business  which 
flowed  in  upon  the  Papal  Curia  was  im- 
mense. The  changed  conditions,  civil 
and  religious,  of  Europe  made  inevitable 
the  multiplication  of  appeals  from  metro- 
politan courts  to  the  Holy  See.  -Dispen- 
sations also,  and  nominations  to  reserved 
benefices,  could  not  easily,  at  a  time  when 
communication  was  still  difficult  and 
intermittent,  be  obtained  without  per- 
sonal visits  to  Rome.  To  dispose  of  the 
various  applications  and  petitions,  and 
try  the  various  suits,  a  large  staff  of 
officials,  both  administrative  and  judicial, 
had  to  be  employed.  The  Popes  could 
not  always  exercise  an  efficient  control 
over  this  mass  of  subordinates;  hence 
abuses  arose,  and  extortion  was  loudly 
imputed  to  the  Roman  officials.  The  , 
high  rates  of  the  ta.rcs,  or  fees  of  office,  j 
demanded  at  the  Chancery  for  the  ex-  ! 
pediting  of  any  bull  or  brief,  the  delays 
in  the  settlement  of  affiiirs,  and  the  mul- 
tiplication of  rules  and  formalities,  were 
the  subject  of  frequent  complaints.  Re- 
forms were  begun  by  Pius  IV.  and  carried 
on  energetically  by  St.  Pius  V.  and 
Sixtus  V.  Xevertheless,  if  any  supine- 
ness  ever  existed  on  the  part  of  the 
reigning  Pope,  abuses  reappeared.  Thus, 
in  the  seventeenth  centuiy,  the  practice 
of  burdening  benefices,  the  appointments 
to  which  proceeded  from  the  Chancery, 
with  pensions  to  one  or  other  member 
of  the  Curia,  attained  to  a  very  pernicious 
height.  However,  Benedict  XIV.  "  de- 
creed a  radical  reform  ;  his  system  was 
continued  by  Leo  XII.  and  Gregory  XVI., 
and  is  pursued  under  the  strict  and 
regular  administration  of  Pius  IX."' 

The  diftevent  branches  of  the  Curia 
have  now  to  Ije  descrilird  in  detail;  but 
it  may  assist  us  in  di'aiing  with  this  vast 
and  complicated  subject,  if  we  first  en- 
deavour to  obtain  a  rough  general  view 
of  it,  by  considering  what  are  the  chief 
ends  for  which  the  Papacy  exists,  and 
which  the  action  of  the  Curia  is  directed 
to  promote.  As  the  succc-sor  of  St.  Peter 
and  the  Vicar  of  CIiimM,  the  Pojie  has, 
first  of  all,  to  govrvn  and  feed  with  sound 
doctrine  the  whole  flock  of  Christ — i.e. 
•  Buss,  writing  before  1870. 


the  universal  Church — and  his  own  dio- 
cese in  particular.  The  agencies  in  the 
Curia  by  whicli  he  fulfils  these  purposes 
are  the  Sacred  Congregations  of  Cardinals, 
the  Secretariat  of  State,  and  the  Vicariate 
of  llome  ;  and  the  machineiy  tvi])loyed 
is  sujjplied  by  the  Chancery,  the  Duta'ria, 
and  the  Camera  Aixistolica.  As  the 
"  supremus  judex  "  in  Christendom,  the 
Pope  acts,  partly  through  special  congre- 
gations and  delegated  judges  [Delega- 
tion],partly  through  the'rcgular  tribunals 
of  the  Rota  and  tlic  Scf>iiatura  {furinn 
externum)  and  the  I'enitenziaria  {forum 
internum).  Before  the  usurpation  of  the 
temporal  power,  the  Camera  also  was  a 
court  of  justice.  Again,  the  Vicar  of 
Christ  must  be  diligently  and  uninter- 
ruptedly occupied  with  the  worship  of 
the  true  God  ;  to  this  end  corresponds 
the  institution  of  the  Papal  Ghapel 
( Capella  Pontificia).  As  living-  and  reign- 
ing, the  Pope,  hke  any  other  sovereign 
or  any  other  bishop,  has  his  "family" 
or  household  {FamiijUa  runfificici),  one 
important  branch  of  whicli  is  tlie  depart- 
ment having  charge  of  the  Papal  resi- 
dences {Pnfettura  del  Sacro  Palazzo 
Apostolico).  To  carry  on  the  necessary 
external  relations  with  the  powers  of  the 
woi-ld,  the  Pope  has  Legates,  Nuncios, 
and  Apostolic  Delegates,  receives  ambas- 
sadors, appoints  and  admits  consuls. 
Lastly,  as  a  sovereign  ruling  over  that 
extent  of  dominion  which  came  in  the 
dis])o>itions  of  Providence  to  the  Papacv, 
and  was  usurped  by  vicilence  a  few  years 
ago,  the  Pope  had  ministries,  judges  civil 
and  criminal,  boards,  commissions,  and 
all  the  usual  macliinery  of  administration 
in  civilised  countries. 

In  the  onliT  indicated  by  this  brief 
sketch,  we  shall  nnw  describe  the  prin- 
cipal attributions  of  the  various  branches 
of  the  Curia.  The  mode  in  which  the 
action  of  the  Cardinals  is  ap])lied  to  assist 
the  Pope  in  the  government  of  the  Church 
has  been  already  described  in  the  article 
on  CoNGBEGATiONS  (Roman)  ;  but  men- 
tion was  not  there  made  of  a  Congregation 
the  action  of  which  is  important  in  refer- 
ence to  the  present  subject- — viz.  the  Con- 
qreijatio  Vkitationig  Apostolicfp,  oi  •^•\\\ch. 
the  Cardinal  Vicar  is  president.  This 
Congregation,  organised  by  Clement  VIII. 
and  Innocent  XII.,  rcjire>ents  the  Pope 
in  his  character  of  a  bishop  visiting,  his 
diocese. 

The  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State  is  the 
exclusive  channel  through  whom  must 
pass  all  communications  carried  on  be- 


CURIA  ROMANA 


CURIA  ROMANA 


263 


twt>en  the  Holy  See  and  foreign  Powers. 
He  is  the  Pope's  Prime  Minister — not  of 
course  in  the  sense  which  the  word  bears 
in  countries  where  the  Minister  is  more 
powerful  than  the  SoTfrein:ii,  so  that  the 
former's  "  advice "  overrides  the  latter's 
initiative — but  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
term :  a  faithful  agent  and  servant  exe- 
cuting the  intentions  of  his  master,  whom 
he  serves  to  the  best  of  his  ability.  He 
carries  on  the  negotiations,  in  which  the 
Pontiff  is  perpetually  engaged,  which  have 
for  their  object  to  secure  the  liberties,  ex- 
tend the  limits,  and  promote  the  welfare 
of  the  Catholic  Church.  Under  him  are 
placed  the  Nuncios  and  other  diplomatic 
agents  of  the  Holy  See,  and  to  him  they 
make  their  reports.  The  oflicials  under 
him  consist  of  several  "  Miimtanti,"  a 
writer  in  cypher,  aji  archivist,  a  sub- 
archivist,  &c.  Being  in  close  and  per- 
manent relations  to  the  Pope,  "  he  repre- 
sents the  principle  of  the  Pontifical 
(Tovernment ;  his  influence  is  conseiiuently 
felt  in  all  ways  in  acts  emanating  directly 
from  the  person  of  the  Pope  ;  he  directs 
all  important  political  measures,  puts  in 
force  the  decisions  relative  to  the  organic 
institutions  of  the  Church,  and  transmits 
the  instructions  by  which  the  function- 
aries of  the  Curia  are  guided."  ' 

The  Vicariate  of  Rome  is  under  the 
Cardinal  Vicar,  assisted  by  a  Vicegerent, 
a  Promotor  Fiscal,  and  two  or  three 
other  officials,  of  whom  one  is  the  "  De- 
fensor ^latrimonii "  [see  that  articlej. 

The  Celebrated  department  of  the 
Roman  Chancery  is  that  which  drafts 
and  expedites  the  bulls  and  briefs  by 
which  the  mind  of  the  Pontiff  is  made 
known  to  Christendom,  or  to  particular 
suitors.  The  Cardinal  at  its  head  is  not 
called  "  Chancellor,"  but  "  Vice-Chan- 
cellor,"  probably  because  the  title  of 
Chancellor,  having  sprung  out  of  a  func- 
tion which  was  originally  purely  subor- 
dinate and  ministerial,  was  thought  to  be 
beneath  the  dignity  of  the  Sacred  College. 

"  At  what  time,"  says  Ferraris,  "  the 
oflice  of  the  Chancellor  attained  to  tliat 
height  of  eminence  and  prerogative  which 
it  is  now  seen  to  possess  in  the  I  toman 
Curia,  is  a  point  not  accurately  deter- 
mined. Inquirers  into  its  origin  tell  us 
that  it  was  planned  and  established  after 
the  time  of  Innocent  III.  In  his  time, 
it  is  known  that  the  duties  of  Chancellor 
were  discharged  by  private  persons,  but 
such  as  were  of  known  and  conspicuous 
probity  and  erudition.  In  course  of  time, 
1  Buss. 


under  Boniface  VIII.,  it  is  certain  that 
the  dignity  of  Chancellor  was  assigned  to 
one  of  the  Cardinals."  He  explains  the 
addition  of  "  vice  "  to  the  title,  and  pro- 
ceeds: "The  Vice-Chancellor  has  a  fixed 
cardinalitial  title — namely,  that  of  the 
collegiate  church  of  St.  Laurence  in 
Daniaso.  The  more  pressing,  weightv, 
public,  and  solemn  affairs  of  the  Apostolic 
See,  such  as  are  those  debated  on  in  the 
( 'onsistory,  pass  through  the  hands  of  the 
Vice-Chancellor,  so  that  he  must  be 
called,  by  analogy  with  similar  offices 
elsewhere,  the  Papal  Chancellor.  Among 
j  his  numerous  subordinates,  the  one  of 
highest  ranli  is  he  who  is  called  the 
Regent  of  the  Chancery,  who  revises 
bulls  that  have  been  exjuulited  and  ])ro- 
mulgatrd,  and,  if  anv  err(>r  lias  crryt  in, 
corrects  it.  The  othi>r  oflicials  of  the 
Vice-Chancellor  to  wliosi>  posts  prelatical 
rank  is  annexed,  aiv  I  lie  Presidents  of 
the  greater  or  lesser  "  I'arcus,"  so  called 
from  the  name  by  which  the  place  in  the 
Chancery  where  they  meet  is  popularly 
called.  The  prelates  of  the  greater  Parens 
of  the  Chancery  constitute  a  kind  of 
tribunal,  when  they  meet  and  decide 
doubts  which  may  arise  concerning  the 
form  of  documents,  or  the  clauses  and 
decrees  which  have  to  be  inserted  in 
them,  and  also  respecting  the  payment  of 
fees  and  charges.  The  prelates  of  the 
lesser  Parens  have  a  restricted  jurisdic- 
tion, the  one  object  of  their  institution 
being  to  transmit  and  deliver  bulls  to  the 
prelates  of  the  greater  Parous.  The 
writers,  abbreviators  [see  that  art.],  and 
others  responsible  for  the  ])reparation  of 
documents  in  the  Roman  Chancery,  all 
share  in  those  riglits  and  emoluments 
which  are  commonly  called  the  Taxi  s  of 
the  Apostolic  Chancery.  That  these 
rights  derive  their  origin  from  John  XXH, 
is  jilain  from  the  section  in  his  Extrava- 
gautes  beginning  "Quum  ad  Sacro- 
sancta." ' 

The  proceedings  of  the  Chancery  are 
governed  by  certain  fixed  rules,  which, 
as  already  mentioned  [Caxon  I^aw^  form 
a  substantive  part  of  the  Jii.f  Ndri.^^niii/m. 
They  are  only  of  force,  however,  during 
the 'lifetime  of  a  Pope;  every  Pontilf,  on 
the  day  after  his  accession,  publishes 
them  anew,  with  such  omissions  or  addi- 
tions as  he  may  think  fit  to  make. 

For  an  account  of  the  Dataria,  see 
that  article.  The  Camera  ."Ipostolica  or 
department  of  finance  in  the  Papal  (to- 
vemmeut  is  presided  over  by  the  Cardinal 
I  Ferraris,  "  CanccUaria,"  §  44 


2fi4         CURTA  ROMAXA 


CURIA  ROMANA 


Ciimerlengo.  Previously  to  the  event  of 
September  1870,  the  Camera  was  also  a 
court  of  justice,  -which,  like  our  Court  of 
Exchequer  in  ancient  times,  took  cognis- 
ance of  oflences  committed  against  the 
revenue  laws,  or  by  persons  in  its  em- 
ployment. The  staff  of  the  department 
is  still  kept  up  nearly  at  its  former 
strenjrth  ;  for  although  many  sources  of 
revenue  have  been  cut  oil'  since  the  usur- 
pation, and  the  Pontift'  does  not  and  can- 
not accept  the  anniial  subvention  vi-hich 
the  usurping  Government  places  at  its 
disposal,  still  the  revemies  of  the  Papacy 
cannot  but  be  large,  in  view  of  the  im- 
lueiisf  int('re^^ts  which  it  administers,  the 
nunilirrs  and  diffusion  of  the  Catholic 
])opulations  where<if  it  is  the  centre,  and 
the  indignation  and  sympathy  which  the 
spoliation  to  which  it  has  been  subjected 
lias  aroused  in  all  ujiright  minds.  The 
office  of  Treasurer,  the  highest  official  in 
thedepavtmi'ut  after  the  Yice-Camerlengo, 
is  at  ])i-i'scnt  vacant,  and  many  of  the 
revenui' departments,  of  which  he  liad  the 
contnilare  in  abeyance:  l:)ut  the  "prelate 
clerks "  of  the  Camera,  who  form  the 
council  of  the  Camerlengo,  still  perform 
their  functions. 

Coming  now  to  the  organs  by  which 
the  Papal  jurisdiction  is  exercised,  we 
have  first  to  name  tbe  Rota:  for  an  ac- 
count of  which  the  reader  is  i-elVrn'd  to 
theartielc  IJuta  Romana.  The  .SVy,,,,/,,^/ 
Pnpalv  <ll  (/ii/.-ffizia  "takes  cognisiiiic  of 
cases  which  may  or  may  not  come  beiore 
the  Rota  on  a]ipeal,  suits  of  competence, 
causes  of  nullity  of  marriage,  demands 
for  restitution,  Sec.  ...  It  is  composed 
of  a  Cardinal  President,  p/vff refits,  seven 
prelates,  and  a  few  refei-eudaries,  who 
have  a  decisive,  not  merely  a  consultative, 
voice.  An  Auditur  appointed  in  connec- 
tion with  tbe  Segnatura  determines  what 
affairs  it  is  competent  to  try,  and  may 
give  decisions  on  various  preliminary 
issues,  from  which,  however,  a  suitor 
may  apj)eal  to  the  Si'gnalnra  itself.  The 
Dean  of  the  Rota,  the  !;.'griit  of  the 
Chancery,  and  two  repivscniafivcs  of  the 
("amcra,  have  seats  at  tlir  S.'unatura. 
The  sentriKTS  are  sImiiimI  by  lln'  I*ope 
with  tlie  word  'Fiat'  in  his  own  hand, 
f)r,  in  i>ii'seiice  and  in  his  name,  by  a 
Canliniil,  ^\\in  says,'  Concessum  in  pree- 
sentiir  Dnin  'nii  nostri  Pnpee.' " ' 

Connected  with  the  above  tribunal  is 
the  Segnatura  di  Grazia,  which  "decides 
in  suits  where  an  appeal  is  made  to  the 
personal  favour  of  the  Pope,  such  suits — 
I  Buss. 


as  being  matters  of  favour — allowing  of 
more  prompt  decision.  A  suit  on  which 
the  S.  of  Justice  has  given  judgment 
may,  with  the  authorisation  of  the  Pope, 
be  opened  again  before  the  S.  of  Grace. 
The  Pope  himself  presides  in  this  college, 
which  consists  of  Cardinals  named  by 
him;  the  Cardinal  Penitentiary,  the 
Secretary  of  Briefs,  and  the  President  of 
the  Dataria,  belong  to  it  ex  officio.  Besides 
other  prelates,  the  Auditor  of  the  Camera, 
one  of  the  Auditors  of  tlu'  Rot;i,  the 
Regent  of  the  Chancerx .  t;i!>v  part 
in  the  deliberations.  Thit  o  ri'lcivndary 
prelates  draw  up  the  repoi  ts  ;  the  mem- 
bers present  have  only  a  consultative 
voice;  tlie  Pope  alone  decides  and  signs.'"  ^ 
The  Penitenziaria  Romana  has  a  Car- 
dinal at  it.-  head,  called  the  Penitentiarius 
Major,  who  is  assisted  by  a  Regent,  a 
Theologian,  and  other  officials.  The 
Grand  Penitentiary  is  a]i))ointed  by  the 
Pope  :  he  must  be  of  the  order  of  Cardinal 
Priests,  and  a  master  in  theology,  or  a 
doctor  in  canon  law.  His  faculties  e.xtend 
to — absolving  from  sins  and  censures, 
dispensing  in  cases  of  irregularity  [Ie- 
EEGTJLAKITV],  Commuting,  or  releasing 
fi'om,  oaths  and  vows,  and  in  v.irious 
other  ways  exercising  the  power  of  bind- 
ing and  loosing  given  to  St.  Peter  by  our 
Lord.  He  sits  in  one  or  other  of  the 
three  great  basilicas  of  Rome  on  four 
days  in  Holy  Week  (in  St.  John  Lateran 
on  Palm  Sunday,  in  St.  Mary  Maj(n-  on 
"Wrdni'sday.  and"  in  St.  Peter's  on  Holy 
Tliur-day  and  Good  Friday),  and  there 
hears  the  confessions  of  such  of  the  faith- 
ful as  resort  to  him,  and  touches  the 
heads  of  those  who  stoop  low  before  him 
— pic  .le.'^e  subiiiittcntimn  " — with  the 
rod  of  the  Penitentiary,  granting  to  them 
at  the  same  time  an  indulgence  of  a  hnn- 
di-ed  days.  He  is  entitled  to  solemnise 
Mass  in  the  Capella  Pontificia  on  three 
days  in  the  year,  viz.  on  Ash  Wednesday, 
Good  Friday  (Mass  of  the  Presanctified), 
and  All  Smds'  Day.  and  to  bring  to  an 
e.\])iring  Pope  the  last  rites  and  succours 
of  religion.  The  voluminous  Constitution 
of  Benedict  XIV.  beginning  "  Pastor 
Bonus  "  defines  with  exactness  the  duties, 
powers,  and  privileges  of  the  Penitenzi- 
aria, and  of  all  the  officials  connected 
with  it. 

On  the  Capella  Pontijicia  the  reader 
will  do  well  to  consult  the  learned  worlv 
of  Dr.  Baggs  entitled  "  The  Pojje's 
Chapel."  The  dignitaries,  prelates,  &c., 
who  have  a  recognised  place  in  the 
1  Bass. 


CUKIA  ROMANA 


CUSTOM 


263 


clmpel  for  the  sacred  functions,  are  all 
arranged  according  to  their  respective 
order  and  precedence.  First,  the  College 
of  Cardinals ;  next,  the  College  of  Patri- 
archs, .Irchbishops  and  Bishops  assisting 
at  the  Pontitical  Throne.  Ten  patriarchs, 
more  than  ninety  archbishops,  and  about 
two  hundred  and  thirty  bishops,  enjoy 
this  chgnity  at  the  present  time.  Then 
come,  in  the  order  named,  the  Yice- 
Camerlengo,  the  Princes  assisting  at  the 
Throne,  the  Auditor  and  Treasurer  of  the 
Camera,  the  Majordomo,  archbishops  and 
bishops  generally,  the  prelates  (some  two 
hiuidred  in  number)  of  the  College  of 
Apostolic  Protouotaries,  abbots,  heads  of 
orders,  chamberlains,  chaplains,  the  offi- 
cials of  the  various  Papal  depai-tmeuts, 
clerks,  sacrists,  vergers,  Otc,  everyone 
having  his  proper  place  and  just  prece- 
dence assigned  to  him. 

The  Famiylia  Pontificia  consists  of 
certain  Cardinals  selected  by  the  Pope, 
the  Majordomo,  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Apostolic  Palace,  a  number  of  domestic 

{)relates,  and  clerical  and  lay  chaiiiber- 
ains  of  various  grades,  some  paid,  some 
honorary — among  the  latter  being  reck- 
oned the  honorary  chamberlains  •'  di 
spada  e  cappa,"  who  are  laymen  of  family 
And  position  selected  from  the  various 
European  countries.  The  Swiss  Guard, 
the  Noble  Guard,  the  Pope's  private 
chaplains,  and  many  other  otHcials  vai'i- 
ously  designated,  belong  also  to  the 
Famiylia.  It  includes,  moreover,  the 
Prefectui'e  of  the  Sacred  Palaces,  an  im- 
portant department  with  a  Cardinal  at 
its  head. 

As  sovereign  of  the  Roman  States,  the 
Pope  formerly  carried  on  the  government 
■with  the  help  of  the  following  depart- 
ments, which  now — pending  the  re-estab- 
lishment of  tbe  temporal  power — remain 
in  abeyance:  viz.  the  Ministry  of  the 
Interior,  the  Ministries  of  Finance,  Com- 
merce, and  War,  a  Council  of  Ministers, 
a  Council  of  State,  several  boards  and 
commissions,  a  Consulta  (financial),  and 
courts  of  law  for  trying  civil  and  criminal 
cases. 

The  authorities  of  the  Curia,  below  the 
rank  of  Cardinal,  are  technically  divided 
into  two  classes — the  prelates  of  the 
viant.elletta  (a  short  cloak),  and  those  of 
the  mantellone  (a  long  cloak,  re;ichlng 
to  the  feet).  In  the  first  class  are  in- 
cluded Patriarchs,  Archbishop?,  IJishops, 
Protonotaries  Apostolic,  Domestic  Pre- 
lates, the  Clerks  of  the  Camera,  the 
Auditors  of  the  Rota,  the  Referendarii  of 


the  Segnatura,  the  Abbreviators  of  the 
greater  Parcus,  the  Majordomo,  and  the 
Maestro  di  Camera.  Four  among  these, 
designated  prelates  of  the  Jiucchet.ti,  take 
precedence  of  the  rest — the  Auditor  of  the 
Camera,  the  Treasurer,  the  Vice-Camer- 
lengo,  and  the  Majordomo.  Among  tbe 
prelates  of  the  mantellone  are  ecclesia.-?- 
tical  chamberlains,  masters  of  ceremonies, 
&c.  (Ferraris,  Cancellaria ;  "  Aunuario 
Pontificio,"  1870;  "G^rarchia  Cattolica," 
1884.) 

CVRXAI.ZA..  The  duties  and  func- 
tions of  a  curialis,  one  attached  to  the 
curia  or  court  of  a  prince.  Ducange  cites 
passages  from  mediiBval  writers  in  which 
curialis  plainly  signifies  a  mere  clerk  or 
secretarj-.  But  the  sense  of  "courtier" 
was  much  more  common,  as  in  the  title 
of  two  well-known  works  by  John  of 
Salisbury  and  Walter  Map,  "  De  Nugis 
Curialium."  There  is  a  canon  in  the 
Corpus  Juris  bearing  the  name  of  Pope 
Innocent  I.  (a.d.  404)  which  excludt-s 
those  who  were  invested  with  curialia  from 
the  clerical  order,  the  due  performance  of 
both  functions  by  the  same  person  being 
considered  impracticable.  (Wetzer  and 
Welte. ) 

CTTSTOnx,  according  to  St.  Thomas 
and  canonists  generally,  has  three  legal 
effects : 

(1)  It  may,  either  through  the  con- 
sent, tacit  or  express,  of  lawful  authority 
or  by  prescription,  impose  a  new  law. 
This  is  clearly  laid  down  both  in  the 
canon  and  civil  law.  To  have  the  force 
of  law,  the  custom  must  be  good  and 
useful ;  it  must  have  been  formed  by 
public  acts,  proceeding  from  the  greater 
part  of  the  community  ;  the  people  from 
•whom  the  custom  proceeds  must  have  the 
intention  of  binding  themselves  (thus  the 
custom  of  taking  holy  water  in  entering 
churches  has  not  the  force  of  a  law).  It 

I  it  is  introduced  by  way  of  prescription, 
;  the  custom  must  continue  uninten-upted 
for  a  certain  space  of  time  before  it  binds 
the  conscience.' 

(2)  On  much  the  same  conditions 
custom  may  abrogate  an  existing  law, 
or  modify  it,  unless  the  law  in  question 

»  St.  Liguori,  De  Leg.  107  seq.,  says  irene- 
rally  that  custom  to  have  the  force  of  law  must 
be  continued  for  a  long  time  without  interrup- 
tion. Some  sav  that  the  length  of  time  re- 
quired depends  on  circumstances  :  others  that 
ten  years  is  the  time  required.  Again,  some 
maintain  that  while  a  prescription  of  ten  years 
suffices  to  change  civil  law,  a  custom  must  last 
forty  years  to  abrogate  Church  law.  Probably 
ten  years  is  enough  in  either  coae. 


26(i  GUSTOS 

be  natural  or  divine.  But  here,  if  the 
custom  operates  bv  way  of  prescription, 

ten  yi  av-  arfordiug  to  the  common  opinion 
:u-''  ii  i|iiii  ril  lit' fore  custom  abrogates  civil, 
forty  111  ici-.'  it  abrogates  ecclesiastical, 

(3)  Custom  interprets  law,  and,  unless 
the  law  be  natural  or  divine,  may  intro- 
duce an  "  authentic  "  interpretation — i.e. 
it  may  give  an  authoritative  sense  to  a 
law,  although  that  sense  is  discordant 
with  the  original  intention  of  the  legis- 
lator. (Billuart,  "  De  Legibus,"  Diss.  v. 
a.  2.) 

CVSTOS.  By  this  name  was  formerly 
designated  the  canon,  in  a  cathedral  or 
collegiate  church,  who  with  the  approval 
of  the  bishop  had  the  spiritual  charge  of 
the  cure  attached  to  the  church.  It  was 
also  applied  to  sacristans  or  treasurers 
who  had  charge  of  the  sacred  vessels, 
church  ornaments,  furniture,  &c.  In  the 
revolutionary  period  this  office  was  gene- 
rally in  abej'ance  ;  in  Austria,  however,  I 
it  stood  its  ground,  and  has  been  again 
introduced  in  Prussia,  the  canon  hax  ing 
charge  of  n  metropolitan  cure  being  called  i 
mmmus  ciistos.  In  France  the  ecclesiastic 
with  corresponding  functions  is  called 
archipretre. 

CYCXiE  (including  Golden  Number, 
Dominical  Letter,  Epact)  is  a  series  of 
numliers,  letters  standing  for  numbers, 
always  counted  over  again  in  the  same 
order  when  the  seriev  has  been  completed. 
Cycles  are  employed  in  ecclesiastical  as 
well  as  civil  chronology,  since  the  solar, 
liiiini-,  ami  paschal  cycles  enable  us  to  I 
reckcin  the  time  at  wh'ich  the  feasts  of  the 
church  M'ill  fall  in  each  year.  The  lunar 
cycle  (i-i/clus  luncf,  dcc('iii'noremialis,ii'v(a- 
h(Ka(Ti-jpU)  consists  of  nineteen  years,  and 
alter  the  expiration  of  each  lunar  v\c\i- 
tbe  new  and  full  moons  fall  once  nxnri- 
on  nearlv  the  same  .'la\s  of  the  month. 
This  evc'le  wa,^  inveiilr.l  l.v  the  (ireek 
asln.nnni.  r  M'X^m.  Anatolius,  bishop  of 
I.aodicpa,  eni],lnv.-,l  it  towards  the  close 
of  (he  third  eciidnv  U<r  calculating  the 
date  of  Easter.'  hnnu  afterwards  the 
Nici'iie  Council  ordained  that  Easter 
>lniiild  he  celebrated  on  the  Sunday 
w  hich  followed  the  first  new  moon  after 
the  \friial  equinox  (.M .arch  21),  and  this 
li'd  to  a  more  exact  cdniputation  of  the 
lunar  cycle.  The  hisliojis  of  Alexandria, 
the  seat  of  mathematical  science,  were 
entrusted  with  the  task  of  fixing  the  day 
on  which  Easter  fell.-    In  order  to  lighten 

1  Euseb.  H.  E.  vii.  14. 

'  The  Alexandrian  bi.shop  was  to  fix  the 


CYCLE 

their  task,  the  Alexandrian  church  con- 
structed Paschal  ci/cles,  which  contained 
a  number  of  hmnr  (yclcx,  and  fixed  tbe 
date  of  Ivister  Sunday  foi'  a  long  course 
of  years.  Tliu.-  Throphilu^  of  Alexandria 
drew  up  a  Pasclial  (  (/c/e  of  418  years — i.e. 
of  twenty-two  lunar  C!/c/es— beginning 
with  the  year  .'^HO.  This  cj'cle,  partly 
on  account  of  its  ohscnrity,  partly  on 
accoiuit  of  its  incon-e<  tiit  ss,  found  small 
acceptance  in  the  West,  and  in  the  year 
444  I''a>ter  Sunday,  according  to  Roman 
reckoning,  fell  on  ^larch  26,  according  to 
Alexandrian,  on  April  23.  In  conse- 
quence of  a  letter  from  Pope  Leo,  Cyril 
corrected  the  Paschal  cycle  of  his  prede- 
cessor and  reduced  it  to  one  of  ninety-five 
years,  extending  from  437  to  531,  and 
embracing  five  lunar  cycles.  As  this, 
cycle  was  drawing  to  its  end,  Dionysius 
Exiguus,  in  525,  constructed  a  new  one 
of  ."504  Julian  years  or  sixteen ///wr/r  cycles. 
The  defects  of  tlie  Dionysian  computat  ion 
weri^  inseparable  I'roni  t  hose  ot' tin'  .liili.-m 
year,  wliich  coiisi.-lod  of ;;(;.")  davs.  {\ hoiu-s, 
instoad  of  3fi5  days,  lioms,  4'.l  minutes, 
so  that  the  calculation  of  the  vernal 
equinox  became  more  and  more  eiToneous 
as  time  went  on,  forty-four  minutes  too 
much  being  added  to  each  leap-year. 
The  remedy  was  provided  by  the  'Gre- 
gorian reformation  of  the  Calendar.* 
[See  CALEJfDAE,  Julian.] 

The  Golden  Number,  which  is  closely 
connected  with  the  lunar  cycle,  indicates 
the  place  any  given  year  holds  in  the 
hniar  ciicle  (wliether,  e.q.,  the  vear  of 
Christ  1881  is  1.  2,  3.  X-c.  in  tlu'  lunar 
cycle  f>f  nineteenV  It  l.i  s  its  name  from 
the  fiict  that  it  \\a>  -(  I  in  LTolden  colours 
against  the  day,-  on  w  liiidi  the  new  moon 
fdl  in  the  IJonian  and  Alexaiulrian 
lalrndars.  Christ,  according  to  the 
l  omnion  recko)nng,  wa>  horn  at  the  end 
of  the  first  year  in  the  lunar  cycle,  SO  that 
the  Golden  Number  for  each  year  is  ob- 
tained by  adding  one  to  the  number  of 
the  year  {c.y.  to  IS'^O  and  dividing  the 
sum  hy  nineteen.  The  remainder  gives 
the  (lolden  Numlier:  if  there  is  no  re- 
maiiuler  the  Golden  Number  is  nineteen. 
Thus  if  to  1881  we  add  one  aiul  divide 
by  nineteen,  we  get  one  as  a  remainder, 
and  (his  is  the  Golden  Number  for  the 
yeai-  in  qm-fion. 

Thr  solar  cycle  or  cycle  of  Dominical 
Letters  is  a  series  of  twenty-eight  years, 
after  which  Sundays  and  week-days  again 

(late,  and  the  Bishiip  of  Rome  was  to  notify  the- 
(lay  fixed  to  the  wliolc  Cluirch. 
1  See  llc^ole,  Concil.  i.  324  seg. 


CYCLE 


CYCLE 


267 


fall  on  tbe  same  days  of  the  month.  The 
first  seven  letters  are  used  to  indicate  the 
days  of  the  week,  A  being  used  in  all  cases 
to  mark  the  first  of  January,  and  the  letter 
•which  thus  comes  to  mark  the  first 
Sunday  being  the  Sunday  letter  or  littera 
dominicalis  of  the  year.  Thus  1 881  began 
with  a  Saturday,  and  hence  the  Dominic  al 
Letter  is  B.  The  same  Dominical  Letter 
would  recur  every  seven  years.  But  as 
a  day  is  intercalated  in  the  February  of 
each  leap-year,  viz.,  February  25,  wliich 
has  the  same  letter  assigned  to  it  as 
February  24,  hence  each  leap-year  has 
two  Dominical  Letters,  the  fonner  e.xtend- 
ing  to  February  24  inclusive,  the  latter 
embracing  the  rest  of  the  year.  Now,  as 
this  intercalation  interrupts  the  sequence 
of  the  Dominical  Letters  seven  times  in 
twenty-eight  years,  the  same  order  of  Do- 
minical Letters  cannot  recur  oftener  than 
once  in  twenty-eight  years.  However,  a 
new  disturbance  in  the  order  of  Dominical 
Letters  arises  from  the  fact  that  in  the 
Gregorian  calendar  it  was  arranged  that 
although  each  secular  year — i.e.  the  first 
year  of  each  century — would  naturally  be 
a  leap-year,  only  the  first  of  each  of  four 
seculars  should  be  reckoned  as  such. 
Thus  1600,  the  secular  year  which  fol- 
lowed the  Gregorian  reformation  of  the 
calendar,  was  reckoned  as  a  leap-year — i.e. 
it  had  a  day  intercalated  in  February — hut 
this  was  not  the  case  with  the  rears 
1700  and  1800,  nor  will  it  be  with  litOO. 
In  showing  how  the  Dominical  Letter  for 
each  year  may  be  ascertained  (we  restrict 
our  calculations  to  the  present  century), 
first,  we  must  ascertain  the  number 
which  the  current  year,  e.g.  1881,  holds 
in  the  solar  cycle  of  twenty-eight  years. 
The  first  year  of  the  Dionysian  era  is  the 
ninth  of  the  solar  cycle.  Hence  by  add- 
ing nine  to  1881,  and  dividing  the  sum 
by  twenty-eight,  we  get  three  as  re- 
mainder, so  that  we  now  know  that  the 
year  1881  is  third  in  the  solar  cycle  of 
twenty-eight.  The  following  table  gives 
the  order  of  Dominical  Letters  for  the 
solar  cycle  of  twenty-ei;^ht  years  and  will 
serve  for  calculating  the  Dominical  Letter 
of  any  year  in  this  century. 


lED 

8C 

15  A 

22  F 

2C 

9  B  A 

16  G 

28  E 

3  B 

10  G 

17  FE 

24  D 

4  A 

11  F 

18  D 

2.5  C 

5  G  F 

12  E 

19  C 

26  A 

6  E 

13  DC 

20  B 

27  G 

7  D 

14  B 

21  A  G 

28  F 

We  had  already  found  that  1881  is  the 
third  year  in  the  cycle ;  now  we  know 


that  its  Dominical  Letter  is  B,  or  in  other 
words  that  the  first  Sunday  falls  on 
January  2.  When  we  have  oot  so  far, 
it  is  easy  to  ascertain  tlie  iluy-  ^i'  rhe 
month  on  which  the  Sunday^  ul  the  year 
fall.  The  twelve  months  have  letters 
assigned  to  them,  contained  in  the  follow- 
ing memorial  verses , 

Astra  Dabit  Dominus  Gratisque  Beabit 
Egonos  ; 

Ctratia  Christicolse    Feret  Aurea  Dona 
Fideli : 

i.e.  A  is  the  letter  for  January  1,  D  for 
February  1,  Jtc.  As  B  is  the  Dominical 
Letter  for  1881,  and  as  F  is  the  letter 
which  marks  the  first  of  December,  the 
first  of  that  month  will  be  on  a  Thursday, 
and  the  Sundays  will  fall  on  the  fourth, 
eleventh,  eighteenth  and  twenty-fifth 
days. 

Epncts  {inaKT'i\  rjfifpai,  dies  arljecti, 
adscit.itii)  are  used  because  of  tlie  dift'er- 
ences  in  duration  between  the  lunar 
and  solar  years.  Annual  epacts  determine 
the  age  of  the  moon  on  each  new  year's 
day.  The  lunar  falls  about  eleven  days 
short  of  the  solar  year.  In  the  Gregorian 
calendar  the  new  moon  of  the  lunar  cycle 
(see  above)  falls  on  Januarj'  1,  so  that 
the  epact  =  0,  an  asterisk  (*)  being  some- 
times used  to  mark  the  epact  in  this  case. 
In  the  second  year  the  epact  or  addition 
which  must  be  made  to  the  lunar  j'ear  = 
XI ;  in  the  third  XXII.  The  epact  of 
the  fourth  year  would  be  XXXIII,  but  on 
the  thirtieth  of  these  thirty-three  days  a 
new  moon  has  again  appeared,  so  that  the 
epact  corresponding  to  the  fourth  year  iu 
the  lunar  cycle  (or  in  other  words  to  the 
Golden  Number  4)  is  HI.  If  we  subtract 
one  from  the  Golden  Number,  multiply 
by  eleven  and  divide  hy  thirty  we  get  the 
epact.  Thus  the  epact  for  1881  is  *,  for 
1882  it  will  .be  XI. 

The  calculation  of  the  monthly  epact 
enables  us  to  determine  the  days  of  the 
civil  or  solar  month  on  which  the  new  and 
full  moons  occur.  The  lunar  month  con- 
sists of  twenty-nine  days,  eleven  hours, 
fortj--four  minutes :  so  that  the  monthly 
epact  in  January,  which  has  thirty-one 
days,  is  one  day,  six  minutes ;  and  the 
epact,  of  course,  for  each  month  increases, 
till  in  December  it  reaches  eleven  days. 
To  .shorten  the  process  of  calculation,  the 
limar  months  are  reckoned  at  twenty-nine 
and  thirty  days.  If  we  ^'ubtract  the 
annual  epact  from  thirty-one,  we  get  the 
day  on  which  the  new  moon  of  January 
falls  :  the  new  moon  of  February  falls 
thirty,  that  ot  March  twenty-nine,  thai; 


268 


CYCLE 


DALMATIC 


of  April  thirty  days  later ;  and  so  with 
the  rest  of  the  months. 

An  example  will  illustrate  tlie  way  in 
•which  these  chronological  determinations 
are  connected  with  and  assist  each  other. 
Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  to  ascertain 
the  day  on  which  Easter  Sunday  fell  in 
1879.    First  we  must  find  the  Golden 

Number:  ^^^^  ^  gives  the  remainder 

eighteen,  which  is  the  Golden  Number. 

gives  the  remainder  VII.,  i.e. 

the  epact.  Consequently  on  January  1, 
1879,  the  moon  was  seven  days  old.  By 
subtracting  seven  from  thirty-one,  we  find 
that  the  new  moon  falls  on  January  'I-l, 
then  on  February  21,  then  March  24,  the 
full  moon  of  the  spring  equinox  falling 
foui-teen  or  fifteen  days  later,  i.e.  on  April 


7  or  8 ;  so  that  the  Sunday  following  April 

8  is  Easter  Sunday.  We  have  now  to  find 
on  what  day  of  the  week  April  8  fell,  and 
for  this  we  need  to  know  the  Dominical 

Letter.    The  remainder  of  ^^^^"^  ^  is 

twelve,  which  is  the  number  of  the  year 
1879  in  the  solar  cycle,  and  to  this  the 
Dominical  Letter  E  corresponds,  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  table  given  above.  April, 
according  to  the  memorial  verses,  begins 
with  G ;  April  2  then  will  be  A,  April  3 
B;  E,  the  Dominical  Letter,  falls  on 
April  6,  which  was  therefore  a  Suuday. 
April  8,  then,  was  a  Tuesday,  and  the 
Sunday  following,  viz.  April  13,  was 
Easter  Sunday.  (^From  the  treatise  "  De 
Anno  et  ejus  Partibus "  prefixed  to  the 
Roman  Missal ;  from  Wetzer  and  Welte, 
and  Hefele,  «  ConciL") 


DAXiMATXC.    A  vestment  open  on 

each  side,  with  wide  sleeves,  and  marked 
with  two  stripes.  It  is  worn  by  deacons 
at  IIii;h  Mass  as  well  ns  at  processions 
and  Ijcnedictions,  and  by  bishops,  when 
tliHV  celebrate  Mass  pontifically,  under 
the  chasuble.  The  colour  should  conform 
to  that  of  the  chasuble  worn  by  the 
celebrant. 

The  word  is  derived  from  Dalmatia, 
and  first  occurs  in  the  second  century. 
The  dalmatic  [Dalmatica  ves'tk)  was  a 
long  under-garnipiit  of  white  Dalmatian 
wool  corresponding  to  the  lioman  tunic. 
,Fliiis  Lanipridius  blames  the  emperors 
C'oniniiiilus  and  Ileliogabalus  for  appear- 
ing pulilicly  in  the  dalmatic.  In  the 
Acts  of  St.  Cyprian  we  are  told  that  the 
martyr  drew  off  liis  dalmatic  and,  giving 
it  to  his  deacons,  stood  ready  for  death 
in  his  linen  garment.  In  these  instances 
the  dalmatic  was  clearly  a  garment  of 
everyday  life. 

According  to  Anastasius,  Pope  Sil- 
vester early  in  the  fourth  century  gave 
the  Roman  deacons  dalmatics  instead  of 
the  sleeveless  garments  {KnXnfiia)  which 
they  had  used  previously.  Gradually  the 
Popes  conceded  the  privilege  of  wearing 
the  dalmatic  as  an  ecclesiastical  vestment 
to  the  deacons  of  other  churches.'  Such 
a  concession  was  made  by  Pope  Sym- 

I  'Quando  facerdoti  ministrant.' — Ruhr. 
Gen.  Miss.  tit.  six. 


machus  towards  the  close  of  the  fifth 
century,  to  the  church  of  Aries.  In  the 
same  way,  the  use  of  the  dalmatic  as  an 
episcopal  vestment  was  first  proper  to  the 
Pope  and  then  permitted  by  him  to  other 
bisliops.  Tims  Gregory  the  Great  allowed 
Arcgitis,  lii-liop  of  Gap  in  Gaul,  toweara 
(liilmatie,  and  Walafrid  Strabo  testities 
tliat  in  the  .seventh  century  this  episcopal 
custom  was  by  no  means  universal.  But 
from  the  year  890  onwards  ecclesiastical 
writers  all  speak  of  the  dalmatic  as  one 
of  the  episcopal,  and  the  chief  of  the 
deacon's,  vestments.  The  dalmatic  was 
originally  always  white,  but  Durandus 
.speaks  of  red  dalmatics,  symbolising 
martyrdom.  The  Greeks  have  a  vestment 
corresponding  to  our  dalmatic,  called 
aTi)(dpiov  or  (rTOLX'ipiov  from  the  o-ri^^oi 
(lines  or  stripes),  with  which  it  is 
adorned  ;  its  colour  varies,  just  as  the 
dalmatic  of  our  deacons  does,  with  the 
colour  of  the  clxXonnp  oi-  chasuble,  worn 
by  the  celebrant.  Tlie  Greek  priests  also 
wear  a  a-Ttxt'ipiou  under  the  chasuble,  but 
the  former  is  always  wliite. 

Various  mystical  nvauings  have  been 
attached  to  the  dalmatic.  When  the  arms 
!  are  stretched  it  presents  the  figure  of  a 
cross ;  the  width  of  the  sleeves  is  said  to 
typify  charity ;  the  two  stripes  (which 
were  originally  purple,  and  are  probably 
a  relic  of  the  Roman  latus  clavus)  were 
supposed  to  symboMse  the  blood  of  Christ 


DATARIA 


DEACON 


sli./d  for  Je-ws  and  Gentiles.  (From  Rock, 
"  Ilierurgia,''  and  Hefele,  "  Beitriige,"  ii. 
204  seq.) 

BATAKXA.  The  office  in  the  Papal 
Court  whence  are  expedited  the  graces, 
accorded  bv  the  Pope,  which  have  their 
effect  and  are  cogni>;il)le  hi  foro  externo. 
Tlie  term  is  derived  from  a  Low-  Latin  verb 
(hifare,  to  date,  formed  doubtless  from 
the  "  Datum  "  or  "  Datre,"  with  following 
indications  of  place  and  time,  with  which 
the  Romans  commonly  ended  their 
letters.  The  Dataria,  originally  a  branch 
of  the  Apostolic  Chancery,  attained  to  a 
.separate  organl.<ation  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  at  which  time,  owing  to  the 
great  number  of  benefices  in  all  countries 
reserved  to  the  Pope,  mistakes  were 
sometimes  made  In  the  appointments,  and 
the  same  benefice  was  confen-ed  upon  or 
promised  to  two  or  more  persons,  whence 
complaints  and  unseemly  contentions 
arose.  The  evil  was  eflectnally  remedied 
by  the  appointment  of  an  official  whose 
special  business  It  should  be  to  register 
the  dates  of  the  appointments  to  benefices. 

The  Datary  (who  is  sometimes  a 
simple  prelate,  sometimes  a  Cardinal,  in 
which  latter  case  he  is  styled  pro-Datary) 
has  in  the  course  of  time  had  many  other 
duties  laid  upon  him  besides  those  con- 
nected with  the  grant  of  benefices.  He 
has  the  charge  of  dispensations,  the 
various  kinds  of  which,  and  also  licences 
for  the  alienation  of  churcli  property,  are 
issued  from  liis  office.  A  considerable 
staft'  of  officials,  at  the  head  of  whom  is 
the  sub-Datary,  are  under  his  orders. 
His  functions  cease  ipso  facto  on  the 
death  of  a  Pope,  all  applications  reaching 
the  office  during  the  vacancy  being  sealed 
up  and  transmitted  to  the  College  of 
Cardinals  to  be  dealt  with  by  the  future 
Pope.    "See  CrRiA  Romaxa.'] 

SfiACOxr.  The  word  in  itself 
(SmKocoy)  means  no  more  than  "mini- 
ster "  or  servant,  and  so  it  is  used  in  the 
LXX  and  in  the  New  Testament  (see 
Esther  i.  10,  1  Cor.  iii.  5,  2  Cor.  vi.  4). 
However,  the  word  deacon  received  a 
more  definite  meaning  in  apostolic  times, 
for  the  mention  of  deacons  along  with 
bishops  in  Phil.  i.  1, 1  Tim.  iii.  2,  8,  besides 
the  qualifications  which  St.  Paul  requires 
of  a  deacon,  clearly  prove  that  the 
diaconate  was  a  church  office.  According 
to  the  Pontifical  it  is  the  part  of  a  deacon 
"to  minister  at  the  altar,  to  baptise  and  to 
preach."  He  is  the  highest  of  all  whose 
office  it  is  to  serve  the  priest  in  the  admini- 
stration of  the  sacraments,  and  he  is  set 


apart  for  his  work,  not  merely  by  the 
institution  of  the  Churcli,  but  by  the 
sacrament  of  order  which  he  receives 
through  the  laying  on  of  the  bisho))  s 
hands.  Just  as  tht  Levites  were  chosen 
by  God  Himself  for  the  ministry  of  the 
tabernacle,  so  the  diaconate  is  appointed 
by  Christ's  institution  and  strengthened 
by  a  sacrament  of  the  new  law  for  the 
service  of  tht-  Christian  altar.  The  con- 
stituents of  a  sacrament — viz.  the  sensible 
sign,  giiicf  given,  divine  and  permanent 

j  instltuiiou— are  all  found  in  a  deacon's 

I  ordination.  The  laying  on  of  hands  is 
the  sensible  sign  ;  giace  is  given,  for  the 
bishop  says,  "Receive  the  Holy  Ghost," 
and  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  xxiii.  can. 
4)  anathematises  those  who  hold  "that  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  not  given  by  sacred  ordin- 
ation, and  accordingly  that  bishops  say 

i  in  vain 'Receive  the  Holy  Ghost.' "  There 
is  divine  institution,  for  what  power  had 
the  Apostles  to  institute  a  sign  which 
should  infallibly  convey  grace?  And 
besides,  the  Coimcil  of  Trent  (/oc.  cit.  can. 
6)  defines  that  there  is  "  in  the  Catholic 
Church  a  hierarchy  divinely  constituted, 
consisting  of  bishops,  presbyters  and 
ministers,"  which  last  word  must  at  least 

I  include  deacons.  Lastly,  the  form  of 
ordination  was  established  permanently, 

i  as  appears  from  the  practice  of  the 
Church.' 

1  L'p  to  this  point  we  have  been  arguing 
on  Catholic  principles,  but  It  will  be  well 
(1)  to  consider  more  closely  the  grounds  on 
which  the  Catholic  idea  of  the  diaconate 
rests,  passing  then  (2)  to  the  history  of 

I  the  office,  and  (3)  to  the  rite  of  ordi- 
nation. 

(1)  The  Catholic  Idea  of  the  Diaconate. 
— The  duties  of  a  deacon  will  be  con- 
sidered more  fully  at'terwards.  Here  it 
is  enough  to  say  that  a  dt-aciui  is  ordained 
chiefly  in  order  that  hv  may  assist  the 
priest  in  the  celebration  of  >olemn  Mass, 
j  and  then,  on  certain  conditlnus,  to  preach 
and  baptise.  Li  other  words,  he  is  the 
chief  minister  at  the  altar.  Against  this, 
Protestaut>  have  often  alleged  that  the 
seven  deacons  whose  ordination  is  men- 
tioned in  Acts  vi.  were  chosen  in  order  to 
administer  the  alms  of  the  Church,  and 
that  the  New  Testament  gives  no  hint  of 
their  duties  at  the  altar, 

1  That  the  sacrament  of  order  is  received 
by  (lo.ieons  follows  so  plainly  from  the  (1<  tini- 
tions  of  Trent,  and  is  so  univprs.illy  held,  that 
the  •ontrary  opinion  of  Dunindus  and  Cajetan, 
I  liouiih  not  heretical,  could  not  be  maintained 
I  without  temerity. 


270  DEACON 


DEACON 


Now  certainly  the  "seven"  mentioned 
in  Acts  vi.  wore  npjiointed  on  occasion  of 
disputes  which  arose  hetween  two  chisses 
of  Jewish  converts  (viz.  those  of  foreign 
find  those  of  ralestiniaii  origin)  on  the 
dist  rihution  of  ahiis,  and  were  entrusted 
witli  the  administration  of  clmritahle 
relief.  Further,  the  seven,  though  not 
called  "deacons,"  have  almost  universally 
been  regarded  as  the  first  who  held  the 
office. 1  Still,  the  sacred  text  indicates 
tliat  they  were  to  be  chosen  for  some 
higher  work  than  the  administration  of 
charity.  They  were  to  he  "  full  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  of  wisdom,"  We  find 
Steplien,  one  of  their  nunilicr,  pifaehing 
and  instructing;  Philip,  another  member 
of  their  body,  baptising  (Acts  viii.  38). 
St.  Paul  (1  Tim.  iii.  9)  requires  deacons 
to  "hold  the  mysterj'  of  the  faith  in  a 
pure  conscience,"  nor  does  he  allude  to 
this  work  of  "  serving  tables  " — i.e.  of  ad- 
ministering alms. 

We  can  only  guess  the  nature  of  the 
diaeonate  from  Scripture,  but  the  early 
and  authentic  tradition  proves  that  the 
Catliolic  doctrine  on  tlie  matter  corre- 
sponds to  the  original  teaching  of  the 
Apostles.  St.  Ignatius  ("  Ad  Trail."  2), 
speaks  of  deacons  as  "  ministers  of  the 
mysteries  of  Jesus  Christ,"  "for  tliey  are 
not  ministers  {hiAKovoi)  of  meat  and 
drink,  but  servants  of  the  Church  of  God." 
Here  the  mention  of  the  "mysteries  of 
Jesus  Christ"  in  contrast  with  ordinary 
meat  and  drink,  sliows  tliat  St.  Ignatius 
alludes  to  tlie  service  of  the  altar.  Justin 
("  Apol."  i.  W,)  tells  us  that  the  deacons 
gave  IIolv  ( 'onniiunion  to  tliosr  jM  '  sent 
at  Mass,  and  cmTifd  it  to  tlir  nLscnt. 
TertuUian  ("  De  Bai)tism."  17)  .  tliat 
deacons  had  the  right  to  liajitisc,  not, 
however,  "without  the  authoi-ity  of  the 
bishop."  This  chain  of  test  imony  might 
easily  be  strengthened,  but  l  lir  t  rst  inionies 
given  prove  that  the  coinj.lctc  ('iilliolic 
idea  of  the  diaeonate  was  .■icci'])ti'd  in  the 
early  Churcli. 

(2)  Hiotnry  of  the  Dw/jV-s  ^V''.— With 
regard  to  the  ministry  of  the  altar, 
deacons,  as -vve  have  sei'ii.  nsi>(1  to  'j'wv  tlie 
people  coniiiiuMMiii  iiihI't  Iml  h  kni(K,  In 
Cyprian's  t  line,  and  in  tin'  rollowing  ages, 
deiicons  were  only  permitted  to  present 
the  chalice  to  the  people.'-'    At  present 

•  This,  however,  was  denieil  l)v  the  (Ireek 
Ooiinril  in  Tnillo,  can.  M)-  and  »Uo.  PotMvins 
sav-.  Ii\  •  rc-rt:iiii  I.Mtnrii  mihI  ( 'al  li.  ihcold- 
l;i,oi-.' '/<•  (',itl,.,l.  ,/„,hi,s,l„m  Dniini  llli. 
ii.  rap.  i . 

'  Cvpi'iaii.  ])e  Lui>s.  25;  Apost.  Canst. 
viii.  12". 


they  are  forbidden  to  give  commurdon  at 
all  except  in  case  of  necessity,  but  they 
retain  the  essential  part  of  their  office 
as  ministers  of  the  altar  by  singing  the 
Gospel  at  High  Mass,  and  assisting  the 
priest  throughout  the  celebration.  They 
can  also,  as  in  ancient  times,  preach  with 
the  leave  of  the  bishop,  and  baptise 
solemnly  with  that  of  the  parish  priest. 

Formerly  the  deacons  had  other  and 
very  important  functions.  They  had  to 
acquaint  the  bishop  with  the  state  of  his 
flock,  collect  the  oflertory  at  ]Mass,  to 
visit  the  confessors  in  prison,  write  the 
Acts  of  the  martyrs,  so  that  in  the  Apo- 
stolical Constitutions  (ii.  44)  the  deacon 
is  said  to  be  the  "  ear,  eye,  nioutli,  heart 
and  soul  of  the  bishop."  Nay,  in  certain 
cases  even  congregations  in  the  country 
were  committed  to  their  care.' 

In  many  churches,  of  which  Rome 
was  one,  the  number  of  deacons  was  • 
limited  to  seven,  in  memory  of  the  original 
institution.-  It  was  not  till  the  eleventh 
century  that  the  number  of  Cardinal 
Deacons  in  the  Roman  Church  was  raised 
from  se\"en  to  fourteen. 

But  the  most  important  point  in  which 
the  position  of  deacons  has  altered  is  that, 
whereas  in  the  ancient  and  even  mediaeval 
Church  a  man  often  remained  a  simple 
deacon  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  the  diaeonate 
is  now  regarded  as  a  steji  towards  the 
priesthood.  Among  the  Cardinal  Deacons 
at  Rome  a  vestige  of  the  ancient  discipline 
is  still  preserved. 

(3)  The  Ordmation  of  Deacojw.— The 
following  is  the  form  given  in  the  Roman 
Pontifical.  The  hidiop  (|iit'.-tions  the 
archdeacon  on  the  fit  m  -  -  of  t  lir  (  andnlates 
and  then  asks  tlie  cli  rgy  and  the  jifople 
to  state  any  grounds  they  have  for  ob- 
jecting to  the  (U'dination  of  the  person 
about  to  be  promoted.  After  a  pause, 
the  bishop  lays  down  the  duties  and 
qii;dilirations  of  a  deacon,  while  th" 
candidates  kneel  at  his  feet.  The  candi- 
dates then  piM-irate  themselves  on  their 
lae.-  wild.  Litany  of  the  Saints  and 
S(»i!i'  Mthi'i  piay:  r>  aiv  recited.  Next,  in 
a  kind  of  pi  el'a(a>,  thp  bishop  gives  thanks 
to  God  for  the  institution  of  the  sacred 
ministry,  and  the  most  important  part  of 
tlie  rite  bpgiiis.  The  bishop  places  his 
richt  hand  on  r:\r\\  .if  the  candidates  with 
tlir  wonl>  the  Holy  G host  for 

stivn^ih  and  lor  iv>i~ting  the  devil  and  all 
his  tcni])tations  in  the  name  of  the  Lord." 

I  Concil.  Illib.  can.  77. 

-  I'aisi  b,  //.  E.  vi.  4.3  ;  C  ucil.  Neocicsar. 
can.  la. 


DEACONESS 


DEACONESS 


271 


Then,  holding  the  right  hand  stretched 
out,  he  continues,  "  Send  forth  upon  them, 
0  Lord,  we  beseech  Thee,  the  Holy  Spirit, 
that  they  may  be  strengthened  faithfully 
to  perform  the  work  of  thy  ministry  by 
the  gift  of  thy  sevenfold  grace,"  c&c.  The 
bishop  then  invests  the  new  deacons  with 
the  stole  on  the  left  shoulder,  and  dal- 
matic, and  finally  makes  them  touch  the 
book  of  the  Gospels,  while  he  says, 
"  Receive  the  power  of  reading  the  Gospel 
in  the  church  of  God,  both  for  the  living 
and  the  dead,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord." 

The  essence  of  the  ordination,  ac- 
cording to  the  most  probable  opinion, 
consists  in  the  laying  on  of  hands  by  a 
bishop  with  words  which  express  the 
nature  of  the  power  given.  This  impo- 
sition of  hands  is  mentioned  in  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  oud  in  various  early 
authorities — e.(/.  In  Canon  4  of  the  early 
collection  attributed  to  the  Fourth  Coun- 
cil of  Carthage.  The  present  form  of 
words  which  accompanies  lliis  imposition 
of  hands  is  not  older  than  the  twelfth 
century.  With  regard  to  the  other  cere- 
monies, the  questions  put  by  the  bishop 
to  the  people  on  the  iitness  of  the  candi- 
dates are  in  substance  of  Ajxistollc 
institution.^  The  recitation  of  the  Litany 
of  the  Saints  is  found  in  the  oldest  Pon- 
tificals ;  the  prayer  "  Exaudi,  Domine, 
preces  nostras,"  used  after  giving  the  book 
of  the  Gospels  occurs  in  a  MS.  more  tlian 
twelve  hundred  years  old  ;  and  the  practice 
of  investing  the  new  deacon  with  the 
Stole  was  in  use,  according  to  Assemani, 
long  before  the  time  of  Gregory  the 
Great.  In  the  Greek  rite,  as  given  by 
Goar,  the  bishop  makes  the  sign  of  the 
cross  on  the  head  of  the  person  to  be 
ordained,  and  places  his  hand  on  his  head, 
with  the  words,  "  Divine  grace,  which 
ever  heals  the  infirm  and  perfects  the 
imperfect,  promotes  the  veneral)le  sub- 
deacon  N.  to  be  deacon.  Therefore  let 
us  pray  for  him  that  the  grace  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  may  come  upon  him."  The 
bishop  then  makes  on  the  head  of  the 
deacon  the  sign  of  the  cross  three  times, 
uses  two  forms  of  prayer  witli  fresh 
imposition  of  hands,  jaits  the  orariinn  or 
stole  on  his  left  shoulder,  saying,  "He  is 
worthy,"  gives  him  the  kiss  of  peace,  and 
puts  the  fan  for  driving  away  flies  from 
the  holy  sacrifice  into  his  hand,  again 
saying,  "  He  is  worthy." 

BEACOXTESS.  Many  have  sup- 
posed that  6t.  Paul  recognises  the  exis- 
tence of  deaconesses  when  in  Rom.  xvi.  1 
»  See  Acts  vi.  3. 


he  speaks  of  Phoebe  as  the  hiaKovos  or 
servant  of  the  church  at  Cenchrere,  and 
it  has  been  suggested  that  the  "  widows  " 
in  1  Tim.  v.  9,  were  deaconesses.  In 
any  case,  from  very  early  times  there  was 
an  order  of  women  in  the  Church  known 
as  biaKovKTcraL,  np(afivTLb(s,  x^pat,  diai  un- 
isscB,  preshyfercB,  viducB.  Phny  mentions 
two  Christian  rninistrce,  probably  mean- 
ing deaconesses. 

They  were  employed  in  assisting  at 
the  baptism  of  women,'  which  at  that 
time  was  by  immersion,  and  after  the 
deacon  had  anointed  the  baptised  person 
on  the  ftn-ehead,  the  other  unctions,  in 
the  case  of  a  woman's  baptism,  were  given 
by  the  deaconess.'^  Deaconesses  also  gave 
private  instruction  to  women,  visited 
them  in  sickness  and  prison,  kept  order 
at  the  women's  door  and  in  the  women's 
Iiart  of  the  church,  assisted  the  bride  at 
marriages,  &c. 

Originally  widows  were  chosen  for  the 
ofiice,  though  even  St.  Ignatius  speaks  of 
virgins  who  were  called  widows  ^ — i.e. 
because  of  this  office — and  later,  married 
women,  if  living  in  continence,  might 
become  deaconesses.  For  a  long  time 
deaconesses  were  required  to  be  sixty 
years  of  age,  but  the  Councils  of  Chal- 
cedon  and  in  Trullo*  reduced  the  re- 
quired age  to  forty  years.  Women  who 
had  been  married  twice  were  never  ad- 
mitted to  the  rank  of  deaconess.  Deacon- 
esses were  strictly  forbidden  to  marry 
They  were  ordained  by  laying  on  of 
hands  ;  sometimes,  indeed,  they  even  re- 
ceived the  stole  and  chalice.*  But  they 
were  servants  of  the  church,  not  ministers 
of  the  altar ;  indeed,  the  Fathers  regard 
the  exclusion  of  women  from  ecclesiasti- 
cal office  as  a  distinctive  principle  of  the 
Catholic  Church.'' 

In  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  abuses 
led  to  the  abolition  of  the  office  in  Gaul," 
and  in  the  tenth  century  the  office  was 
extinct  in  the  West,  though  the  words 
diaconissa  and  archidiaconissa  were  some- 
times used  for  abbess.    At  Constanti- 

1  Constit.  Apost.  viii.  27. 

2  Constit.  Apost.  iii.  1.5.  s  Ad  Sviyrn.  13. 
*  Concil.  Chalced.  can.  1.t  ;  Coucil.  in  Trull. 

can.  14. 

5  Concil.  Chalced.  loc.  cit. 

«  See  Hefele,  Concil.  i.  429  seq..  and  the 
refeieiues  in  Kraus,  Real-EncyclopUdie,  sub. 
voc.  '•  Diat-onissa."' 

7  Tertull.  Piasscr.  41. 
Or  at  least  put  an  end  to  the  blessing  of 
women  for  the  ottice.    See  Council  of  Oranare 
(anno  441),  can  26;  of  Epaon.  (anno  517), 
can.  21. 


272        DEAD,  MASS  FOR 


DECRETALS,  THE 


nople  the  office  survived  till  1190,  and  it 
is  still  preserved  among  the  Syrians. 
(See  Krnus  and  the  article  in  Wetzer  and 
Welte.) 

DEAD,  KASS  FOR.    [See  Mass, 

III.: 

SEAir  (decanus,  one  who  has  autho- 
rity over  ten  ;  cf.  centurio).  Civil  officials 
so-called  were  known  to  the  Roman  law, 
and  are  mentioned  in  the  Codes  of  Theo- 
dosius  and  Justinian.  They  seem  to 
have  been  in  some  way  concerned  with 
the  management  of  funerals.  The  title 
was  adopted  for  Christian  use,  and  first 
among  the  monks.  For  every  ten  monks 
a  decatms  or  dean  was  nominated,  who 
had  the  charge  of  their  discipline.  The 
senior  dean,  in  the  absence  of  the  abbot 
and  provost,  governed  the  monastery. 
Since  monks  hud  the  charge  of  many 
cathedral  churches,  the  office  of  dean 
thus  was  introduced  into  tliem  ;  custom 
gradually  determined  that  there  should 
be  only  one  dean  in  a  cathedral;  witli 
the  increase  of  property  the  proY.i>rs 
time  was  largely  taken  up  with  teni]i(.ral 
affairs ;  hence  the  dean  gradually  a>- 
bunied  the  chief  charge  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical and  ritual  concerns  of  the  cathedral, 
especially  in  regard  to  the  choir.  When 
a  regular  observance  was  introduced 
among  secular  canons  [Regular  Canons], 
the  office  of  dean,  borrowed  ajiparently 
from  the  monastic  cliiipti-iv,  came  in 
along  with  it.  By  thr  cnuimon  law  the 
care  of  souls,  but  no  jurisdiction  i/i  foro 
e.i  ti'iiio,  iscommittedtodeansof  chapters; 
but  by  special  and  customary  law  they 
often  enjoyed  in  France  in  former  times, 
and  still  enjoy  in  Germany  in  certain 
cases,  large  powers  of  visitation,  admini- 
stration, and  jurisdiction,  so  that  their 
authority  is  almost  equal  to  that  of 
bishops.  By  the  common  law  the  right 
of  electing  the  dean  belongs  to  the  bishop 
and  archdeacon;  but  by  custom  and 
prescription  it  is  usually  M  sicd  in  tlie 
canons,  subject  to  the  confirmation  of  the 
bishop.  In  chapter-meetings  the  dean 
pn  sides  e.v  officio,  and  has  a  casting  vote 
when  there  is  an  equal  division;  other- 
wise his  po\\xr.-  di  iMi  I  \ceed  those  of 
the  canons.    (F'.riaris,  Dccanux.) 

nsAsr  OF  tux:  sacres  coXi- 

XEGE.  The  Cardinal  Dean  is  the  chief 
of  the  sacred  college;  he  is  usually  the 
oldest  of  the  Cardinal  Bishops,  and  suc- 
ceeds his  predecessor  as  bishop  of  Ostia. 
lie  presides  in  the  consistory  in  the 
absence  of  the  Pope.  In  all  ecclesiastical 
functions  which  he  performs  he  has  the 


privilege  of  wearing  the  pallium  ;  and  it 
is  he  on  whom  the  duty  devolves  of  con- 
ferring on  the  newly-elected  Pope  those 
orders  which  he  may  not  have  already 
received,  and  also  of  presiding  at  his 
coronation.  Ambassadors,  on  arriving 
in  Rome,  pay  their  first  visits  to  the  Car- 
dinal Dean,  and  newly-elected  Cardinals 
render  to  him  their  earliest  homage.  The 
oldest  in  the  ordi>r  of  bishops,  after  the 
Cardinal  Dean,  is  sub-dean  of  the  sacred 
college  ;  he  is  usually  bishop  of  Porto. 

DEANS,    RURAX..      [See  llURAL 

Deans.] 

SECAXiOCVE.  [See  Command- 
ments.] 

DECEASED  WIFE'S  SISTER, 
nxARRiACE  WITH.  A  few  words 
on  the  Catholic  view  of  this  vexed  ques- 
tion may  not  be  out  of  place  here.  A 
man  and  his  deccaxil  ^\if■'s  -i-ter  are 
related  in  the  first  (lfMi,.r  ni'  .iH'm,'  y.  and 
therefore  any  attempted  n  ■irri.iyc  be- 
tween them  would  be  null  ami  void. 
Si  I'  Affinity.]  But  the  Church  has 
tlh  piiwer  of  dispensing  from  this  impedi- 
ment ;  hence  Catlirdics  who  have  ob- 
tained such  a  dispensation  are  validly 
nuirried  in  CmI's  sight.  The  English 
law,  of  course,  refuses  to  recognise  the 
marriage.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  some 
Catholics  have  joined  in  the  agitation  in 
favour  of  the  Deceased  Wife's  Sister 
Marriage  Bill.  The  common  view,  how- 
ever, is  opposed  to  it  on  the  ground  that 
the  existing  law  is  in  accordance  with 
the  canons  of  the  Church. 

DECX.ARATI011-  OF  CAX.I.ICAir 
CIiERCY.     [See  GaLLICANISM." 

DECRETAZ.S,  THE.  By  this  name 
is  commonly  understood  the  collection  of 
laws  anil  decisions  made  bv  St.  Ravniond 
of  Pennafort  at  the  conmiaiul  nC  (  i'l  egnry 
IX.  After  tlie  ajiiiearance  of  the  1  ).'cre- 
tum  of  Gratian  [('axon  Law]  m  1151, 
many  juriscimsults  aiijilied  themselves  to 
the  task  of  collecting  and  commenting 
upon  ecclesiastical  laws.  These  collec- 
tions being  incomplete,  it  sometimes 
happened  that  a  Decretal  deciding  a 
given  case  in  a  particular  way  would  be 
found  in  one  collection  and  not  in  an- 
other, whence  much  uncertainty  arose. 
False  decretals  also  were  not  unfrequently 
manufactured  about  this  time,  so  that 
Innocent  III.  was  obliged  to  employ 
severe  measures  to  sujipi'ess  the  practice. 
In  order  tliai  all  ''linrcli  tribunals  might 
have  a  I  i  iiijM' 111  n,~i\ e  and  consistent 
authority  to  guide  them,  Pope  Gregory 
IX.  directed  St.  Raymond,  who  was  his 


DECEETIST 


DEDICATION  OF  CnURCTTES  273 


chaplain  and  penitentiary,  to  make  a  new 
and  authentic  compilation  of  Papal  Con- 
stitutions and  Decretals.  This  great 
undertaking  was  completed  in  1234. 
The  -work  opens  with  a  letter  addressed 
by  Gregory  IX.  to  the  doctors  and  scho- 
lars of  the  university  of  Bologna,  in 
which,  after  explaining  the  motives 
which  had  influenced  its  preparation,  he 
states  it  to  be  his  wish  that  the  work 
should  be  used  both  in  the  courts  and  in 
the  schools,  and  forbids  the  publication 
of  any  similar  collection  without  special 
authority  from  the  Holy  See.  The  five 
books  of  the  Decretals,  the  principal 
subjects  of  which  are  indicated  by  the 
memorial  line 
"Judicium,  judex,  clerns,  connubia,  crimen," 

contain  185  Titles  or  Rubrics.  The 
first  title,  "De  Summa  Trinitate  et  Fide 
Catholica,"  founding  Church  law  on  re- 
vealed religion,  is  a  short  profession  of 
faith,  with  a  statement  of  the  divine  con- 
stitution and  authority  of  the  Church. 

St.  Raymond  used  abbreviation  to  the 
utmost,  in  order  to  compress  his  mutter 
within  the  limits  of  one  volume.  Thus 
he  frequently  records  in  full  the  operative 
part  of  a  Decretal  containing  the  Ponti- 
fical decision,  but  suppresses  the  recitals 
containing  the  case  or  cases  on  which  the 
decision  was  founded.  The  gloss-writers 
and  commentators,  from  not  referring  to 
the  earlier  collections  in  which  the  De- 
cretals were  given  in  full,  sometimes  mis- 
understood these  decisions  :  their  glosses, 
however,  were  acted  upon  by  the  courts  : 
hence  not  a  little  perplexity  arose.  A 
canonist  named  Contius  pubhshed  an 
edition  of  the  "  Corpus  Juris  Canonici  "in 
1570,  in  which  Raymond's  omissions  were 
supphed ;  but  the  innovation  did  not  suc- 
ceed, the  original  text  having  been  used 
by  jurists  for  so  long  a  period ;  and  the 
Decretals  are  still  edited  and  cited  in  the 
form  in  which  Raymond  left  them. 
The  last  edition  appeared  at  Leipsic  inl840. 

Among  the  chief  commentators  on  the 
Decretals  are  Bernard  of  Parma,  a  canon 
of  Bologna,  and  Sinibaldo  Fieschi,  after- 
wards Pope  Innocent  IV. 

BECRSTZST  (decretuta).  A  gene- 
ral name  for  a  doctor  of  canon  law ;  the 
word  seems  to  be  derived  from  the  "  De- 
cretum  "  of  Gratian.  The  university  of 
Oxford  used  to  confer  the  degrees  of 
"  Baccalaureus  "  and  "  Doctor  "  Decre- 
torum.  The  term  "decretalist''  signified  a 
canonist  who  was  specially  versed  in  the 
Decretals  of  Gregory  IX. 


DECRETVIVX    GHATZASTZ.  [See 

Caxox  Law.i 

BEBZCATZOir   OP  CHVRCHES. 

These  words  mean,  properly  speaking,  the 
act  by  which  a  church  is  solemnly  set 
apart  for  the  worship  of  God  ;  and  after- 
wards this  event  is  commemorated  by  a 
feast  of  the  dedication.  We  have  to  treat 
of  both  subjects. 

I.  The  actual  Dfidicafionof  the  Church. 
— In  the  Jewish  Church  the  tabernacle 
and  Temple  were  dedicated  by  solemn  rites, 
and  Cardinal  Bona  supposes  that  the 
practice  of  dedicating  or  consecrating 
Christian  churches  dates  from  Apostolic 
times,  and  was  formally  imposed  by  a  law 
of  Pope  Evaristus.  However  this  may 
be,  we  find  the  consecration  of  churches 
mentioned  just  after  the  lienthen  persecu- 
tion was  over  by  Euseb.  (.\.  ?>).  It  was 
one  of  the  charges  made  by  tlie  Arians 
against  Athanasius  that  he  had  said  Mass 
in  an  unconsecrated  church.  Many  early 
councils— e.(7.  that  of  Orange  in  441  (can. 
10) — take  the  practice  of  dedicating 
churches  for  granted,  and  legislate  con- 
cerning it.  The  present  law  of  tlie 
Church  forbids  the  use  of  a  church  for 
the  celebration  of  Mass  unless  it  has  been 
first  consecrated  or  at  least  blessed,  for 
which  blessing  a  less  solemn  rite  is  pro- 
vided in  the  Pontifical.  It  is  unlawful  to 
alienate  a  clnirch  which  lias  been  once 
consecrated,  according  to  the  maxim 
quoted  from  the  "  Kegu!;e  J  uris appended 
to  the  sixth  book  of  the  Decretals— "That 
which  has  once  been  dedicated  to  God 
must  not  be  transferred  to  common  use." 

The  person  who  conscci-atcs  a  church 
must  be  a  bishop,  and  to  him  this  conse 
cration  has  always  been  and  is  still  re- 
served, though  a  simple  priest  may  be 
deputed  to  bless  a  church.  Moreover,  the 
consecrating  bishop  must  be  the  bishop 
of  the  diocese  or  another  bishop  with  leave 
from  him,  and  this  applies  even  to  the 
churches  of  such  religious  as  are  exempt 
from  episcopal  jurisdiction,  although  in 
some  cases  special  privileges  in  this  matter 
have  been  gTanted — e.ff.  to  the  Friars 
Minor,  who  got  powers  from  Honorius  III. 
enabling  them  to  invite  another  bishop 
to  consecrate  their  churches,  should  tlie 
diocesan  be  unwilling  to  do  so.  In  early 
times  it  was  common  for  many  bishops  to 
assemble  for  the  consecration  of  a  church, 
and  in  those  days  many  bishops  might 
actually  take  part  in  the  consecration, 
though  the  principal  part  was  assigned 
to  one  only.  At  present,  a  bishop  can  by 
^  virtue  of  his  ordinary  jurisdiction  conse- 


274  DEDICATION  OF  CHURCHES        DEDICATION  OF  CHURCHES 


crate  any  church  in  his  diocese,  but  this 
lias  not  been  the  case  always  and  every- 
where. Thus  it  appears  from  a  Consti- 
tution of  Gelasius,  and  from  a  letter  of 
Gregory  the  Great,  that  Italian  bishops 
could  not  consecrate  churches  even  in 
their  own  dioceses  without  the  Pope's 
leave ;  while  in  the  province  of  Toledo 
permission  had  to  be  obtained  from  the 
metropolitan.  These  restrictions  no  longer 
exist. 

The  ritual  of  consecration  has  of 
course  been  gradually  developed.  Origin- 
ally, to  judge  from  Eusebius  {loc.  cit), 
churches" were  consecrated  by  preaching, 
prayer,  and  above  all  by  the  acceptable 
sacrifice  of  the  new  law.  St.  Ambrose 
mentions  the  custom  of  consecrating 
churches  by  relics  as  one  which  prevailed 
at  Rome  and  was  adopted  by  him ;  he 
also  speaks  of  the  vigil  kept  by  the  rehcs 
over-night  before  they  were  transferred  to 
the  new  church.  In  the  Sacramentary  of 
St.  Gregory  and  the  Pontifical  of  Egbert 
we  meet  with  the  rite  of  consecration 
almost  in  its  present  form,  and  we  may 
trace  the  minor  changes  introduced  in  the 
"  Ordines  "  which  Martene  has  collected 
from  different  ages  and  dioceses.  The 
following  are  the  chief  points  in  the  rite 
prescribed  by  the  present  Roman  Ponti- 
fical. Theconsecratingbishop,  who  should 
be  fasting  on  the  day  before,  sets  apart  over- 
night the  relics  to  be  used  in  the  conse- 
cration. Lights  burn  before  them,  and 
matins  and  lauds  are  sung  in  honour  of 
the  saints  whose  relics  have  been  pro- 
cured. Twelve  crosses  are  also  marked 
on  the  walls  of  the  church  with  candles 
attached  to  them.  Next  day  these  candles 
are  lighted,  and  all  things  needful  are 
prepared  in  the  church,  which  is  left  in 
charge  of  a  deacon  duly  vested.  The 
bishop  goes  in  procession  round  the  out- 
side of  the  church,  three  times  sprinkling 
it  with  holy  water,  knocks  three  times 
at  the  chiu  c-h  door  with  his  pastoral  stafi", 
saying,  "  Lift  up  your  heads,  ye  princes, 
and  be  ye  lifted  up,  ye  eternal  gates,  and 
the  king  of  glory  will  enter."  Three 
times  the  deacon  within  asks,  "Who  is 
the  k'ing  of  glory?"  Twice  the  bishop 
answers,  "  The  Lord  strong  and  mighty, 
the  Lord  mighty  in  battle,''  and  the  third 
time,  "  Tile  Lord  of  armies,  he  is  the  king 
of  gloi-y."  Tliereujion  the  bishop  enters 
wil  li  I  III' cli'Mo  .■111(1  i.fli.-i's  whose  assist- 
ant' 111'  i'i'i|iiin'-,  li','i\iiii;  llip  rest  of  the 
cliTi^y  itiiil  |ii'iipli'  oiit>iiJi',  and  again 
closing  the  door.  lie  forms  a  cross  M'ith 
the  letters  of  the   Greek   and  Latin 


alphabets,  which  he  inscribes  with  his 
staff  on  ashes  previously  sprinkled  upon 
the  floor  of  the  church — a  rite  which 
symbolises  the  instruction  to  be  given  to 
catechumens  in  the  elements  of  the 
faith.  Afterwards,  he  proceeds  with  the 
consecration  of  the  altars,  marking  five 
crosses  on  each  with  his  thumb,  which  he 
has  dipped  in  a  preparation  of  M'ater, 
ashes,  salt  and  wine,  specially  blessed,  and 
sprinkling  them  seven  times  with  this 
mixture.  He  also  goes  three  times  round 
the  inside  of  the  church  and  sprinkles  the 
walls,  as  well  as  the  floor  of  the  church. 
Later  on,  the  relics  are  borne  into  the 
church,  the  bishop,  clergy,  and  people 
taking  part  in  the  procession.  An  ad- 
dress is  first  made  to  the  people  on  the 
event  of  the  day,  and  the  outside  of  the 
door  is  anointed  with  chrism.  The 
sepulchres  of  the  altars  are  also  anointed 
with  chrism,  and  the  relics  placed  in 
them.  The  table  of  the  altar  is  anointed 
in  the  same  manner  and  incensed,  and  five 
crosses  are  made  on  it  with  the  oil  of 
catechumens,  as  well  as  with  chrism. 
Chrism  is  used  later  on  to  anoint  the 
twelve  crosses  which  have  been  marked 
on  the  walls,  and  incense  is  burned  on  the 
five  crosses  which  have  been  previously 
made  on  the  altar  with  blessed  water,  oil 
and  chrism.  Finally,  the  bishop  makes  a 
cross  with  chrism  on  the  front  and  four 
corners  of  the  altar,  the  cloths,  vessels, 
ornaments,  &c.,  are  consecrated  or  blessed, 
and  the  dedication  of  the  church  is  com- 
plete. 

The  meaning  and  use  of  this  consecra- 
tion are  clearly  stated  by  St.  Thomas 
("  Summ."  III.  Ixxxiii.  3).  The  rite,  says 
the  saint,  signifies  the  holiness  secured  to 
the  Church  by  Christ's  passion,  and  re- 
quired of  its  members.  Moreover,  in 
answer  to  the  Church's  prayers,  God 
makes  the  church  fit  for  His  \^  orshlp — i.e. 
He  makes  it  a  means  of  exciting  special 
devotion  in  the  faithful  who  enter  it,  if 
they  do  so  with  virtuous  dispositions,  and 
He  drives  far  from  it  the  power  of  the 
enemy.  (From  the  Pontifical,  with  Cata- 
lani's  commentary.) 

11.  The  feast  of  the  dedication  ("  fest. 
dedicatioRis,"  "  encaenia;"  in  St.  Leo's  ser- 
mon on  the  Machabees  "natale  ecclesiae") 
is  kept  in  consecrated  churches  on  the 
ann  i  versary  of  the  consecration ,  as  a  double 
of  the  first  class  with  an  octave.  The  bi.<hop 
at  the  time  of  the  consecration  may  for 
grave  reasons  fix  a  day  other  tlian  the 
actual  anniversary  on  which  the  feast  of 
the  dedication  is  to  be  kept,  but  after  the 


d::i  exdek  of  the  faith 


DEGRADATION 


275 


consecration  no  change  in  the  day  can  be 
made  except  by  the  Pope's  leave.  Here, 
too,  the  Christian  has  followed  the  use 
of  the  Jewish  Church,  which  celebrated 
yearly  the  purging  of  the  Temple  and 
the  rebuilding  of  the  altar  after  Judas 
Machabseus  had  driven  out  the  Syrians 
in  164  B.C.  The  observance  of  the  anni- 
versary of  a  church's  dedication  can  be 
traced  back  at  least  to  Constantine's  time. 
Besides  the  obser\-ance  of  this  anniver- 
sary in  the  church  itself,  the  feast  of  the 
dedication  of  the  cathedral  is  kept  through- 
out the  diocese,  also  as  a  double  of  the 
first  class,  but  without  an  octave.' 
Moreover,  the  dedication  of  certain  Roman 
basilicas  (S.  Marifp  ad  Nives,  Basilicae 
Salvatoris,  Rasilicre  SS.  Petri  et  Pauli)  is 
celebrated  throughout  the  whole  Church, 
the  feast  being  in  each  case  a  double  or 
greater  double.  (From  Gavantus,  P.  II. 
sect.  viii.  cap.  -5.) 

DGFESTBER  OF  THE  FA.XTK 
{Defemorjidei).  This  title  was  conferred 
on  our  king  Henry  VIII.  and  his  successors 
by  Pope  Leo  X.'in  the  year  1521.  In 
that  year  Henry  sent  to  the  Pope  his  book 
in  defence  of  the  seven  sacramrnts  against 
Luther.  The  Pope  received  the  book  in 
full  consistory,  eulogised  it  in  the  strongest 
terms,  and  some  days  later  consulted  the 
Cardinals  on  the  best  means  of  showing 
how  he  felt  Henry's  services  to  the  Church. 
After  a  long  conference,  it  was  resolved 
to  bestowthe  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith 
on  the  English  kings.  Accord ingly  a  bull 
was  sent  conferring  the  title  in  question, 
and  with  it  Leo  despatched  a  brief  thank- 
ing Henry  for  his  book.  (See  Pallavicini, 
"Hist.  Concil.  Trid."lib.  ii.  c.  1,  quoted  in  | 
the  Continuation  of  Fleury.) 

DEFENSOR  ECCX.ESIJE  {(KK\r]a-i-  ' 
e'/cSi/cor).  A  functionary  of  whom  fre- 
quent mention  is  made  in  the  annals  of 
the  primitive  Church  ;  he  was  nominated 
by  the  emperor,  on  the  presentation  of  tlie 
bishop,  to  protect  the  temporal  interests 
of  a  particular  church.  In  the  East  he 
was  usually  an  ecclesiastic,  in  the  West 
a  layman. 

SEFEnrsoR  MATRznxoirzz.  The 
law  att'fcting  official  "defenders  of  the 
marriage  "  is  laid  down  in  the  Constitution  t 
Dei  miseratione  of  Benedict  XIV.  In  all 
matrimonial  suits  a  defensor  matrimonii 
must  take  part,  his  function  being  to  sus- 
tain the  marriage  of  which  it  is  souglit  to 
prove  the  nullity,  by  adducing  every  argu- 
ment and  consideration  in  its  favour  which 
'  The  Octave,  however,  is  c-Iebrated  in  the 
churches  of  the  cathedral  city. 


the  case  admits  of.  His  function  may  be 
compared  to  that  of  the  Queen's  Proctor 
in  the  English  Divorce  Court,  who  "  inter- 
venes "  between  the  parties,  if  he  deems 
that  there  is  reason  to  suspect  collusion, 
or  that  the  party  applying  for  the  divorce 
is  disqualified  from  obtaining  it,  the  effect 
of  such  intervention  being  to  stay  the 
divorce  and  sustain  the  marriage.  In  the 
Roman  Curin  suits  of  nullity  of  marriage 
come  before  the  Congregation  of  the 
Coimcil  [CoNGEKOATiONS,  Roman]  or  the 
Auditory  of  the  Apostolic  Palace:  in  the 
former  case  the  defensor  is  appointed  by 
the  Cardinal  Prefect,  in  the  latter,  by  the 
Auditor  Dean.  In  courts  of  the  second  in- 
stance— e.ff.  that  of  a  metropolitan,  or  of  a 
Papal  nuncio — the  judge  is  entitled,  and 
also  bound,  to  appoint  a  defensor;  except 
where  thehearingofa  case  has  beendeputed 
by  the  Holy  See  to  a  special  commissary 
who  has  no  ordinary  jurisdiction,  for  under 
such  circumstances  the  liishop  of  the  dio- 
cese where  the  hearing  is  to  take  place 
nominates  the  defent'oi-.  The  same  Con- 
stitution directs  that  a  defensor  shall  be 
appointed,  if  possible,  from  among  tlie 
clergy  of  every  diocese  by  the  l)isliop,  who 
shall  attend  all  matrimonial  suits.  A 
defensor  is  to  receive  reasonable  fees,  pay- 
able either  by  the  litigant  supporting  the 
validity-  of  the  marriage,  or,  if  he  is  indi- 
gent, out  of  the  fines  of  court  or  the  epi- 
scopal treasury.  He  must  be  swoni  to 
discharge  his  ofKcc  faithfully;  he  must 
be  cited  at,  and  kept  duly  informed  of, 
every  stage  of  the  case  ;  and  it  is  his  duty 
always  to  appeal  from  the  first  sentence 
by  which  the  nullity  of  any  marriage  is 
declared.    (Ferraris,  Defensor.) 

DEGRADATXOsr.  Degradation  is 
of  two  kinds,  verbal  and  real.  By  the 
first  a  criminous  cleric  is  declared  to  be 
perpetually  deposed  from  clerical  orders, 
or  from  the  execution  thereof,  so  as  to  be 
deprived  of  all  order  and  function — e.g. 
the  sacerdotal  or  episcopal — and  of  any 
benefice  which  he  might  have  previously 
enjoyed.  But  the  person  degraded  does 
not  lose  the  priirilegium  fori — that  is,  he 
is  not  remitted  for  justice  to  the  secular 
courts,  but  may  still  use  the  ecclesiastical. 
Nor  does  he  lose  the  pririlegiimi  cfinonis, 
in  virtue  of  wliich  the  assailant  of  a  clprio 
incurs  excommiuiication  ipso  facto.  Nor 
does  degradation  cause  a  priest  to  lose 
the  character  of  the  ])riesthood,  which  is 
indelible.  The  consecration  of  the  Eu- 
charist by  a  degraded  priest  is  therefore 
valid,  as  well  as  his  absolution  of  a  ])eni- 
tent  given  in  articidn  morfis.    He  is  still 


276  DEGRADATION 


DEGREES 


bound  to  continence,  and  to  the  recitation 
of  his  office.  The  obligation  as  to  the 
latter  point  would  seem  to  be  a  doubtful 
matter  in  certain  cases,  according  to  de- 
cisions of  the  Congregation  of  the  Council 
and  Clement  XI.  in  the  case  of  clerks 
condemned  to  the  galleys. 

Real  or  actual  degradation  is  that 
which,  besides  deposing  a  cleric  from  the 
exercise  of  his  ministry,  actually  strips 
him  of  his  orders,  according  to  a  pre- 
scribed ceremonial,  and  delivers  him  to 
the  secular  arm  to  be  punished.  The 
person  thus  degraded  loses  the  privilegium 
fori  et  canonis;  but  as  (if  a  priest)  he 
cannot  be  deprived  of  the  sacerdotal 
character,  his  consecration  of  the  Eu- 
charist and  absolutions  of  persons  in 
articulo  are  still  valid,  as  in  the  former 

The  canon  law  specifies  minutely  the 
crimes  on  account  of  which  the  punish- 
ment of  degradation  may  be  legally  in- 
flicted, and  leaves  no  jurisdiction  with 
Ijishops  of  degrading  except  for  the  causes 
determined  by  the  law  and  by  the  Roman 
Pontiffs. 

For  the  ceremony  of  real  degradation 
a  form  was  laid  down  by  Boniface  VIIT. 
The  delinquent  clerk  was  to  be  brought 
before  the  bishop,  habited  in  the  dress  of 
his  order,  and  with  a  book  or  vessel,  or 
.some  other  instrument  or  ornament  in  his 
liands,  as  if  he  were  proceeding  to  the 
performance  of  his  clerical  functions.  The 
bishop  was  then  publicly  to  take  away 
from  him  the  things,  whether  vestment, 
chalice,  book,  or  anything  else,  that  had 
been  delivered  to  him  at  the  time  of  his 
ordination,  beginning  with  that  vestment 
or  ornami'nt  which  he  had  received  last, 
and  ending  with  the  vestment  which  he 
put  on  when  he  was  first  tonsured. 
Lastly,  his  head  was  to  be  shaved,  so  as 
to  obliterate  the  mark  of  the  tonsure. 
When  the  last  of  the  clerical  insignia  was 
taken  away,  the  bishop  was  to  address 
him  to  the  following  effect :  "  By  the 
authority  of  God  Almighty,  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Ghost,  and  by  our  own,  we 
take  away  from  thee  the  clerical  habit, 
and  de])0se,  degrade,  and  deprive  thee  of 
all  order,  benefice,  and  clerical  privilege." 

The  above  ceremony  can  only  be  per- 
formed by  a  bishop  in  person;  but  a 
verbal  degradation  can  be  carried  out  by 
the  vicar-general,  acting  as  the  bishop's 
representative,  or  by  the  vicar-capitular, 
acting  for  the  chapter,  during  a  vacancy 
of  the  see. 

The  Church  dehvers  to  the  lay  power 


with  extreme  reluctance  those  who  have 
once  been  her  ordained  ministers;  and, 
in  doing  so,  "  is  bound  to  intercede  effica- 
ciously for  them,  that  moderate  sentences, 
not  involving  the  peril  of  death,  may  be 
passed  upon  them."  In  ancient  times 
the  bishops  endeavoured  from  this  motive 
to  shut  up  degraded  clerks  in  monasteries 
rather  than  hand  them  over  to  the  secular 
arm,  as  the  former  course  seemed  more 
likely  to  lead  to  their  repentance  and 
reformation. 

Formerly  the  law  required  that  a 
number  of  bishops,  varying  according  to 
the  rank  of  the  delinquent,  should  concur 
to  the  degradation  of  a  cleric  ;  but  since 
the  Council  of  Trent '  degradation  of 
either  kind  may  be  carried  out  by  a  single 
bishop,  assisted  by  as  many  abbots  or 
other  dignitaries  as  bishops  would  have 
been  required  under  the  old  law. 

The  common  opinion  of  the  Fathers 
was  that  a  degraded  cleric  could  be  rein- 
stated, upon  pr(jof  of  sincere  repentance 
and  amendment  of  life.  The  judgment 
of  Gregoiy  the  Great  seems  to  have  been 
that  tlie  degradation,  once  inflicted,  ought 
to  be  irreversible.  In  modern  times  this 
question  can  seldom  be  raised,  because  a 
cleric  is  not  now  degraded  excepting  for 
a  crime  of  great  enormity,  punished  with 
the  heaviest  penalties  by  the  civil  power. 
(Ferraris,  Degradation 

BEGREES  (ZXr  THEOX.OCY, 
ETC.).  The  history  of  learned  degree.- — • 
i.e.  of  the  titles  doctor  or  master,  licentiate, 
bachelor — is  closely  connected  with  that 
of  universities.  We  find  the  first  traces 
of  them  in  the  legal  school  of  Bologna. 
There  the  title  of  doctor  or  master  was 
given  first  of  all  to  any  teacher,  but 
about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century 
"  doctor  "  was  used  as  an  honorary  title, 
and  was  given  specially  to  the  four 
doctors,  viz.  Bulgarus,  Martinus,  Jacobus, 
aiid  Hugo.  As  the  imiversity,  which  had 
been  founded  about  1100,  began  to  be 
duly  constituted,  the  teachers  formed 
themselves  into  a  college,  they  acquired 
a  certain  jurisdiction  over  the  students, 
and  they  subjected  persons  who  wished  to 
lecture  to  a  previous  examination.  Those 
who  were  so  examined  and  approved  r>'- 
ceived  the  dignity  of  the  doctorate.  At 
first  it  was  "legists"  or  professors  of 
civil  law,  and  these  only,  who  obtained 
this  title ;  but  towards  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  age  canonists  also  were  called 
doctors,  as  appears  from  a  Decretal  of 
Irmocent  III.  addressed  to  the  "  doctores 
»  Sess.  xiii.  c.  4,  De  Keform. 


DEGREES 


DELEGATION 


277 


dfcretorum  Bononiae,"  as  well  as  the 
"  doctores  legum "  at  the  same  school. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  "doctors  of 
medicine,"  of  grammar,  logic,  philosophy, 
and  the  other  arts  were  recognised.  The 
jurists,  however,  claimed  the  title  of 
doctor  as  exclusively  their  own.  and 
would  only  grant  the  title  of  "  master  "  to 
the  qualified  teachers  of  theology  and  the 
arts.  At  Bologna  a  candidate  for  the 
doctorate  had  to  swear  before  the  Rector 
that  he  had  gone  through  the  regular 
course  of  studies — i.e.  that  he  had  studied 
civil  law  for  eight,  or  the  canon  law  for 
six,  years.  Next,  the  candidate  was  pre- 
sented by  a  doctor  to  the  archdeacon  of 
BologTia,  who  had  the  right,  crounded  on 
a  rescript  issued  by  Honorius  III.  in  1219, 
of  granting  or  refusing  permission  to 
graduate.  This  permission  being  given, 
the  candidate  was  examined  privately  in 
civil  or  in  canon  law,  or  in  each  of  them 
if  he  wished  to  graduate  in  each,  by  the 
doctors  who  were  empowered  to  promote. 
The  doctors  voted  after  the  examination, 
and  if  their  votes  were  favourable  the 
candidate  became  a  licentiate.  As  a  rule, 
this  degree  of  licentiate  was  o  mere  step 
to  the  doctorate.  Occasionally  we  find 
cases  of  persons  remaining  licentiates  for 
years,  but  as  a  rule  the  licentiate  passed 
on  at  once  to  the  second  and  public  ex- 
amination for  the  doctorate.  At  this  the 
licentiate  made  a  speech  on  his  promo- 
tion, gave  a  lecture  on  law,  and  held  a 
public  dispute  with  the  scholars,  all  of 
which  exercises  toolc  place  in  the  cathe- 
dral. Thereupon  the  archdeacon  or  his 
delegate  proclaimed  him  doctor,  while  the 
j)residing  doctor  investiNl  liiiii  with  the 
book,  with  the  doctor's  ring  and  cap,  and 
Seated  him  in  the  doctor's  chair.  Both 
licentiate  and  doctor  received  a  diploma; 
the  earliest  known  is  dated  1314. 

The  new  doctor  acquired  very  im- 
portant rights.  He  had  authority  to 
teach  in  Bologna,  and  Papal  decrees 
secured  the  recognition  of  this  right 
throughout  Christendom.  He  was  called 
"  doctor  legens,"  or  "  non  legens,"  accord- 
ing as  he  did  or  did  not  exercise  the 
privilege,  and  it  was  when  the  doctors 
who  did  not  lecture  became  common  that 
the  notion  of  the  doctorate  as  an  inde- 
j)endent  dignity  became  perlV  cted.  Next, 
the  new  doctor  was  qualified  to  be  chosen 
member  of  the  faculty  for  promoting 
others  to  the  same  degree.  Lastly,  the 
doctors  had  jurisdiction  over  their  scholars, 
who,  by  concession  of  Frederic  Barbarossa 
in  1158,  might  choose  to  stand  their  trial 


I  "coram  domino  vel  magistro  suo  vel 

I  ipsius  civitatis  episcopo." 

I      The  degrees  of  doctor,  &c.,  were  of 

!  course  conferred  by  other  universities, 
such  as  Paris,  Oxford,  &c.,  when  they 

j  came  to  be  erected.  Gradually  also  the 
degree  of  bachelor  or  baccalaureus  became 

I  an  independent  degree.  Originally, 
bachelor  was  the  name  given  to  a  student 
who,  having  taken  his  oath  that  he  had 

I  studied  law  for  six  years,  was  permitted 

j  by  the  Rector  to  teach  an  entire  book  of 
Roman  or  civil  law.  The  origin  of  the 
degree  of  licentiate  has  been  explained 
above.  The  word  "magister,"  or  master, 
designated  first  the  master  of  a  cathedral 
school,  then  the  dignitary  appointed  to 
give  free  theological  instruction  in  the 
cathedral  churches.  In  diversities 
"  magister  "  was  used  at  first  vaguely  as 
synonymous  with  teacher  or  professor ; 
then  it  became  a  synonym  of  doctor  in 
the  technical  sense,  as  the  highest  of  the 
university  degrees.  If  there  was  any 
distinction  between  magister  and  doctor 
it  depended  simply  on  local  custom. 
Thus,  in  Italy,  France,  and  Spain,  those 
who  had  obtained  the  highest  theological 
degree  were  usually  called  "  magistri 
theologiiB  "  the  word  "  doctor  "  being 
reserved  for  graduates  in  the  other 
faculties.  In  Germany,  on  the  other 
hand,  graduates  in  philosophy  used  to  be 
called  masters,  those  in  the  other  faculties 
doctors. 

By  the  law  of  the  Church  the  dignity 
of  doctor  in  theology  and  canon  law 
cannot  be  given  except  by  such  theolo- 
gical faculties  as  have  been  confirmed  by 
the  Pope.  The  doctor  on  his  promotion 
must  make  the  profession  of  faith  drawn 
up  by  Pius  IV.    According  to  the  Coiui- 

:  cil  of  Trent  (xxiv.  12,  De  Ref.)  it  is 
desirable  that  all  dignities  and  half  the 

I  canonries  in  each  chapter  should  be  con- 
feired  on  doctors  or  masters  in  theology 
or  canon  law,  unless  there  are  reasons  to 
the  contrary.  Doctors  in  theology  and 
canon  law  are  also  usually  summoned  to 
consult  with  the  bishops  in  general  and 
provincial  councils.  (From  Wetzer  and 
AVelte.) 

DEXiEGATZOSr.  A  judge  or  ad- 
ministrator delegates,  his  jurisdiction  and 
power  when  he  commits  their  exciri-c  to 
another.  A  judge-delegate  difl'er-  I'rom 
a  judge  in  ordinary  in  that  the  latter 
exercises  his  own  jurisdiction,  and  decides 
cases  in  his  own  right,  whereas  the  dele- 
gate relies  on  the  right  and  jurisdiction 
of  another.    The  delegate  is  bound  to 


278  DELEGATION 


DENUNCIATION 


show  his  commission  or  credentials  to 
the  parties  whose  cause  he  is  to  tr}',  to 
give  them  due  notice  of  the  time  wlieu 
they  are  to  come  before  him,  and  to  fix 
the  place  of  hearing  at  a  distance  not 
exceeding  twenty  miles  from  the  locality 
where  the  cause  of  action  arose. 

Not  only  supreme  authorities,  as 
Popes,  emperors,  and  republics,  but,  by 
the  canon  and  civil  law,  all  ordinary 
judges  can  delegate  their  jurisdiction  to 
another.  The  delegator  is  in  such  cai^e 
responsible  for  all  judgments  given  by 
Ids  delegate,  for  "  Qui  facit  per  alium  est 
perinde  ac  si  faciat  per  se  ipsum."  But 
the  delegating  judge  cannot  divest  him- 
self of  his  whole  jurisdiction  without  his 
sovereign's  consent,  and  this  for  obvious 
reasons,  especially  because  such  delega- 
tion would  be  tantamount  to  an  appoint- 
ment, and  so  infringe  on  the  right  of  the 
superior  authority.  Moreover,  a  delegate 
may  commit  his  jurisdiction  to  a  sub- 
delegate,  but  only  if  he  be  commissioned 
by  a  prince  or  some  sovereign  authority. 
TIenee  the  question  has  been  raised 
whether  the  delegate  of  a  Roman  con- 
gregation can  appoint  a  sub-delegate,  and 
it  has  been  answered  in  the  affirmative. 

All  persons   are   capable  of  being 
appointed  judge-delegates  who  are  not 
hindered  by  nature,  by  law,  or  by  custom. 
By  nature,  as  the  deaf,  the  dumb,  or  the 
insane,  "quia  tales  carent  judicio."  By 
law,  as  those  whom  a  judicial  sentence 
has  declared  infamous.     By  custom,  as 
slaves  and  women.     Delegates  of  the 
Holy  See,  or  of  a  Papal  legate,  ought  to 
be  dignitaries  or  canons  of  a  cathedral 
church  ;  but  the  delegate  of  a  bishop  may 
be  any  clerk  whom  he  may  see  fit  to 
appoint.    The  reason  of  the  distinction  is  , 
that  the  bishop,  havuig  com])lele  ]irr>oiial  i 
knowledge  of  his  clergy,  may  ha\  e  good 
reason  for  placing  his  confidence  in  an 
undistinguished  cleric  ;  but  the  Holy  See, 
being  witliout  that  personal  knowledge, 
appoints  delegates  who  may  be  presumed 
from   their   high  position   to   be  well 
qualified  for  the  duty.    Bishops  and  all 
ecclesiastical  judges    below   the  Pope 
cannot  delegate  their  power  in  spiritual 
causes  to  a  layman,  or  even  to  a  layman 
jointly  with  an  ecclesiastic.    This  rule 
applies  also  to  criminal  causes  in  which 
clerics  are  concerned  ;  but  not  to  purely  ■ 
civil  causes,  as  about  debts  and  money  I 
matters  generally,  for  in  regard  to  these  t 
a  bi.-^hdji  can  appoint  a  layman  as  his  j 
delegate.    This,  however,  has  been  con-  j 
tested.    The  Supreme  Pontiff  can,  out  of  j 


I  his  full  and  certain  knowledge,  delegate 
I  to  a  layman — e.ff.  to  an  emperor  or  king 
— the  trial  even  of  the  criminal  and 
spiritual  caiises  of  clerics.  This  right 
emanates  from  the  plenary  power  of  the 
Pope,  in  virtue  of  which  he  dispenses,, 
when  necessary,  with  the  established 
law. 

The  Council  of  Trent '  ordered  that 
in  every  provincial  or  diocesan  synod 
several  persons  should  be  elected  who 
were  qualiti.'d  to  act  as  Papal  delegates, 
and  that  the  bishops  should  notify  such 
appointments  to  the  Holy  See.  But  as 
these  notifications  were  seldom  made,  the 
decree  fell  into  desuetude,  and  the  Holy 
See  was  compelled  to  proceed  as  before 
in  appointing  delegates  to  try  causes  in 
distant  countries,  on  tlie  best  information 
that  could  be  obtained. 
!  Since  many  powers  are  by  Pontifical 
law  delegated  to  bishops,  it  is  sometimes- 
dillicult  to  distinguish  whether,  in  a 
given  case,  a  bishop  is  acting  as  ordinary 
or  as  delegate  of  the  Holy  See.  If  the 
former,  the  appeal  from  his  sentence  is  to 
the  metropolitan  ;  if  the  latter,  to  the 
Pope.  The  canonists  lay  down  many 
rules  and  testing  circumstances,  by  means 
of  which  the  necessary  discrimination  may 
be  made. 

Delegation  may  cease  (I)  by  the 
death  of  the  delegate,  if  the  delegation 
was  personal,  not  official  ;  -  (2)  bv  the 
death  of  the  delegator,  at  least  if  the 
cause  was  not  yet  commenced;  (S)  by  his 
deposition  from  office,  with  the  same 
proviso  ;  (4)  by  rev(.)cation  of  powers ; 
(5)  by  expiration  of  time;  (6)  by  the 
discharge  of  the  commission ;  and  in 
several  other  ways.  (Ferraris,  Delegare, 
Delegatus.) 

SEMOM'.  [See  Devil.] 
DEsrvNCZATZon-.  An  edict  of 
the  Roman  Inquisition,  dated  in  1677, 
orders  aU  persons,  in  virtue  of  holy  obe- 
dience and  under  the  penalty  of  excom- 
munication l(ita>  sententifc,  to  denounce 
to  the  Holy  Olfice,  within  the  term  of 
one  month,  all  persons  whom  they  may 
know  to  be  heretics,  or  suspected  of 
heresy,  and  the  abettors  of  such  ;  also  all 
persons  whom  they  may  know  to  be 
addicted  to  magic,  witchcraft,  and 
diabolic  arts,  or  to  keep  without  per- 
mission, or  promote  the  circulation  of, 

1  Sess.  XXV.  c.  10,  De  Ref. 
As  when,  for  instanoe,  Philip  IV.  and 
Edward  I.  Cdininitted  the  arbitration  of  th  ' 
disputes  to  the  Pope,  not  as  Pope,  but  as  •'  Ben 
detto  Gaetani." 


DEPOSING  POWER 


DEPOSING  POWER 


279 


books  teaching  heresy  or  the  black  art,  j 
or  to  have  broken  their  religious  vows  i 
or  canonical  obligations  bv  contracting  | 
marriage,  or  to  have  committed  bigamy, 
or  abused  the  sacrament  of  penance,  or 
uttered  heretical  blasphemies,  or  treated 
holy  images  with  disj-espect  and  contempt, 
or  freijuented  anti-religious  conventicles, 
or  perverted  Christians  to  Judaism  or 
any  sect  contrary  to  the  Catholic  faith, 
or  been  guilty  of  sacrilegious  invasion, 
not  being  priests,  of  the  priestly  olKce. 

It  is  inferred  from  this  that  anyone 
who  teaches  one  of  the  condemned  propo- 
sitions TkOPOSITIOXES  DAMXAT.lf  ought 
to  be  denounced  to  the  Holy  Othce. 

At  the  same  time  "  Catholics  are  not 
bound  to  denounce  heretics  in  those 
places  in  which  hen-tics  are  mixed  with 
Catholics,  the  inquisitors  and  bishops 
being  aware  of  the  fact,  since  no  one  is 
under  an  obligation  to  do  what  is 
useless." ' 

The  probable  risk  of  serious  injury  to 
person,  property,  ami  reputatiun  does  not 
release  from  the  obligation  of  denouncing 
a  formal  heretic,  though  it  does  release 
from  the  obligation  in  the  case  of  persons 
only  suspected  of  heresy.- 

Formal  heretics,  on  account  of  the 
pe>tilent  and  contagious  nature  of  the 
crime,  ought  to  be  denounced  even  after 
their  death,  so  that  they  may  be  declared 
excommunicate,  be  deprived  of  eccle- 
siastical sepulture,  be  disinten-ed,  and 
their  bones  burned,  if  they  can  be  dis- 
tinguished from  those  of  Catholics;  if  not, 
they  should  be  burnt  in  effigy.^  (Ferraris, 
Denuntiatio.) 

BEPOSZM-C  POWER.  Few  poli- 
tico-religious questions  have  been  more 
keenly  argued  than  that  which  treats  of 
the  i-elatious  of  control  or  otherwise  be- 
tween the  Roman  Pontiff  and  secular 
princes  and  governments.  During  the 
middle  ages  it  was  held  everywhere  in 
Christian  countries  with  undoubting  con- 
viction that  princes  were  amenable  on 
the  score  of  heresy  to  the  ecclesiastical 
power,  and  that  the  I'ope  as  the  vicegerent 
of  Christ  could  lawfully  excommunicate, 
and  after  excommunication  depose  nr])ro- 
cure  the  deposition  of  a  sovereign  who 
had  fallen  into  heresy.  This  was  no 
Ultramontane  theory,  but  the  common 
teaching  of  theologians  everywhere.  Thus 
we  find  Alexander  Hales,  an  English 
Franciscan  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
saying,  '•  The  spiritual  power  has  to  in- 

>  Ferraris,  "Den."  §  18. 

i  Ibid.%%  2i,  2b.  3  iiirf.  §19. 


struct  the  earthly  power,  and  to  judge 
whether  it  is  good  ;  it  was  itself  first 
instituted  by  God,  and  when  it  goes 
astray,  it  can  be  jmlijed  hy  (iod  alone." 
And,  "  God  has  willed  that  >onie  should 
have  power  overotliei>.  more  in  number; 
and  then  that  a  .--till  Mualler  uumlier  should 
have  power  o\er  tin-  first  ;  and  so  on  by 
asceniliiit;-  decree's  until  one  is  reached, 
namely  the  T'ljie,  who  is  immediately 
nndei-  (iiul."  The  third  canon  of  the 
Lateraii  Council  (l^l"i)  Mi-dains  that  if  a 
^ec^llar  ruler  ]ierM>t~.  alter  lieuig  warned, 
in  lettiMij  liere-y  ;:rii\\-  uj)  undi>turlied  in 
liis  (hiniinidiis,  he  is  tobe  excoinni ini leal ed 
by  the  lii>hiip>  of  the  reL;ien-.  MilijecT  to 
him  ;  if  lie  ediitemn  tin-  exei  iiiimiiuieat ion, 
the  Pope  is  to  be  inl'cirini'd,  "so  tliat  he 
may  declare  the  vassals  (if  tliat  rider  al> 
solved  from  his  fealty,  and  invite  Catho- 
lics to  oeeupy  the  country."    No  one, 

making- any  olijeetion  to  this  canon:  for 
"not  yet  in  truth  luid  the  i-aee  ol'  pai-a-ites 
to  tem])oral  princes  appeared,  who,  tliat 
they  may  ap])ear  to  establish  their  earthly 
liingdoins,  take  away  the  eternal  kingdom 
tidiii  tho>e  whom  they  fawn  upon."' 

On  the  other  liaiid,  many  theologians, 
while  aihiiitting  the  I'aet  of  tlie  general 
belief  in  the  middle  at;e>  that  the  power 
of  the  Pontiff  was  aho\ e  that  of  all  tem- 
poral so\  ereigiis,  and  iiieliided,  in  exi  leme 
cases,  till'  x\'A\\  of  dejiosing  tlieni.  aeeoiiilt 
for  this  helief  ill  various  ways,  lint  do  not 
admit  that  it  has  any  root  in  X\n^  di-p(if:i'ti_m 
Jidei.  Some  say  that  the  influence  of  the 
feudal  idea  ( if  suzerainty  caused  the  Pope 
to  lie  regarded  as  suzerain  over  all  sove- 
reigns within  the  limits  of  Christendom, 
but  that,  with  the  weakening  (U'  abolition 
i  of  feudalism,  this  theory  and  all  its  con- 
j  sequenee>  must  lie  abandoned.  Others 
ground  1  he  l'a]ial  claims  in  this  res]ieet  on 
the  received  puiilic  law  of  t  ho>e  aiie-.  tliat 
emperors  and  kings  had  to  jirofess  the 
true  faith,  and  be  in  communion  with  the 
I'ope,  as  essential  conditions  of  their 
reigning  lawfully ;  if  these  conditions 
were  broken,  of  which  the  Pope  was  tlie 
jildee,  then,  at  the  demand  of  the  suli- 
jeets.  he  eould  relieve  them  of  their  alleei- 
aiice  and  declare  their  ruler  unfit  toi  eiun. 
Here  again,  a  temporary  basis  only  is 
allowed  to  the  deposing  power,  as  depend- 
ing on  a  condition  of  ojiinion  which  in 
modern  times  has  ceased  to  exist,  (ierson, 
Diqieri-Mii,  and  I'eilelou  go  miicll  further 
\  than  this,  hut  sto]i  short  of  allowing  any 
I  coercive  jurisdiction  to  exist  in  the  INijie, 
I  in  right  of  his  primacy,  over  sovereigns. 


280       DEPOSING  POWER 


DEPOSING  POWER 


"The  Cliui'cli,"  says  FtSuelon,  "neither  I 
deprived  nor  appointed  lay  rulers,  but  I 
only  replied,  when  the  nations  consulted 
it,  explaining  what  concerned  the  con- 
science in  regard  to  the  ])olitical  contract  j 
or  the  oath  [of  allegiance].  This  is  not  a 
juridical  and  civil,  but  only  a  directive 
and  ordinative  power."  The  power,  he 
adds,  consists  only  in  this,  "that  the 
Pope,  as  the  chief  of  pastors — as  the 
principal  director  and  doctor  of  the  Church 
in  the  greater  causes  of  Christian  moral 
discipline — is  bound  to  instruct  a  people 
consulting  him  on  what  concerns  their 
keeping  the  oath  of  fealty  which  they 
have  sworn."  * 

The  ordinary  opinion  of  Roman  theo- 
logians may  be  seen  stated  in  full  in  the 
pages  of  Ferraris.  "  The  common  opinion 
teaches  that  the  Pope  holds  the  powt'r  of 
both  swoi-ds,  tile  spiritual  and  the  tem- 
poral, which  jurisdiction  and  power  Christ 
Himself  committeil  to  I'l'ter  and  his  suc- 
cessors, saying  (Matt.  xvi.  19)  'I  will 
give  to  thee  the  keys,'  itc.  ;  where 
doctors  note  that  he  did  not  say  'key' 
but  'keys,'  thereby  coni]ii-elieii(liiin-  tlie 
tenii)oral  along  with  iIh-  sjnnt  ua  1  ]>n\\  er." 
The  contrary  opinion  is  held  to  >;i\oiir  of 
the  heretical  ))ellef  condemned  l)y  Boiii-  ! 
face  VIII.  in  the  Constitution  "  Cnani 
Sauctam."  "Accordingly,  nnlielievlng 
kings  and  princes  can  lie  deprived  by  thi' 
sentence  of  the  I'opr.  in  certain  cases,  of 
the  dominlou  which  tliey  have  over  Ije- 
lievers;  for  instance,  if  tin  y  ]ia\  e  Ioi'i-DjI) 
seized  U])()U  Christian  count  ni--.  or  iivi' 
endeavonrlng  to  turn  tlinir  Ijelieving  sul)- 
jects  from  the  faith,  and  tlie  like."  Bar- 
Dosa  and  oth(u-  canonists  Injld  that  "a  i 
king  who  has  become  a  heretic  can  be  [ 
removixl  from  his  kingdom  by  the  Pope, 
to  whom  the  right  of  electing  a  successor 
passi's,  if  his  sons  and  kindred  are  also 
heretics."  "Th(>re  is  notliing  strange  in 
attributing  to  the  lionnm  I'ontill',  as  the 
vicar  of  Him  whose  is  the  earth  and  the 
fulness  thereoi',  the  world  and  all  that 
dwell  therein,  the  fulli'st  authority  ami 

i)ower  to  lay  bare,  a  just  cause  moving 
lini.  not  only  the  s|iiiilnal  lull  also  the 
liMlrM.-il  s\\-oi'd.  and  >o  to  t  i-aii.-fer  sove- 
roi;;iit  ir>,  iiiviilv  sce|i1res.  and  remove 
crowns."  The  canonisis  jjrodiice  nmne- 
rous  instances  where  t  hi-  has  h'  I'li  aci  n.iily 
done,  as  -when  Gregory  11.  d.  |Hi>('(l  i  hr 
liyzantiiu!  emperor  Leo  III. ;  ( i  i  i  y  i  )ry  V  H. 
deposed  the  emperor  Hein-y  IV. ;  Inno- 
cent IV.,  in  the  Council  of  Lyons,  deposed 
the  emperor  Frederick  II. ;  Sec. 

1  Suglia,  l>e  Romano  I'onlifice,  §  33. 


The  celebrated  Constitution  "Unam 
Sanctam"!  (1303)  teaches  that  "both 
s^^■ords,  the  spiritual  and  the  material, 
are  in  the  power  of  the  Church,  but  the 
latter  is  to  be  wielded  for  the  Church, 
the  former  by  the  Church;  one  by  the 
hand  of  the  priest,  the  other  by  the"  hand 
of  kings  and  magistrates,-  but  at  the 
pleasure  and  sutl'erance  of  the  ])rlest.  One 
sword  must  be  under  the  other;  and  the 
temporal  authority  must  be  subject  to 
the  spiritual  power.  .  .  .  The  spiritual 
power  has  to  teach  the  earthly  power, 
and  to  judge  it,  if  it  is  not  good.  .  .  . 
Therefore,  if  the  earthly  po^er  goes 
astray,  it  shall  be  judged  by  the  spiritual 
pow  er ;  "  whereas  the  spiritual  power  is 
responsible  to  God  alone. 

liellarmlne,  in  a  sentence  of  great 
clearness  and  force,  has  clothed  the  doo- 
trlne  of  the  deposing  power  in  a  philo- 
sophical form.  After  quoting  the  famous 
lines  of  the  sixth  .dSneid,  "  Excudent  alii," 
&c.,  he  says  that,  as  the  art  of  the  sculptor 
is  not  included  in,  nor  derived  from,  the 
art  of  govei-nment,  and  yet  is  subject  to 
it,  "so  the  ecclesiastical  art  of  governing 
souls,  which  is  the  art  of  arts,  and  resides 
principally  in  the  Pope,  does  not  neces- 
sarily niciude  the  art  of  [secular]  govern- 
ment, nor  is  it  necessary  that  all  govern- 
ments should  be  derived  from  the  Church  ; 
aud  yet,  because  its  end  is  eternal  hfe, 
to  w  hlch  all  other  ends  are  subordinated, 
the  political  art  of  ruling  peoples  is  sub- 
ject aud  subordinate  to  this  art,  and  the 
Supreme  Pontiff  can  and  ought  to  com- 
mand kings  that  they  do  not  abuse  their 
royal  po^^■er,  to  the  subversion  of  the 
Church,  to  the  fostering  of  heresies  and 
schisms — in  short,  to  the  eternal  ruin  of 
themselves  aud  the  peoples  subject  to 
them  ;  and  if  they  do  not  obey  after  having 
been  admonished  he  can  cast  them  out  of 
the  Church  by  tlie  censure  of  excommuni- 
cation, and  absolve  the  peoples  from  their 
oat  h  of  fealty  ;  finally,  he  can  strip  them 
of  their  realms  and  deprive  them  of  the 
royal  power."  * 

The  state  of  Europe  is  so  much  altered 
since  the  time  of  Bella rmine,  that  there  is 
no  longer  any  question,  even  at  Home,  of 
exercising  the  deposing  power.  When, 
tliiouiih  tlie  i^rowth  of  heresy  and  uu- 
lii  111  1'.  and  I  la  .  pread  of  opinions  favour- 
ahle  to  the  aljsokite  independence  and 
unlimited  authority  of  kings  or  States, 
the  popular  assent  to  the  use  of  the  de- 

'  KnviiaUlus,  iv.  328.  -'  Militiiin. 

s  Bellarm.  De  Potustate  Summi  I'ontijich, 
cap.  ii. 


DEPOSITION 


DEPOSITION,  BULL  OF  281 


jiosjiig  power  had  vanished,  the  power 
Itself  fell  into  abeyance ;  for  without  such 
assent  it  could  not  be  effectively  exercised. 
Accordingly  the  late  Pope,  in  a  sermon 
quoted  by  Cardinal  Soglia,  said,  "  No  one 
now  thinks  any  more  of  the  right  of  de- 
posing princes,  which  the  Holy  See  for- 
merly exercised  ;  and  the  Supreme  Pontiff 
even  less  than  anyone."  (Ferraris,  Papa.) 

DEPOSXTZOnr  in  the  strict  sense 
{depositio  perpetua)  deprives  a  clerk  of  all 
right  to  exercise  his  orders,  of  his  benefice 
and  of  jurisdiction.  It  is  distinct,  on  the 
one  hand,  from  mere  privation,  because 
deposition  is  perpetual,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  from  degradation,  because  deposi- 
tion is  inflicted  by  the  mere  sentence  of 
competent  authority  without  any  such 
ceremonies  as  accompany  degradation, 
and  because  a  deposed,  unlike  a  degraded, 
person  still  belongs  to  the  clerical  state, 
and  enjoys  the  privileges  of  the  canon 
and  forum.  The  distinction  between 
degradation  and  deposition  dates  from 
the  twelfth  century.  Deposition,  beiug 
an  act  of  jurisdiction,  can  be  inflicted  by 
the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  by  the  vicar- 
general  acting  in  the  bishop  s  name,  and 
by  the  prelates  of  religious  orders.  De- 
position is  the  punishment  assigned  in 
the  canons  for  certain  grave  crimes,  such 
as  murder,  perjury,  robbery, .adult ery,  &c. 

SEPOSZTZOW,  BVI.X.  OF.  Often 
as  the  celebrated  bull  of  Pius  V.  is  refeired 
to,  its  exact  terms  are  but  little  known ; 
we  therefore  subjoin  an  abstract  of  its  j 
contents.  The  bull  begins  "  Eegnans  in  i 
excelsis."  After  the  opening  passage, 
it  proceeds : — "  But  the  party  of  the  j 
impious  has  become  so  powerful  that 
there  is  now  no  place  in  the  world  left 
which  they  have  not  endeavoured  to 
corrupt  with  their  abominable  doctrines, 
being  supporteil  In',  amongst  others,  that 
flagitious  woman,  the  pretended  queen  of 
England,  EUzabeth ;  to  whom,  as  to  a 
safe  asylum,  all  the  most  dangerous  and 
mischievous  characters  have  fled  for 
shelter.  This  same  queen,  having  seized 
the  roj"al  power,  monstrously  arrogating 
to  herself  the  place  of  supreme  head  of 
the  Chui-ch  in  all  England,  and  the  chief 
authority  and  jurisdiction  over  it,  has 
])lunged  again  into  a  gulf  of  misery  and 
ruin  a  kingdom  which  long  ago  was  con-  i 
verted  to  the  Catholic  faith  and  to  sound 
and  moral  li\ing  (bonam  fruffem).'' 
After  describing  the  forcible  suppression 
of  the  true  religion,  Pius  proceeds:  "  She 
has  ordered  that  books  containing  manifest 
heresy  shall  be  used  throughout  the 


kingdom,  and  that  the  impious  rites  and 
institutes,  modelled  after  the  teaching  of 
Calvin,  which  she  herself  has  adopted 
and  observes,  shall  be  also  conformed  to 
by  her  subjects."  Driving  out  the  true 
bishops,  the  members  of  religious  orders, 
&c.,  and  forbidding  all  obedience  to  the 
Pope  and  any  reference  to  Pome,  "  she 
has  compelled  the  greater  number  ^of  her 
subjectSj  to  submit  to  her  nefarious  laws, 
to  abjui-e  the  authority  of  the  Roman 
Pontili",  and  the  obedience  due  to  him, 
and  to  recognise  upon  oath  herself  as 
their  sole  superior  alike  in  things  temporal 
and  things  spiritual ;  .  .  .  .  she  has  cast 
into  prison  Catholic  bishops  and  parish 
priests,  where  many,  wasted  away  by 
long  sickness  and  sorrow,  have  expii-e^ 
iji  utter  misery."  These  things,  he  says, 
are  "  palpable  and  notorious  in  the  sight 
of  all  nations."  He  has  been  informed 
that  her  "mind  is  so  stubbornly  fixed  and 
hardened,'"  that  she  not  only  deBpises  the 
remonstrances  of  Catholic  princes,  '■  but 
will  not  even  permit  the  nuncios  of  this 
See  to  cross  into  England  to  speak  to  her 
on  this  subject."  The  Pope  tlierefore 
declares  that  "  the  aforesaid  Elizabeth, 
as  a  heretic  and  a  supporter  of  heretica, 
and  those  who  adhere  to  her  in  the  afore- 
said proceedings,  have  incurred  the  sen- 
tence of  anathema,  and  are  cut  ofl'  from 
the  unity  of  the  body  of  Christ ;  more- 
over that  she  is  deprived  of  her  pretended 
right  over  the  aforesaid  kingdom,  and  of 
all  dominion,  dignity,  and  privilege  what- 
ever." He  releases  her  subjects  from 
any  oath  of  I'ealty  they  have  taken  to  her, 
and  from  all  obedience  and  submissi(jn  to 
her  whatsoever.  Those  who  obey  her  and 
her  laws  are  bound  and  implicated  in 
"  the  like  sentence  of  anathema."  '  The 
date— April  27,  1570. 

On  this  bull  it  may  be  remarked  that 
the  attempts  of  the  Holy  See  to  depose 
Elizabeth  stand  by  themselves.  After 
her  death  nothing  simdar  occurs ;  and 
yet  the  condition  of  Catholics  in  England 
grew  worse  from  reign  to  reign,  and  it  is 
notorious  that  the  doctrine  on  which  the 
bull  rests  continued  to  be  held  at  Rome. 
This  seems  to  show  that  when  no  hope 
could  any  more  be  reasonably  entertained 
that  the  decision  of  the  Holy  See  would 
have  weight  with  the  English  people,  all 
thought  of  exerting  the  deposuig  power 
was  laid  aside.  But  in  1570  things  had 
not  gone  so  far;  the  bull  speaks  of 
Elizabeth  as  a  tyrant  as  well  as  a  heretic; 
the  theory  of  it  was,  that  the  bidk  of  the 
nation,  and  the  best  part  of  it,  were  still 


282     DESCENT  OF  CHRIST 


DEVIL  AND  EVIL  SPIRITS 


attacliLHl  to  Catholicism,  but  -were  being 
dragooned  by  the  Govenimeiit  into  heresy 
against  their  will.  Hence  tlie  Pope  might 
believe  tliat  by  throwing  the  whole  weight 
of  Church  censures  on  tlie  side  of  the 
oppressed  he  woidd  encourage  them  to 
rise  and  cast  ofl"  the  tyranny.  And  so 
perliaps  it  might  have  lieen  but  for  several 
special  circumstances  :  for  instance,  the 
dread  entertained  by  Englishmengenerally 
of  civil  war,  after  the  long  and  terrible 
experience  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the 
exceptional  sagacity  and  energy  of 
Elizabeth's  ministers,  the  dislike"  felt 
towards  Spain,  &c.  ("  Concilia  Magnse 
Britannia;  et  Iliberni.'e,"  vol.  iv.  1737). 

DESCEN'T  OF  CHRIST  XKTO 
H£XX<.       Sec  LlMBO."" 

BESECRATION  OF  CHURCHES, 
AI.TARS,  CHAX.ICES,  ETC.  By 
consecration  churclies  ami  nltais  are 
solemnly  set  apart  to  (  oHr>  >i  i\icf;  by 
desecration  they  lose  tlii>  >aci-eil  character, 
become  unfit  for  the  sacred  uses  which 
they  were  meant  to  serve,  and  need  to  be 
consecrated  anew. 

A  church  is  desecrated  if  the  greater 
part  of  it  is  demolislu'd— f  y.  if  the  outer 
walls  are  destroyed,  or  if  the  greater  part 
of  them  is  demqlislied  at  one  and  the 
same  time.  A  church  does  not  lose  its 
consecration  if  the  roof  falls  in,  because  it 
is  tl;o  walls,  not  the  roof,  which  were 
sixH-ially  consecrated  [see  Dedication  of 
Chuhcuks]:  or,  again,  if  parts  of  the 
church  are  re])laced  by  a  new  structure 
at  intervals,  oxen  if  in  the  end  the  whole 
building  is  new. 

An  altar  is  dosecrated  {e.recrafur) 
(1)  if  the  consecrated  table  is  removecl 
from  the  lower  struct  ure  (t  liis  only  a])plies 
to  a  fixed  altar) ;  (2)  if  it  is  broken  to 
such  an  extent  that  not  enough  of  it  is 
left  entire  to  support  tlie  chalice  and 
paten;  (.j)  if  the  seal  of  the  sepulchre  is 
broken,  or  if  the  sepulchre  with  the  relics 
is  removed. 

A  eli.iliee  loses  its  consecration  if  so 
iiijnivil  t  liat  it  can  no  longer  contain  the 
coiisecraieil  wine;  also,  according  to  St. 
Liguori  and  many  other  theologians,  if  it 
is  regilt.' 

the  English  word  desecration  may 
also  be  taken  as  equivalent  to  tlie  Latin 
■word  pollutio.  A  churcli  or  cemetery  is 
desecrated  in  this  sense  {polluitw)  (1)  by 
cul])able  homicide ;  (2)  by  shedding  of 
blood,  pro\  iileil  the  act  be  grievously  sin- 
ful ;  (3)  by  certain  acts  of  an  immoral  or 

1  This  opinion  is  now  certain  from  a  decree 
of  SS.  Cong.  Rit.,  June  14,  1845. 


indecent  character;  (4)  by  the  burial  of 
an  unbaptised  person  or  of  a  person  ex- 
communicated by  name.  If  any  of  the 
ca.ses  cited  above  have  occurred,  and  the 
fact  is  notorious,  then  the  church  or 
cemetery  cannot  be  used  till  it  has  been 
purified  or  reconciled  by  the  bishop  ac- 
cording to  a  solemn  form  prescribed  in 
the  Pontifical. 

DEITS.ZM'ASJVTORXUIVI  MEVM 

XSTTEM-SE  ("0  God,  come  to  my  a.ssis- 
tance").  The  opening  words  of  Ps.  Ixix., 
which  are  used  at  the  lieginning  of  each, 
hour  except  compline.  In  matins  they 
are  preci'ded  by  the  versicles  "Lord, 
lliou  wilt  open  mv  lips,"  &c.  We  learn 
lio],i  ( 'assian  (Coll  X.  10)  that  the  words 
"  Deiis,  in  adjutorium,"  &c.,  were  a 
common  ejaculatory  prayer  with  the 
ancient  monks,  but  it  is  uncertain  whether 
they  were  used,  as  at  present,  in  the 
divine  office  before  St.  l')enedict"s  time. 
DEtTTERO-CAXfOM-ICAI.  BOOKS. 

[See  Caxon  of  Scriptuke.] 

DEVZX.    AND    EVIX.  SPZRZTS. 

Their  personal  existence  is  clearly  taught 
both  in  the  Old  Testament  and  in  the 
New.  In  the  Hebrew  Bible  an  "evil 
s])irit"  is  said  to  have  come  on  Saul 
(1  Sam.  xvi.  14),  and  the  sacrifices  offered 
to  idols  are  represented  as  really  made  to 
I  "  demons."  '  In  .Job  i.  6,  12,  ii.  7,  and 
two  books  written  after  the  exile,  viz.  in 
Zach.  iii.  1,  1  Paralip.  xxi.  1,  mention  is 
made  of  "  the  adversary "  or  accusing 
spirit  par  c.vccllcmc  (jt^b'n,  always 
with  the  article,  exce])t  in  the  ]iassage 
quoted  from  Paral.-')  This  Satan  slandered 
Job  to  God,  incited  David  to  number  the 
people,  and  opposed  Josue  the  high  priest, 
^loreover,  we  know  from  the  Book  of 
Wisdom,  and  from  tlie  Apocalypse  in  the 
New  Testament,  that  it  was  he  who  took 

>  Tliese  demons  are  called  DHt?'  or  "  lords ' 
(Vulfi-  ftemoHia)  in.Deiit.  xxxii.  17,  Ps.  cvi. 
(Vul.ii.  cv.)  37.  Q^-l^yt^  or  '-hairy  beings," 
like  satyrs  in  xvii.   7  (Vulg.  again 

"  demons").  These  '^aiN  rs  "  siiid  to"dance" 
and  to  crv  (uit  tn  r.n  h  (.tla  i  in  wa.ste  jilaces, 
Is.  xiii.  xx\i\ .  I  (  (  thr  Vul^'.  in  both  places 
"|iiln-i."  "  pil.isiis  ■' ).  'I'lic  student  interested 
in  sn<  li  matliTs  may  hv  ii'frrnd  to  Baudissin's 
ni.isti  ih-  trraiisc  in  tin'  liist  \  (.lume  of  his  Slu- 
(liii,  zi'ir  siniilixrhri,  I{,l(;iiiiiis<i,'!!vkkhte,  where 
tlir  a|i|ia]-riii  idrni  iliral  i'ln  of  idolatry  with 
,|,an.iii-woi-lH|i  i-  lullv  (ii-ru-scd.  Levit.  xvii. 
7,  I  lent,  xxxii.  17.  I's.  cvi.  :i7  Tsoo  also  2  (;hron. 
xxviii.  I'.'i),  .TIC  tlic  ^tnint;i'~t  jmssages,  though 
tlu'N  are  not  pci  li.i  |  is  vencl  iisi  vr.  Butthisview 
is  clfarlv  exproscd  in  1  Cor.  x.  20. 

^  Soinc  would  add  Ps.  cix.  6.  See  Wright 
on  Zachariah,  p.  543. 


DEVIL  AND  EVIL  SPIRITS 


DEVOLUTION 


tlie  form  of  a  serpent  and  seduced  our 
first  parents,  so  that  he  is  rightly  called 
"  devil,"  (SidfioXos)  or  "  slaiuleiv,  "  be- 
cause he  not  only  slanders  mm  lu  lorc 
God,  but  also  brings  false  aceiisatiniis 
against  God  Himself.  But  the  Hebiew 
Scriptures  are  far  indeed  from  acknow- 
ledging a  principle  of  evil  able  to  offer 
any  effectual  opposition  to  God.  The 
first  chapters  of  Job  represent  Satan  as 
impotent  for  evil  except  by  God's  per- 
mission, and  the  same  dependence  of  the 
devil  on  God  is  clearly  implied  in  Zacha- 
rias,  and  in  other  places  where  the  agency 
of  false  and  lying  spirits  is  described. 

AVe  gain  much  fuller  information  from 
the  New  Testament.  There  we  are  told 
that  the  devil  is  a  spirit  (Ephes.  ii.  2) ; 
that  he  is  a  prince  with  evil  angels  subject 
to  him  (Matt.  xii.  24-26,  xxv.  41)  ;  that 
the  demons  were  not  originally  evil,  but 
fell  through  sin  (2  Pet.  ii.  4,  Jude  6) ; 
and  it  is  at  least  a  plausible  inference 
from  St.  Paul's  words,  1  Tim.  iii.  G,  "not 
aneopliytf,li'st,l)eiiigpuffed  upwith  pride, 
he  fall  into  the  ju<lgnient  of  the  dex  il," 
that  Satan  fell  'by  l"'i'l''-  -^'1  spii'itual 
evil  and  en-or  (2  ('or.  xi.  14.  l-'i,  all 
which  hinders  the  (iosprl  (1  Tln-s,  il.  18, 
Apoc.  ii.  10),  is  traced  ultini.ii  dv  to  liim. 
Moj'eover,  although  Clivi-l'-  di'rilli  was  I 
intended  to  destroy  the  works  of  tlio  di'vil, 
and  has  in  fact  done  so  to  a  gn-at  I'xt.  iit. 
Still  Satan  has  a  terrible  power  om  i-  llio 
world  and  its  votaries,  so  much  so  that  li^ 
is  called  the  ruler  and  even  the  "  god"  of 
this  world  (John  xii.  31,  2  Cor.  iv.  4)  ; 
and  hence  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  v.  5)  regards 
exclusion  from  the  Church  as  tantamount 
to  a  deli\ craiiCH  of  the  excommunicated 
person  into  tbr  power  of  Satan.  At  last 
this  power  will  be  destroyed.  Satan  and 
his  angels  will  be  cast  into  the  lake  of 
fire  and  brimstone,  where  their  torments 
will  be  everlasting. 

Such  is  the  teaching  which  lies  on 
the  surface  of  Scripture,  and  little  can  be 
added  to  it  from  tradition  or  by  theo-  ' 
logical  induction.  The  history  of  the 
doctrine  on  the  devil  and  his  angels  is 
stated  by  Petavius  in  the  third  book  of 
his  treatise  on  the  angels,  from  which  the 
following  account  is  taken.  Even  after 
it  was  universally  held  that  the  angels 
were  pure  spirits,  some  still  clung  to  the 
belief  that  the  devils  after  th(>ir  i'all 
changed  their  natuie  and  became 
"partly  material."  This  opinion  was 
defended  by  the  Greeks  at  Florence,  but 
is  certainly  false.  The  devil  was  the 
chief  of  these  fallen  spirits,  and  it  is  held 


by  the  greater  number  of  authors  that  he 
was  originally  the  chief  of  all  the  angels. 
The  terrible  descrij)tion  of  the  fall  of  the 
king  of  Tyre  in  Ezecliiel  xxviii.  has  been 
inteqireted  of  the  devil's  fall,  so  mu(di  so, 
indeed,  that  the  name  Lucifer  commonly 
given  to  the  devil  is  derived  I'roni  this 
passage.  But  the  reference  to  the  devil, 
as  Petavius  rightly  argues,  is  not  con- 
tained in  the  literal  meaning  of  the 
prophet's  words.  Although  condemned 
to  the  pains  of  hell  immediately  after 
their  fall,  still  from  time  to  time  the 
devil  and  his  angels  wander  in  the  air 
and  over  the  earth.  The  common  opinion 
among  theologians  is  that  wherever  they 
go  the  demons  are  tortured  by  the  fires 
of  hell,  though  they  are  by  no  means 
agreed  as  to  the  way  in  which  the  fires 
of  hell  exercise  this  strange  power  over 
them.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  com- 
monly held  by  ancient  writers  that  the 
demons  will  not  be  tortured  by  the  fire 
of  hell  till  the  day  of  judgment,  and 
Petavius  says  one  who  maintains  "that 
the  devil  and  his  angels  are  not  yet  tor- 
tured by  that  extreme  and  utmost  tor- 
ture, that  they<lo  not  yet  feel  the  efficacy 
of  that  fire  in  which  the  chief  part  of 
their  damTiation,  so  far  as  feeling  and 
suffering  go,  consists,  is  not  to  hi'  accnsedi 
of  error,  much  less  of  heresy."  ( >n  this 
theory  the  rebel  angels  will  beein  to 
experience  the  eternal  torments  of  hell 
fii-e  at  the  day  ol'judgment.  But  in  any 
ease  it  is  certain  from  the  words  of 
Christ,  "Depart  ye  cursed  into  everlast- 
ing fire,  prepared  for  the  devil  and  his 
angels,"  from  the  general  teaching  of  the 
Fathers,  and  from  the  definition  of  the 
Fourth  Lateran  Council,'  that  the  devil 
and  his  angels  are  condemned  without 
hope  of  pardon. 

DEVOXiVTZOir.  Thi^  jus  devolutionis 
is  that  right  by  which,  according  to  the 
canon  law,  when  a  patron  has  imjiroperly 
exercised,  or  neglected  to  exercise,  his 
canonical  i-ielil  of  jiresenting  to  a  benefice, 
he  lose-  il  I'mi-  that  time,  and  the  right 
passe>  to  the  icclesiastical  dignitarv  of 
next  higher  rank.  This  is  the  iiisliop, 
when  any  patron  luider  his  jui-isdiet  n  in, 
whether  an  individual  or  a  coi-]iiir,it  em, 
is  chargeable  with  the  neglect  :  the  arcli- 
bisho]),  ^\■llen  tin-  neglect  is  in  one  n|'  his 
suffragans;  the  I'ojje,  wlien  the  eleil  ion 
of  an  archbishop,  bishop,  or  alihol  has 
been  made  uncanonically,  oi-  not  made  in 

I  Ca]iut.  i.  Ade.  Alhiyeiisrs.  wh.'iv.  Imui'vcr. 
only  evei'lasting  pains  of  tlio  devil  ^not  of 
(lemons)  are  expressly  mentionod. 


284    DE^'OTION,  FEASTS  OF 


DnilSSOPJALS 


time.  Bv  the  Concordat  of  Vienna  in 
1448,  the  right  of  devolution  was  granted 
to  the  Pope  both  in  these  cases  and  in 
the  event  of  the  election  being  rejected 
for  other  defects. 

The  State  law  of  difierent  coxintries 
in  modem  times  frequently  prevents  the 
exercise  of  this  canonical  right.  In 
France  it  i.s  excluded  altogether;  the 
bishop  has  the  sole  right  of  collation  to 
the  benefices  vacant  in  his  diocese.  In 
Prussia,  Wurtemberg,  and  Baden  the 
right  exists,  but  in  a  very  restricted  form. 
(Perinnneder,  in  Wetzer  and  Welte.) 

DEVOTXOM',  FEASTS  Or.  A 
word  commonly  used  to  mark  feasts 
which  were  once  holidays  of  obligation 
but  are  so  no  longer,  the  precept  of 
hearing  Mass  and  resting  from  servile 
works  having  been  annulled  bv  the  Holy 
See',  and  the  special  observance  of  the 
feasts  in  question  having  been  left  to  the 
devotion  of  the  faithful. 

DZACON-ZCirni  (biaKoviKOv).  A 
building  attached  to  ancient  basilicas, 
much  the  same  as  ^ecretarium  or  sacristy. 
It  was  divided  (1)  into  the  reception- 
room  {snliitntorium  or  rcceptoriun,,  oocor 
ao-TrtKTTiKor)  in  which  the  bishop  was 
received  by  the  clergy  and  also  gave 
audiences.  It  was  in  such  a  reception- 
room  that  Theodosius  begged  absolution 
from  St.  Ambrose.  (2)  The  sacristy 
jiriijicv  {»u(tat(iriiiin,  rcsiiarhun),  where 
the  (Icacon-  ki'pt  the  sacred  vi'ssels  to  bo 
used  at  .M.-iss.  kc,  and  the  priests  put 
their  vestments  on  and  off,  before  and 
after  ofiiciatiiiu.  (.3)  A  chamber  {ya(o- 
(j)vXdKLoi')  in  which  books,  church-plate, 
vestments,  &c.,  not  required  for  imme- 
diate use,  were  kept.  Councils  were 
often  held  in  a  diaconicum ;  so  were 
ecclesiastical  courts.  The  bishop's  corpse 
was  also  In  id  out  here  before  burial. 

DIES  j-Rm.    [See  Htmu-s.] 

SzniZSSORXAKS  {literm  dimissoria, 
seu  rvrerenilf/').  In  its  most  general 
sense,  leave  to  he  orfl^iinrd.  with  testi- 
mony to  fitness  I  iiln  i  rxpi'cssed  or  im- 
plied.   This  liceiK/''  limy  he  <iiven — 

1.  By  the  Komaii  I'oiitiff',  who  can 
grant  letters  dimissorv  to  ordinands  from 
any  part  of  the  world,  authorising  their 
ordination  by  any  Catliolic  bisliop.  The 
Pope  can  also  confer  orders  on  anyone 
whom  he  judges  fit  to  receive  them, 
without  waiting  for  letters  dimissory 
from  any  bishop. 

2  By  any  bishop  to  his  own  subjects 
{snis  mbditis).  There  are  four  ways  by 
which  a  clerk  may  be  the  subditus  of  a 


bishop,  technically  called  ori(/o,  domi- 
cilium,  benfficium.  trimnalis  commensatio. 
That  is — either  his  native  place,  or  his 

E resent  domicile,  or  the  benefice  which 
e  enjoys,  is  within  the  bishop's  diocese ; 
or  else  he  has  lived  in  the  bishop's 
family,  and  been  supported  by  him,  for  at 
least  three  years.  The  last  two  groimda 
of  subjection  having  been  frequently 
abused  in  the  seventeenth  century,  so 
that  men  of  dubious  antecedents  were 
ordained  by  bishops  to  whose  dioceses 
they  did  not  properly  belong,  on  the 
ground  of  holding,  or  being  promised, 
benefices  in  them,  or  of  having  lived  in 
their  families.  Innocent  XI.,  by  the  Con- 
stitution "  Speculatores"  (1694),  forbade 
that  any  clerk,  already  tonsured  or  pro- 
moted to  minor  orders  by  his  own  bishop, 
'  should  be  promoted  to  higher  orders  by 
any  other  hi>hop  on  the  title  of  a  benefice 
obtained  in  his  diocese,  unless  such  clerk 
should  first  have  obtained  and  exhibited 
to  the  ordaining  bishop  letters  dimissory 
from  the  bishop  of  origin,  or  of  domicile, 
or  from  both  if  necessary,  bearing  fa voiir- 
able  testimony  as  to  his  birth,  age,  cha- 
racter, and  conduct. 
I  3.  By  abljots,  or  other  sr.periors  of 
orders,  authorising  and  recommending 
'  their  own  subjects  for  ordination.  Abbots 
I  may  not  give  dimissm-ials  to  seculars.' 
The  rule  is,  that  the  dimissorials  of  an 
abbot  should  be  directed  to  the  bishop  of 
the  diocese  in  which  the  monastery  is 
situated ;  if,  however,  he  be  absent,  or 
not  about  to  hold  an  ordination,  they 
may  be  addressed  to  any  other  bishop. 
A  decree  on  this  subject  was  published 
by  Clement  VIII.  in  159.5.  Certain 
orders  have  particular  privileges :  thus, 
by  a  Constitution  of  Gregory  XIII.,  con- 
j  firmed  by  Paul  V.,  the  rectors  of  Jesuit 
houses  can  grant  dimissorials  to  clerks  of 
their  society  addressed  to  any  Catholic 
bisliop  whatsoever.  Franciscans  of  the 
Oh.Nfrvance  enjoy  the  same  privilege  in 
the  West  Indies  and  the  parts  adjoining, 
j  by  a  grant  of  l^haii  VIII.  Some  main- 
tain that,  in  conscipiciice  of  a  concession 
!  made  by  Clement  VII.  to  the  Portuguese 
congregation  of  St.  .Tohn  the  Evangelist, 
all  regulars  enjoy  the  same  privilege  ;  but 
■  this  apjiears  doubtful. 

4.  By  a  vicar-general,  but  only  in 
the  absence  of  the  bishop,  or,  if  he  be  not 
absent,  by  his  express  permission. 

5.  By  vicars-capitular,  sedc  vacante, 
but  only  after  the  expiration  of  a  year 
from  the  date  of  the  vacancy  in  ordinary 

I  Coucil.  Trid.  sess.  xxiii.  De  Ref.  c.  10. 


DIOCESE 


DIOCESE 


285 


cases.  If,  however,  the  case  of  the  appli- 
cajit  be  one  of  m-gency,  on  account  of  his 
having  received,  or  being  about  to  re- 
ceive, a  benefice,  the  vicar-capitular  may 
crant  him  dimissorials  within  the  year. 
(Ferraris,  Ordo,  Ordinare,  art.  iii.  §  36.) 

DZOCESE  {bioiKriffii,  administra- 
tion). The  name  by  which  the  tract  of 
coiuitry  with  its  population  falling  under 
the  pastorate  of  a  Christian  bishop  is  now 
universally  designated  belonged  origi- 
nally to  the  civil  hierarchy.  The  bishops, 
taking  up  from  the  Apostles  the  work  of 
teaching  and  converting  the  world,  exer- 
cised their  jurisdiction  for  the  most  part 
over  the  Christians  of  a  single  city  and  a 
small  district  surrounding  it.  This  was 
their  napoiKla,  the  abode  of  the  Christian 
ndpoiKoi  (1  Pet.  ii.  11),  who,  few  in 
number  amidst  the  masses  of  the  heathen, 
lived  in  the  world  as  passing  strangers 
and  sojourners  rather  than  as  citizens. 
The  word  dioUtjais  occurs  several  times 
in  Cicero's  letters  to  designate  an  Eastern 
province  or  district ;  but  the  widespread 
official  use  of  the  name  seems  to  have 
been  due  to  the  organisation  of  the  em- 
pire begun  by  Diocletian  and  continued 
by  Coustaiitine,  '•  The  whole  empire  was 
divided  into  twelve  diweses,  the  smallest 
of  which — Britain — consisted  of  four  pro- 
vinces, the  largest — Orieus — of  sixteen."  * 
Each  diocese  was  governed  by  a  Vicarius, 
with  the  rank  of  spectabilis.  The  word 
gradually  acquired  an  ecclesiastical  use, 
but  its  meaning  varied.  In  Africa,  by 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  it  seems 
to  have  meant  nearly  what  we  mean  by 
it  now,  for  the  fifth  canon  of  the  Second 
Council  of  Carthage  (oOO)  provides  for 
the  appointment  of  new  bishops,  the  con- 
sent of  the  bishop  of  the  original  "  dio- 
cese ""  being  first  obtained.  But  in  the 
East,  as  shown  by  the  canons  of  Cha  Ice- 
don,  it  for  a  long  time  signified  a  patri- 
archate or  tract  of  country  containing 
several  iirapxlai,  provinces.  Ilincmar, 
Archbishop  of  Rheims,  writing  to  Pope  j 
Kicliolas,  uses  the  term  as  equivalent  to  \ 
the  modem  province,  the  jurisdiction  of 
a  metropolitan  having  suffragan  sees 
imder  him.  In  England  it  was  not  till 
the  thirteenth  centmy  that  the  word 
came  into  common  use.  Bede  speaks  of 
an  "  episcopatus,"  or  a  "  provincia,"' or  an 
"ecclesia,"  but  never  of  a  "dicecesis;" 
nor  can  the  term  be  found  in  the  much 
later  chronicles  of  Symeon  of  Durham 
and  Henry  of  Hmitingdon  ;  it  begins  to 

'  Eomttn  Provincial  Adminigtration,  W.  T. 
AruuW,  1879. 


occur,  but  not  frequently,  in  the  works 
of  Matthew  Paris,  and  then  in  the  precise 
sense  which  we  now  attach  to  it.  Du- 
cange  considers  that  this  was  an  abuse  of 
the  term,  and  that  the  proper  name  for  a 
bishop's  diocese  was  Parochia.  A  much 
more  strange  abuse  crept  in  in  France  in 
the  Carolingian  era,  when,  as  we  see 
from  the  canons  of  some  French  coxmcils, 
and  the  capitularies  of  Charlemagne, 
"  dicecesis "  was  used  in  the  sense  of 
"  parish."  After  the  thirteenth  century 
the  present  signifii-ation  of  the  word 
became  firmly  established. 

The  "Mappa  Mundi"  of  Gervase  of 
Canterbury  gives  the  titles  of  about  three 
hundred  and  fiftj'  Ca  tholic  dioceses  as  exist- 
ing near  the  end  of  the  twelfth  centmy ;  but 
the  list  is  imperfect  by  his  own  confession. 
In  England  and  Wales  he  enumerates 
two  provinces  and  twenty  dioceses ;  in 
Scotland,  eleven  dioceses ;  m  Ireland,  four 
provinces  and  thirty-three  dioceses.  The 
sees  of  Gloucester,  Oxford,  and  Peter- 
borough were  erected  by  Henry  VIII. 
with  the  authority  of  Parliament,  but 
the  arrangement  was  not  confirmed  by 
the  Holy  See.  The  sees  of  the  ancient 
English  and  Scottish  hierarchy  having 
become  Anglican  or  ceased  to  exist,  the 
Pope  has  in  our  own  day  (1850)  divided 
England  and  Wales  anew  into  fourteen 
dioceses,'  forming  one  province  mider  the 
Archbishop  of  Westminster,  and  Scotland 
(1878)  into  six  dioceses,  whereof  one — ■ 
Glasgow — is  an  archdiocese  without  suf- 
fragan sees,  the  other  five  form  one  pro- 
vince under  the  Archbishopof  St.  Andrews 
and  Kchnburgh.  Ireland,  having  in  spite 
of  persecution  adhered  to  Catholic  unity, 
retains  of  course  her  ancient  dioce.sau 
organisation  unimpaired,  although  the 
temporalities  of  the  sees  are  lost,  and 
some  of  them  have  been  consolidated  with 
others. 

The  total  number  of  Catholic  dioceses 
at  the  present  day,  including  twelve 
Patriarchal  sees,  amounts,  according  to 
the  computation  in  the  Gi  rarchia  Cattolica 
for  18tt0,  to  nine  hundred  and  forty-seven. 

Diocesan  statutes,  passed  by  a  bishop 
in  synod,  are  a  part  of  ih.Q  jus  cavonicum 
speciale,  which  is  defined  as  "that  law 
which  has  been  enacted  only  i'or  a  par- 
ticular phice,  province,  diocese,  or  com- 
mimity,  and  is  not  binding  outside  the 
Umits  of  the  same."  ^ 

'  One  of  these.  Jliddlesbrongh,  was  separ- 
ated frnm  Leeds  and  made  a  distinct  diocese  in 
1880. 

-  Ferraris,  •'  Jns,"  §  22. 


1?^T.  DIOXYSIUS  THE  AliEOPAGITE 


DIPTYCIIS 


SZON-YSZVS  THr  ARBOPA- 
GZTE.  The  great  tlienlno  ical  inijioi'taiice 
of  the  works  attriliut.M]  td  Didiiysius 
makes  it  )i."ci'>sai-v  to  say  sdiin't  liiii<;  of 
them  here,  tluniuli  litci-aiy  and  biograph- 
ical article-  do  not  enter  info  the  plan  of 
this  Dictionary.  We  Icnow  from  Acts 
xvii.  84  that  J  tionysius  was  converted  by 
St.  Paul  during  his  visit  to  Athens.  He 
is  called  "  the  Areopagite  " — i.e.  he  was 
an  assessor  in  the  court  which  bore  that 
name.  The  New  Testament  tells  us 
nothing  moi-e  about  him,  for  there  is  no 
reason  gi\cu  to  suppose  that  Damaris,  a 
woman  converted  at  the  same  time,  was 
his  wife.  But  another  Dionysius,  bishop 
of  Corinth,  and  among  the  earliest  of 
Christian  writers,  informs  us  that  the 
Areopagite  became  lii>liop  of  Athens,  and 
this  no  doubt  may  be  safely  acct>pted  as 
fact.'  Later  writers  say  that  he  was 
martyred.' 

It  was  long-  the  general  belief  in  the 
"West  that  St.  Dionysius  the  Areopagite 
became  aflerwai-iU  bishop  of  Paris  and 
shed  his  1)1.10.1  th.'r-.  r.ut  this  belief 
cann.it  be  rec.incile.l  with  aiu'ient  evi- 
dence. There  is  no  trace  of  it  during  the 
early  centurie^s,  and  we  have  positive 
proof  that  St.  Dionysius  of  I'aris  was  a 
different  person  fr.'m  the  Areopagite. 
St.  Gregory  of  Tours  s])i'aks  oi'  the  former 
as  c.imiiui-  to  France  after  L'oO.  Th." 
Martvrol.'.gv  ,.f  I'snanl  ,liM  inguishes  tli.. 
feast  ..f  St.  ni..n\>iii- .111  ( )ct . .b.^r  fr. .m 
that  ..f  bis  nani.'-ak.'.  Di.invsin-  ..f  Pans, 
on  Ort.ib.'i- M.     ^\■.■ne.■ll  lu'il  gi\i'  t'lirtlier 

against  an  ideutitication  once  defended 
with  great  tenacity  and  great  learning, 
but  long  since  rejected  by  all  competent 
critics. 

The  following  works  are  attributed  to 
Diouvsins  tlie  Ar.'ojiatiitf' : — (1)  a  treatise 
"On'  111.'  li.'av..nlv  1  i  i.ra  ndi  v  :  "  (l')  a 
tr.'iiliM.  ■•(),.  til.''  I'r.'l.'MaMical  lli.'r- 
aivli\  ;'■  i;;i  iMiMtli.T  -On  1  >iviiie  Nam.'s :  " 
(4)i.ii..lli.'r  "On  .Mv-li.-al  Theol.igv:"  (5) 
ten  l..tti  i-sa.l.liv".'il  to  .John  the  Apostle, 
Tit  lis,  I'.ily.-arp.  v^c. 

The  tii'st  hist.irical  n.itice  of  these 
works  occurs  in  the  contemporary  ac- 
count^ of  a  conlereiice  li.d.l  in  533  at 
Constantino])le,  bet  w.^en  tlu"  Catliolies  .m 
the  one  hand  and  th.>  Severiaii  Mon..- 
physites  on  the  other,  by  the  comman.l  of 

1  Ajmil  Kiiseb.  iii.  4.  iv.  2S. 
-  Niccjili.  iii.  11,  .]u<)loil  by  Meyor  on  the 
Acts. 

•''  Or  rather  in  a  Latia  version  of  the  account. 
Hefele,  ConcU.  ii.  74«. 


I  the  Emperor  Justinian.  The  hereticj 
produced  %vritings  of  the  Areopagite  in 
sujip.irt  of  their  errors.  The  orthodo.v 
replied  that  these  writings  could  not  be 
genuine,  otherwise  they  would  have  been 
known  to  and  used  by  the  ancients,  espe- 
cially by  CjTil,  Athanasius,  and  the 
Nicene  Fathers.  However,  these  writings 
soon  obtained  general  recognition  in  the 
East,  and  Gregory  the  Great  had  at  least 
i  heard  of  them  about  the  year  500.  In 
j  827  a  copy  of  the  supposed  writings  of 
i  Dionysius  was  sent  by  Michael  the  Stam- 
'  merer  to  Louis  le  Dt5bonnaire,  son  of 
Charlemagne.  They  were  translated  into 
Latin  by  Scotus  l"]rigena,  and  there  have 
been  many  subsequent  vi'rsions.  In  the 
middle  ages,  Di.niysius  had  immense 
authority  with  Catholic  theologians;  and 
in  a  A\  ork  written  a  few  years  ago  to  de- 
fend the  authenticity  of  the  works  attri- 
buted to  Dionysius,  Mgr.  Darboy  alleges 
that  there  is  scarcely  a  passage  in  them 
which  has  not  been  quoted  by  St.  Thomas 
of  A(|uin. 

Still,  historical  scholars,  such  as  Le 
Nourv,  Tillemont,  Dupiii,  <^'C..  have  de- 
monstrated the  spurious  cli.irM.  t .  i-  ..I'  the 
works  in  question.  Th.'  obj.'.-ti.iii  made 
I  at  Constantinople,  viz.  that  Cyril  and 
i  Athanasius  (we  may  add  Kusebius)  are 
silent  concerning  them,  admits  of  no 
satisfactory  reply.  Facts  and  institutions 
uv<-  m.'iiti.med  by  the  pseudo-Dionysius 
\\  lii.  li  liajipened  anil  ar.is.'  l.iiig  after  the 
ag.' .4' (b.e  Aiv.i]Kigite.  \\'|h>ii  the  forger, 
^\-ll.l  \v:is  .■vi.l.'iit  ly  a  ('lii-i>tian  imbued 
with  tlii'iiliil.isopliyof  til.'  later  Platoui.«tS, 
really  lived,  it  is  much  liar.ler  to  say. 
Pearson  places  the  com])ositioii  of  the 
Dionysian  writings  bel'.ire  340:  the 
!  learned  D.iniiiiicaii  Le(juieii,  at  the  end 
!  of  th.e  tifth  century.  Otli.-r  scholars,  such 
as  Dailk«  au.l  Dr.  Westcott,  put  them 
later  still.  It  iiee.l  scarcely  be  said  that 
iiie.lla'val  writers  may  well  have  found 
much  that  is  true  in  these  writings,  mis- 
taken as  tli.'N  w.'iv  about  their  origin. 
(See  Leqiii.^n's  lb,— .  rt.ati.tn  in  his  edition 
of  St.  J.)bii  Dam.-is.-.'ii.';  P.^arson,  "Vin- 
dic.  Ignat.":  Till. 'in. mt.  ) 

DIPTYCH3.  I'll.'  w.ird  diptych 
(7ii7rTii\ns)  was  originally  a])]4ied  to  any- 
thiiiL  r.iM.'.l  .l.mbl...  Tim-  II.mier.«peaivS 
.4'  a  m.-mtl.'  InLLM  doiilil,."  (SiVrvx'"') 
r.iun.l  th.'  -b.iul.l.  rs.  lint  the  adjective 
di]4\c'b  came  t.i  b.'  used  ni.)st  commonly 
as  an  epithet  of  tabli>ts  (Sf Xrof  or  heXrlov), 
so  that  diptych  signified  two  leaves  or 
tablets  bound  togef  lier  by  a  hinge.  Some- 
i  times  several  leaves  were  so  fastened  to- 


DIPTYCHS 


DIRGE 


287 


gether  and  called  TplirTv\a,  TrtvTanrvxa,  or 
noKvTTTvxu-  They  were  used  for  sending 
short  letters,  as  memorandum  books,  &c. 
They  were  often  made  of  costly  material, 
worn  partly  as  ornaments  at  the  girdle, 
and  sent  as  presents  to  friends,  to  clients, 
or  to  persons  of  distinction. 

It  is  uncertain  at  what  time  the 
Christian  Church  began  to  make  use  of 
diptychs  in  the  liturgy,  but  we  know  that 
in  Chrysostoni's  time  the  custom  was  fully 
established.  It  was  continued  among  the 
Latins  down  to  the  twelfth,  among  the 
C4reeks  down  to  the  fifteenth,  century. 
They  were  called  "holy  tablets,"  "mysti- 
cal tablets,"  "mystical  diptychs,"  "eccle- 
siastical catalogues,"  &c.  The  "diptychs 
of  the  living"  contained  the  names  (if  the 
Pope,  patriarchs,  the  bislmp  ami  rli  ra\ 
of  the  church,  often  also  of  neighliouriiiL;- 
churches,  those  who  ottered  the  Eucliar- 
istic  gifts,  benefactors  of  the  church,  the 
Emperor  and  Empress,  &c.  The  "  dip- 
tychs of  the  dead  "  contained  as  a  rule 
the  names  which  had  once  been  inscribed 
in  the  dijrtychs  of  the  livins -— e.^r.  those  of 
former  bishops  of  the  particular  church, 
and  also  of  other  bishops,  &c.,  specially 
revered  there.  The  diptychs  also  con- 
tained the  names  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
martyrs,  and  other  saints.  The  insertion 
of  a  name  always  implied  that  the  person 
bearing  it  was  living  or  had  died  in 
Catholic  communion,  for  heresy,  schism, 
and  other  crimes  which  weiv  punished  by 
excommunication,  caused  a  name  to  be 
erased  from  the  diptychs.  Thus,  exclu- 
sion from  the  diptychs  was  often  e(juiva- 
lent  to  a  decision  that  the  person  so  dis- 
graced was  to  be  regarded  as  a  heretic, 
while  the  reinsertion  of  the  name  im])liej 
that  his  ca.se  had  been  examined  and  his 
innocence  proved. 

The  way  in  which  the  diptychs  were 
used  at  Mass  varied  in  different  times  and 
places.  Originally,  the  deacon  read  out 
the  names  from  the  ambo  'q.  later  the 
deacon  or  sub-deacon  reail  them  in  a  low 
■voice  to  the  priest  celebrating  at  the  ,iltar ; 
later  still,  the  diptychs  were  merely  laid 
on  the  altar,  and  the  priest  in  his  prayer 
remembered  the  names  inscribed  without 
actually  reciting  them.  Again,  the  time 
at  which  the  diptychs  were  used  at  Mass 
Taried.  (^fton  the  diptycLs  both  of  the 
living  and  dead  were  read  after  the  ser- 
mon or  (more  frequently)  after  the  otter- 
ton,'.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  liturgies  of 
St.  Basil  and  St.  Chrysostom,  the  dij)- 
tychs  were  used  after  the  consecration. 
In  the  Roman  liturgy  from  the  earliest 


I  times,  the  names  of  the  living  were  read 
before,  those  of  the  dead  after,  the  conse- 
cration. 

It  is  said  that  the  diptychs  led  to  the 
formation  of  Church  Calendars,  and  these 
in  turn  gave  rise  to  Martyr>i!onie.s.  It  is 
still  more  important  tn  ol)>er\e  that  the 
diptychs  have  left  their  mark-  in  the  pre- 
sent Roman  Missal.  In  tlie  pi-,; yer  of  the 
i  Canon,  "  Te  igitur,"  the  jirie-t  mentions 
i  by  name  the  reigning  Pope  and  thebishop 
of  the  diocese.  At  the  "  Memento, 
Domine,"  he  pauses  and  silently  com- 
mends to  God  benefactors,  friends,  Sec, 
who  are  still  living.  At  the  "Communi- 
cantes "  he  recites  the  names  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  the  saints,  &c.  All  this 
occurs  before  the  consecration.  After 
tile  consi'cration.  in  the  fifth  praver  of 
the  (_'a]ion,  the  priest  makes  a  memento 
ol'  the  dead.  Both  mementos  in  some 
MS.  Missals  retain  the  title  oratio 
super"  or  "supra  dijHyeba."  (See 
Kraus,  "  Real-Encvclopadie  ;  "  Benedict 
XIV,  "De  Missa,"'ii.  \?,  and  17.) 

DZRECTORZVM.  A  list,  drawn  up 
by  authority  of  the  bishop,  containing 
directions  as  to  the  3Iass  and  office  to  be 
.said  on  each  day  of  the  year.  The  number 
offcasts  in  t.lie  pi-eseiit  calendar,  and  the 
frequent  nee, t  \  of  transi'erri rii^' some,  and 
coninieniorat  inu  or  omitting  otliers,  makes 
the  Directoriuni  or,  as  it  is  u-ually  called, 
"Ordo,"  neccssai'v  for  the  clergy.  In 
ancient  times  the  bisho])  published  orally 
tlie  list  of  tlle  fe,-ist^tobeob.,-rved.  The 
bishops  liad  to  r,,ll,nv  the  directions  of 
their  metropolitan,  and  he  again  con- 
lornieil  to  till'  ordinances  of  the  Roman 
lii-hop,  who  l)ased  his  direction  on  the 
reclioniiig  or  "comjiutus  ecclesiasticus  " 
of  the  Alexandrian  Church,  Ver\-  often 
in  the  ancient  Church  a  list  of  mov- 
able feasts  was  hung  to  the  Paschal 
candle,' 

DIRGE.  The  word  has  at  the  pre- 
sent day  no  technical,  but  only  a  literary 
sense,  and  means  a  solemn  service,  or 

1  The  Catholic  Directory,  familiar  to  English 
Catholics,  contains  bcsi'les  tlio  Ordo  .i  li^t  of 
clergy,  churches,  &c.  The  lirst  iiumlier  .if  the 
Laiti/s  Directory  (we  take  thr-c  tacts  linm  an 
inten  stini; article  by  Mr.  Thurston  in  the  Month 
for  Kebruarv  18X2)  .seems  to  have  appeared  iu 
1759.  It  was  followed  a  few  years  later  by 
another  directory  published  with  ecclesiastical 
approbation,  and  this  latter,  after  178H  was  the 
sole  directory.  In  179,3  the  list  of  Catholic 
churches  in  London  was  i;iven  for  tlie  first  time. 
A  book  with  the  title  Cathnllv  Directory  was 
])ubli.shed  in  ls:?7,  and  in  1839  became  the  sole 
Euiilish  directory. 


288 


DISCALCED 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SECRET 


part  of  a  service,  celebrated  on  behalf  of 
a  departed  soul.    Thus,  Sidney  has — 

Let  dirse  be  sung  and  trentals  rightly  read, 
For  love  is  dead. 

And  Gray,  in  the  well-known  Elegy — 
The  next,  with  dirges  due  in  sad  array, 
Slow  through  the  church-way  path  we  saw 
him  borne. 

Originally  the  word  was  spelt  "dirige," 
being  the  first  word  of  the  antiphon  at 
the  beginning  of  the  opening  psalm  (the 
5th)  of  the  first  nocturn  in  the  Office  for 
the  Dead.  The  entire  antiphon,  adapted 
from  the  ninth  Terse  of  the  psalm,  is 
"  Dirige,  Domine  Deus  meus,  in  conspectu 
tuo  viammeam."  Another  psalm  used  in 
the  same  office  has  the  antiphon  "  Placebo 
Domino."  Clerks  in  minor  orders,  and 
even  laymen,  used  to  be  commissioned 
by  rich  persons  to  sing  psalms  for  the 
souls  of  their  relatives,  and,  of  course,  re- 
ceived money  for  doing  so.  Thus,  Wil- 
liam Langlande  says  ("  Vision  of  Piers 
Plowman,"  Passus  vi.  C  text) — 

The  lomes  [limbs]  that  ioh  laboure  with  .  and 

lyflode  deserve, 
Ys  pater-nosfer  and  my  prymer  .  placebo  and 

dirige, 

And  my  tauter  [psalter]  som  tyme  .  and  my 

sevene  psalnies : 
Thus  ich  synge  for  hure  soules  .  of  suche  as  me 
helpen. 

When  the  psalm  had  come  to  be  called 
a  dirige,  the  term  dirige-money  naturally 
arose  for  the  payment  made  in  respect  of 
singing  it.  Thus  Tyndale  ("Obedience 
of  a  Christian  Man,"  quoted  in  Skeat's 
"  Specimens  "),  speaking  of  alleged  cleri- 
cal exactions,  says,  "  And  he  ...  .  pol- 
leth  on  his  parte,  and  fetteth  here  a 
massepeny,  there  a  trentall,  yonder 
dirige-money  and  for  his  beyde-roule." 

SXSCAIiCES.  Going  without  shoes 
— bare-footed.  Certain  orders  of  friars 
practise  this  austerity,  which  was  first 
introduced  among  the  Friars  Minors  of 
the  Strict  Observance  by  the  Blessed 
John  of  Gaudaloupe,  about  the  year 
1500.  The  Carmelite  reform  both  of 
men  and  women,  instituted  by  St.  Teresa, 
is  also  discalced.  The  discalced  Augus- 
tinians  (Hermits)  were  founded  by  Father 
Thomas  of  Jesus,  a  Portuguese,  about  the 
same  time.    (Helyot,  Dec/iausses.) 

DZSCIPXtZZrE.  The  word  disciplina 
means,  first,  instruction  ;  then  that  which 
is  taught — e.g.  science  or  doctrinal  sys- 
tem ;  lastly,  order  or  regulations  main- 
tained in  a  family,  army,  or  the  like. 
Usually,  discipline  in  its  ecclesiastical 
sense  signifies  the  laws  which  bind  the 


subjects  of  the  Church  in  their  conduct, 
as  distinct  from  dog-mas  or  articles  of 
faith,  which  atiect  their  belief. 

Such  disciplinary  laws  may  be  of 
divine  institution,  attested  by  Scripture 
or  Apostolic  tradition,  and  in  that  case 
they  are  inalterable.  For  example,  the 
supremacy  of  the  Pope  over  the  whole 
Church,  the  government  of  the  faithful 
by  bishops,  and  many  similar  points  of 
discipline  were  settled  once  for  all  by 
divine  authority  and  cannot  be  changed. 
The  Church,  however,  has  power  to  add 
I  disciplinary  laws  according  to  the  require- 
:  ments  of  different  times  and  circum- 
i  stances,  and  these  laws  all  Christians 
whom  they  concern  are  bound  to  obey. 
The  Church  has  this  power,  not  only 
because  it  belongs  to  any  well-constituted 
community,  but  also  because  she  speaks 
in  the  name  of  Him  to  whom  all  power 
has  been  given  in  heaven  and  on  earth; 
and  the  Church,  having  the  right  to 
make  such  laws,  has  also  the  power  to 
alter  them.  If  they  have  been  imposed 
by  a  Pope  or  council,  or  have  become  in 
any  other  way  part  of  the  general  law  of 
the  Church,  supreme  authority  may  relax 
or  annul  them,  and  on  the  same  principle 
bishops  or  other  local  superiors  may 
j  change  laws  made  by  themselves  or  their 
predecessors. 

Thus  the  discipline  of  the  Church 
may  alter  and  has  altered  from  age  to 
age.  At  one  time  married  persons  were 
allowed  to  enter  holy  orders  ;  this  is  no 
longer  the  case  in  the  Latin  Church. 
The  ceremonies  of  Mass  have  been  pra- 
duaUy  perfected.  New  feasts  have  been 
introduced ;  the  severity  of  fiists  has  been 
mitigated.  At  this  day,  the  discipline  of 
one  place  may  differ  in  important  parti- 
culars from  that  which  prevails  in  an- 
other. But  the  infallibiUty  of  the  Church 
is  our  security  that  she  will  never  sanc- 
tion discipline  contrary  to  sound  faith  or 
m.orals,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  ani- 
mates her,  wiU  provide  that  all  things  be 
ordered  sweetly  and  wisely,  as  time  and 
place  require. 

DZSCZPX.XM-E  OF  THE  SECRET 
{diticipUna  nrrrmi).  The  term  i»  not 
found  in  ancient  writers,  and  first  occurs 
in  a  German  author,  Meier,  who  made 
use  of  it  in  a  treatise  "  De  ReconcUta 
EcclesiaB  Theologla,"  published  at  Helm- 
stadt  in  1677.*  It  has  been  in  common 
use  ever  since,  as  a  convenient  name  for 
the  custom  which  prevailed  in  the  early 
1  Probst,  Kircldiche  Disciplin  in  den  drei 
ersten  christlichen  Jalirhunderten,  p.  306. 


DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SECRET      DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SECEET  289 


Cliurcb  of  concealing  from  the  heathen  and  I 
catechumens  the  more  sacred  and  mys-  ' 
teriou*  doctrines  and  rites  of  the  Catholic 
religion,  either  by  not  mentioning:  them 
at  all  or  by  mentioning  them  only  in 
enigmatical  languagf,  unintelligible  or 
even  misleading  except  to  those  who 
were  initiated  into  its  meaning.  The 
reader  will  sec  on  a  moment's  considera- 
tion the  dogmatic  and  controversial  im- 
portance of  the  matter.  Little  stress  can 
be  laid  on  the  infrequent  mention  of  the 
real  presence,  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity 
and  the  like  in  early  writers,  if  the  exist- 
ing discipline  restrained  them  from  speak- 
ing openly  on  such  subjects  in  books 
which  might  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
general  public  :  and  the  same  discipline 
may  help  to  explain  the  fact  that  they 
sometimes  express  themselves  on  the 
Christian  mysteries  in  language  which 
seems  strange  and  inadequate  to  us. 

There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  as 
to  the  fact  that  this  discipline  of  the 
secret  did  exist  in  the  early  Chiirch.  It 
arose  from  several  causes.  In  times  of 
persecution  the  Christians  were  afraid  to 
speak  openly  and  frankly  about  their 
worship  and  doctrine,  from  the  natural 
fear  that  such  disclosures  would  e.xpose 
them  to  further  injury  and  interruption. 
Moreover,  they  regarded  the  truth  as  a 
sacred  deposit,  and  they  were  afraid  of 
communicating  it  to  those  who  would 
misunderstand  it  or  laugh  it  to  scorn. 
They  were  mindful  of  our  Lord's  admoni- 
tion not  to  cast  pearls  before  swine 
(Matt.  vii.  6)  and  of  the  Apostle's  decla- 
ration that  he  fed  the  Corinthians  with 
milk,  not  with  strong  meat,  because  they 
were  not  able  to  bear  it.  A  few  instances 
will  be  enough  to  prove  the  point  and  at 
the  same  time  to  illustrate  the  nature  of 
the  discipline  in  question.  "That  it 
existed  even  as  a  rule,"  says  Cardinal 
Newman,^  "  with  respect  to  the  Sacra- 
ments, seems  to  be  confessed  on  all 
hands."  It  is  well  known  that  the  hea- 
thens and  catechumens  were  not  allowed 
to  be  present  at  the  whole  of  the  Mass, 
and  that  a  distinction  was  made  between 
the  Mass  of  the  faithful  and  the  Mass  of 
the  catechumens.-  Again,  Minucius  Felix, 
Athenagoras,  Tatian,  Theophilus,  Amo- 
bius,  in  their  Apologies  for  the  Christian 
religion  pre^erv^•  an  absolute  silence  on 
the  holy  Eucharist.  The  famous  inscrip- 
tion discovered  at  Autun  in  18-"30  exem- 
plifies another  mode  in  which  this  disci- 

'  Deietopment.  p.  "27. 
*_C>nstit.  Ai»:ft.  ii.  57. 


pline  was  observed.  "Take  the  food 
sweet  as  honey  of  the  saviour  of  the  holy 
ones,  eat  and  drink  holding  the  fish  in 
thy  hands  " — words  perfectly  intelligible 
to  Christians,  among  whom  the  "fish" 
meant  "Jesus  Christ  Son  of  God,  the 
Saviour"  ('I^^vj  = 'l^trory  X^toror  6(ov 
vlbs  <Tci3Tfjfj),  received  first  in  the  hands, 
then  in  the  mouth  of  the  communicant, 
but  mere  jargon  to  those  who  were  out- 
side the  Church.  So,  again,  Origen ' 
speaks  of  the  soul  on  its  conversion  to 
the  Church  as  initiated  into  the  "  mys- 
teries of  the  faithful  "  {sarramenta  ^fide- 
Hum,  an  expression  which  must  include 
the  sacraments),  "which  those  know  who 
are  initiated :  "  and,  again,  "  of  those 
venerable  and  sublime  mysteries  which 
those  know  who  may  be  pennitted  to  do 
so."  ^  Even  when  persecution  was  over, 
the  secrecy  with  regard  to  the  sacraments 
was  still  maintained.  Chrysostom  in  a 
letter  to  Pope  Innocent  I.  tells  him  how 
"the  blood  of  Christ  bad  been  spilt" 
during  a  tumult  in  a  church  of  Constan- 
tinople. In  such  a  letter  no  caution  in 
language  was  called  for.  But  his  bio- 
grapher Palladius  in  a  published  book 
says  "they  overturned  the  symbols."' 
At  a  .synod  held  at  Antioch  in  340  the 
Catholic  bishops  indignantly  accuse  the 
Arians  of  letting  catechumens,  and  even 
heathens,  hear  the"  mysteries  "discussed.'' 
That  this  discipline  existed  "  in  other 
respects  is  plain  from  the  nature  of  the 
case,  and  from  the  writings  of  the  Apolo- 
gists. Minucius  Felix  and  Amobius,  in 
controversy  whb  papms,  imply  a  denial 
that  they,  the  Christians,  used  altai-s ; 
yet  Tertullian  speaks  expressly  of  the 
Ara  Dei  in  the  church.  What  can  we 
say  but  that  the  Apologists  deny  altars 
in  the  sense  in  which  they  ridicule  them, 
or  that  they  deny  that  altars  such  as  the 
pagan  altars  were  tolerated  by  Christians  ? 
And  in  like  manner  Minucius  allows  that 
there  were  no  temples  among  Christians  : 
yet  they  are  distinctly  recognised  in  the 
edicts  of  the  Dioclesian  era,  and  ara 
known  to  have  existed  at  a  still  earlier 
date."* 

It  has  been  already  shown  incidentally 
that  the  discipline  of  the  secret  is  based 
on  Scriptural  precept,  and  was  in  force 
at  least  from  the  close  of  the  second 
century.     Even  Ignatius  may  perhaps 

1  Horn.  viii.  n.  4.  in  Exod. 
'-  In  Jos.  Horn.  iv. :  "  quos  nosse  fas  est." 
5  Uiillinijer.  Lehre  der  Eucharistie,  p.  15. 
*  I'M.  p.  13. 

5  Xew  ni.m.  Development,  p.  27. 

U 


200  ])ISPEXSATIOX 


DISPENSATION 


linve  had  it  in  view  -when  he  describes 
the  Chrititians  r>{  Ephesiis  as  "  initiated 
along  with  St.  Paul."  '  It  -was  enforced 
with  different  deizTees  of  btrictiiess  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  Sunu'times,  to 
mt'Ot  the  calmnnips  (if  heatlien  and  more 
])articularly  of  hi'n>tics,  it  was  ncci'ssary 
to  s))t'ak  out,  so  tliat  it  does  i\ot  IMlow, 
because  Justin  and  Irena^us  e.\i)ress  tliem- 
selves  with  considerable  fulness  on  the 
Eucharist,  that  the  discipline  of  the 
secret  was  unknown  to  them.  After  the 
sixth  century  the  need  for  the  old  re- 
.i^erve  pas.sed  away.  (Schelstrate,  "  De 
Disciplina  Arcani,"  Itonue,  1685;  Probst, 
"  Kirchliche  I)i,-(  i]iliii."  Xi-  ,  part  iii.  c.  2.) 

DZSPENSATION.  The  relaxation 
of  a  law  in  a  particular  case.  The  neces- 
sity ot  dis])fnsation  arises  from  the  fact 
that  a  law  which  is  niiule  for  the  general 
on;i(|  niav  not  lie  beneficial  in  this  or  that 
special  case,  ;ind  therefore  may  be  rightly 
relaxed  with  respect  to  an  individual, 
while  it  continues  to  bind  the  community. 
Itispensation  must  be  carefully  dis- 
tingui>lieil  t'roni  the  interpretation  of  a 
law,  tlioueli  the  two  are  often  confused 
with  one  another  in  common  sjieech. 
Thus,  a  ]ier>on  ,-o  ill  that  he  cannot  fast 
withoul  >ei-iou-  injuryto  liis  liealth  needs 
no  (h-]ieiisai  ioii,  hecause  he  is  by  the 
nature  ol  I  he  ca>e  excused  from  the  law. 
t)n  the  other  hand,  though  he  may  he 
able  to  fast,  his  health,  occuji.il  imi-,  \  i 
maynialie  it  suitable  that  the  l.iw  should 
lie  relaxed  in  hi>  favour:  for  this  purjiose 
a  dispeiisiii  j,in  is  iei|uired,  and  he  must 
a]i]il\'  to  sDuic  line  possessed  of  autluirity 
to  er.int  it.  Anyone  may  inler]iret  tlie 
law  who  has  sutHcient  knowleijMV  and 
inqiartialily  to  do  so,  but  juiisdict  ion  is 
needed  in  oi'dei'  to  dispense. 

The  general  ]irincl]ile  is  that  the  law- 
gi\er,  iVoin  \\honi    the   hiw  derives  its 

K  sujierior  111,1V  lel.ix  the  laws  of  his 
predeces.ui-s,  hecause  his  jiower  is  e(jual 
to  theirs,  or  ,,f  his  inferiors,  because  his 
]i.  ,  r  1-  Li  i'eater.  But  an  inferior  cannot 
(lisjieiise  111  tlie  laws  of  his  superiors 
unless  by  ]iower  delegated  to  him  for 
that  end.' 

Ciod  Himself  cannot  give  a  dispensa- 
tion, ill  ihe  strict  sense  of  I  he  word,  from 
thenalur.il  law.  "  I'roiii  t  he  precejit  s  of 
till-  ilecalo-ii.',"  says  Si.  Thomas,  ■'  no 
dis]ieiisalion  of  what  soever  kind  can  he 
given,"  and  to  the  objection  that  (ioil 
who  made  the  ten  commaiidnients  can 
unmake  them,  he  re]>lies,  (iod  would 
1  Ad  Efihes.  xii. 


deny  Himself  if  he  did  away  with  the 
order  of  his  justice,  since  He  is  identical 
with  His  own  justice,  and  therefore  God 
cannot   give  a  dispensation  making  it 
lawful  for  a  man  to  neglect  the  due  order 
to  God,  or  exenqiting  him  from  sub- 
mission to  tlie  order  of  His  justice  even 
in  those  things  which  concern  the  re- 
lations of  men  to  eacli  othi'r." '  God, 
however,  can  change  the  circumstar.ces 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  case  no  longer 
falls  under  the  law.    He  could,  for  ex- 
ample, as  supreme  Lord  and  proprietor  of 
all,  make  over  the  goods  of  the  Egyptians 
!  to  the  Israelites,  so  that  the  latter  could 
j  take  them  without  committing  robbeiy. 
He  could,  as  the  Lord  of  all  that  lives, 
I  deprive  Isaac  of  life  and  make  Abraham 
the  executioner.    Further,  just  as  a  man 
may  remit  a  debt,  so  God  may  free  a 
'  man  from  the  obligation  incurred  to  Him 
I  by  oath  or  vow.     I^astly,  God  can  of 
course  dispense  from  the  positive  law 
i  which  He  has  im])osed — e.y.  He  could 
have  dis])ensed  a  .Tew  from  the  law  of 
circumcision,  the  Sabbath,  &c.    We  may 
now  pass  on  to  consider  the  actual  law  of 
the  Church  on  dispensations. 

The  Pope  can  dispense  from  obUga- 
tions  to  God  which  a  man  has  incurred 
of  his  own  fi-ee  will — i.e.  bj'oath  or  vow. 
This  power  belongs  to  liim  as  the  suc- 
cessor of  St.  Peter,  to  whom  Christ  gave 
!  tlie  poAver  of  binding  and  loosing.  He 
can  also  dispense  in  all  matters  of  eccle- 
siastical law.  Bishops,  by  their  ordinaiy 
j  power,  can  dispense  from  the  statutes  of 
j  the  diocesan  synods,  &c.,  and  they  can 
1  (lis])eiise  indixiduals  from  tlie  general 
law  -  ot'  the  ( 'hull  h,  or  fi'om  obligations 
miller  which  they  have  ])laced  themselves 
to  (iod,  in  such  cases  as  frequently 
occur  —  e.g.  in  most  vows,  in  fasts, 
alistinences,  observance  of  feasts,  kc. 
But  by  i-eason  of  privih-ge,  hTwful  custom 
or  necessity.  I  he  .li-jieii-lnn-  power  of  the 
liisliop  i-  ol'ii  II  e,\teii(hMl.  Custom  has 
also  given  ]iaiash  ])riests  power  to  dis- 
pense individuals  from  fa.sts,  abstinences, 
abstinence  from  servile  work  on  feasts, 
and  the  like.  As  a  rule,  a  person  who 
has  received  power  to  dispense  from  a 
sujierior  by  delegation  cannot  sub- 
delegate. 

A  reason  is  always  needed  before  a 

1  St.  Thorn,  la  2„,,  qu.  100,  a.  8.  The 
opiaieii  of  ( ii-cani.  D'Ailly,  and  Gerson  that  Goit 
ruulil  iiis|ic?i>e  t'rmi)  the  procepts  of  the  (leoal"i:ne 
lias  Iim-  licoii  aban  Imii'd.  The  Scotists  ho  il 
that  God  ooulil  dispon.<e  from  the  precepts  ot  (lie 
second  table  except  that  against  lying. 


DIVINATION 


DIVORCE  291 


dispensation  can  be  lawfully  giTen.  If 
,1  superior  dispenses  witliout  cause  in  his 
own  law  or  in  that  of  an  inferior,  the 
dispensation,  though  unlawful,  is  valid. 
If,  however,  an  inferior  to  whom  dis- 
pensing' power  has  been  delfgatt-d  uses  it 
without  reason,  the  dispensation  is  null 
and  void.  In  all  cases  it  is  taken  for 
granted  that  a  dispensation  is  only  given 
on  the  tacit  condition  that  the  statements 
of  the  person  who  petitions  for  it  are 
true.  Concealment  or  falsehood  in  au 
essential  matter  affecting  the  motive 
which  induced  the  superior  to  dispense, 
renders  the  dispensation  null. 

A  dispensation  ceases  if  recalled;  if 
it  is  renounced  and  the  renunciation  is 
accepted  by  the  superior;  also,  in  certain 
cases,  if  the  cause  for  which  the  dis- 
pensation was  given  no  longer  exists. 
AVhat  those  cases  are  it  is  not  so  easy  to 
determine.  According  to  Suarez,  a  dis- 
pensation from  one  single  obligation — 
e.g.  a  vow — continues  even  when  the 
cause  for  which  it  was  granted  is  there 
no  longer,  provided  the  dispensation  has 
been  accepted  and  used  before  the  cause 
ceased.  On  the  contrary,  dispens.it ions 
which  virtually  relax  a  series  of  obliga- 
tions— e.(j.  from  fasting  each  day  in  Lent 
— expire  with  tlie  cause  which  induced 
the  superior  to  grant  them. 

DXVZM'ATIon'.  Inquiring  after 
hidden  things  or  things  to  come  by  undue 
means — that  is,  by  means  not  instituted 
by  God.  To  search  after  the  unknmvn  is 
in  itself  most  laudable.  But  the  vulgar 
and  the  wicked,  not  satistied  with  the 
limits  imposed  by  science  and  revelation, 
seek  to  discover  wliat  is  beyond  their 
reach,  or  make  use  of  unlawful  means  to 
find  out  what  may  otherwise  be  known. 
Events  which  have  not  yet  come  to  pass 
can  be  known  beforehand  only  when  they 
are  the  necessary  ellects  of  causes  already 
known.  Thus,  an  eclipse  can  be  foretold 
because  the  motions  of  the  earth,  sun,  and 
moon  are  necessary,  and  are  known  to  us. 
Future  free  acts  can  be  known  with  cer- 
tainty only  to  Him  in  whose  sight  they  are 
really  present.  We  may,  indeed,  make 
fairly  accurate  calcidations  as  to  how  an 
individual,  and  especially  a  number  of 
individuals,  will  act ;  but  we  can  do  no 
more  by  natural  power.  God  can  reveal 
future  free  actions;  any  other  mode  of 
inquiry  will  savour  of  divination.  Tlie 
usual  forms  of  such  inquiry  are  either 
a  direct  or  indirect  ajipeal  to  diaboli- 
cal agenc}-,  or  attributing  superhuman 
powos  to  animals  or  things.  Necromancy 


(consulting  the  dead),  auguries,  omens, 
and  lots  are  familiar  instances.  We 
must,  however,  carefully  note  that  what 
at  first  sight  looks  like  divination  may 
turn  out  to  be  a  lawlul  form  of  inquiry. 
Thus  St.  Thomas  points  out  that  the 
behaviour  of  birds  and  other  auimals  is 
often  a  natural  sign  of  events  to  come, 
e.g.  the  cawing  of  crows  is  a  sign  of  rain. 
As  to  lots,  he  observes  that  there  is  no 
harm  in  to>sing  (casting  lots  to  decide  a 
dispute),  provided  tliat  no  knowledge  is 
attributed  to  the  objects  themselves  and 
that  no  appeal  is  made  to  the  Evil  One. 
He  says,  too,  tliat  "  if  there  is  need,  it  is 
lawful  with  all  due  reverence  to  seek  the 
ju  Igment  of  God  by  lots  "  (2*  i^,  q.  xcv. 
'a.  8). 

For  ordeals,  see  Judicitjji  Dei.  As 
to  astrology,  we  should  distinguish  the 
natural  action  of  the  heavenly  bodies  from 
the  action  attributed  to  them  by  supersti- 
tion. Indirectly  these  bodies  exert  great 
influence  on  human  conduct.  Although 
God  has  been  pleased  at  times  to  make 
known  His  will  through  dreams,  it  is 
clearly  not  lawful  to  believe  in  them 
generally.  (See  Dreajis  ;  St.  Thomas,  2» 
2«,  q.  xcv.) 

BXVORCS,  in  its  widest  sense,  sig- 
nifies a  separation  made  between  man 
and  wife  on  sufficient  grounds  and  by 
lawful  authority.  It  may  dissolve  the 
marriage  bond  altogether,  so  that  the 
nmn  or  woman  is  free  to  contract  a  fresh 
niarriiige  (separatio  quoad  imculum)  ;  or 
it  may  simply  relieve  one  of  the  parties 
from  the  obligation  of  living  with  the 
other  {separatio  quoad  torum  et  mensam). 

Xo  human  power  can  dissolve  the 
bond  of  maiTiage  when  ratified  and  con- 
summated between  baptised  persons.  But 

(1)  The  marriage  bond  may  be  dis- 
solved, even  between  baptised  persons, 
by  Papal  authority,  if  the  marriage  has 
not  been  consummated.  Such  at  least 
is  the  common  doctrine  of  canonists  and 
theologians;  nor  does  Billuart,  m  ho  holds 
the  ()])j)osite  opinion,  deny  that  such 
divorces  have  been  granted  bv  Martin  V., 
Paid  HI.,  Pius  IV.,  and  Greyorv  XHI. 

(2)  It  may  be  diss<dved  in  similar 
circumstances  by  the  solemn  religious 
profession  of  eitlier  j)arty.  This  point 
was  defined  at  Trent  (sess.  xxiv.  can.  6); 
the  principle  had  been  already  laid  down 
by  Innocent  III.,  who  ]irofe»'ed  to  follow 
the  i'\aniple  of  liis  priHlree^Mirs,  and  it 
i>  ju>tilii'd  by  til"  pxaiiiiilc  of  ancient 
saints,  who  lelt  tliei)-  brides  before  con- 
summation of  marriage  to  lead  a  life  of 


DOCET^ 


DOCTOR  OF  THE  CHURCn 


pei-petual  continence.  The  engagement 
by  which  they  bound  themselves  to  con- 
tinence may  be  considered  equivalent 
to  a  solemn  rehgious  profession  in  later 
times. 

(3)  If  two  unbaptised  persons  have 
contracted  marriage,  this  marriage,  even 
if  consunnnated  may  be  dissolved,  sup- 
posing one  of  the  parties  embraces  the 
Christian  religion  and  the  other  i-e fuses  to 
live  peaceably  and  without  insult  to  the 
Christian  religion  in  the  married  state. 
Th's  principle  i>  laid  down  bv  Innocent 
III.,  and  is  founded  on  the  "  dispensation 
of  the  Apostle,"  as  it  is  called,  in  1  Cor. 
Tii.  12-15. 

In  aU  other  cases  the  marriage  bond 
is  Indissoluble,  and,  be^ides  this,  married 
persons  are  bound  to  live  togethei-,  as 
man  and  wife.  They  may,  liowever, 
separate  by  mutual  cmisi  ut  ;  and,  a^'ain, 
if  one  party  e\]ii),-es  tlie  other  to  ^i-ave 
danger  of  body  or  soul,  (.r  eonimit^ 
adultery,  the  innocent  ]i;;;tiier  may  oK- 
tain  a  judicial  separation,  oi-  .'veii  retiise 
to  cohabit  without  waiting  tor  the  sen- 
tence of  the  iu'l'je.  ]no\  iilcil  alwavs  that 
the    offence    U    clearly    I'loNed.     If  the 

innocent  party  has  condoneil  the  adultery, 
the  right  of  separation  on  tlial  ground  Is 
forfeited — uidess,  of  course  the  olf.  nce  is 
repeated.  (From  BlUuart,  St.  Llguorl, 
Gury,  "  T)e  Matrlmonio.") 

DOCETa:  (from  SoKelv,  "  to  seem," 
because  they  attributed  to  Christ  an 
apparent  but  not  a  real  liumanlty)  were 
not  a  special  sect.  The  name  describes 
a  feature  common  to  the  doctrine  of  many 
early  here>ies — viz,  the  denial  that  Jesus 
Christ  ^\  a>  true  man.  The  name  occurs 
in  Theodoret,'  l>u1  the  tendency  whicli  It 
describes  dates  I'roiu  the  heresies  of  Ajios- 
tohctlnu's,  Th\is  Cerinthus  distinguished 
between  Christ  and  .Icsus:  the  latter,  he 
said,  was  a  mere  man,  born  in  the  natural 
way:  the  former,  an  ajon,  or  spiritual 
being,  who  descended  on  liira  at  his 
ba]itisni.  hut  al'ter\var<ls  to(dc  fliuht  an.l 
left  .Tesus  to  sudor  alone.  St.  John,  m 
his  first  hlpistlc  (iv. :.'),  alludes  to  a  ber.,-sy 
of  tliis  lund  in  the  words,  Every  sjiirit 
whicli  coiitesseth  that  Jesus  Christ  is 
come  in  the  Hesli  is  of  (rod;  and  every 
S])irit  which  dissolvetli  Jous  Is  not  of 
God."  It  is  because  ii[e  Cliurch  of  his 
time  was  in  C"nllict  wiili  ihi.-  form  of 
error  that  St,  Ign.alius  insists  so  strenu- 
ously on  the  reality  of  the  Incarnation  in 
opposition  to  those  who  said  Christ's 
"  sufferings  are  visionary,  being  them- 
1  See  Petav.  De  Incarnat.  ad  init. 


I  selves  visionary." '  This  Docetic  tendency 
'  was  further  developed  by  Marcion,  who 
I  maintained  that  Christ's  body  was  a  mere 
:  phantom.^  The  error  of  the  Docetas,  in  a 
'  modified  form,  was  revived  by  the  Apol- 
:  llnarists,  who  denied  the  reality  of  Christ's 
'  human  soul,  and  by  the  Eutychlans,  who 
1  represented  His  humanity  as  absorbed  m 
the  divine  nature. 

DOCTOR  A»rcx:x.zcvs.  The  name 
given  to  St.  Thomas  of  Aquin.  Ruys- 
broch  was  called  Ecstaticus  ;  St.  Bernard, 
Melllfluus :  Alexander  of  Hales,  Irre- 
f ragabills ;  Durandus  (de  Sancto  Porciano), 
Resolutissimus ;  St.  Buonaventura,  Se- 
raphlcus ;  Occam,  Singularis ;  Henry  of 
Ghent,  Solemnis  ;  Duns  Scotus,  Subtihs. 

DOCTOR  or  THE  CHTTRCH. 
Three  things,  says  Benedict  XF\'.,  are  re- 
quired to  make  a  Doctor  of  the  Church, 
First,  he  must  have  had  learning  so  emi- 
nent that  it  fitted  him  to  be  a  doctor  not 
only  in  the  Church  but  of  the  Chirrch 
("  doctor  Ipsius  ecclesise  ")  so  that  through 
him  "the  darkness  of  error  was  scattered, 
dark  things  were  made  clear,  doubts 
resolved,  the  difficulties  of  Scripture 
opened."  Next,  "he  must  have  shown 
heroic  sanctity.  Thirdly — though,  as  we 
shall  see  presently,  this  last  condition  has 
not  always  been  insisted  on — the  title  of 
"  Doctor  of  the  Chiuch  "  must  be  con- 
ferred by  a  declaration  of  the  Pope  or  of 
a  General  Council.  Four  Doctors  of  the 
Church  are  named  in  the  canon  law :  viz. 
Ambrose,  Augustine,  Jerome.  Gregory. 
Besides  these,  other  saints  enjoy  the  title 
j  and  cultus  due  to  a  Doctor  of  the  Church 
!  without  a  formal  declaration  of  Pope  or 
coiuicll.  Under  this  class  Benedict  XIV. 
puts  Chiy-ostom,  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
An>e1ni.  1-Mlore,  and  Peter  Chrysologus. 
lie  ;hM>  that  a  part  of  the  cultus  usually 
a-~iL;ia  d  to  doctors  is  given  to  St.  Hilary'' 
in  hose  oill<-e  are  the  gospel  and  prayer 
but  not  theantiphon,and  to  St.  Athauasius 
ami  St,  Basil,  who  have  only  the  antiphon 
hut  not  the  gospel  and  prayer,  proper  to 
doctors. 

Since  the  Reformation  the  title  of 
Doi  t  or  of  the  Church  has  been  conferred 
more  freely.  Plus  V.  added  St.  Thomas  of 
Aquin  to  the  list ;  Sixtus  V.,  St.  Buona- 
ventura. During  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  title  was  conferred  on  St.  Anselm. 

'  rh  SoKfiv  irfWovBevai  ainhv,  avrol  Surfs  rb 
S0K(7y.    Ad  Trull.  10. 

-  Tfi-fnll.  De  Carrie  Christi.  cap.  i. 

5  I'ius  IX.  gave  Hilary  the  title  of  Doctor, 
and  now.  of  course,  the  aniiphon  '■  0  Doctor is 
recited  in  his  office. 


DOGMA. 


DOGMA  203 


St.  Isidore,  and  St.  Leo.  Pius  VIII.  : 
pive  the  title  to  S  .  Ucrnurd  ;  Pius  IX. 
to  St.  Hilary,  St.  Alphon.«us  Liguori, 
Hiul  St.  Francis  of  Sales.  (Chiefly  from 
Benedict  XIV.  "De  Canoniz."  lib.  iv. 
p.  L>.  eap.  n,  12.) 

DOGMA,  in  its  theological  sense,  is 
a  truth  contained  in  the  AVord  of  God, 
written  or  unwritten — i.e.  in  Scripture  or 
tradition — and  proposed  hv  the  Church 
for  the  behef  of  the  faithful.  Thu.> 
dogma  is  a  revealed  triitli,  >ince  Scripture 
is  inspired  by  the  Holy  ({liost,  while 
tradition  signifies  the  truths  which  the 
Apostles  received  from  Christ  and  the 
Holv  Spirit,  and  handed  down  to  the 
Church. 

The  word  itself  has  an  interesting 
history.  In  classical  writers  it  has  three 
distinct  senses  connected  with  its  deriva- 
tion from  S0K611',  "  t"  seem."  It  means, 
accordingly,  that  which  seems  good  to 
the  individual — i.e.  an  opinion:  that 
which  .seems  good  to  legitiiii;itc  autlioi-ity 
— i.e.  the  resolution  of  a  pulilic  ii--('iiiljly, 
or,  in  other  words,  a  dccr^'c:  lastly,  it 
acquired  a  peculiar  .-eiise  in  the  philosophic 
schools.  The  nipi-i'  word  of  some  philo- 
sopher {e.ff.  of  Pythagoras)  was  considered 
authoritative  with  his  clisci])les  ;  and  so 
Cicero, in  the  Acailemic  (^lui-i ions,  ^pealis 
of  "decrees,"  or  iloitnms.  •■which  the 
philosophers  call  dogmata,  none  of  which 
can  be  surrendered  without  crime. In 
the  LXX  and  New  Testament,  the  word 
retains  the  second  of  the  two  of  the  .senses 
given  above.  Thus,  in  Daniel  ii.  13,  iii. 
10,  in  Luc.  ii.  1,  xvii.  7,  it  is  used  of  de- 
crees proceeding  from  the  State.  Tn 
Ephes.  ii.  15,  Coloss.  ii.  14,  it  sleniHes 
the  Mosaic  ordinances,  and  in  Act  -  xvi.4 
{poyfiara  ra  KeKpififi'o)  the  di-ci]i]marv 
decrees  issued  by  the  A]io>tolic  (  \iun(  il 
at  Jeru.salem.  Nowlieiv  in  the  New 
Testament  does  it  bear  the  sense  in 
which  theologians  emjdoy  it.' 

This  sense  sprang  from  the  third  of 
the  chissical  meanings  given  above — viz. 
that  of  a  truth  acce])ted  on  the  authority 
of  a  philosopher.  The  Pythagoreans  ac- 
cepted tenets,  which  if  true  admitted  of 
proof,  on  the  authority  of  their  master. 
Christians,  better  instructed,  accepted 
truths  beyond  the  reach  of  unaided  reason 
which  had  been  revealed  by  Christ  to  His 
Church.  These  truths  they  called  dogmas. 
We  hud  the  earliest  trace  of  this  techni- 

'  The  list  of  New  Testament  p  issases  ^iven 
in  the  text  is  exhau.^t  ive,  except  that  Lacli- 
mann  reads  rh  Sd-v/io  tov  0a(n\fuis.  the  Jeciee  of 
King  Pharao,  in  Heb.  xi.  23. 


cal  sense,  still  imperfectly  developed,  in 
St.  Ignatius,  "Magn."  13 :—"  Use  all  zeal 
to  be  established  in  the  doctrines  (fV 
Tois  HoyiiaiTiv)  of  the  Lord  and  the 
Apostles."'  In  later  Fathers  the  word 
occurs  in  its  precise  theological  nii'auing. 
Thus,  St.  Basil  mentions  '■  the  dogma 
of  Christ's  Divuiity "  (t6  rfjs  dfoXnylas 
(Soy/xa)  ;  Chrysostom,  "  the  dogmas 
(Soy^iara)  of  the  Church ; "  Vincent  of 
Lerins,  "the  ancient  dogmas  (doi/mr/fn) 
of  heavenly  pliilosophy."  -  This  last 
illustrates  the  origin  of  the  theological 
term. 

From  the  definition  with  which  we 
began  it  follows  that  the  Church  has  no 
power  to  make  new  dogmas.  It  is  her 
office  to  contend  for  the  faith  once  de- 
livered, and  to  hand  down  the  sacred 
deposit  which  she  has  received  without 
adding  to  it  or  tahing  from  it.  At  the 
same  time,  the  Church  may  enniiciate 
fully  and  impose  dogmas  or  articles  of 
faith  contained  in  the  Word  iif  God,  or 
at  least  deduced  from  prinei])le>  so  con- 
tained, but  as  yet  not  fully  deelared  and 
imposed.  Hence  with  regard  to  a  new 
detinition — such,  e.r/.,  as  that  of  Traiisub- 
stantiation,  Christians  havi-  a  twofold 
duty.  They  are  obliged  to  believe,  first, 
that  the  doctrine  so  defined  is  true,  and 
ne.\t  that  it  is  part  of  the  Christian  reve- 
lation receixed  by  the  Apostles.  Again, 
no  Christian  is  at  Uberty  to  refuse  assent 
to  any  dogma  which  the  Church  pro]ioses. 
To  do  so  inv(dves  nothing  less  than  ship- 
wreck of  the  faith,  and  no  Catholic  can 
accept  the  Protestant  distinction  bet-w  een 
"  fundamental  and  non-fundamental 
articles  of  faith."  It  is  a  matter  of 
fundamental  importance  to  accept  the 
\\  hole  of  the  Church's  teaching.  True,  a 
( 'atholic  is  not  bound  to  know  all  the 
definitions  of  the  Church — but,  if  he 
knowingly  and  wilfully  contraclicts  or 
doubts  the  truth  of  any  one  among  them, 
he  ceases  to  be  a  Catholic. 

This  arbitrary  distinction  between 
essential  and  non-essential  articles  has 
led  by  natural  consequence  to  the  opinion 
that  dogmatic  belief,  as  such,  ni.it  ;ers 
little  provided  a  man's  lilV-is  vii-tuou-  and 
hisfeeUngs  are  devout.  Areli-ion  ,1'  this 
kind  is  on  the  very  face  of  it  dlih.rent 
from  the  rehgion  of  the  Apostles  and 

1  See  also  Baruah.  Ep.  1,  rp'ia  oZv  SSyfuna. 
ivriv  Kvp'iov,  wlioie  the  old  Latin  versieu  has 
"  constiMitiiHii's." 

Basil.  Oral.  iv.  In  //^ i«e«i.;  Chrysost.,  la 
Oulut.  cap.  1,  apud  Kiilin.  Jimpmitih,  vol.  i. 
p.  liU. 


294    DOGMATTO  TTIEOLOOY 

their  succes^di-,-..  St.  Taul  nual  li.  niat  ise.s 
false  teachers,  iiiul  bids  (li>fiiili'>  >huii 
heretics;  St.  John  denouiu'cs  tin-  di'iiial 
of  tlie  Incarnation  as  a  mark  < if  Antichrist. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  quote  the  utter- 
ances of  the  early  Fathers  on  this  mutter, 
which  has  been  already  treated  in  the 
article  on  the  Church,  liut  we  may  refer 
the  reader  to  tlie  ^tril':iii^  di-i  iission  of 
the  subject  in  ("ardiiial  X.'N\iuairs  licnk 
on  "Development,"  eli.  Mi.  -eel,  1,  §  5. 
"We  will  only  remark  in  eonehision  that 
it  is  unreasonable  to  make  liiiht  of  ihin- 
matic  truth,  unless  it  can  lie  siiown  tliat 
there  is  no  such  thinp-  in  existence.  If 
God  has  made  a  revelation,  tlien  both 
duty  and  devotional  feelino-  must  depend 
on  the  dogmas  of  that  revelation,  and  be 
reoulated  by  them. 

SOGMATIC  THEOI.OGY  is  the 
scieuee  of  ('hrisrian  doeiua.  It  treats  of 
doctrine  -^y-lematically,  regarding  the 
doctrine  (if  the  Church  as  a  whole,  and 
considering  each  article  of  faith  in  con- 
nection with  others  which  are  either  allied 
to  or  seem  to  contradict  it.  It  ^iroves  the 
doctrines  of  the  Church  from  Scrijitui-e 
and  tradition,  illustrates  tlieni  liv  natiinl 
analogies  and  jioints  out  that,  thmi^jli  t  hey 
cannot  be  demonstrated  from  reasnn,  t liey 
are  in  harmony  with  it.  It  answers 
objections  drawn  from  ]ihilosi i]ihy  and 
other  seii'iices,  and  above  all  deduces 
theological  coiis.Mjuences  from  tlie  truths 
of  faith.  It  is  hard  to  distinguish  clearly 
a])oloiietic  or  conlna-ersial  and  ]iositive 
theologv  on  th.'  one  hau.l  from  dngnialic 
theol<i-v  on  the  other.  C..11I  rover-ial 
theologians  defen.l  the  faith  aeain.-t  in- 
fideU  au.l  her-ru-s;  ],ositl\e  theojogv  in- 
vestiLiati'-  the  ]ii'o(il's  of  (.'alliolic  doctrine 
in  Sei-i]iture  and  tradition;  Imt  all  this 
mav  he  >aid  of  ilogmatic  theolon-y  also. 
Th't'  distinction  between  them  s'eems  to 
lie  in  thi'  fu-t  that,  though  dogmatic 
theology  does  occujiy  itself  with  thi'Se 
matter,s,  they  do  not' form  the  whole  or 
even  the  ])riii.-ipal  ])art  of  its  siiljject 
matler.  The  M-lematlc  ]ire>entation  of 
docfi-lne.  the  ,.\hihition  of  the  r.dalions 
Itetweeii  faith  and  ry.-isou,  t he  appi ic.-i t  ion 

comdusions  from  |ii'emisses  given  paitlv 
I)V  ])hiIoso]ihv,  )iaitl\  hv  re\i'latioii  this 

is     the     chief    hll>Ine>s   'of     the  doe„latic 

theologian.  The  ,-e<t,  Ih-illgh  of  capital 
importance  in  itself,  ]Mi-~e~s.>  milv  a 
secondary  interest  foi-  hiui. 

^  In  the  ,-a7-ly  ag-~  of  th..  Church  the 
chief  doctrines  of  the  fiith  we]-e  precisely 
stated  and  formally  defined  ;  but  little 


DOGMATIC  THEni.OGY 

was  done  directly  for  dogmatic  theologry. 
The  early  Fathers  had  to  contend  with 
pei'secution,  and  what  leisure  they  had 
was  mostly  spent  in  atteni]its  to  recom- 
mend the  faith  to  heathens.  When  the 
hand  of  tlie  persecutor  was  stayed,  the 
great  contro\  ersies  071  th(>  Trinity,  on  the 
Incarnati<in,  on  grace  and  predestination, 
liegan,  and  the  (diampions  of  the  faith 
wi'Vi'  as  a  rule  much  too  busy  in  stating 
and  did'ending  the  great  verities  of  reve- 
lation to  think  of  expounding  them  sys- 
tematically. Then  came  the  bai'barian 
incursions  in  the  "We-t,  tlie  Mohammedan 
CO}Kiuests  in  the  Iv-ist  ;  ,and  the  Latin 
Church  wa-  oi-cupied  In  the  work  of  con- 
A'erting  and  eivili>ing  the  new  iii.isters  of 
"Western  Fnrojie.  It  was  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  middle  ages,  when  the  fiith, 
already  dehned  and  fixed,  enjoyed  a 
siqu'emacy  such  as  it  has  never  known 
before  or  since,  that  the  nreat  dogmatic 
tlieologians  lived.  After  the  fall  of 
Constantinople  Greek  leainiuL;  spre.-id  in 
the  West.  Christian  anti(| uity  was  more 
studied  and  better  understooil,  and  bvall 
this  of  cours..  the.ilogy  gamed  inimeu>ely. 
iliil  to  .a  great  extent  dooniatic  theohigy 
Mlll'ered  by  the  diversion  of  interest  to 
Si  riptnral  and  historical  criticism  ;  and 
a  century  later  the  gTeat  Protestant 
re\olt  gav(>  an  increasing  importance  to 
conti-o\('r>ial  as  di-tinct  iVom  dooniatic 

tlle,,louv. 

We'  have  alreadv  indicated  the  divi- 
sion wlii,-h  we  >hall  ol,>erve  in  this 
article.  We  ,-liall  begin  liv  tracing  the 
lirst  .'s^ays  at  donnialic  th'eology  in  the 
Patristic  pei-iod,  jias-ing  next  to  the 
theologians  of  the  middle  ages,  and  con- 
cludinir  with  thfi-i'  of  moilei'u  times. 

I.  '  Pafnsfir  /',  /■/-.,/.-  As  has  been 
alreadv  hinted,  theri'  is  no  doginatic 
theologv,  ]n-o]ierl\'  >o  called,  during  this 
time,  so  that  it  ni'i'd  not  detain  lis  long. 
Many,  however,  among  the  Fathers  ( reat 
the  Christian  religion  in  a  ]ihi lo>o]ihic 
spii-it,  and  address  themselves  to  some  at 
least  among  the  \ai'ious  problems  of 
dogmatic  theology.  Thus  the  Apologists 
of  the  second  ami  third  ccntiii'ies  ti'V  to 
shew— often,  it  is  true,  in  a  verv  fim'aful 
wa-\"  that  the  ('liri>tian  reliLiion  is  in 
aLir-  ement  with  the  best  results  of  (4reek 
]ihiloso]ihy,  and  in  partictdar  with  the 
leaching  of  Plato.  Justin,  explains 
th.'  -npjiosed  fact  that  Cliristian  doctrines 
;irr  loiin.l  in  ( i  ivek  heathen  writers  partly 
on  the  tliroiy  iliat  all  men  ])a  rt  ic-ii  la  I  e  in 
the  illumination  of  the  Word,'  partly  on. 
'  ApnL  ii.  8. 


DOGMATIC  THEOLOGY 


DOGMATIC  THEOLOGY  i"J5 


the  assumption  that  the  Greeks  had 
boiTOwed  from  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Old  Testament.'  Clement  of  Alexandria 
reaches  a  higher  and  more  accurate  notion 
of  the  rehitions  between  dooiiia  and 
science.  The  most  important  of  his  work.';, 
the  "Stromata,"  is  meant  to  show  that  a 
Christian  may  do  more  than  believe  the 
faith  and  keep  the  commandments.  Be- 
yond the  ordinary  faith,  he  says,''  we 
may  reach  by  instruction  and  the  perfect 
observance  of  God's  law  a  knowledge 
which  is  the  "  perfection  of  man  as  man." 
To  a  certain  extent,  this  perfection  is  a 
moral  one,  and  so  far  does  not  concern  ns 
here.  But  Clement  also  makes  it  consist 
in  knowing  truth  with  peculiar  accuracy,'' 
in  the  abihty  to  "demonstrate"  it  ' and 
to  fathom  the  hidden  meanings  of  Scrip- 
ture, in  the  power  of  using  all  science 
and  learning  as  a  means  of  refuting  error 
and  conveying  to  others  exact  notions  of 
the  truth. °  The  great  Origeu,  in  his 
book  "  De  Principiis,"  makes  a  further 
advance,  and  really  sketches  out  the  plan 
of  a  (loiiniatic  system.  Ppealdng  of  the 
Church's  dogmas  he  says  :''  "  Tlirsc  must 
be  used  as  elements  and  loundatioiis  liy 
everyone  who  desires  to  form  a  certain 
order  and  sy.-teni,  by  considering  them 
all  to-rther,  so  that  he  may  form  evident 
and  necessary  propositions,  discover  the 
truth  on  each  jioint,  and,  as  we  have  said, 
make  one  system  out  of  the  examples  and 
propositions  which  he  finds  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  or  discovers  by  following  out 
things  to  their  logical  consequences."  It 
is  to  be  obseiTed,  liowever,  that  Origen 
ne\  iT  worked  out  the  plan  which  he  put 
l)el''Vr  liiii;-rU':  and,  In'-iib'S,  there  were 
inlifM-iit  (l.'tect^  in  iiis  mrthod,  which 
woulil  liav.'  l<i]it  liini  from  doing  so 
sucov->nillv.  Xor  (lid  later  Fathers  rea- 
lise the  ideal  which  Origen  had  before 
liini.  Of  course,  the  threat  Doctors  of  tlie 
Church  in  defending  Catholic  doctrine  on 
the  Trinity  and  Incarnation  incidentally 
supjiiied  abundance  of  mattrr  tor  tlic 
furtherance  of  systematic  and  sp.M-ulat ive 
theology.  Indeed,  St.  Aii^u.-t ine's  -writ- 
ings had  an  extraordinary  and  enduring 
influence  on  every  department  of  theo- 
logical science,  and  the  study  of  them 
was  the  great  means  of  theological  edu- 

1  AfMl.  i.  44. 

2  .*?/;■»;«.  vii.  10,  p.  864. 
S  III.  vii.  16.  p. 

*  //-.  vii.  10.  |i.  si;.-). 

Ih.  vi.  10,  |,|,.  :sO-781. 

Dc  Pn,,,;/,.  IVa-f.  n.  10.  The  work, 
cxfept  a  ffw  ff  Clients,  odIv  exis  s  in  the 
translation  ul  Rutinus. 


cation,  and  gave  the  strongest  impulse  to- 
scientific  j>rogress  during  the  middle 
ao-es.     lint  as  a  rule  the  Fathers  >np]ilied 

together.'  Still,  one  exception  at  least 
must  be  noted.  In  his  treatise  '•  De 
Trinitate,"  St.  Augustine  sets  himself  to 
resolve  the  historical  and  the  speculative 
difticidties  of  the  doctrine.  He  proves 
the  Nicene  doctrine  from  Scripture  and 
tradition  ;  tries  to  reconcile  the  belief  in 
a  Trinity  of  Persons  with  the  belief  in 
the  unity  of  God  ;  and  confirms  the  truth 
of  the  Catholic  doctrine  by  natural  ana- 
logies. In  the  ojiinion  of  competent 
judges  no  writing  of  the  early  ages  de- 
serves to  he  coiniiared  with  it  for  fulness, 
and  tli(ii'oui;liiie>s. 

11.  /'/'/<■  yr/in/,,sfic  Period. — Dogmatic 
theology  111  the  strict  sense  of  the  word, 
began  to  be  in  the  East,  long  before  it 
was  known  in  Western  Europe.  Zacha- 
rias  Scholasticus  and  John  Philoponus, 
in  the  sixth  century,  discussed  Christian 
doctrine  in  a  philosophic  spirit,  and  in 
the  first  half  of  the  following  century 
John  of  Damascus  brought  dogmatic 
theology  to  the  hl-llest  h'Vrd  which  it 
ever  reached  aiuone- the  Greeks.  He  was 
ac'juainie.l  with  the  logical  writings  of 
.Vri^toile.  and  Ml  acquired  the  philosophic 
training  iiecojary  for  a  theologian.  He 
was  well  read  in  the  Greek  Fathers  and 
familiar  with  the  .speculations  of  Pseudo- 
Dionysius.  Thus  equipped,  he  summed 
up  ail  the  theological  learning  of  his  day 
in  liis  great  work  entitled  the  "Fountain 
of  Wisdom "  (7r?;y7  ao<j)iai).  The  first 
part  contains  the  dialectic,  which  since 
the  Arian  controversies  had  been  the 
object  of  increasing  attention  in  the 
Church,  and  was  afterwards  ze;ilnn-lv 
studied  by  the  Arabs.  The  second  jiart 
gives  a  history  of  heresio  ;  the  third, 
"an  accurati'  exjiosition  of  the  orthodox 
faitll  "  (eVSoo-tf  aKpi.ii-s  rrjs  I'lpSntii'i^dV 
Tr/o-Tfcof).  The  third  part  treats  (a)  of 
( loil  in  ]ii>  e>sen<-|..  at  t  l  ilmtes,  and  Trinity 
of  Persons;  of  the  creative  act  by 

wlil(di  invisihle  -jiirits  and  visilile  things 
were  made,  of  tlie  Divine  lore-knowledge, 
and  of  free-will ;  (y)  of  the  Incarnation, 
and  the  economy  of  salvation;  (d)  of  the 
means  by  which  this  salvation  is  ajtpro- 
priated,  and  generally  of  such  matters  a» 


1  Of  C(Hir-p  tliis 
prp*>e.l.    It  w.iiil,!  I,( 


risen  must  not  be 
I''  .illiibute  tothc 
'lii  v  evor  such  .'l 
ritcr  a<  St.  Aumistinc.  ll  uiiu-li  w;is  friiiiiod, 
u-li  also  was  lost  by  the  schola-iic  love  o£ 
steal. 


2Pr>    DOGMATIC  THEOLOGY 

concern  practical  piety — i.e.  of  faith  and 
baptism,  the  cultus  of  the  saints,  use  of 
images,  &c. ;  of  Scripture,  the  orio-in  of 
sin  in  the  abuse  of  free-will,  the  law  of 
God,  the  Sabbath,  circumcision,  virginity, 
&c.  ;  and  lastly,  of  Antichrist  and  the 
resurrection.  Here  we  have  something- 
like  a  complete  svstem  of  theologv,  but 
with  John  of  Dainascus  the  theology  of 
tilt'  Ma^trnis  rearht'd  its  highest  p(nnt. 
l''urtht>r  advance  was  to  be  made,  not  in 
till-  Ivist,  but  in  the  AN'est. 

There,  even  after  the  shock  of  the  bar- 
))arian  conquests  was  over,  a  long  period  of 
])reparati(iii  was  needed  before  dogmatic 
theology  could  arise,  and  for  this  very 
reason  when  it  did  arise  it  maiiitVstt'd  i>x- 
traoi-dinary  strength,  possessed  a  singular 
vitality,  and  did  its  work  with  wondciful 
completeness.  These  preparations  con- 
.«isted  in  the  study  of  the  Aristotelian 
logic,  much  furthered  by  Boethius  in  the 
earlier  ])art  of  the  sixth  century.  Again, 
the  dogmatic  teachiii-  of  the  Fathers  was 
sumuiiiriseil  by  such  aiit  liors  as  Isidore  of 
Seville,  who  in  his  "  ( )i-igii)iim  sen  b.ty- 
mologiarum Codex"  furnished  an  enc\  cle- 
]i;"edia  of  sciences,  including  tlie.ilMny, 
while  his  "Liiii'i  Sent ent ia rnni  "  is  a 
kiiul  of  anthology  fioni  the  l  athers,  par- 
ticularly from  St.  .Vugnstine.  Al<  nm  dnl 
mucli  to  encourage  the  ti  lund.al  ion  ol 
monastic  scli'iols  an<l  so  to  keep  the  lamp 
of  learning  alne.  Still,  although  the 
writings  of  St.  (uveoi-vihe  (iri^it  exer- 
cised a  wide  and  Mmn-  intlnen.-e.  al- 
thongli  the  livinu  interest  in  dogmatic 
Oout  ro\-el-sv  \\"a  -  Ke]it   up   \l\   t  I  le  d  l  s|in  1  e> 

on  the  Ad.'.|,l.on  of  the  S/m  ,.f  (  Ind.  on 
the  Fanhanst,  on  1 'red^ '^t  i  na  t  a  ,n.  and  hv 
tho>e  oeea-ioiied  tliroueii  the  ra  t  ioiia  llsni 
and  jKintheistic  tendencie.-  of  Se.)tu-  Fa'i- 
gena.llie  ]ieriod  which  ela].-.e,l  IjelweiMi 
the  Mxtli  and  eleventh  (■.•nlnrv  \va>  one  ol 
learn iiie  I'at  hei-  llnin  of  siiecnial  ion.  The 


jnlll^ 

till  I 

tla-  n 


the 


the  natural  and  mat  lienial  n'a i  sciences, 
grammar,  logic,  rhetoric,  kv.,  and  to 
make  themselves  at  home  in  the  wisdom 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  But  they 
had  no  philosophy,  and  philosophy  is  a 
necessary  liasis  tor  t  heological  sjietailat  ion. 
In  the  eleventh  century  this  desideratum 
was  su])plied.  Then  the  monastic  schools, 
which  had  sunk  into  comparative  insig- 


Don:\rATic  theology 

nificnnce  after  the  death  of  Charles  the 
Bald,  became  more  celebrated  than  ever 
for  learning  (those  of  Tours  and  Bee 
deserve  special  mention),  and  in  Anselm 
of  Canterbury  produced  a  man,  not  only 
of  learning,  but  of  speculative  ability. 
Some  time  later  these  schools  were  cast 
into  the  shade  by  the  universities,  and 
that  of  Paris  in 
tering  motlier  of  dialei 
tliroughoiit,  the  rest  of  1 1 
Better  translations  of 
into  Use.  and  not  oiilv 
also  his  nietaphvsical 
treatises  were  studied  w 
appreciation.  True,  phil 
earded  as  the  hau.hnaid 


lar  -w  as  the  fos- 

•etieal  theologV 

lie  middle  ages. 
Ai'i-lotle  came 
In-  logical,  hut 
and  p!,vs:cal 
.■ith  enthusiastic 
l..so],liv  was  re- 
f  faith. 


Til 


Catholic  religion  was  accepted 
absolute  truth,  and  although  tht 
s(.iphei-  proved  frrmi  reason  the  ti 
natural  religion,  such   as  the  1) 


God. 
like, 
had 
with 
plnf 


it  billowed 

man's  tlici 


s]iiritua 


as  the 
philo- 


id  the 
id  he 
'iiient 


the  Church.  Stil 


mil 


"  fait  I 
latur.-i 


.sopl 


Itealists.  I 
?s'oinmalist 
name-  re] 
theoloev.a 
direct  inHi 
hehl  on  nm 
(  »f  coiir-e. 
every  (litter 
St.  Thonia 
Miphical  so 
dllference- 
So  well  Wl, 


rl]ile>  lui'lll 

iv  bv  ph.l 
It  tlie  whole  of  :s 
wa-  coloured  hv  his 
nions.  The  areat  philo- 
1  d.diated  during  all  the 
1  was  abinit  the  nature 
riiere  were  the  extreme 
iScotus  ;  the  moderate 
St.  Thomas  ;  and  thi' 
h  as  (  1,-eain.  All  these 
It  dlllerellt  schools  of 
i-  often  ea-\'  to  trace  the 
whudi  the  theorv  thev 
ds  had  on  th. 


heoh 


ilKt 


le  I  liese 
triced. 

'  'llg 


a-  Se-itiMii  f.-'jit  it-  gioimd  m  the  Fran- 
ciscan sidiools,  the  Scotist  philosophy, 
.and  that  alone,  was  looked  U])On  as  the 
necessary  pre]iaration  for  theology.  The 
mutual  interpenetration  of  philosophy 
and  theology  is  the  great  distinguishing 
mark  of  the  scholastic  period. 

We  can  only  mention  the  most  dis- 
tinguished names  among  the  scholastics, 
and  say  a  few  words  about  one  or  two 
among  them.    St.  AnseLm  was  the  great 
I  light  of  the  eleventh  century,  towards 


DOOMATIC  THEOLOCtY 


DOGMATIC  THEOLOGY  2!)7 


the  end  of  which  he  lived.  In  the  twelfth 
century  the  great  names  are  those  of 
Roscelin,  Abelard,  and  Peter  Lombard  ; 
in  the  thirteenth,  those  of  Aloxnndi  r  nf 
Hales,  Albertus  Maiiiius,  St.  Thomas, 
Bonaventura,  John  Dims  Scot  us. 

Anselm  did  not  cDiistruct  a  complete 
coq)iis  or  sum  of  tlii^uldn y,  but  he  treated 
of  it>  priiiei]ial  parts— \iz.  the  existence 
and  nature  nf  (ind  and  tlu'  Trinity  in  his 
"  Miiiioldgium,"  "  I'rosbio-ion,''  "  De  P^id. 
Trill.,"  and  "Process.  Spirit.  S.  contra 
Gr;ee,  ;  "  tlie  t'reedom  of  the  will,  origin 
of  evil,  and  tlie  fall,  in  "  De  Lib.  Arbitr., 
de  Casu  Diab.il.,  de  ("..neept.  Viroinal.  et 
Original.  Peccato;"  of  file  Incarnation 
and  redem])f ion,  in  "t'ur  Deus  llouio." 
Peter  Lombard's  four  Books  of  Sentences 
were  for  centuries  the  basis  of  theological 
instruction.  St.  Thomas,  Scotus,  nay 
even  so  late  a  writer  as  the  famous 
Estius,  commented  on  them.  Peter 
Ijombard  sets  out  with  the  principle — 
borrowed  from  St.  Augustine  —  that 
Christianity  is  a  doctrine  conci'rning 
realities  and  signs,  the  ])rinci]>al  sions 
being  tlie  sacraments.  He  sali(ll\iiles 
the  realities  into  such  as  M  e  aie  to  enjoy 
{  frui) — i.e.  such  as  are  ends  :  -iii  li  m<  we 
are  to  use  as  means:  and  considers 
lastly  the  sid)jects  or  rational  cveaim-es 
intended  to  use  these  niean>.  .\(  (  oicl- 
ingly,  the  firr~t  Book  of  the  Sentences 
treats  of  God  and  the  Trinity  (lealities 
which  are  ends  in  themselves)  :  the 
.«econd,  in  its  first  jiart,  of  tlie  world,  in 
its  second  of  rational  creatures,  in  its 
third  of  free-will  and  ur.iee,  virtues  and 
vices  (of  tliin^<  to  be  usi'd  as  means,  of 
those  who  use  tlieni,  of  ii^e  and  abuse); 
the  third,  of  the  redeni]ition,  by  which 
man  is  again  enaliled  to  sei'  t  hinos  ai-ie|it  : 
the  fourth,  of  the  re<iirre<t  ion,  and  of 
"signs" — i.e.  chietly  of  the  sacrament.-. 
A  moment's  tlioughr  will  euabli-  .•in\  oii,. 
to  see  some  at  least  of  the  patent  deii  (  is 
implied  in  such  an  arrangement.  St. 
Thomas  ado])ted  a  verv  ditlerenf  .me  m 

his  "Sum  of  all  Theoloev,-'  wliieli  lor 
method,  scientific  jirecision  and  .lejiili, 
for  purity  of  doctrine,  li;i>  nolliin;;  lilie 
it  or  near  it  in  I  lie  ]iioi!nction>  of  the 
scholastic  theoloi^haiis.  The  "  Simiin.i  " 
is  di\ided  into  three  parts.  The  first 
treats  of  God  in  Himself,  and  as  the 
Creator.  The  second  treats  of  God  as 
the  end  of  creatures,  and  of  the  actions 
which  lead  us  to  II im  or  separ.ile  us 
from  Him.  In  the  foi'iuer  .-iibdi\  i>ion  of 
the  secoiul  jiart  these  actions  are  discussed 
in  general;  the  latter  subdivision  explains 


'  them  in  detail.    The  third  part  treats  of 
'  the  Incarnation,  the  sacraments,  and  the 
last  things.    It  must  be  added  that  the 
I  subdivision  of  Part  II.  was  made,  not  by 
j  St.  Thomas,  but  by  his  disciples,  and  that 
St.  Thomas  left  the  third  part  incom- 
plete, the  conclusion  of  the  treatise  on 
penance,  with  those  on  e.xtreme  unction, 
holy  order,  matrimony  and  the  last  things, 
having  been  ajijieniied  from  his  com- 
mentary on  the  Sentences.    St.  Thomas 
himself  points  out  the  connection  of  parts 
in  the  "  Snmma."    The  first  is  concerned 
with  God  ;  the  second,  with  the  move- 
ment of  rational  creatures  to  Him  ;  the 
I  third,  witli  tlie  Incarnation,  redemption 
and  sacraments,  which  open  the  way  to 
I  God,  and  with  eternal  life,  to  which  this 
way  leads. 

III.  Modern  Period. — Scholastic  theo- 
logy is  best  represented  by  St.  Thomas 
and  Scotus.  After  their  time  tliei-e  was 
a  marked  decadence,  and  if  at  the  period 
of  the  Renaissance  and  the  Keformation 
.scholastic  the,ilo;.y  was  unjustly  attacked 
and  contemned,  tin'  fault  'must  lie  [lartly 
laid  at  the  dor.r  of  the  later  sclioolinen 
themselves.  Melchifir  Canus,  a  ( 'at  Icdic 
bisho])  and  tln^olooiau  of  undoubted  ortho- 
doxy, (lesi  i-ilies  the  degeneracy  of  some 
anioiiii'  I  he  l,it,  r  >clioolmen,  their  frivolous 
and  >o])ln>t  le.il  sjiirit,  their  ignorance  of 
Scrijilure  and  trailition,  in  the  forcible 
language  of  a  man  who  evi.lently  sj.eaks 
from  personal  e.xjierience. '  No  donbt 
other  cai\-es  helped  to  bring  scholastic 
theologv  into  di-repute.  'file  new  learn- 
mij  alisorheil  attention:  controversialists, 
sii.-h  a-  Dellaniiine.  were  busy  ilefeiiding 
the  decree-  of  Trent  a-ain-t'  I  ,iit  liei-an~ 
and  ('alvini>ls,  so   thai    the  iiiteiv-t  in 

llieie         on  the  part  of  l'rotestaiit>  and 

e\ell  of  ,l;inselll>ts,  a  di-tlllctlv  heretical 
o|,],o>iti.in  to  the  th.'ology  of  fjie  scho.ds. 
It  wa-  held  that  truths  .if  re\  elation  were 
colli  rar\  to  the  dictates  of  reason,  ami 
that,  t.i  use  the  w.inN  of  M  ..lanclit  h.ui, 

e.irdant  with  ]ilii  lo>.  i]  iliy  and  liunnin 
iv;i>.,n."  -  Tlii>.  of  ,-.„ir-'.'.  was  t..  cut  at 
the  root  of  sch.ila>tic  t  li. .1.  i-y ,  a  ii.l  the 
o]iiniou  of  Melanchtlion  .111  faith  and 
reason  was  that  of  the  lletormers  in 
'general.  Still,  sih.il.i-i  u-  tli.'.dogy  was 
j  pursued  with  ard.nir.  an. I  valuable  addi- 

I  1  Canus.  /.er.  77,,../.  viii.  l,ix.  1.  The  elo- 
]  quoiit  and  wciuhty  \v..i.l-  of  Canus  on  this 

matter  arc  well  werth  ici.iins. 
I       2  MclanchtlaiM,  /-,„■,■  7V,f,>/.eil.  l.p.8(;,ni)U,l 

Ktlhll.  I>,i,im(tlil:.  vel.  i.  472. 


208    POOMATIC  TIIEOT.OPtY 


dopt:mattc  theology 


tions  were  made  to  it.  The  old  Thomist 
and  Scotist  theolngies  were  still  main- 
tained, and  though  the  latter  as  a  dis- 
tinctive system  was  passing  away,  it 
influenced  the  eclectic  tlioology  of  many 
Jesuit  writi'js,  iind  so  has  left  a  perma- 
nent marl<  im  tlie  theology  of  the  Church. 
Moreover,  a  tresh  impetus  was  given  to 
scholastic  disputes  by  the  controversies 
on  grace  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  and  a  new  division  of  theolo- 
gians intoThomists,  Congruists,  Molmists 
and  Augustinians  came  to  be  recognised. 
The  following  are  among  the  prLnci])al 
theologians  since  the  Reformation.  We 
put  aside  great  controversialists,  like 
Bellarmine  and  Stapleton,  and  positive 
theologians,  such  as  Petavius  and  Tho- 
massin.  Petavius,  indeed,  may  justly 
be  considered  a  dogmatic  theologian.  His 
unequalled  learning  included  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  schoolmen,  and  he  does 
discuss  the  most  important  questions 
raised  by  them.  But  the  chief  merit  of 
this  extraordinary  man,  gi'i'ut  in  his 
many-sided  and  accurate  learning,  great 
in  the  command  which  his  genius  gave 
him  over  the  stores  of  classical.  Scriptural, 
patristic,  and  scholastic  learning  which  he 
had  accumulated,  lay  rather  in  his  con- 
tributions to  the  history  of  dogma  than 
to  dogmatic  theology  itself.  Confining 
ourselves,  then,  to  dogmatic  theologians 
in  the  strict  sense,  we  may  name,  from 
the  sixteenth  and  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  :  Bannez  ("  In  Prim.  Part. 
Angel.  Doctoris,"  2  torn. ;  "  In  Secund. 
Secund.  Angel.  Doctoris");  Molina  ("In 
Prim.  Part.  D.  Thom.:"  also  "Lilieri 
Arbitrii  cum  Grati;i-  Dmil-  (  'onconlia  "); 
Medina  ("In  Prim.  Srennd.  riinuiie  Aq.; 
In  Tert.  Part."):  (ii-.  gnry  of  Valentia 
("Comment,  in  Sunmi.  Thorn;!'  Aq.") ; 
Suarez  ("  Commentationes  ct  Disputat. 
in  Thomae  Sinnmam  ")  ;  Cardinal  de  Lugo 
(separate  treatises  on  dogmatic  and  moral 
theology;  e.g.  "  De  Sacramentis,"  "  De 
Eucharistia,"  "  De  Incarnatione,"  iSrc, 
collected  ni  seven  folios)  ;  Vasqui'Z 
("  Comnientani  in  Thomam  ")  ;  Estius 
("Comment,  ui  IV  Lib.  Sentent.") ;  Tan- 
ner ("  Tlieoldg.  Scholast.,"  "  Dis]>utat. 
Theol.  in  omnes  Siimm.  S. Thom.  Partes") ; 
Becanus  ("Theoloii.  Scbnlast.");  Viva  (on 
the  Condemned  I'l-oijo^ii  mns  and  a  brief 
course  of  dogmatic  t  le  i  iloij  \- ).  Prominent 
among  the  tlirolo(rians  of  a  later  date  are 
the  Scotists,  Frassen  (">^eotns  Acade- 
niicus,  sive  I'ni\ersa  Doctoris  Subtilis 
Theologia,"  Paris,  1672),  aiul  L'Herminier 
( "  Summa  Theolog.  Scholastic.  Dogmat.," 


I  Paris,  1721):  and  the  Thomists  Genet 
("  Clypeus  Theolog.  Tliomist.  contra 
is'ovas  ejus  Im]mgnat.,'"  Biirdigal.  ICoiJ), 
(^ontenson  ("Theologia  Mentis  et  Cor- 
dis," Colon.  1722),  Witasse  (" 'I'ractat. 
Theolog."  Paris,  1722),  and  BiUuart 
("  Cursus  Theolog.  juxta  Ment.  S.  Thom."' 
1745).  We  mav  also  notice  Tournely 
("  Prfelect.  Theol.,"  Venet.  1739) ;  Gotti 
("  Theolog.  Scholast.  Dogm.,"  Venet. 
1750);  Berti  ("  De  Theolog.  Disciphn.," 
Venet.  1776);  Hubert  ("Theolog.  Dog- 
mat,  et  Moral,"  August.  Vindeb.  1751).' 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  scholastic  theology  almost  died 
out,  or  if  the  study  of  it  was  maintained 
in  Italy  and  Spain,  at  all  events  few 
books  of  this  kind  were  written.  The 
dog-mas  of  the  Church  were  of  course 
still  carefully  studied  by  clerics  in  their 
course  of  preparation  for  the  priesthood, 
but  scholastic  philosophy  was  neglected, 
no  other  philosophy  permanently  replaced 
it,  and  hence  theological  speculation  was 
ini])ossible.  This  element  is  almost  en- 
tirely wanting  in  works  like  those  of 
Liebermann  and  Perrone,  valuable  as  they 
are  in  many  resjiects.  Some  forty  or 
hfty  years  ago  the  interest  in  scholastic 
jtliilosophy,  and,  as  a  natural  consequence, 
in  scholastic  theology,  revived.  Cardinal 
Eranzelin's  treatises,  though  ftill  of  Scrip- 
tural and  jiatristic  learning,  do  not  by 
any  means  omit  the  consideration  of  the 
speculative  ((uestions  raised  by  tlie  school- 
men. Scheeheii  was  perhaps  the  pro- 
foundest,  if  not  the  clearest,  speculative 
theologian  of  recent  times.  The  short 
treatises  of  .lungman,  the  dogmatic  theo- 
of  the  Jesuit  Hurter,  and  that  of 
Dr.  .Murray  of  Maynooth,  also  deserve 
mention.  The  ]iresent  Pope  has  done 
much  to  encourage  the  study  of  the 
schoolmen,  and  this  study  is  not  likely 
to  faU  again  into  disrepute  or  even  to  be 
neglected.  Experience  has  proved  that 
no  scientific  knowledge  of  the  Cathohc 
(Idctrine  can  be  trained  without  the  study 
dl'  (Icigiaatic  thfiildgy,  so  that  when  this 
Inundation  has  been  laid,  then  and  not 
till  then  other  branches  of  theological 
inquiry  may  be  pursued  with  safety  and 
advantage.  (In  great  part  from  the  intro- 
ductory volnme  of  Kuhn's  "  Dogmatik.") 

sdx.OURS  OF  THE  BX.ESSE]> 
VZRGXNT.  St.  John  mentions  that  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  with  other  holy  women 
and  with  St.  .Tolm,  stood  at  the  foot  of 
the  cross  when  the  other  Apostles  had 
*  The  editions  quoted  are  not  always  the 
first  which  appeared. 


DOM 


DOMINICANS  232 


fled.  At  that  time  the  prophecy  of 
Simeon,  "a  sword  will  pierce  thine  own 
soul,"  was  mo.st  p.>ii'.M  H\  lulfilled;  and 
very  naturally  the  -  i ,  .  nt  .Mary  have 
been  a  favourite  subjLrt  ol  l  oniemplation 
with  the  Saints,  amoiij^  whom  St.  Ambrose 
and  St.  ]5(>niard  deserve  particular  notice. 
They  dwell  specially  on  the  intensity  of 
her  mental  suffering-,  and  on  the  super- 
natural constancy  with  which  she  endured 
it.  The  tamous  hymn  "  Stabat  Mater  " 
celebrates  Mary's  sorrows  at  the  foot  of  i 
the  cross  in  sublime  lano  uage.  The  seven 
founders  of  the  Servite  order,  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  devoted  themselves 
to  special  meditation  on  the  Dolours  of 
Mary,  and  from  them  the  enumeration  of 
the  Se\  en  Sorrows  {i.e.  at  the  prophecy 
of  Simeon,  in  the  flight  to  Egypt,  at  the 
three  days'  loss,  at  the  carrying  of  the 
cross,  at  the  crucifixion,  at  the  descent 
from  the  cross,  at  the  entombment)  is  said 
to  have  come.  The  feast  of  the  Dolours 
was  instituted  at  a  Provincial  Council  of 
CoI.iLiri.'  in  14i>:3,  at  a  time  when  the 
Hu.<.-ite>  were  destroying'  crucifixes  and 


images  of  the  Motlu' 
fanatical  zeal.  Px  n.M 
caused  this  feast  t'l  li 
States  of  the  Chun  li 
Passion  Suii.Imv.  'I'h 
served  as  a  f^rcater  do 


XII 


)ws  with 
ill  I7i'5, 
■  rrl,.l,ralr,l  in  the 
m  the  Friday  after 
s  least  is  now  ob- 
ible  throughout  the 


Church.  Pius  VII.,  in  1 814,  directed 
that  a  second  fcist  of  tlic  Dolours  should 
be  kept,  on  the  tliird  Siniday  of  vSeptember. 
In  allusion  to  her  seven  sorrows,  the 
Blessed  Virgin  is  represented  in  art 
transfixed  by  seven  swords.  (Benedict 
XIV.  "  De  Festis  " ;  "  Manuale  Decret.") 

sonx.  A  title  applied  to  the  Bene- 
dictine uionlis,  as  Doyn  Gueranger,  etc. 
It  is  a  contraction  of  "  Dominus,"  first  ap- 
plied to  the  Pope,  latterly  to  bishops, 
and  finally  to  monks  of  various  orders. 
Benedictine  nuns  were  similarly  called 
Domna,  whence  the  modern  "  Dame." 

SOIVXXCZI.E  is  the  place  in  wliich  a 
person  i.s  living,  or  to  which  he  has  actu- 
ally come  with  the  pur])ose  of  remaining 
there  for  good — i.e.  until  some  fresh 
reasons  call  him  away.  Thus,  as  Zallinger 
points  out,  two  things  go  to  constitute 
domicile  :  (1)  the  external  fact  of  habita- 
tion in  a  place  ;  (2)  the  internal  intention 
of  fixing  the  abode  there.  Quasi-doinicile 
is  acquired  by  a  p(>rson  who  has  moved 
to  a  place  with  the  intention  of  remaining 
there  for  a  considerable  tim(> — ci/.  for 
s^everal  months.  There  is  a  third  class 
of  persons  known  as  vagi — i.e.  who  at 
the  time  have  neither  domicile  nor  quasi-  | 


domicile.  It  is  possible  for  a  person  to 
have  two  domiciles — if,  that  is  to  say,  he 
has  two  abodes  in  different  places  and 
spends  about  equal  portions  of  the  year 
in  each. 

The  question  of  domicile  enters  into 
the  regulations  (1)  on  orders.  In  ordinary 
cases  a  candidate  must  be  ordaincil  by 
the  bishop  of  the  diocese  in  which  he 
was  born  ("  episcopus  originis  ").  How- 
ever, if  he  has  fixed  his  domicile  in 
another  diocese  he  may  be  ordained  by 
his  new  bishop,  the  "episcopus  domicilii,"' 
provided  that  he  has  lived  in  his  new 
abode  for  ten  years,  or  has  transferred  to 
it  the  greater  part  of  his  goods,  having 
lived  there  "  for  a  considerable  time,  and 
is,  moreover,  ready  to  swear  that  he  in- 
tends to  remain  there  for  good  "  ("  per- 
petuo").  So  Innocent  XII.,  Constit.  96. 
(2)  Persons  are  obliged  to  make  their 
Easter  communion,  to  have  their  banns 
proclaimed,  to  be  married,  to  have  their 
children  baptised,  to  receive  extreni" 
unction,  from  the  parish-priest  of  their 
domicile  or  his  deputy.  If  persons  to  be 
married  live  in  different  parishes,  the 
Ijanns  must  be  proclaimed  in  the  jiarish 
church  of  each ;  the  maiTiage  may  be 
celebrated  in  either  parish  church.  Per- 
sons with  a  double  domicile  may  choose 
the  parish-priest  of  either  for  the  cele- 
bration of  their  marriage,  &c.  If  either 
party  has  established  a  quasi-domicile  he 
may  be  married  by  the  parish-priest  of 
the  place.  If  one  of  the  parties  has  no 
domicile  or  quasi-domicile,  then  any 
parish-priest  may  many  them,  provided 
that  he  has  found  on  inquiry  that  they 
are  free  to  marry,  and  has  obtained  leave 
from  his  ordinary.    (Chiefly  from  Gury.) 

"Ijord,  I  am  not  worthy  that  Thou 
shouldst  enter  under  my  roof,  but  only 
speak  with  a  word,  and  mv  soul  will  be 
h.  aled."    Words  n-edbYtluMiriest  before 


istom 


communion  to  t  lie  pei)]iic. 
of  employing  this  praver  li.  lore  com- 
munion   is    alluded  to   liy  (.)riii("u  and 
Chrysostoin.    It    is    adapted    f'riun  the 
prayer  of  the  centurion  in  Matt.  viii.  8. 
SOMZM-ZCAX.      X.ETTER.  ^See 

Cycle." 

DOMZSrzCA.xrS.  The  founder  of 
this  celebrated  order,  St.  Dominic,  was 
born  in  1170,  at  Calaruega,  a  small  town 
in  tlie  diocese  of  Usma,  in  Olil  Castile. 
Ill'  was  educated  at  the  university  of 
Paleiicia,  which  afterwards  was  removed 
to  Salamanca.    From  the  time  when  he 


300  DO.MINTCAXS 


DOMINICANS 


first  came  to  the  use  of  reason,  he  appears  ' 
to  have  had  a  heart  burning  with  the 
loTe  of  God,  and  a  consequent  horror  of 
sin,  coupled  with  an  unquenchable  zeal 
for  the  promotion  of  God's  honour  and 
service  among  His  rational  creatures. 
After  leaving  the  university,  he  preached 
"with  great  power  in  many  places.  The 
Bishop  of  Osma  at  this  time,  whose  name 
was  Diego,  was  a  prelate  of  great  earnest- 
ness and  piety  ;  the  laxity  and  tepidity 
which  prevailed  among  a  portion  of  the 
Spanish  clergy  were  a  serious  grief  to 
him,  and  he  pondered  how  he  might 
introduce  the  type  and  germ  of  a  better 
state  of  things.  He  wished  to  introduce 
a  regular  and  quasi-conventual  life  among 
the  canons  of  his  cathedral,  and  the  young 
I)fiminic  appeared  a  fit  instrument  for  his 
pini)ose.  Appointed  a  canon,  and  strenu- 
ou>ly  aiding  in  the  introduction  in  the 
clia])ter  of  the  rule  of  St.  Austin,  Dominic 
more  than  answered  every  expectation 
that  had  been  formed  of  him,  and  ob- 
tained the  entire  confidence  and  affection 
of  the  bishop.  In  1204  and  1205  the 
Bishop  of  O-ma  was  sent  into  France  on 
the  alfair  'it'  a  ci nit i /niplated  marriage 
between  King  Alf  inso  IX.  and  a  princess 
of  the  house  of  La  Marche ;  Dominic 
accompanied  him  as  his  chaplain.  The 
southern  provinces  of  France  were  then 
teeming  with  the  heresies  of  the  numerous 
sects  wliicli  pass  under  the  general  name 
of  All)igenses  [Albiuenses],  and  the 
pei'il  seemed  imminent  that  large  numbers 
of  [lersons  would  before  long,  if  no  re- 
straining iniluence  appeared,  throw  off" 
the  Ijonds  of  religion,  social  order,  and 
inoi'ality.  The  bishop,  his  missifju  having 
come  to  an  end  by  the  death  of  the 
French  ])rince>-,  earnestly  desired  to  re- 
main and  eniiilijit  liei'esv  in  Languedoc. 
AVith  Domniir  h-  wiit'to  Rome  (1205) 
to  obtain  the  nece»ary  permission  from 
the  P'lpe,  who  was  then  Innocent  III. 
The  I'ope,  although  strongly  approving 
the  t'uterprise,  Wduld  not  sanction  Diego's 
absence  from  his  diocese  Ijeing  prolonged 
beyond  two  years,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  he  was  to  return  to  ( >snia.  Return- 
ing to  Languedoc,  Diego  and  his  com- 
panions found  there  two  Papal  legates, 
Peter  of  Castelnau  and  Raoul,  contending 
with  the  heretics  with  but  small  effect. 
The  liishop  suggested  tliat  tli.'  words  of 
exhortation  would  be  more  effectual  if  the 
legates  came  unattended  by  a  splendid 
retinue,  and  unprovided  with  e(juipage's 
and  a  sumptuous  ap/iar"//.  He  himself 
bet  them  an  example,  going   barefoot,  | 


practising  gre;it  abstinence,  and  sending 
back  his  carriages  and  servants  into 
Spain.  The  legates  took  his  words  in 
good  part,  and  to  some  extent  acted  upon 
them;  moreover,  the  abbot  of  Giteaux 
and  several  other  Cistercian  abbots  came 
to  their  assistance,  to  take  part  in  the 
religious  campaign,  which  now  began  to 
be  prosecuted  with  much  zeal  and  fruit. 
But  after  a  time  Peter  of  Castelnau  was 
assassinated  by  the  heretics,  and  the 
other  legate  took  his  departure ;  the 
abbots  returned  to  their  monasteries ; 
the  bishop  was  obliged  to  return  to  Osma, 
where  he  soon  after  died ;  and  Dominic 
was  left  alone.  Some  years  passed ;  he 
was  joined  from  time  to  time  by  earnest 
men,  who  aided  him  in  that  work  of 
continual  preaching  which  he  felt  to  be 
the  great  work  of  his  hfe ;  but  many  of 
them,  after  the  novelty  of  the  work  had 
worn  off,  abandoned  him  without  scruple, 
and  he  felt  that  in  order  to  give  stabiUty 
to  his  efforts  he  must  bind  his  followers 
to  himself  and  their  work  by  a  tie  stronger 
than  could  he  supplied  by  enthusiasm  and 
the  voluntary  system.  Such  a  tie  could 
only  be  supplied  by  the  establishment  of 
a  new  order,  and  to  this  consummation 
he  now  bent  his  energies.  In  1215  he 
had  gathered  round  him  sixteen  men, 
of  whom  eight  were  Frenchmen,  six 
S]ianiai(1s,  one  an  Englishman,  and  one  a 
I'ort  iigufse — all  prepared  to  embrace  any 
way  of  lit'e  that  he  might  prescribe  to 
them.  The  Pope  (Innocent  III.),  when 
his  sanction  was  sought,  hesitated.  The 
Council  of  the  Lateran,  then  concluding 
its  sittings,  had  declared  that  it  was  not 
desirable  to  add  any  new  orders  to  those 
already  existing.  The  Pope  refused  his 
assent  several  times,  but  at  length — in- 
fluenced, it  is  sai<l,  by  a  vision  similar  to 
that  which  he  had  had  befin-e  theconfirma- 
tion  of  the  Franciscan  order — he  yielded. 
It  was,  however,  upon  the  understanding 
that  the  founder  should  clioose  for  the 
new  institute  some  rule  alreiidy  sanc- 
tioned by  the  C'liurcli,  nud  tliat  the 
statutes  of  the  order  should  bi;  sulwnitted 
to  the  Pope  for  his  approval.  Dominic 
selected  the  ride  of  St.  Austin  [Aug. 
Canons]  for  the  use  of  his  order;  manj^  of 
the  statutes  were  borrowed  from  those  of 
Pr^montrg.  [See  Premonsteatexsians.] 
"The  chief  articles  enjoined  ])er])etual 
silence,  there  being  no  time  when  conver- 
sation was  permitted  without  leave  from 
the  superiors;  fasts  almost  without  inter- 
mission, at  least  from  Sejitember  14  to 
Easter  Day;  complete  alstinence  from 


DOMINICANS 


DOMINICANS  301 


meat,  except  in  serious  illness;  the  use 
of  woollen  garments  in  the  place  of  linen  ; 
a  rigorous  poverty,   and   many  other 
austerities." '     The    dress    which    St . 
Dominic  gave  to  his  religious  was  that 
of  regular  canons,  such  as  he  had  himself 
worn  at  Osma — viz.  a  black  cassock  and 
rochet.    Some  years  afterwards  this  was 
exchanged  for  the  di-e?s  which  has  been 
ever  since  retained  in  the  order — a  white 
habit  and  scapular,  with  a  long  black 
cappa  or  mantle.    When  everything  had 
been  settled,  and  the  first  monastery-  was 
being  built  at  Toulouse,  Dominic  went  to 
Rome  to  obtain  the  final  confirmation  of 
the  Holy  See.    Arriving  in  the  autimin 
of  1216,  he  found  Ilouorius  III.  occupy- 
ing the  Papal  chair,  and  obtained  from 
him  in  the  following  December  a  bull 
fully  legalising  and  confirming  his  insti- 
tute, imder  the  title  of  the  "  Preaching 
Brothers,"  or  friars,  Fratres  Praedicantes. 
He  made  his  solemn  profession  before 
Honorius,  as  the  first  member  of  the 
order,  and  then  returned  to  Toulouse. 
Houses  under  his  direction  soon  arose  in 
different  places— (".r/.  at  Paris,  Metz,  and 
Venice,  and  in  1221  a  general  chapter 
was  held  at  Bologna,  at  which — perha]>s 
in  imitation  of  tlie  Franciscans — a  (  (in- 
stitution was   adopted   renoiniemu  nil 
rents  and  possessions.    The  effect  ot'  this, 
of  course,  was  to  make  the  Dominicans 
a  mendicant  order,  wholly  dependent  for 
their  subsistence  and  advancement  on 
the  charity  and  zeal  for  religion  of  the 
Christian  people.    At  this  same  chapter- 
general  it  was  found   that    the  order 
already  numbered  sixty  convents :  these 
were  now  distributed  into  eight  ])rovinces 
(England  being  one),  each  under  a  pro- 
vincial.   St.  Dominic,  therefore,  dying  in 
this  year,  had  the  happiness  of  leaving 
his   order   firmly   planted   in  Europe. 
Under  subsec|uent  master-generals  it  ex- 
tended itselt  far  and  wide;  the  white 
robe  of  St.  Dominic  became  a  familiar 
object  in  Poland,  Denmark,  Greece,  and 
the  Holy  Land  ;  their  missioners  were 
found  in  the  Canaries  in  the  fifteenth 
centun-,   and   after   the    discovery  of 
America  preaching  friars  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  sju-eading  the  Go.spel  among 
the  natives  of  Mexico,  New  Granada,  and 
Peru.    Las  Casas,  who  first  introduced 
the  African  negro  into  the  West  Indies, 
with  the  benevolent  intention  of  thus 
saving  from   destruction    under  their 
Spanish  task-masters  the  feebler  Carib 
Indians,  was  a  Dominican  friar.  This 
I  Holvot. 


I  order  has  contributed  three  Popes  to  the 
I  roll  of  the  Roman   Pontiffs,  and  can 

eiuiinerate  more  than  BO  cardinals,  about 
.■iivlil.i^linps,  and  upwards  of  800 
l':>liop-.  The  Master  of  the  Sacred 
I'alae.'  in  the  Pontifical  Court  hasalwavs 
been  a  reli-iou,-  of  this  ..rder  since  St. 
Dominic  was  first  invested  with  the  office 
by  ro]u.  Honorius  in  1218. 

Ill  l-lii!:fland,  at  the  time  of  the  disso- 
lution, there  were  fifty-seven  Dominican 
friaries.  From  an  examination  of  the 
names  of  these,  given  below,'  it  is  evident 
that  they  settled  by  preference  in  towns, 
where  tlu'ir  priman-  vocation  of  preach- 
ing could  most  easily  be  exercised.  The 
memory  of  their  great  friary  in  London  is 
preserved  in  the  name  of  Blackfriars 
Bridge  ;  the  building  stood  between  Lud- 
gate  Hill  and  the  river:  Playhouse  Yard  * 
marks  the  exact  site.  Of  their  great  and 
famous  house  at  Oxford,  though  tlie  site 
is  well  known,  no  traces  now  remain. 

Into  the  intellectual  movement  of  the 
age,  of  which  the  foundation  of  many 
universities,  and  the  rajiid  development 
of  othei--  were  the  chief  dutward  signs, 
the  rtoniinie.-iiis  eagerly  fliuig  tliemselves. 
They  ii|i(  lied  >fhools,  and  commissioned 
able  lei  tiirn  -  ai  most  of  the  universities, 
awalu  niiiL'  th.  reliy  a  fierce  opposition  on 


List  of  1) 


fli'iiscx.  taken  from 
y'lditia: 

Lancaster 
3U  Langk-y  (Herts.) 
,,  (Surrey) 
Leicester 
Lincoln 
London 
Lynn 

Newcastle  (Staflf.) 
Xewcastle-on-Tyne 
Newport  (Monm.) 
Nerthampton 
40  Norwich 
Oxford 
PontptVact 
KliU(iaiau(FUnt) 


Arundel 

Baniborough 

Bani,'or 

Berwick 

Beviilev 

Blil  ur-h  (Suff.) 

Boston 

Brecknock 

Bristol 
10  Canibrid{;e 

CanterbuiT 

Cardiff 

Carlisle 

Chelinsford 

Clie.-ter 

Chichester 

Derby 

Doncaster 

Dunstable 
20  Dimwich  (Suff.) 

Exeter 

Gloucester 

Guildford 

Haverfordwest 
(Pemb.) 

Hereford 

Hull 

Ipswich 

Ivelchester  (Som.) 
So  called  from  the  theatre  (of  which 
Shakespeare  was  co-proprietor)  patched  up  out 
of  some  of  the  ruinous  buildinns  of  the  friary. 


rborous;h 


Shr 


shury 
Maniford 
Sudbury 
Thetford 
50  Truro 
W.irwick 
Wilton 
Winclipster 
Worcester 
YariM  (Yorks) 
Yarmouth 
York 


•302 


DOMINICANS 


DOMINIONS 


the  part  of  the  authoritii-.  ^^llo  perhaps 
■clreadt'cl  in  part  U^st  ci-uilit'f>  uiid  novel- 
ties vliould  i-sur  \v<m\  the  of  these 
■enthii>Ki,-t ic  iiu'iidieaiits,  but  w  liose  con- 
cern tor  tlieir  own  voted  interest  in  and 
monopoly  of  teaching  was  mnch  more 
real.  The  saintly  Albertus  Magnus, 
•entering  the  order  in  the  time  of  the 
second  general,  Jordanus  Saxo,  lectured 
in  the  university  of  Paris  on  the  philo- 
sophy of  Aristotle,  which,  according  to 
Mohler  he  had  the  honour  of  first  making 
thoroughly  comprehensible  to  the  Euro- 
pean intellect.  His famehas  been  eclipsed 
by  that  of  the  still  larger  and  stronger 
mind  of  him  who  was  his  ardent  disciple, 
and  also  a  Dominican,  St.  Thomas  of 
Aquinum.  The  "  Sumnia  Theologiae,"  at 
wliich  the  sciolists  nf  the  last  century 
affected  to  sneer,  has  been  lately  anew 
commended  to  the  respect  of  all  Chris- 
tians, and  the  careful  study  of  the 
clergy,  by  His  Holiness  the  present  Pope. 
The  system  of  St.  Thomas  was  so  vast  as 
to  afford  scope  for  the  labmir  of  many 
commentators  and  explicators,  and  a 
school  lii'iic'  arose,  consisting  chieHy  of 
Dominicans,  named  Thomists.  Francis- 
can theologians,  among  whom  the  chief 
was  Duns  Scotns,  raised  objections  to 
portions  of  tlie  teaching  of  St.  Thomas; 
the  problems  of  Realism  and  Nominalism 
were  imported  into  the  controversy  ;  and 
the  contentions  of  Scotists  and  Thomists, 
taken  up  often  by  men  of  inferior  mental 
calibre,  tended  at  last  to  make  men 
weary  of  the  scholastic  philoso]ihy  alto- 
gether. 

Among  the  numerous  writers  and 
thinkers  ])roduced  by  this  oi-di-r  may  be 
mentioned  first  that  group  of  (^tberi'al 
minded  men,  sonn'tiiiies  i-allcd  tbe'Mipi- 
man  mystics,"  among  whom  the  Master 
Eckliardt  (t  l^L'ilV  .Johannes  Tauler 
(t  1-!G1),  and  tlie  r.l.'-s.'.l  Henry  Suso 
(t  l-'i<!o).  were  all  sons  of  St.  Doniinic. 
St.  liavinond  of  ]^Mmafoi'1,  \\u-  third 
genci-iT  ol'  tlh.  ord.'i-,  will  b.>  eel, .brat ,m1 
to  all  lini-  a>  1  hr  r.u\,\i,.v  „f  th..  canotl 
law.  In  l''r.-iiii  (•  a]-o>r  I '(•t  pr  of  Tarciitaise, 
and  \'iiifi'nt  "t  liiauvai>,  anllini^of  tiiat 
vast  rcjicrtory  of  all  laiowledge  then 
accumulated,  the  "S])(n>ulun)  Majns." 
England  produced  Richard  (Maypole, 
Roi)ert  Holcot,  and  Robert  Kilwardby. 
Andibishop  of  (  'anterbnry.  Thi>  learned 
Cardinal  ('aii')an  beloiia's  to  thi'  ])crio(l 
of  til,'  l;,'r,.ni):ili..,i.  DoTninir  Soto 
(+  !;"■)()()).  fVanci-  a  Vi<^toria.  •iiio  1  •o;.,'iiir 
'!aiine/ (t  l'!04),  were  I'iniiioi,;  ;>i  I'.ico- 
logy  and  public  law.    Las  Casas,  already 


mentioned,  and  Peter  of  Montesino,  be- 
longed to  the  illustrious  band  of  Spanish 
Dominicans  who  followed  at  the  heels  of 
the  conquerors  of  the  New  World,  and 
strove  to  shield  the  Indians  from  their  ra- 
pacity, and  to  open  the  minds  of  their  new 
fellow-subjects  to  the  light  of  Christ. 

With  regard  to  the  present  condition 
of  the  order,  it  may  be  said  that  in  spite 
of  the  injustice  and  violence  of  the  revo- 
lution, which  in  all  the  principal  countries 
of  Europe  has  at  one  time  or  other  ex- 
propriated its  convents  and  silenced  its 
doctors,  it  is  not  altogether  unprosperous 
or  unpromising.  In  France  the  order 
was  restored  about  fifty  yeai-s  ago  })y  the 
devoted  Henri  Lacordaire,  whose  fiery 
words  preached  from  the  pulpit  of  Notre 
Dame  convuiced  an  unbelieving  Paris 
that  a  friars  cowl,  in  the  nineteenth 
century  no  less  than  in  the  thirteenth, 
may  cover  a  robust  and  teeming  brain, 
and  an  indomitable  courage. 

As  early  as  1206,  before  the  foundation 
of  his  order  for  men,  St.  Dominic  had  estab- 
lished a  convent  of  nuns  at  Prouille,  under 
a  modified  form  of  St.  Augustine's  rule. 
Honorius  III.  gave  his  approval,  in  1218, 
to  the  extension  of  the  order  to  women. 
The  Second  Order  of  St.  Dominic  (or 
Dominicanesses,  as  they  came  to  be  called) 
was  one  of  the  strictest  in  the  Church. 
I'esides  the  austerities  which  they  prac- 
tised in  common  with  their  brethren  of 
I  hp  First  Order,  they  were  bound  to  rigid 
cloisti-r  and   to  long  hours  of  prayer. 

but  they  alt erwards  undertook  tht^  educa- 
tion of  yoluig  girls.  Many  canonised 
Saints  have  belonged  to  this  order,  the 
most  famous  being  St.  Agnes  of  Monte- 
pulciano. 

The  Third  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  called 

I  also  the  Brothers  and    Sisters  of  the 
Ri'iiance  of  St,  Dominic,  gri'W  out  of  the 
iiist  it  iitioii  of  iho  "Soldiery  of  Jesus 
Christ,"  ^\■hicll  St.  ]>oiiiiiiic  founded  in 
I  his  lifetime,  for  marrloil  men  who  should 
desire  to  undertake  the  wm-k  of  protect- 
I  ing  the  Church,  )-ei  l;,ininig  her  ancient 
riglits,  recoveriiig  jn'operty  of  which  she 
had  l)een  desjioiled,  and  i-ejiressing  heresy; 
i  and  for  the  wives  of  these  men.    To  this 
1  Third  Order  Ijehwged  the  canonised  saints 
Cathei-ine  of  Sienna  and  Rose  of  Lima, 
and    the   beatified   Colomba   of  Eieti, 
liicriida  of  Sweden,  Sibylla  of  Paira, 
^[art^aret  of  Hungary,  and  many  others. 

1)1  l'ji-l;iiid  there  appear  to  be  at  the 
])re.-ent   time  five  houses  of  friars  (at 
I  llaverstock   Hill,    Woodchester,  New- 


DOMINUS  VuniSCUM 


DOUAY  BIBLE  303 


castle-on-Tyne,  Hinckley,  and  Leicester),  I 
one  convent  of  Dominican  nuns  (at  Caris- 
brook),  and  fifteen  houses  of  Sisters  of 
the  Third  Order  at  various  places.  In 
Ireland  there  appear  to  be  sixteen  Do-  i 
minicnn  priories,  Dominick  Street,  Dublin, 
Limerick,  and  Tralee,  being  among  the  [ 
most  important ;  and  seven  convents  of 
Dominican  nuns,  among  which  is  the 
■well-known  Sienna  convent  at  Drogheda. 
{H^lvot :  Mohler's  "  Kirchengeschichte.") 
I>OI«X»rTrS  VOBISCUIW  ("  The 
Lord  be  with  you")  is,  with  the  "Pax 
Tobis  "  (among  the  Greeks  ftpr/w;  7rao-i)> 
the  common  salutation  in  the  Mass  and 
office.  It  was  adopted  from  the  Jews, 
who  used  it  in  daily  life  (Rutli  ii.  4). 
The  Oriental  liturgies,  except  the  liturgy 
of  St.  Mark,  have  no  "Dominus  vobiscum." 
In  the  West,  on  the  other  hand,  its  use  is 
very  ancient.  A  Council  of  Hippo  in  , 
393  '  forbids  "  readers  "  (lecfores)  to  use  | 
it,  and  at  this  day  no  minister  of  the  j 
Church  below  the  rank  of  deacon  can  do 
so.  Abisluip,afti'rtlie "Gloria in Excelsis" 
on  feast  days,  says  "  Pax  vobis  "  instead 
of  "  Dominus  vobiscum,"  a  custom  men- 
tioned in  a  letter  of  Leo  YIL,  anno  !)37. 
These  salutations  are  used  even  in  private 
'  Mass  or  othce,  and  are  addressed  to  the 
Church,  in  whose  name  her  miiii>ti  rs 
speak,  and  with  whom  they  are  united  in 
spirit. 

i>oia-A.TZosr  of  coTrsTAxr- 
TlJtTi.    '  See  States  of  the  Chukch.] 

BOTtAtisTS.  Heretics  and  .schis- 
matics who  held  (1)  that  the  validity 
of  the  sacraments  depended  on  the  moral 
character  of  the  minister  ;  (2)  that  sinners 
could  not  be  mtnnbers  of  the  Chiircli  and 
could  not  be  tolerated  by  a  tiuc  Church, 
unless  their  sins  were  secret.  The  form<^r 
of  these  errors  was  an  exaggeration  of 
Cyprian's  erroneous  belief  that  baptism 
depended  for  its  validity  on  the  faith  of 
the  minister:  the  latter  was  allied  to 
Novatianism,  though  the  Donatists  did 
not  deny  tlie  Church's  power  to  readmit 
repentant  sinners. 

Mansurius,  Bishop  of  Carthage,  al- 
lowed the  heathen  during  Diocletian's 
persecution  to  destroy  heretical  books 
which  be  left  in  the  church  instead  of 
the  sacred  books  which  they  sought. 
Thereupon,  a  party  of  zealots,  with 
Donatus  of  Casanigra  at  their  head, 
charged  him  with  "  traditio  " — i.e.  with 
the  crime  of  surrendering  the  sacred 
books,  and  so  practically  denying  the 

«  Hefele,  Com  ii.  ii.  p.  5«. 


faith.  Mansurius  died  in  311  aiid  his 
archdeacon,  Caecilian,  was  chosen  and 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Cart  hage.  Seventy 
Numidian  bishops  protested,  asserting, 
among  other  things,  that  Crecilian  had 
been  consecrated  by  a  "traditor"  or 
betrayer  of  the  sacred  bool;s,  ami  so  in- 
validly.  In  his  place  they  clio~.  Afajor- 
inus,  and  on  his  death,  in  .'Sl.j.  Don, i!  us, 
from  whom,  and  from  the  other  Don.itus 
named  above,  the  sect  toitk  its  name. 
The  Bishop  of  Carthage  being  Primas  of 
North  Afi-ica,  the  schism  atfeete'd  the 
wliole  of  that  territory,  and  the  Donatists 
were  s]  ecially  popular  with  the  peasants. 
Coii-t:iiitiue  I'earmg  for  the  unity  ef  the 
empire,  declared  himself  against  the 
sihismatics.  Their  case  was  examined 
by  T'ope  Melchiades,  with  a  commission 
of  three  Galilean  bishops,  at  Rome,  in 
313  ;  in  the  following  year,  at  the  Council 
of  Aries ;  and  by  the  emperor  himself, 
to  whom  the  Donatists  appealed,  at  Milan, 
in  316.  All  these  decisions  were  adverse 
to  the  new  sect;  still  it  spread,  and  in 
3.30  no  less  than  270  Donatist  bishops 
met  in  council,  although  out  of  Africa 
tliey  had  only  two  congregations — one  in 
lionie,  anotlier  in  Spain.  Their  fanati- 
cism rose  to  such  a  pitch  that  crowds  of 
Donatists  carried  devastation  through 
Africa,  uniting  the  coarsest  vices  with  a 
morbid  desire  of  martvrdom,  which  some- 
times led  to  suicide.  Down  to  429,  the 
date  of  the  Vandal  invasion,  the  Christian 
em])ei-o!-s  restrained  the  Donatist  fury  by 
severe  enactments,  but  without  complete 
succt>ss.  Towards  the  close  of  the  fourth 
century  St.  *">ptatus  of  Milevi  wrote  his 
seven  bo<^ks  "  On  the  Schism  of  the 
Donatists,  against  Parmenlus."  the  suc- 
cessor of  Donatus:  from  40(^  ouw.ards 
the  new  Bishop  of  Hippo.  St.  Aueiistlne, 
was  active  in  opposing  them,  and  in  411 
he  met  270  of  their  bishops  in  coiit'erence 
at  Carthage.  The  Donatists  split  up  into 
many  sects.  They  sank  int.i  comparnlive 
insignificance  after  the  Yanfhil  Invasion, 
and  are  heard  of  no  more  after  that  of 
the  Saracens  in  the  seventh  century. 
(From  Kraus,  "  Kirchengeschichte.") 

DOXTAY   BIBXiS.    A    name  com- 

I  monly  given  to  the  translation  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures  cun-ent  among  English- 

j  speaking  Catholics.  The  name  is  mis- 
leading, for,  as  we  shall  presently  see, 

'  the  Bible  was  not  translated  into  English 
at  Douay,  and  only  a  part  of  it  was  pul> 

j  lished  there,  while  the  version  now  in 
use  has  been  so  seriously  altered  that  it 

I  can  scarcely  be  considered  identical  with 


30t  DOI'AY  BIELE 


DOUAY  BIBLE 


that  wliicli  first  went  by  the  name  of  the 
ildiiny  Bible. 

We  hf/m  with  a  history  and  criti- 
cism of  till' Dri^anal  version.  The  College 
of  Doiiay  was  fouiidt  il  in  1568  by  the 
exertions  of  Cardinal  .\llen,  and,  owing 
to  political  troubles,  its  members  a  few 
years  after  its  foiuulatiou  took  refuge  at 
Rheims.  There  they  set  to  work  at  an 
English  version  of  t  he  Bible,  made  from 
the  Vulgate,  but  with  diligent  comparison 
of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts.  The 
divines  chietiy  concerned  in  the  transla- 
tion of  the  New  Testament  were — Dr. 
"William  (afterwards  Cardinal)  Allen, 
Dr.  Gregory  ^Martin,  Dr.  Richard  Bristow, 
and  John  Reynolds,  all  of  them  bred,  at 
the  University  of  Oxford.  Martin  trans- 
lated, the  rest  revised,  Bristow  and  Allen 
wrote  the  annotations.  Martin  also  trans- 
lated the  Old  Testament,  Dr.  AVorthingtou 
furnishing  the  notes.  The  piublication 
was  delayed  by  lack  of  means,  but  in 
15S-;  the  New  Testament  was  published 
at  Rheims,  the  Old  in  1609-10  at  Douay, 
both  in  (juarto.  There  was  a  second 
edition  (ijiiarto)  of  the  Old  Testament  in 
\i>-','>,  of  the  New  (quarto),  with  some 
few  changes,  in  1600;  a  third  edition  of 
the  New  (Khno)  in  1621,  a  fomtli 
(quart..)  in  l(i;5:i,  a  fifth  (folio)  17;iH, 
with  the  sjielling  modernised  and  a  few- 
verbal  alterations ;  a  sixth  (folio")  at 
Liverpool  in  17S8.  In  1816-18  an  edi- 
tion of  the  -wliole  I'ible  appi^ared  in 
Ireland,  in  which  tlie  Rlieinish  text  and 
notes  were  mainly  adojited  tor  the  New 
Testament.  An  'eighth  edition  of  the 
Rhemish  New  Testament,  text  and  notes, 
was  iiubli.-^hed  by  rrote>tants  at  New 
York  (octavo")  in  18.^4.  'I'hiis  there  ha\i' 
been  two  editions  of  the  <  »ld  Tt>>taineiit, 
eight  of  the  New.  aec-i  .i-din-  1  o  t  he  origi  iia  I 
Douay  and  liheinis  version.  Th  i>  \  ei-sion 
comes  to  us  witli  the  recoiniiiendat  ion  of 
certain  divines  in  the  College  and  cathe- 
dral of  Rheims  and  of  the  rniver>ily  of 
Douay.  It  never  had  any  episcopal  im- 
]irimatur,  much  less  any  Papal  approlia- 
tion. 

"What  was  the  value  of  tliis  transla- 
tion of  the  "S'nlgate?  It  certaildy  had 
great  faults,  for  it  is  disfigured  by  un- 
couth and  somet!ni  scarcely  intelligible 
language,  but  it  had  al^o  great  merits, 
which  we  prefer  to  state  In  the  words  of 
the  celebrated  Rrotestant  >cli(diu-,  Dr. 
"Westeott.  >fartin,  he  savs  (and  Martin 
had  the  chief  share  in  the  work),  was 
"  a  scholar  of  di>tinguished  attaiimients, 
both    in   Greek    and    Hebiew."  "The 


scrupulous  or  even  servile  adherence  of 
the  Rhemists  to  tlie  text  of  the  Vulgate 
was  not  without  advantage.  Tliey  fre- 
quently reproduced  with  force  the  original 
order  of  the  (ireeli,  whicli  is  preserved  iu 
the  Latin,  an<l  even  while  many  un- 
pleasant roughnesses  occur,  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  this  version  gained  on 
the  whole  by  the  faithfulness  with  which 
they  endeaviuired  to  keep  the  original 

form  of  the  sacred  writings  Tlie 

same  sjiirit  f)f  anxious  fidelity  to  the 
letter  of  their  text  often  led  the  Rhemists 
to  keep  the  phrase  of  the  original  when 
others  had  abandoned  it.  .  .  .  When  the 
Latin  \\a~  i  inside  of  guiding  them  the 
Rhemists  >eeni  to  have  followed  out  their 
principles  honestly :  but  whenever  it  was 
inadequate  or  ambiguous,  they  had  the 
niceties  of  Greek  at  their  command.  The 
Greek  article  cannot,  as  a  rule,  be  ex- 
pressed in  Latin.  Here,  then,  the  trans- 
lators were  free  to  follow  the  Greek  text, 
and  the  result  is  that  this  critical  point 
of  scliolarshi]!  is  dealt  with  more  satis- 
i'actorily  by  them  than  liy  any  earlier 
traii>lal  or>.  And  it  nnl^t  be  said  that  in 
thi-  iv.-|MTt  al>o  tlie  revi,-ers  of  King 
.Jaine^  /.,'.  the  Protestant  authorised 
\e;>i,in'  were  le>s  accurate  than  the 
i;iienii>ts,  thouah  they  had  their  work 
before  them."  Dr.  Westcott  also  observes 
that  the  Douay  Bible  "furnished  a  large 
proportion  of  the  Latin  words,  which 
King  .lames's  revisers  adojited.''' 

in  the  eit;hteenth  century  two  inde- 
pendent traiL-lations  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment appeand  as  >ul)stitutes  for  the 
i;]ieni;>li,  one  by  Dr.  Cornelius  Nary 
(  17  IS).  ],rie>i  of  St.  Michan's,  Dublin  ;  the 
otliei-  (!7.'!())  by  Dr.  "Witham,  president 

of  l>ouav). 

A    new   epoch  was  made   by  Dr. 

Challoiii  r,  wild  revised  the  Rheims  and 
Doiiav  text,  making  alterations  so  many 
and  so  consiilerable  that  he  may  really 
be  considered  I  he  author  of  a  new  trans- 
lation.     1I1>  .dlief  (ibject  seems  to  liave 

1  n  that  of  makinu  the  h'.nglish  Catholic 

iJilile  niniv  intelllM,!,],.,  ,ind  in  thi.s  he 
has  -iii-eerded.  but,  "  undouliledlv,"  savs 
Cardinal  X.'wiiian,  "  he  has  sacrifici'd 
force  and  \i\idne>s  ill  some  of  his 
chaiij^es."  lie  ajiproxiniates,  according 
to  the  same  ,i lit  liori ty ,  to  the  Protestant 
version.  Dr.  Clialloner,  then  coadjutor 
to  the  Vicar  Apostcdic  of  London,  pub- 
lished tlie  tir>t  edition  of  his  new  Testa- 
ment ill  174U.  of  the  wh(de  Bible  in  1750. 

'  These  extr.icfs  nrc  fmm  Dr.  Westcdtt's 
Ifistori/  of  the  Enylhli  Jiihle. 


DOUBLE 


DOXOLOGY 


305 


In  1752  he  published  the  New  Testament 
again  ;  in  1763-4  the  Bible ;  in  1772  and 
1777  fresh  editions  of  the  Xew  Testa- 
ment. Early  in  1781  he  died,  being  then 
in  his  ninetieth  year.  In  these  editions 
many  variations  occur.  The  notes  are 
Dr.  Challoner's  own. 

Dr.  Chalhiner's  text  was  itself  revised, 
and  fre.-h  altefations  were  introduced  by 
Mr.  McMalion,  a  Dublin  priest,  who  pub- 
Lshed  the  Xew  Testament  in  12mo  anno 
1783,  and  the  whole  Bible  (quarto)  in 
1791.  This  edition  of  the  whole  Bible 
was  undertaken  at  the  request  of  Dr. 
Troy,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  and  by  his 
name  this  te.xt  is  generally  kno\\-n.  In 
1803  and  1810  the  Xew  Testament,  and 
in  1794  the  Bible,  were  reprinted  accord- 
ing to  the  revision  of  Challoner,  which 
was  also  adopted  in  the  Philadelphian 
edition  of  the  Bible,  anno  1805. 

However,  Mr.  ;^IcMahon's  alterations 
are  mostly  confined  to  the  Xew  Testa- 
ment :  the  text  of  the  Old,  in  Cardinal 
Xewman's  words,  "remains  almost  ver- 
batim "  as  Challoner  left  it.  But  subse- 
quent editions  of  the  Xew  Testament 
vary  very  much,  because  the  editors  have 
had"  to  choose  between  this  or  that  of 
Challoner's  three  texts  of  the  Xew  Testa- 
ment and  Dr.  Troy's  text. 

AVe  need  not  follow  the  history  of 
our  English  Bible  further,  for  subsequent 
editions  are  mere  reprints  of  texts  already 
mentioned.  Challoner's  second  edition 
of  the  Bible  (1763)  was  reprinted  at 
Philadelphia  in  1700,  and  this  was  the 
first  Bible  printed  in  .America  for 
English-speaking  Catholics.  We  have, 
however,  still  to  mention  an  independent 
revision  of  the  Rlu  mish  and  Douav  texts 
by  Archbisliop  Kenrick  (Gospels,"  1849  ; 
rest  of  Xew  Testament,  1851 ;  Psalms, 
"Wisdom,  Canticles,  1857  ;  Job  and  the 
Prophets,  1850). 

(Chiefly  from  Cardinal  Xewman's 
Essay  on  the  Rheims  and  Douay  versions 
in  "  "Tracts  Theological  and  Ecclesiast  ical." 
But  Dr.  Westcott  on  the  English  Bible, 
and  Shea's  Bibliograpliical  account  of 
Catholic  Bibles,  Sec,  printed  in  America, 
have  also  been  used.) 

l>ot7BliE.    ".See  Feasts.] 

SOVE  is  frequently  used  as  a  symbol 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  appeared  at 
Christ's  baptism  under  that  form.  The 
custom  of  depicting  the  Holy  Ghost  in 
this  form  is  mentioned  by  St.  Paulinus 
of  Xola,  and  must  have  been  familiar  to 
Eastern  Christians  in  the  sixth  century; 
for  the  clergy  of  Antioch  in  518,  among 


'  other  complaints  made  by  them  to  the 
see  of  Constantinople  against  the  intended 
bishop  Servius,  accuse  him  of  having 

!  removed  the  gold  and  silver  doves  which 

!  hung  over  the  altars  and  font  (<coXv/i- 
^r^Opa)  and  appropriated  tln'm,  on  the 
ground  that  this  symbolism  was  un- 
fitting.'   The  dove  as  a  s_\-mbol  of  the 

I  Holy  Ghost  is  often  placed  in  the  pictures 
of  certain  saints — e.g.  of  Fabian,-  Hilary 
of  Aries,  Medard  of  Xoyon,  &c.  It  is 
also  a  figure  of  innocence,  and  so,  e.g.,  the 
souls  of  SS.  Eulalia  and  Scholastica  are 
represented  as  flying  to  heaven  in  the 
form  of  a  dove.  Lastly,  the  dove  serves 
as  a  figure  of  peace  and  reconciliation 
(see  Gen.  viii.  11). 

A  vase  in  the  form  of  a  dove  (rrfpi- 
a-TTjpiov,  peristerium)  was  in  the  East  and 
in  France  suspended  over  the  altar  and 
used  as  a  repository  for  the  Blessed 
Sacrament.  This  custom  is  mentioned 
by  the  author  of  an  ancient  Life  of  St. 
Basil,  by  St.  Gregory  of  Toui-s,  and  iu 
several  ancient  French  documents.  Mar- 
tene  mentions  that  even  in  his  time  such 
a  tabernacle  was  still  in  use  at  the  church 
of  St.  Maur  des  Fosses.  The  custom 
probably  came  to  France  from  the  East,  for 
it  never  seems  to  have  existed  in  Italy.* 

SOXOX.OC-7.  I.  The  yrcnter  do.t- 
ology  or  "ascription  of  glory"  is  usually 
called,  from  its  initial  words,  the  "Gloria 
in  excelsis.''  It  is  not  mentioned  by  the 
earliest  writers,  but  it  is  found  nearly, 
though  not  quite,  as  we  now  have  it — 
under  the  title  of  "A  Morning  Prayer" — 
in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (vii.  47),  so 
that  it  can  scarcely  have  been  composed, 
as  is  asserted  in  the  "  Chron.  Turonense," 
by  St.  Hilary  of  Poictiers,  and  the  real 
author  is,  as  Cardinal  Bona  says,  un- 
known. It  was  only  by  degrees  that  it 
assumed  its  present  place  in  the  Mass. 
In  Gaul,  according  to  St.  Gregory  of 
Tours,  it  was  recited  after  Mass  in 
thanksgiving.  St.  Benedict  introduced 
it  into  lauds ;  while  it  was  also  recited 
on  occasions  of  public  joy — e.g.  in  the 
Sixth  General  Council.  It  was  sung  at 
Mass  according  to  the  use  of  the  Roman 
Church  first  of  all  on  Christmas  Day — 
during  the  first  Mass,  in  Greek  ;  during 
the  second,  in  Latin.  It  was  of  course  on 
Christmas  night  that  the  first  words  of 
the  "Gloria  in  excelsis"  were  sung  by 
the  angels.    Afterwards  bishops  said  it 

1  Hefele.  Concil.  ii.  p.  771. 
-  For  the  origin  of  this  see  Eusob.  H.  E. 
vi.  29. 

^  S«e  Chardon,  Hisl.  des  Sucr.  vol.  ii.  p.  242. 


300 


dim:  AM  s 


DUEL 


at  Mass  on  Smulaw-  anil  fVait-,  ]>rii'.-{s 
oiily  at  the  Mii>s  of  r.:i>tM-  Siiinlay,  as 
apprars  from  the  Gregorian  Sacramentary. 
This  rule  lasted  till  the  eleventh  century. 
At  present  it  is  said  in  all  Classes,  except 
those  of  the  dead,  of  ferias  which  do 
not  occur  in  thr  Paschal  season — (it  is 
said,  however,  on  Maundy  Thursday) — 
the  Sundays  in  Advent  and  those  from 
Septuaiiesinia  to  Palm  Sunday  inclusive. 
It  is  not  said  in  votive  Masses,  except 
those  of  the  Angels,  and  the  B.  Virgin 
on  Saturday. 

II.  Lesser  doxology — i.e.  "Glory  be 
to  the  Father,"  &c.,  recited  as  a  rule 
after  each  psalm  in  the  office  and  after 
the  "  Judica  "  psalm  in  the  Mass.  Forms 
resembling  it  occur  at  the  end  of  some  of 
the  Acts  of  the  Martyrs — e.g.  those  of 
St.  Polycarp.  St.  Basil  ("  De  Spiritu 
Sancto  ad  S.  Amphilochium,"  which 
work,  however,  is  of  doubtful  authen- 
ticity) defends  the  formula  "Glory  be  to 
the  Father,  and  to  the  Son,  and  to  the 
Holy  Ghost,  '  and  contends  that  its  anti- 
quit}'  is  attested  by  early  Fathers,  Clement 
of  Rome,  Irenseus,  &c.,  and  that  it  is  at 
least  as  ancient  as  the  Arian  form,  "Glory 
be  to  the  Father  in"  or  "through  the 
Son,"'  &c.  Anyhow,  the  former  part  of 
the  Gloria  must  date  as  ftir  back  as  the 
third  or  fourth  century,  and  arose  no 
doubt  from  the  form  of  baptism.  The 
concluding  words,  "  As  it  was  in  the 
beginning,"  are  of  later  origin.  The  Gal- 
ilean Council  of  Vaison,  in  529,  ordered 
their  use,  adding  that  they  had  been 
already  introduced  in  Home,  Italy,  Africa 
and  the  East  against  heretics  who  denied 
the  Son's  eternity.'  And  the  rule  of  St. 
Benedict  contains  directions  for  the  recital 
of  tlie  Ghnia  after  each  psalm.  (Benedict 
XIT.  "  1  )>■  -M  issa,"  Kraus,  art.  Doxologia.) 

SREAms  arise,  according  to  St. 
Thomas  L'i«,  qu.  15,  a.  6),  from  in- 
terior or  exterior  causes.  Among  the 
former  he  euumerati's  the  thoughts  which 
occupied  the  mind  in  waking  hours,  and 
tlie  state  of  the  body.  Among  the  latter, 
the  etfect  produced  on  the  bodily  organs 
by  material  things — e.g.  cold  and  heat, 
sound  or  light,  &c. — and  also  the  influ- 
ence of  good  or  evil  spirits.  It  is  reason- 
able to  l)i'lii'vc  that  (lod  may  speak  to 
the  soul  ilii'Mitjli  dicaiii-,  for  the  influence 
of  (io  l  I'xi.Miil-  t'l  slrrping  as  Well  as  to 
waking  hour.s ;  and  that  (Jod  has  used 
dreams  as  a  means  of  revealing  His  will  [ 
is  fully  attested  by  tin'  Old  and  the  .New  ! 
Testament  (see  Gen.  x\.  3,  7,  xl.  5,  Num. 

»  Hnfele,  Concil.  ii.  p.  7J2.  | 


xii.  6,  ^latt.  ii.  12,  xxvii.  19).  Accord- 
ingly, to  regard  dreams  proceeding  from 
merely  physical  catises  as  indications  of 
a  future  with  which  they  have  no  natural 
connection,  is  superstitious  and  therefore 
sinful.  It  is  also,  of  course,  unlawfid  to 
seek  or  accept  signs  of  future  events  in 
dreams  from  demons.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  there  are  grave  reasons  for  doing 
so,  we  may  lawfully  believe  that  a  dream 
has  been  sent  by  God  for  our  instruction. 
But  it  is  to  be  noted  that  a  disposition  to 
trust  in  dreams  is  always  superstitious, 
for  in  the  Christian  dispensation  there  is 
a  strong  presumption  against  their  use  as 
means  of  foretelling  the  future.  Even 
in  the  Old  Ti'stament  the  greater  number 
of  predictive  dreams  were  given  to  those 
outside  the  Jewish  covenant.  If  given 
to  God's  servants,  they  were  given  to 
them,  as  a  rule,  in  the  period  of  their 
earliest  and  most  imperfect  knowledge  of 
Ilim.'  In  the  New  Testament,  often  as 
we  read  of  ecstasies  and  visions,  dreams 
are  never  mentioned  as  a  vehicle  of  reve- 
lation, and  they  rarely  occur  in  the  lives 
of  the  saints. 

SVBli.  A  fight  between  two  persons 
(or  several  pairs  of  persons),  the  place, 
time,  and  weapons  having  been  previou.sly 
settled  by  mutual  agreement.  In  one 
case  such  an  agreement  is  lawful — viz. 
when  in  time  of  war  such  a  contest  is 
arranged  between  two  or  more  soldiers 
of  the  opposing  armies.  In  such  a  case 
the  duel  may  be  considered  part  of  the 
war,  and  such  duels,  when  the  issue  of 
the  war  has  been  made  to  depend  on 
them,  may  even  be  regarded  as  a  merciful 
way  of  settling  a  public  quarrel. 

In  all  other  cases  duels  are  strictly 
forbidden  by  the  Church.  It  was  the 
custom  among  the  German  nations  to 
permit  accuser  and  accused  to  settle 
their  dispute  by  duel,  and  this  mode  of 
decision  was  looked  upon  as  an  appeal 
to  the  judgment  of  God.  It  was  long 
before  the  Church  could  eradicate  this 
superstition,  and  for  a  time  provincial 
councils  seem  to  have  contented  them- 
selves with  moderating  it.^  However, 
the  Council  of  Valence  (855)  absolutely 
prohibited  duels;  imposing  penance  for 
homicide  on  the  man  who  killed  his 
antagonist,  and  depriving  a  man  slain  in 

1  In  .Joel  ii.  28,  it  has  been  thousrht  th.it 
flroams  mnrk  the  decay,  visions  the  flower  of 

-  .See  the  decrees  of  Dingoltinf;  and  Reuch- 
ing  in  the  pi!;lith  century.  Ilefele,  Omcil. 
vol.  iii.  pp.  till,  6ii. 


DUEL 


EASTER,  FEAST  OF  307 


duel  of  the  Church's  prayers.*  Among 
modern  nations  it  was  long  the  common 

Sractice  to  settle  aflairs  of  honour  by 
uel,  and  against  this  custom  the  Church 
has  vigorously  protested.  Julius  n.  pub- 
lished a  bull  strongly  coudemning  it  in 
1510 ;  while  the  Council  of  Trent  ex- 
communicated all  who  engaged  in  duels, 
and  those  who  counselled  or  promoted 
them,  besides  depriA'ing  persons  who 
died  in  a  duel  of  Christian  burial.  The 
Holy  See  has  condemned  the  excuses 

»  Flenry,  livr.  xlix.  23. 

*  Ibid.  "Contin.  livr.  cxxi.  8L 


which  have  been  made  for  this  detest- 
able practice.  Thus  Benedict  XIV.,  in 
1752,  censured  those  who  taught  that 
a  man  might  accept  a  duel  to  save  his 
reputation  for  courage,  or  to  keep  liis 
post  as  an  officer  in  the  army.  More- 
over, theologians  teach  that  such  excuses 
do  not  save  a  man  from  sin  against  the 
natural  law,  or  from  incurring  ecclesias- 
tical penalties.' 

SVZ.ZA.    [See  CXTLTUS.] 

BYZirC,  PRATERS  FOR.  [See 
CojiMENDATii  N  01  Soul.] 

1  Liguori,  Theol,  Moral,  lib.  iii.  399  seq. 


EASTER,  FEAST  OF.  The  feast 
of  our  Lord's  resurrection.  The  word 
Easter  is  derived  from  that  of  the  Saxon  I 
goddess  Eastre,  the  same  deity  whom  1 
the  Germans  proper  called  Ostara,  and  j 
honoured  (according  to  Grimm,  in  his 
"German  Mythology-")  as  the  divinity  of 
the  dawn.  i3ede  ("  De  Temp.  Rat."  xv.) 
tells  us  that  the  Anglo-Saxons  called  the 
spring-  month  Eost  urmonath,  and  similarly 
Eginhard  ("  Vit.  Car.  Mag."  29)  calls  our 
April,  Ostarmanoth.  Naturally,  there- 
fore, the  German  nations  called  the  great 
Church-feast  which  fell  at  the  beginning 
of  spring  Easter,  and  the  name  continued 
among  us,  like  sucli  names  as  Thursday, 
long  after  the  heathen  goddess  had  been 
forgotten.'  All  Christians,  except  those 
of  the  German  family,  call  the  feast  of 
Christ's  resurrection  by  some  modification 
of  pascha,  the  term  which  the  Church 
herself  uses  in  her  liturg^•.  This  term  is 
of  .Jewish  origin,  and  tlicrefore  we  must  | 
begin  with  a  few  words  on  the  feast  of 
Pasch,  or  Passover,  from  which  the  Chri>- 
tian  feast  is  in  a  certain  sense  derived. ' 

Passover  is  a  literal  translation  of  the 
Hebrew  name  for  the  feast — viz.  nOS  ; 
from  this  we  get  the  Chaldee  Nnps,  and 
from  the  last  the  7ra<rxa  *  or  pasch  of  the 
Xew  Testament  and  of  Christian  writers. 
The  Passover,  then,  or  Pasch,  was  the 
feast  celebrated  on  the  14th  of  Nisan,  in- 

>  Hefcle,  Beitrage.  ii.  p.  285. 

2  Smith's  Diet.  Christ.  Ant.  "Easter." 

3  Many  amoni;  the  e.irlv  Christians,  being 
icrncirant  of  Helirew,  di-rived  it  froni  irrfirxf"'. 
lo  sutler.  This  derivation,  worthless  of  course 
in  itself,  deser\'es  notice,  for  it  influenced  their 
laiyuage  and  ideas  of  the  feast. 


stituted  in  commemoration  of  the  won- 
derful deliverance  which  God  wrought 
for  the  .Jews  on  the  night  of  their  exit 
from  Eo yjit.  The  destroying-  angel  smote 
the  tirst-l)nrn  of  Egypt  but  passed  over 
(np2)  '  the  houses  of  the  Hebrews.  This 
deliverance  was  granted  on  a  certain  con- 
dition. Each  head  of  a  Hebrew  house 
was  to  slay  a  lamb  or  kid  without  blemish 
ou  the  evening  of  Nisan  14.  He  was  to 
sprinkle  its  blood  on  the  lintel  and  side- 
posts  of  the  door.  Afterwards,  the  lamb 
was  to  be  roasted,  no  bone  being  broken, 
and  eaten  with  unleavened  bread  and 
bitter  herbs  by  all  the  family,  no  uncir- 
cumcist'd  person,  however,  being  allowed 
to  partake  of  it,  and  the  least  was  to 
be  observed  year  by  year  as  a  perpetual 
ordinance  of  the  Jewish  people. 

It  is  certain  that  Christ  observed  the 
Passover  the  night  bfl'ore  He  died,  that 
He  made  it  the  occasion  of  instituting  the 
Eucharist,  and  t!iat  lie,  in  His  Passion, 
was  the  true  paschal  laiiilj  pi-eliL'Ui-eil  by 
the  lamb  of  tlie  old  Hel)i-e\v  feast.  Thus 
St.  John  calls  special  attention  tt>  the  I'act 
that  not  a  bone  of  oiu-  Lord  was  brnkeu 
on  the  cross;  and  St.  Paul,  writinjr  prob- 
ably just  before  the  Passover  of  A. D.  58,  in 
his  first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  v.  7,  8, 
says  "  Purge  out  the  old  leaven  that  you 
may  be  a  new  lump,  as  you  are  imleavened ; 
for  also  our  nairxa  or  passover  Christ  has 

1  See  Exod.  xii.  13,  23.  27.  and  cf.  Is.  xxxi. 
,-).  Philo  in  liis  Life  of  Mo,es,\n.  29.  trans- 
lates it  Staffarripia.  Of  course  the  account  of 
the  .lewish  is  merely  meant  as  an  introduction 
to  that  of  the  Christian  feast ;  else  much  would 
liave  to  be  said  of  the  connection  between  the 
Passover  and  the  spring. 


308      EASTER,  FEAST  OF 


EBIONTTES 


been  sacrificed  for  ua.  therefore  let  us  j 
keep  the  feast  .  .  in  the  unleavened 
bread  of  sinceritj^  and  truth."  Christ, 
St.  Paul  argues,  is  the  true  paschal 
lamb,  and  the  life  of  Christians  is  to  be 
a  peii)etual  feast  of  thanksoiviiig-  fur  the 
deliverance  they  have  obtaint'd  by  Christ's 
blood.  .\.s  the  Jews  remcived  leaven  from 
their  h()u>r~  at  tlir  tini.'  of  Passover,  so 
Christ  iaii>  aiv  tn  |ium.  a\\  a\  once  for  all 
the  loavi'ii  of  inalifi'  and  wickedness. 

Tho  crl.  Illation  ot  a  special  Paschal 
or  ]vi>iri  f.  a-i  anioiin-  Christians  goes 
back  to  the  remotest  antiquity,  thong-h  it 
is  impossible  to  determine  the  date  of  its 
introduction.  AMien  St.  Polycaqi  came 
to  Home,  al)out  160,  there  were  two 
modes  prevalent  among  Christians  of 
celebrating  the  Easter,  and  apostolic 
jirecedeiit  was  pleaded  on  each  side.  The 
Roman  ( 'hiireli  and  the  great  maioritv  of 
Clirlstians  eelelirated  the  Pasrli  on 'the 
Sunday  after  Nisan  14 — i.e.  on  tlie  Sun- 
day t'tllowing  the  first  full  moon  after 
the  vernal  (>qiiinox,  because  on  tluit  day 
Christ  rose  again,  finished  the  work  of 
redemption,  and  acconiplislied  our  de- 
liverance from  the  Egyptian  Iximlage  of 
death  and  hell.  But'  besides  this  lea.-t 
they  also  celebrated  on  the  previous  Fri- 
day the  memory  of  Christ's  death,  and 
for  a  long  time  this  latter  day  also  was 
called  Pasch.  Thus,  TertuUiau,  alnuit 
the  year  200,  distinguishes  between  the 
Paseli  on  which  tliere  was  a  strict  olili- 
gation  of  fasting,  and  on  which,  too,  the 
usual  Iviss  of  peace  was  omitted — i.i'.  our 
Gooil  Friday  and  the  other  Pascli,  1  e- 
tweeii  which  and  Pi'iitecost  Christians 
Stood  at  ]irayiT  instead  of  kneeling — i.e. 
our  Ivisiei-  Sunday.'  Later  writers  dis- 
tinguish these  two  days  from  eacli  otiier 
as  the  Pasch  of  tlie  crucifixion  and  ivsiir- 
rectiou  {TTd(T)(a  ardvpamfion  kul  ai'iuTra- 

The  Roman  Church  (  laimed  to  follow 
the  practice  of  St.  Peter  and  St,  Paul  on 
this  matter.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Churcli.'.s  ..f  Asia  Procousularis,  ai.j.eal- 
inir  t.)  the  anthorllv  of  St.  .lolni.  ended 
tilis  time  of  fastino'  and  ke],t  I  lie  I'eaM  ol' 
Passover  or  Pa -cli  :it  lliesanii'  liineasllii> 
Jews — viz,  14  Xisaii — on  whali'\er  day 
it  miglit  fall.  On  this  day,  as  they  main- 
tained,' our  Lord  kejit  the  Pasch  and 

I  Tortull.  De  Orut.  18.  De  Coron.  3. 

-  11. (■  |.eint,  lirnvevcr.  is  very  doulitful. 
Prliiin  I ihr  (irst  thrcp  Gospels  ,ii.|H.ar  to 
iinply  ilii-.  St.  .lohii  seems  to  say  th.'it  Chrisi 
(lied  on  tlu'  day  et  the  Passover — i.e. on  Nisan  14. 
•he  Passover  beginning  on  tlie  evening  of  that 
day. 


instituted  the  Eucharist.  On  the  same 
day,  therefore,  they  ceh'brated  the  me- 
mory of  the  institution  and  of  our  joj-ful 
deliverance  by  Christ's  death.  As  they 
kept  the  Jewish  day,  though  not  the 
Jewish  feast,  they  were  called  "  Obser- 
vants" (rr^pavvTfi),  and  as  this  day  fell 
on  Nisan  14,  they  were  also  called 
"Quartodeciniani."  Polycarp  and  Pope 
Anicet  Us  discussed  the  matter,  and  though 
no  agreement  was  reached,  each  party  was 
alhiwed  to  continue  its  own  custom  in 
pi>ace.  The  matter,  however,  leil  to  sharp 
discussion,  about  100,  between  Pope^'ictor 
and  PolycratesofEphesus,  and  Victor  was 
near  excommunicating  the  Asiatics.  The 
intercession  of  Gallic  bishops,  especially 
Iren;eus,  k-ejit  matters  from  coming  to 
this  ])ass.'  The  Quartodeciman  prac- 
tice was  fiualh'  set  aside  by  the  Nicene 
Council.  The  same  council  settled  fur- 
ther the  way  in  which  Easter  Sunday 
was  to  be  reckoned,  as  has  been  shown 
in  til.'  artiide  Cycle.  (See  Ilefele,  "Con- 
cil."  i.  sc,  X,,/..  -.VIO  .^eq.) 

Ivistei-  IS.  as  St.  Leo  calls  it,  the 

"  feast  ..f  feasts."  ll,,.  Lli-eatest  of  Christian 
solemnities.  1  )o\\  n  to  tie-  l«  elttli  cmturv 
ea_ch  day_in  Faster  week  wt,s  a  holiday 
of  obligation.  At  present  this  is  the  case 
only  with  tlie  first  three  days,  and  now  in 
most  couutries  even  Easter  Mondtiv  and 
Tiiesdav  tire  only  dtiys  of  devotion.'  All 
moveal'ilr  feast's  ;ire  ctilculated  from 
h'asler.  The  jiivful  chtirtictev  of  the  time 
is  marked  in  the  .services ,  ,f  t  lie  Church— 
(■.<j.  liy  the  cliantingof  the  ■•  ^"llli  Aquam" 
instetid  of  the  "  Asper;j-es  "  before  Alass  : 
liy  the  cousttint  repetition  of  the  "  Alle- 
lui"  ill  .Mass  and  ofiice  all  through  the 
Ptisiditil  setisou — i.e.  till  Trinity  Sunday. 
Oil  I'ltister  Sunday  the  otHce  is  verv  short, 

prolon-ed  far  into  tlie  nielit  of  Holy 
Satiirdtiy,  so  thtit,  little  time  was  lelt  for 
tlie  matins  and  Itiiids  of  Fast.'r  Sunday. 

'I'he   s],nlt    olllce    is    COIltillUed  dni-illii'  tile 

week.  l,rol,til,lv,  tis  Penedicl  Xn''.  and 
^ltl^tene  s;,v.  hecatls,.  the  tlfst  dav  det,.,-- 
inlneilll  Ilice  for  thedtlVS  thai  follovsed, 

tmd   lie.-t.iise   there  would  leave    I  n  a 

s],.-cial   in,-onve„i,.,iCe  in  .dianein-  i'  ill  a 
week  «lien  so  nianv  neophytes  had  ju.st 
been  htijai-ed  and   Weiv  taking   pari'  for 
1  the  first   tinf  In  the  lull  ~.  r\ ice  of  the 
I  Cliurch.    (See  lienrdicl  XIV.  "DeFest.") 
EBioiyjiTES.   Judaising  Christians, 
;ind  the  direct  successors  of  the  Judaisers 
whom  St.  I'tiiil  opposed  so  strenuously — 

I  1  Euseb.  H.  E.  V.  24. 


ECSTASY 


EDUCATION  309 


e.g.  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Gaktians.  As  a 
distinct  sect  the  Ebionites  seem  to  have 
made  themselves  first  kno-wn  in  the  reign 
of  Trajan.  Although  they  were  con- 
nected by  origin  with  the  Church  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  had  their  head-quarters  near 
the  Dead  Sea,  they  were  not  confined  to 
Palestine,  but  were  found  in  Rome  and 
probably  also  in  the  other  great  cities  of 
the  empire.  They  held  that  the  Jewish 
law  was  still  binding  on  all  Christians ; 
and,  consequently,  they  rejected  the 
authority  of  St.  Paul,  whiom  they  treated 
as  an  apostate.  Christ,  they  said,  was  a 
mere  man,  the  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary, 
distinguished  by  his  strict  observance  of 
the  law.  It  is  a  probable  conjecture  that 
after  the  final  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
the  Judaisiiig  Christians  received  large 
accessions  from  the  Essenes ;  and,  in  any 
case,  it  is  certain  that  Ebionitism  became 
mixed  up  with  ascetic  and  mystical  ele- 
ments foreign  to  its  original  character. 
According  to  this  mystical  Ebionitism, 
still  existing  in  the  forged  homilies  and 
Recognitions  of  Clement,  the  law  of  Moses 
had  been  corrupted,  and  by  a  capricious 
process  they  continued  to  remove  from  it 
all  that  was  di<tiisteful  to  them,  specially 
the  law  of  sacrifice.  They  held  that  the 
"Word  of  God  had  been  incarnate  in 
several  Christs,  of  whom  Adam  was  the 
first,  Jesus  the  last.  Early  in  the  third 
century,  one  of  the  Ebionites  brought  to 
Rome  the  bonlc  of  Elchasai,  or  "  hidden 
wisdom,"  in  which  the  same  mystical 
Ebionitism  was  propounded.  In  the  fourth 
centurj'  the  Ebionites  were  still  pretty 
numerous  in  eastern  Palestine,  but  in 
the  following  age  they  had  almost  dis- 
appeared. Ciirt'fiiUy  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  Ebionites  are  the  Nazarenes 
whom  Jerome  mentions  as  living  in  his 
time  on  the  east  of  Jordan.  These  latter, 
probably  the  descendants  of  the  old 
Jewi.<h  Christians  of  Jerusalem,  though 
they  observed  the  law,  did  not  lay  it  upon 
others,  admitted  St.  Paul's  authority,  and 
po.ssibly  held  orthodox  doctrine  on  the 
divinity  of  Christ. 

The  name  Ebionite  means  "  poor  "  (Heb. 
D*3r3N),  and  most  likely  was  adopted  to 
indicate  the  Ajjostolic  or  Essene  poverty 
wliich  they  prufessed.  A  founder  called 
"Ebion"  is  an  uncritical  fiction  which 
appears  verv  early.  (Justin,  "  Dial.  c. 
Tryph."  47;"lren.  \.  26:  Euseb.  "H.  E." 
iii.  27  ;  and,  among  modern  books,  Light- 
foot  on  Galatians,  p.  31 1  seq^ 

BCSTASY  (fKCT-Tao-it).  A  State  in 
wliich  a  man  pusses  out  of  himself — i.e. 


I  out  of  that  state  of  cognition  which  is 
natural  to  him.  Ecstasy  is  usually  taken 
as  equivalent  to  rapture,  though  the  word 
rapture,  unlike  ecstasy,  implies  distinctly 
that  the  person  subject  to  it  is  carried 
out  of  his  own  control  and  placed  in  a 
state  which  he  does  not  reach  by  natural 
inclination.  >Such  rapture  ov  ecstasy, 
St.  Thomas  says,  may  proceed  from 
bodily  causes ;  as,  for  example,  if  a  person 
is  alienated  from  his  senses  by  disease; 
or  it  may  be  wrought  by  the  agency  "f 
devils;  or,  lastly,  it  may  come  from  tlie 
Spirit  of  God.'  In  this  last  state,  St. 
Thomas  continues,  a  man,  being  with- 
drawn from  the  senses,  is  raised  to  the 
contemplation  of  supernatural  things 
{spiritif  flirino  elevatus  ad  supeniaturalia 
cum  aliKtractidiie  a  xensibits). 

Sucli  eotasie?  or  raptures  are,  of 
course,  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  and  have  occurred 
in  the  lives  of  many  saints.  In  ecstatic 
prayer,  according  to  a  n)ystical  writer 
(Antony  a  Spiritu  Sancto'),  the  l)n(ly 
seems  as  if  dead,  and  the  sense>  are 
suspended;  but  the  will,  as  St.  Teresa 
points  out,  retaining  full  p-iwi-r  alj- 
sorbed  in  God.  True  rapture  unite-  tlie 
sotd  to  God,  increases  humility,  ^:c.  If 
these  effects  are  not  present  or  are  not 
lasting,  a  director  may  generally  conclude 
that  the  rapture  is  not  supernatural.  Still 
more  may  he  do  so,  if  he  sees  in  the  person 
who  pretends  to  ecstasy  a  love  of  extra- 
ordinarv  gifts  rather  than  of  solid  virtue. 
(St.  Thomas,  "Summ."  1^  2=^,  28,  t>.: 
2*  2»,  175;  St.  Teresa,  "  Autobiog." 
I  Engl.  Transl.  ch.  xx. :  in  which  last  useful 
extracts  from  the  mystics  are  given.) 

ECTRBSXS.  "See  MOXOTHELITES.T 
ESVCATZON'.  The  moral  and  in- 
tellectual discipline  by  which  the  human 
faculties  are  trained  and  t^infolded,  in 
subordination  to  a  certain  end.  If  no 
end  or  object  is  proposed  to  himself  by 
the  educator  beyond  that  of  makini;-  the 
most  of  his  pupil's  faculties,  lie  ilo.'S  not 
educate,  but  merely  int'ni-ins.  I'  li  the 
domain  of  knowledge  exteaul-  in  e\ei-y 
direction  to  infinity;  and  the  pupil  \\  Iim 
;  simply  learns  all  that  his  faculties  enaljl.' 
'  him  to  learn  necessarily  becomes,  unless 
of  a  very  marked  idiosyncrasy,  a  diU't- 
tant.e,  a  sciolist — nn.  who  linows  a  little 
of  everything— hi  >  not  truly  educated. 
Somethino-  like  this  i-  -aid  to  be  the  ob- 
served effect  of  the  training  given  in  the 
'  common  schools  of  the  United  States,  in 
which  no  dominant  idea,  or  one  wl'oMy 
;  inadequate — such  as  that  of  the  greatnes.- 


SIO  EDUCATION 


EDUCATION 


of  the  Republic,  or  the  excellence  of 
democracy — supplies  teachers  and  pupils 
with  a  compass  to  steer  by. 

Education,  however,  may,  and  must, 
be  directed  to  several  ends  simultaneously ; 
for,  as  man  is  a  complex  being,  and  has 
himself  various  ends — e.g.  as  a  subject 
of  God,  as  a  subject  of  Caesar,  as  a 
member  of  a  family,  &c. — so  the  educa- 
tion of  man  must  propose  to  itself  several 
ends.  Of  these  some  one  must  be  chief 
and  paramount,  and  must  direct  the  form 
and  measure  in  which  the  other  ends  are 
to  be  pursued;  otherwise  the  school 
would  be  the  battle-ground  of  inde- 
pendent forces,  each  struggling  for  the 
mastery;  and  the  result  would  be  con- 
fusion. Now,  since  the  object  of  educa- 
tion is  to  form  man,  the  prime  end,  in 
subordination  to  which  it  must  be  con- 
ducted, must  be  identical  with  the  prime 
end  of  man  himself.  Wbat  this  is  we 
learn  from  the  Catechism  :  it  is  to  know 
and  serve  God  in  this  life,  and  to  enjoy 
Him  for  ever  in  the  next.  In  subordina- 
tion to  this  main  end  all  educational  pro- 
cesses are  to  be  can-ied  on.  Human 
beings  ought  to  be  so  educated  that  they 
may  know  God  here,  and  through  that 
knowledge  po>sess  Him  hereafter.  How, 
then,  are  they  to  obtain  this  neces.^arv 
knowledge?  The  Catholic  answer  is, 
that  they  must  seek  and  receive  it  at 
the  hands  of  the  one  divinely-appointed 
and  infallible  witness  of  the  re\x'latioii 
by  which  He  has  made  Himself  known 
to  mankind  —  the  Catholic  and  Roman 
Church.  It  thus  appears  that,  in  the 
logical  order,  the  first  and  higliest  autho- 
rity in  all  that  regards  education  is  the 
Church.  AVith  her  sanction  it  should  be 
commt'need,  and  under  her  superintend- 
ence it  should  be  continued  ;  for  were  her 
intervention  to  be  excluded  at  any  stage, 
there  wiuild  be  danger  lest  those  under 
edueation  canie  to  mistake  one  of  the 
subiirdiiiiite  ends  of  man  for  his  main  end, 
to  tlieir  own  and  others'  detriment. 

.Vt  the  same  time,  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  man  is  a  social  being. 
The  (ijiinidu  of  tile  be>t  Writers  (see,  for 
inst:inee,  I'l'  M;ii>tre'>  examination  of 
Rnn-eaii's  "(iiiiir;it  Siicial")  is,  that 
man  was  (jrigiiuilly  created  mid  adapted 
for  society,  not  tliat  sMciei  \  arose  mit  of 
a  coniproHii^e  lietween  llie  \\  ai  liiii;  i-iij-i- 
ditie>  oC  originally  isolated  savages.  If 
hiMii  iii  >oei.  ty  he  aboriginal,  then  power 
ill  'liaf  nil  t  \  --/.r.  goveninient — is  also 
aboriginal,  since  without  it — man  being 
what  he  is — we  cannot  conceive  it  pos- 


sible for  societv  to  subsist.  This  power, 
St.  Paul  tells" us,'  is  "from  God."  Its 
main  object  is,  to  secure  the  permanence 
and  teni])oral  welfare,  so  far  as  the  cir- 
cumstances admit,  of  the  society  itself 
and  of  each  member  of  the  society.  For 
this  the  power  exists  ;  and  it  is  therefore 
entitled  to  take  all  measures  required  to 
enable  it  to  fulfil  its  functions.  Now,  one 
of  the  conditions  without  which  these 
functions  could  not  be  effectively  dis- 
charaed  is  a  control  over  education.  The 
orgaiil-eil  power  in  societv  —  in  other 
wonls,  the  Slat'' — may  reasonably  require 
that  all  its  citizens  should  early  receive 
that  mental  ni\d  moral  training  which 
may  dispose  them  to  restrain  anti-social 
passions,  to  fibey  the  laws,  and  by  indus- 
try to  promote  their  own  and  the  public 
welfare.  AVhatever  control  over  the 
machinery  of  education  maybe  necessary 
to  secure  the  attainment  of  this  end,  that 
control  the  State  may  reasonably  pretend 
to.  Its  claims  only  become  unjust  and 
oppressive  when,  ignoring  tlie  still  more 
sacred  right  of  tlie  Cliurch  to  secure  in 
education  the  attainment  ot'mnn's  highest 
end,  it  compels  or  tempts  Catholics  to 
place  their  children  in  schools  which  the 
ecclesiastical  authority  luis  not  sanc- 
tioned. The  end  pursued  by  the  Church 
is  primary;  that  pursued  by  the  State 
is  secfindary.  Each  uuiy  justly  demand 
I  that  its  authority  be  recognised;  but  the 
injury  cansed  by  disallowing  the  autho- 
rity of  the  Church  is  moi'e  serious  than 
in  the  contrary  case,  by  how  much  that 
which  atl'ects  man's  eternal  interest  is 
more  important  than  that  which  affects 
his  temporal  interest  only. 

.\  third  authoritv  in  ediU'ation  is  that 
of  the  family,  the  liead  of  which  is  under 
a  moT-al  obligation  to  see  that  all  its 
members  receivt'  sucdi  a  training  as  m;iy 
fit  tlieiii  lo  maintain  their  ]ilace  in  the 
social  liierai-chv  of  their  count  r\-,  ke'ep  up 
all  s..;nid  lamily  tra.litions,  and  -should 
that  be  necessary,  as  in  mo>t  ca-es  il  is — 
earn  their  own  li\ing.  (  'ailioln-  |iareiits 
are,  of  cotirse,  bouml  also  to  .-e  ■  tliai  ilie 
teaching  in  the  schools  to  which  I  hey 
send  their  children  Inis  ecclesiastical 
sanction,  and  to  resist  all  attemjits  to 
make  them  patronise  schools  without 
that  sanction. 

It  thus  appears  that  education  has 
three  princijial  ends — tlie  first  religious, 
the  secoml  political,  the  third  domestic; 
but  that  among  these  the  religious  end 
takes  the  lead  and  dominates  over  the 
'  lioin.  xiii.  1. 


ELECTION 


EMBER  DAYS 


.'511 


other  two,  on  account  of  its  intrinsically 
greater  importance.  And  since,  as  ex- 
plained above,  we  cannot  walk  securely 
in  religion  one  step  exeejit  in  union  witli 
and  obedience  to  the  Church,  every  well- 
instruct  od  Catholic  understands  that  the 
Chun  h  must  preside  over  the  education 
of  Catholics  at  everj-  stage  and  in  every 
branch,  so  far  as  to  see  that  they  are 
sufficiently  instructed  in  their  religion. 
With  regard  to  non-Catholics,  who  in 
modern  times  are  often  mixed  with 
Catholics  in  the  same  school,  the  Church 
accepts  in  practice  what  is  called  the 
"Conscience  Clause."  [See  the  articles 
Schools  and  Uniteesitt,  in  which  the 
practical  means  of  reconciling  the  con- 
current authorities  of  Church  and  State 
in  the  work  M'  education  are  considered.] 

EX.ECTZOIO'.     (1)  [SeePKEDESlIXA- 

Tiox.^  (2)  In  canon  law,  the  act  of 
choosing  a  fit  person  for  a  vacant  post. 
The  form  to  be  observed  is  as  follows. 
.\11  who  are  entitled  to  rote  must  be 
summoned,  under  pain  of  nullity  if  a 
third  })art  of  the  electors  are  passed  over. 
Those  who  are  unable  to  attend  may  send 
a  procurator.  The  actual  choice  may  be 
made  in  one  of  thi-ee  ways:  by  inspiration 
[see  AccLAM.\Tiox[,  by  scrutiny,  or  by 
compromise.  Tlie  second,  which  is  that 
most  commonly  used,  must  be  conducted 
according  to  fixed  rules.-  Three  members 
jhoulil  ]iv  niuuiiiMted  to  act  as  scrutineers, 
to  collect  the  votes  and  to  publish  the 
result.  The  votes  are  given  secretly  by 
word  of  mouth  or  on  slips  of  ]iap('r,  and 
must  be  absolute.  The  candidate  who 
has  obtained  the  votes  of  the  majority 
present  is  considered  to  have  gained.  It 
should  be  noted  that  ii  mere  majority  is 
not  enough.  Thus,  if  one  candidate  ob- 
tains eight  votes,  another  seven,  and 
another  three,  no  one  has  the  requisite 
majority  ;  but  the  voting  must  be  re- 
newed until  one  of  them  ol)tains  at  least 
ten  votes.  AVhen  at  length  the  number 
has  been  reached,  the  choice  is  made  in 
the  name  of  the  whole  body.  An  election 
by  compromise  is  eflected  by  selecting,  in 
the  first  instance,  an  arbitrator  or  com- 
promiser, to  whom  the  electoral  body 
gives  the  power  of  choosing.  [See  Cox- 
clave.] 

fiXiEVATZOXr.  The  Church  has 
adored  the  Blessed  Sacrament  from  the 
time  of  its  institution.  St.  Ambrose 
says,  "AYe  adore  in  the  mysteries  the 
flesh  of  Christ,  which  the  Apostles 
adored."  "No  one  eats  that  flesh."  says 
St.  Augustine,  "without  first  adoring 


it."  *  But  the  outward  signs  by  which 
the  Church  has  expressed  this  adoration 
have  not  always  been  the  same. 

In  the  Greek  liturgies  the  elevation  of 
the  Eucharist  takes  place  shortly  before 
the  communion.  Ancient  authors  tell  u» 
how  at  the  elevation  the  curtains  which 
concealed  the  sanctuary  during  the  rest 
of  the  canon  were  drawn  aside  and  the 
sacred  mysteries  presented  by  the  priest 
for  the  adoration  of  the  faithful.  For- 
merly in  the  Latin  Mass  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  was  elevated  only  at  the 
words"(5?«?»'.s  Iiono7-  et  f;loria"  just  before 
the  "Pater  Nnster."  This  is  now  usually 
known  as  "  the  little  elevation."  The  ele- 
vation of  host  and  chalice  immediately 
after  consecration  was  introduced  in 
detestation  of  the  d.  iiial  of  transubstan- 
tiation  l}y  r..ienparius.  It  seems  to 
have  bt'gun  about  IIUO,  for  the  ancient 
OrdiiU's  Eomani  and  the  liturgical  writers 
Amalarius,  Walafrid,  and  the  author  of 
the  "  Microjou-u.-  "  are  silent  concerning 
it.  Even  after  1100  it  was  the  host  only 
which  was  elevated  in  some  churches, 
and,  indeed,  according  to  Benedict  XIY., 
the  Carthusian-  still  adhere  to  this  old 
custom  of  elevating  the  host  only  after 
consecration.  The  further  custom  of 
ringing  a  small  bell  at  the  elevation 
began  in  France  during  the  twelfth 
centui-v,  was  introduced  into  Germanv 
in  1203  by  Cardinal  Giii,  legate  of  the 
Holy  See,  and  is  enjoined  in  several 
English  eoiineils.  About  the  same  time 
the  rinijiiiij  of  tlie  large  bell  at  the  con- 
ventual Ma>s  was  ordered  in  the  statutes 
of  some  monastic  orders.  Ivo  of  Chart  res, 
who  died  in  1115,  congratulates  Maud, 
Queen  of  Kiii;land,  on  having  presented 
the  chureh  of  Our  Lady  at  Chartres 
with  bells  which  were  rung  at  the  conse- 
cration. (From  Le  Brun,  "Explication 
des  Ceremonies  de  la  Messe ;  "  and  Bene- 
dict XIY.  "  1)..  Miss.'-) 

EMBER  -DArrs"  (qnattnor  tempora). 
The  ^Ve,llleMh,v,  Fridav,  and  Saturdav 
whieh  f.illow  ■December  1.'!,  tlie  First 
Sunday  in  Lent,  Pentecost,  and  Septem- 
ber 14  (Exaltation  of  the  Cross),  are 

1  Amtiros.  J)e  Splr.  San.  iii.  12.  Ausjust. 
In  Ps.  .Tcvlii..  apufi  Le  Bruii. 

2  It  may  be  reirarde  l  as  nearly  certain  that 
the  En.i;lish  word  is  not  derived  from  '■  emlior," 
in  tlie  sense  of  ashes.    It  may  coiiie  troin  the 

:  An^lo-Saxon  ymhren.  a  rcveliitieti  .  r  circuit. 
But  more  pvolmhly  it  is.T  corruption  of  the  Latin 
quatttior  lem/mni.  Tlie  Diil.h  Qiinhrlimrer, 
German  Qmitemher.  Oani-li  Ki  UttmU-r.  exhibit 
the  corruption  in  its  process.  (From  Smith  i.nd 
Checthain.) 


312  EMBOLISMUS 


EMriRE,  THE  HOLY  TtOMAN 


days  of  fasting,  and  are  called  in  English 
Ember  Days,  in  the  Breviary  and  Missal 
"  Quattuor  Tempora,"  because  these  days 
of  fasting  recur  in  each  quarter  of  the 
year.  The  Ember  Days  were  observed 
at  Rome  in  St.  Augustine's  time — nay, 
so  ancient  was  the  practice  of  observing 
them  in  that  city  that  St.  Leo  ascribes 
an  Apostolic  origin  to  the  fast.  The 
same  Pope  says  the  object  of  the  fast 
is  that  we  may  purify  our  souls  and  do 
penaiK'f  we  bcn'in  each  quarter  of  the 
vear.  TIih  fa>t  was  introduced  here  bv 
St.  Auaustmt'.  tlu.  Apostle  of  England. 
At  Hist  till-  weeks  in  which  the  Ember 
Days  oci-iir  were  not  definitely  fixed,  and 
even  in  the  eleventh  century  a  German 
council  s])eaks  of  the  Ember  fast  as 
jcjiiuium  incertmn.  According  to  ancient 
custom  the  clergy  are  ordained  only  on 
the  Saturdays  of  the  Ember  weeks,  while 
the  whole  Church  fosts  and  prays.  (See 
Act^  xiii.  ad  init.) 

EMBOX.XSMVS  (also  Emhoh's  and 
Eviholum).  Literally,  a  pi-ayei'  "  tlirown 
in'"  or  "intercalated."  It  cun.-ists  in  an 
extension  of  the  last  clause  in  the  l.nrd's 
Prayer,  "Libera  nos  a  malo,"  and  (jccui- 
in  all  the  liturgies,  Roman.  3)i>7.ir,iliie, 
Gallican,  Greek,  Coptic,  Armenian,  \-c. 
In  the  Eastern  litui'gies  it  occnis  im- 
mediately before  the  communion:  in  tlie 
Roman  Mass,  the  embolismus  (■' Llhefa 
nos,  quaesumus,  Domine  '")  is  t'ollowed  h\ 
the  breaking  of  the  host,  the  Pax  \\  ilh 
the  accompanying  prayer,  two  ])i-n)  ers  in 
preparation  for  communion,  and  then  by 
the  eommimion  itself. 

Embolismus  is  also  used  by  some 
meilicTval  writei>  instead  of  Epact. 
(Krans,  "  Peal-lvicvcl  ") 

ElVIIK-EN-CE  (title  of  a  Cardinal). 
Befire  tlie  Canlinal-  oj  the  hnlv 

Roman  Chnivh  were  a.hlP'sse.l  l,v  the 
title,  nf  Mo-t  lllusli-i()ii>  ■•  and  '-'Yonr 
mo-t  illii^lnnns  i  ,or,l>hi  )>  "  {(l,n„i,,r  I  i,,) : 
but  m  thai  .\.vr  r,l,;,n  VIll.,  h\  a  con- 
.-^istorial   Wrerre.  ami  ronlirmed 

the  report  of  lii.-  (  'on-f.r::i  ion  of  liites, 
recomni'-nilini;'  (hat  the  tilh's  ''Most 
Eminent  "  anil  "  "^'^nr  haniiience  "  ^hoiiM 
for  the  tntiiv  be  >nli-t  it  nl  i  foi-  the 
above,  and  stri'  ily  c-ontinrd  i  willi  llie 
sole  exe  '|ilion  of  tile  Master  el'  th  ■  Hos- 
pital ..r  SI.  .lohn  of  .Tenisah'in)  to  tlie 
Cardinals,  so  tliat.  on  tlie  one  hand,  if 
anyone,  hin\e\(  i-  highly  jilaeeil  (those  of 
imperial  and  royal  nod;  excrpt  ,.d),  should 
address  a  Cardinal  hy  any  olln'r  title,  no 
notice  slionld  be  taken  of  his  letter,  and, 
on  the  other,  any  prelate  of  whatever 


ranic,  assuming  these  titles,  was  to  be 
under  the  displeasure  of  the  Roman 
Pontiff,  and  liable  to  various  severe 
penalties.    (Ferraris,  Caidlnahs,  art.  '2.) 

EMPIRE,  THE  HOX.Y  ROIVXAXI'. 
The  empire  founded  by  Charlemagne 
with  the  aid  of  the  Roman  Pontilfs  had 
come  to  nothing  through  the  degeneracy 
of  his  descendants.  In  90:2  it  was  re- 
vived, through  the  coronation  of  (Jth'>  I. 
King  of  Germany,  by  Pope  .John  XII., 
aud  this  was  called  the  transfer  of  the 
empire  I'roin  the  Eranks  to  the  (irianans 
(tranxidtio  imperii  a  Fra/uix  ad  fu-r- 
mnnos).  The  institution  so  founded 
lasted  for  eight  centuries  and  a  half,  and 
in  the  course  of  ages  German  publicists, 
meditating  upon  its  theoiT  and  its  powers, 
invented  for  it  th(>  above  designation.  It 
was  the  liomnn  empire,  for  it  represented 
iind  revived  the  Empire  of  Charlemague, 
xvhich  again,  according  to  the  ideas  of 
Latin  Christendom,  represented  and  re- 
placed the  old  Byzantine  empire,  which 
had  fallen  into  heresy.  It  was  also  the 
//"///  1  Ionian  emjiire,  and  this  not  merely 
liecMii-e  it  was  erected  with  the  bene- 
da-iion  of  the  Roman  Pontiif,  but  also 
111  l  aiisr.  w  hereas  the  old  Roman  empire 
was  Paijaii.  this  was  Christian,  and  was 
bound  to  use  that  universal  dominion 
which  it  had  inherited  in  theory  from 
I'auaii  lionie  fir  the  extension  of  the 
kii  -doin  ot  .Jesus  Christ — that  is,  of  the 
Caiholii-  Church.  As  the  Church  was 
one,  iioi  niaiiy.  and  knew  but  one  head 
on  earth,  the"  siieeessor  of  St.  Pe-ter,  to 
^\  lioiii  all  nation-  and  all  individuals  were 
(If  j/'i-r  Mdiject  in  their  spiritual  concerns, 
so,  aceonliiiL''  to  these  reasoners,  all  tem- 
poral doniinioii  was  of  right  summed  up 
in  the  one  emjiire,  governed  by  the  one 
eniperor,  under  whom,  as  his  viceregents, 
the  kines  of  the  nations  ruled  in  their 
re-]ieetive  coiintries.  It  is  nt^edless  to 
reniarlc  that  this  lirilliant  generalisation 
scaveely  enier^'ed  out  of  the  region  of 
theory;  that  it  \\a-  la-ver  countenanced 
bv  the  Po])es  :  and  I  hat  the  km-.y  if  the 

(loths.  who-.'  ancestors  had  never  been 
sid  i iiL'ated  t)v  the  lionians.  were  not 
likely  to  surrender  an  atom  (d' their  inde- 
jiendeiiee  in  deteivnee  to  this  figment  of 
Ghibidline  lawyers.  Yi't  so  ea]iti\ating 
was  the  idea  to  the  niedi:e\al  mind,  that 
special  protests  were  sometimes  deemed 
necessary,  as  in  the  casi'  of  the  Emperor 
Sigismund's  visit  to  England  iu  1410, 
when  as  his  ship  lay  otf  the  shore  at 
Dover,  and  he  was  preparing  to  land. 


ENCLOSURE 


EXCRATIT^  313 


the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  by  Henry  V.'s 
order,  rode  into  the  water  with  his 
sword  drawn,  and  "inquired  wliether 
the  imperial  strang-er  meant  to  exerci«i' 
or  claim  any  authority  or  jurisdiction  in 
England."  '  Tlie  answer  being  in  the 
negative,  he  was  allowed  to  land. 

The  crown  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire 
was  elective,  this  being  deemed,  probably 
from  the  example  of  Pajjal  elections,  a 
more  august  mode  of  appointment  than 
hereditary  descent.  The  electors  for  a 
long  period  were  sevi^n  in  number,  four 
secular  princes,  and  three  ecclesiastical ; 
afterwards  they  became  eight,  and  finally 
nine.  Nevertheless  the  imperial  crown 
tended  to  become  hereditary,  and  from 
the  ii(c.'s>i(iii  nf  Albert  in  1437  to  the 
end  th.'  only  emperors  not  of  the  house 
of  Iliipsbiirg  were  Charles  VII.  and 
Francis  I.  The  first  Napoleon,  ainiiug 
at  reviving  in  his  own  pcisdii  the  emjiire 
of  C^harlemag-ne.  insisted  after  Austerlitz 
on  the  suppression  of  the  ancient  title  ; 
this  was  done  in  180(5,  the  reigning  em- 
peror taking  the  title  of  Emperor  of 
Austria. 

STTCXiOSVRE  {clausura).  Enclo- 
sure is  that  rule  of  the  Church  which 
separates  a  convent  from  tlie  world  liy 
the  prohibition  or  ivsl  I'irt  ion  of  inler- 
Cnurse  with  ]ievsoiis  outside  its  walls. 
From  the  nature  ol'  tlie  <  ase,  since  preach- 
ing and  other  aeti\e  niinistei-ial  duties 
are  incompatible  with  enclosure,  only  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  miiI^i-s  of  men 
observe  it;  and  in  tlie  ea-^'  of  tla-.'  if 
relates  principally  to  the  ailnii~-iMii  i)f 
women  to  the  interior  of  the  nKnia-ti  i-v . 
Hence  the  term  is  connnrinly  n-'  il  nf 
nunneries  i-ather  than  of  the  con\ents  of 
men.  The  Church  desires  that  the  en- 
trance of  any  jierson  into  religion  should 
be  bis  or  her  free  and  voluntary  act,  done 
with  a  pure  intention:  .and  she  enjoins 
that  a  postulant  of  lender  years  lie  closely 
examined  on  these  points  li\-  the  laslio]).-^ 
She  will  not  allow  a  post nlaiit  of  .  iilin- 
sex  to  be  professed  liefore  thr  enni|)l.  t  a  ni 
of  the  sixteenth  year,  and  at  least  a  year 
■of  probation,  after  taking  the  habit,  must 
precede  the  profession.-'  Having  thus 
provided,  so  far  as  i)ossil)le,  that  jiersons 
of  weak  resolution  and  unstable  cliavaeti'r 
shall  not  be  professed,  she  sun hmmIs 
them,  wlien  once  professed,  with  ngdrons 
safeguards,  with  a  view  to  minimise  to 

1  Liugard,  vol.  iii.  p.  249. 

2  Cone.  Tricl.  Sess.  xxv.  De  Reg.  et  Mon. 
17.  IS. 

5  i6/V/.  c.  15. 


I  the  utmost  that  peril  of  inconstancy  to 
which  frail  human  nature  is  ever  liable. 
The  Council  of  Trent  ordered  that  where 
the  enclosure  of  nuns  had  been  broken, 
it  should  be  restored  by  the  bishops,  who 
were  for  the  future  to  maintain  it  most 
strictly.  "  Let  it  not  be  lawful  for  any 
nun  after  her  profession  to  go  out  of  her 
convent,  even  for  a  short  time,  on  any 
I  pretext  whatever,  except  for  some  legiti- 
)  mate  cause  to  be  approved  by  the  bishop, 
'  notwithstanding  any  indults  and  privi- 
leges whatsoever.  And  let  no  persons, 
[  whatever  be  their  rank,  condition,  sex, 
j  or  age,  be  allowed  to  enter  within  the 
enclosed  part  of  the  convent  unless  with 
the  leave  of  the  bishop  or  superior,  given 
in  writing,  under  pain  of  incurring  ex- 
communication ipso  fncto^  '  The  "  legi- 
timate cause"  was  interpreted  to  extend 
only  to  three  things — fire,  lepro,sy,  or 
some  epidemic  disease  ;  but  according  to 
T.arljosa  other  grounds  are  admissilde: 
for  instance,  the  danger,  in  time  of  war, 
of  a  convent  falling  into  the  hands  of  an 
undisciplined  soldiery.  The  prohibition 
against  anyone  ent(>ring  the  convent  pre- 
vents the  chaplain  or  any  other  priest 
from  entering  the  part  of  the  church 
^\-liere  the  nuns  sing,  and  requires  that 
even  the  bishop,  when  the  nuns  are 
(dect inu' an  abbess  or  other  functionary, 
shall  take  their  votes  at  the  grate  and 
not  elsewhere.  But  there  are  certain 
cases  of  necessary  exception :  as  when  a 
nun  is  too  ill  to  go  to  the  confessional  in 
the  church,  in  which  case  the  confessor 
must  go  to  her  cell  and  the  sacraments 
mn-t  bt>  taken  to  her;  medical  men  and 
surjedns  have  also  to  be  admitted,  and 
some  persons  of  the  tradesman  class;  hut 
these  must  always  be  accompanied  by 
two  of  the  older  nuns.  A  bishoj)  has 
])Ower  to  order  that  no  one  shall  go  to  a 
iinniiery,  even  for  the  pur])o>e  of  con-\'er- 
safion  at  the  grille,  unless  with  his  or 
his  commissarv's  pi'rmissioii.  (Ferraris, 

It  is,  however,  inijiortant  to  note  that 
the  legislation  ol'  tlu'  Church  on  enclo- 
sure applies,  in  its  full  striefne~-,  onlv  to 
the  monasteries  of  real  "  nmninlr.^."  and 
not  to  the  numerous  ni(i<lern  congrega- 
tions of  women  bound  by  simple  vows, 
\\  hose  convents  are  more  properly  called 
C(i7i>t('7-vafnria. 

EN'CRATIT.S:  (eyKpciTe'ii,  iyKpixrl.- 
Tai).  A  (iiiostic  sect  foundi>d  hy  Tat  ian 
in  the  latter  ]iart  of  the  si'coud  century. 

1  Coiifil.  Trid.  Sess.  xxv.  De  Keg.  et  Mon. 
c.  5. 


314 


ENCYCLICAL 


ENDC^YMENT 


Tatian  was  by  birth  an  Assyrian,  taught 
rhetoric  at  Rome  and  became  a  Christian 
under  the  influence  of  Justin  Martyr. 
After  Justin's  death  his  exaggerated 
theories  on  the  evil  inherent  in  matter 
led  into  definite  heresy.  According  to 
LeniBus  (i.  28),  he  adopted  a  fanciful 
system  of  "  aeons "  similar  to  that  of  i 
A'alentinus  and  Clement  of  Alexandria 
("  Strom."  iii.  p.  548,  ed.  Potter) ;  he  be- 
longed to  the  class  of  anti-Jewish 
Gnostics — i.e.  he  denied  the  divine  origin 
of  the  Mosaic  law.  He  denounced  mar- 
riage as  impurity,  and  made  his  followers 
abstain  from  animal  food.  Hence  the 
name  Encratites  or  "Continent."  This 
false  asceticism,  which  had  its  origin  in 
the  East,  was  widely  diftused  in  early 
times,  so  that  we  need  not  be  surprised  to 
hear  of  "Encratites"  or  false  ascetics 
who  may  really  have  had  no  connection 
with  Tatian.  Such  were  the  Aquarii  or 
vBpouapaa-TaTai,  SO  called  because,  regard- 
ing wine  as  evil,  they  would  use  water 
only  in  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist. 
(Neander,  "  Kirchengeschichte,"  ii.  p. 
157.) 

EM-CYCXiZCAIi  (litera  enq/dica:). 
A  circular  letter.  In  the  ecclesiastical 
sense,  an  encyclical  is  a  letter  addressed 
by  the  Pope  to  all  the  bishops  in  com- 
munion with  him,  in  which  he  condemns 
prevalent  errors,  or  informs  them  of  im- 
pediments which  persecution,  or  perverse  I 
legislation  or  administration,  opposes  in 
particular  countries  to  the  fulfilment  by 
the  Church  of  her  divine  mission,  or  ex- 
plains the  line  of  conduct  which  Christians 
ought  to  take  in  reference  to  urgent 
practical  questions,  such  as  education,  or 
the  relations  between  Church  and  State, 
or  the  liberty  of  the  Apostolic  See.  En- 
cyclicals are  "  published  for  the  whole 
Church,  and  addressed  directly  to  the 
bif^hops,  under  circumstances  which  are 
afflicting  to  the  entire  Catholic  body ; 
while  briefs  and  bulls  are  determined  by 
circumstances  more  particular  in  their 
nature,  and  have  a  more  special  destina- 
tion."* 

In  early  times  the  use  of  the  term 
was  not  restricted  as  at  present;  thus 
the  well-known  letter  of  the  Church  of 
Smyrna,  describing  the  martyrdom  of 
Polycai-p  is  headed  'EtticttoX^  (yKVKXiKos, 
a  circular  letter ;  and  the  same  designa- 
tion was  given  by  St.  Cyprian  to  his 
letters  on  the  Lapsi.   (Ferraris,  Epistoke, 

EN'S  OP  nTAir.  [See  Beatiti'de.] 
'  Art.  by  Dux,  in  Wetzer  and  Welte. 


EM'S    OF    THE    WOBX.D.  [See 

Last  Thi>mis. 

ENSOWMEM'T  (Fr.  dotation,  Ger. 
Begabuny).  Any  property  permanently 
set  apart,  in  order  that  its  annual  profits 
may  contribute  to  the  support  of  some 
institution  of  public  utility  or  recreation, 
1  is  an  endowment  of  that  institution.  An 
ecclesiastical  endowment  is  such  property 
set  apart  for  the  support  of  a  church,  or 
of  some  institution  the  management  of 
whicli  is  in  ecclesiastical  hands.  From 
the  fifth  century  the  Church  began  to  be 
richly  endowed,  chiefly  with  lands ;  at  a 
later  period  lordships  and  jurisdictions 
were  showered  upon  her,  especially  in 
Germany,  where  the  three  Prince  Bishops 
of  Cologne,  Mainz,  and  Treves  were  Elec- 
tors of  the  German  empire.  Our  own 
forefathers,  alike  in  Saxon  and  Norman 
times,  were  full  of  a  generous  zeal  to 
secure  by  endowments  the  services  of  a 
permanent  priesthood,  and  to  provide  for 
the  competent  or  splendid  celebration  of 
the  divine  worship.  A  consideraljle  part 
of  the  provision  thus  made  was  confiscated 
and  squandered  during  the  Reformation  ; 
what  remained  was,  by  the  efiect  of  the 
Acts  of  LTi,if(„-n^ity  Supremacy, 
transferred  to  tlie  Anglican  body,  and  is 
still  enjoyed  by  them.  The  calamities 
and  Dppri'ssions  under  which  English 
Cathiilics  have  existed  during  the  last 
three  centuries,  have,  till  recent  times, 
tludwn  great  obstacles  in  the  way  of  a 
renewed  How  of  endowments.  Yet  such 
instances  are  not  quite  unknown ;  we 
could  mention  a  pious  couple  near  Kendal, 
who  bequeathed  a  good  estate  two  or  three 
generations  ago  to  found  a  permanent 
mission  in  order  to  "  evangelise  the 
dales  ;  "  and  there  must  be  similar  cases 
in  other  counties.  In  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land, no  less  than  in  England,  the  old 
endowments  belonging  to  the  Catholic 
Church  lia\.;been  either  lost  or  diverted 
from  their  original  destination.  In  Scot- 
land, through  tlie  extraordinary  influence 
of  Knox  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
greater  part  of  the  population  embraced 
the  heresy  of  Calvin,  and  the  Presby- 
terians of  the  "  Established  Kirk  still 
enjoy  what  is  left  of  the  ancient  endow- 
ments. In  Ireland,  the  Protestant  Church, 
to  which  the  power  of  England  trans- 
ferred the  tithes  and  Church  lands  at  the 
Reformation,  was  disestablished  and  no- 
minally disendowed  by  the  Act  of  1869; 
but  the  compensations  were  calculated  on 
so  liberal  a  scale  as  almost  to  amount  to 
re-endowment. 


EXERGUMEN 


ENGLISH  CHURCH  .315 


EXTERCVMEXr  {('vepyoifjitvos  —  i.e. 
worked  iipon,  as  by  a  demon).  A  word 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  early  Christian 
literature.  The  energumens  coiTespond 
to  the  per.ions  "  possessed  by  a  demon  " 
{8aiiJL0vt(dfi(i'oi),  "tormented"  (eVo;^Xov- 
fxfvoi),  "  oveq).-nvered  by  the  devil"  (xara- 

liiwacrT€v6fifvoi  vttO  tov  S(a/36Xov),  "with 
an  unclean  spirit  "  (rrvfO/ia  aKadaprov 
e^oi^ey),  who  are  mentioned  in  Matt, 
iv.  24,  Luc.  vi.  18,  Acts  x.  38,  Acts 
viii.  7,  and  elsewhere  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. In  ecclesiastical  language  the 
energumens  are  also  called  "  demoniacs," 
"  possessed  of  the  devil  "  {8atpovt6\rin- 
Tot) ;  and,  among  the  Latins,  "  arrepti  " 
and  "  arreptitii,"  sc.  "  a  daemone."  We 
also  find  {e.g.  in  "  Constit.  Ap."  viii.  12) 
the  word  ;jfft/iafo;:ifi/ot— «.e.  "the  storm- 
tossed."  The  Church  derived  her  belief 
in  demoniacal  possession  from  the  words 
of  Christ,  who  {e.(/.  in  Matt.  xii.  22  seq.) 
expressly  appeals  to  the  fact  of  his  driving 
out  the  devil  from  the  possessed  as  a 
proof  of  his  divine  mission.  The  Apo- 
logists generally  prove  the  divinity  of 
the  Christian  religion  by  the  power  wliich 
the  Church  had  to  heal  the  possessed  ; 
and  among  these  Apologists,  Tertullian, 
"Ad  Soap."  2,  speaks  of  the  healing 
power  as  a  fact  generally  recognised  and 
of  daily  occurrence. 

The  number  of  p.xvfssed  persons,  or 
energumens,  in  the  em-ly  Church  origi- 
nated a  regular  diseipline  with  regard  to 
them.  This  discipline'  liegan  in  the  third 
century,  died  out  in  the  East  in  the 
course  of  the  following,  while  in  Spain 
it  continued  in  force  till  the  seventh 
century.  The  energumens  were  divided 
into  baptised  and  catechumens,^  the 
former  being  examined  (to  ascertain  the 
reality  of  the  possession)  at  the  altar, 
the  latter  outside  of  the  church.  Their 
names  were  put  in  a  register,  they  were 
maintained  at  the  expense  of  the  Chris- 
tian cominiuiity,  and  had  dwellings  as- 
signed them  near  the  church.^  They 
were  set  to  work — e.g.  in  sweeping  the 
church'  —  and  led  a  penitential  life. 
Sometimes  the  exorcist,  with  the  bishop's 
approval,  exorcised  them  privately  *  ; 
>onietimes  the  ceremony  was  performed, 
by  the  bishop  liimself  assisted  by  his 
clergy,  after  the  "  Mass  of  the  Catechu- 
mens," with  prayer,  the  sign  of  the  cross, 
and  laying  on  of  hands.    Other  means  of 

'  Ariuii.  i.  can.  14,  15. 

»  Coiicil.  Carthajr.  iv.  can.  92. 

»  JIml.  can.  91. 

*  Cuicil.  I.ao.!.  can.  26. 


exorcism  —  e.g.  application  of  blessed 
water  and  salt,  of  spittle,  breathing  upon 
them  (exsi'fflatio,  insvfflati'i),  in  some 
places  anointing,  were  also  used. 

The  older  practice  was  to  debar  ener- 
gumen.s,  except  at  death,  from  all  the 
sacraments  till  they  were  cured,'  but  the 
Council  of  Orange,  in  441,  admitted  them 
to  the  sacraments  of  Baptism  and  the 
Eucharist,  if  they  behaved  peaceably. - 
They  ^\-ere  of  course  excluded  from  ordi- 
nation, or,  if  ordained,  from  exercising 
their  orders  till  their  recovery  was 
thoroughly  proved.  It  is  impossible  to 
say  for  certain  where  they  were  placed 
in  church ;  probably  those  who  were 
violeut  were  placed  outside  the  church, 
those  who  were  peaceable  in  the  narthex, 
both  classes  being  called  up  by  the  deacon 
nearer  to  the  altar  for  the  exorcism. 
When  healed,  the  former  energumen 
fasted  for  a  period  varying  from  twenty 
to  forty  days.  He  was  dismissed  by  the 
priest,  after  prayer,  and  his  name  was 
entered  in  the  list  of  the  cured. 

The  Church,  in  the  Roman  Pontifical, 
stiU  recognises  the  possibility  of  demoni- 
ac^ possession ;  but  cases  of  posse.-sion 
are  infrequent  or  infrequently  recognised, 
and  the  energumens  no  longer  occupy  the 
position  and  attract  the  interest  which 
belonged  to  them  in  the  early  Church. 

SIJ-CX.ZSH  CHTTRCH.  Anglo-'^a.von 
Period. — The  Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutes, 
who  successively  settled  in  England,  unlike 
the  German  invaders  of  Gaul  and  Italy, 
did  not  mix  with  the  conquered  race, 
and  appropriate  t<i  themselves  the  higher 
civilisation  of  their  new  country.  The 
Britons  were  either  exterminated  or 
driven  into  the  mountains  of  the  West. 
The  conquerors  kept  their  own  language 
almost  entirely  free  from  Celtic  elements, 
preserved  tlieir  German  in.stitutions  un- 
altered, and  continued  their  idolati-ous 
wor.ship  for  a  centur}'  and  a  half.  Gre- 
gory the  Great,  when  still  a  monk,  had 
admired  the  fair  forms  of  Saxon  slaves 
exposed  for  sale  in  the  Ifoman  Forum, 
and  conceived  the  design  of  preaching  the 
Gospel  to  their  nation.  After  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  Papacy  lie  despatched  to 
England  several  missionaries,  headed  by 
the  monk  Augustine.  They  landed  in 
Kent  probably  in  the  autumn  of  5V*6. 
I'^thelbert,  the  Saxon  king  of  Kent,  con- 
sented to  receive  tlie  niissi(niaries.  He 
listened  with  attention  to  the  discourse 
of  Augustine,  and  promised  the  strangers 
his  protection  as  long  as  they  should 

»  Concil.  lUib.  can.  29,  37.      *  Can.  14. 


310       ENGLISH  CIIUECH 


ENGLISH  CHUPtCH 


remain  iii  his  dominions.  The  protection 
of  the  king,  and  the  active  support  of  the 
queen,  who  was  a  Christian,  produced  the 
happiest  results.  On  Christmas  Day,  597, 
Ethelbert  and  ten  thousand  of  his  people 
received  the  sacrament  of  Baptism. 
Thanks  to  the  wise  directions  of  the 
Pope,  Christianity  made  rapid  progress. 
In  601  Augustine  received  from  "Rome 
the  pallium  and  a  band  of  new  helpers : 
Mellitus,  Paulinus,  Justus,  and  Ruffini- 
anus.  Augustine  was  to  consecrate 
twelve  bishops,  to  make  London  the 
metropolitan  see  of  the  South,  and  York 
that  of  the  North,  each  metropolitan 
having  twelve  suffragans.  But  this 
scheme  was  not  carried  out  during  his 
liletime.  Augustine  enlarged  an  old 
Roman  church  in  Canterbury,  and  conse- 
crated it  to  SS.  Peter  and"  Paul.  The 
neighbouring  monastery  later  received 
the  name  of  its  founder.  The  saint  died 
604j  after  a  fruitless  attempt  at  union 
with  the  British  bishops  (see  Bkitish 
Chtjech),  and  was  succeeded  in  the  see 
of  Canterbury  by  Laurence.  In  Ethel- 
bert's  lifetime  an  e[iiscopal  see  was 
founded  at  Rochester  in  Kent,  and 
another  at  London.  Ethelbert  of  Kent 
ami  Sfbert  of  Essex  dl^•d  about  616,  and 
wert'  Miix-ei'ded  by  ]i;i^an  princes  hostile 
to  the  new  religiiin.  A  reaction  set  in: 
^lellitus.  bishop  of  London,  and  .Justus 
of  Rochester,  tied  first  to  Canterbury, 
and  tlinic'i'  to  Gaul.  Laurence  was  ouly 
]irfvented  from  joining  them  in  their 
flight  by  a  dn-am.  In  a  short  time  I'.ad- 
bald  the  [ier^ecutor  became  a  un  uilur, 
Miul  tlie  chief  supporter,  of  the  Church. 
Mellitus  and  .Tustu<  came  back,  and  both 
in  turn  suceeeiled  1  .aureuce  in  the  archi- 
episcopal  see  of  Canterbury.  Peace  was 
not  restored  in  I'.ssex  until  later.  In 
025  Paulinus,  wlio  had  accompanied  the 
prince,--  IMielheiga  to  York,  received 
from  Ivln-  l',,id\\iii  permission  to  preach 
the  Go>;iel  no)  th  of  the  Ilumber.  Eadwin 
himself  after  a  lone-  iesist!uice,  embraced 
the  new  t'aith.  His  example,  his  sup- 
port, and  the  wonderful  zeal  of  Paulinus 
soon  brought  about  conversions  numerous 
enough  to  found  a  bishopric  at  York. 
Paulinus  also  preached,  made  conversions 
and  built  churclies  in  the  kingdom  of 
;>rercia.  Penda,  the  pa-an  king  of  Mercia, 
;o  stop  the  progress  of  the  faith,  entered 
into  a  league  with  C;cd\\alla,  kin<:  of 
the^Ye^t  Britons, and  attarked  and  l<illed 
King  Edwin  in  the  battle  ol  llattiehl  [tv.::;}. 
Paulinus  and  Queen  I'lthelberga  fled  south. 
Paulinus  was  made  bishop  of  Rochester, 


j  then  vacant,  and  laboured  there  until  642. 
Csedwalla  retained  hold  of  Northum- 
bria  until  634,  when  the  Christian  king 
Oswald  defeated  him  at  Dilston.  Oswald 
had  been  educated  by  the  Irish  monks  of 
lona,  and  now  invited  them  to  preach 
the  Gospel  to  his  subjects.  St.  Aidan  is 
the  first  of  a  long  list  of  Irish  priests  and 
bishops  who  were  destined  by  God  to 

;  establish  the  Christian  Church  among  so 
many  tribes  and  in  so  many  countries. 
(See  Irish  Chuech.)  They  were  all 
monks.  Beda,  although  blaming  the  Irish 
missionaries  for  the  tenacity  with  which 
they  clung  to  certain  of  their  customs, 
has  yet  great  admiration  for  their  zeal 
and  holiness.  He  praises  especially  St. 
.\idan,  whose  meekness  audhumilitj-  won 
the  hearts  of  the   Saxon   youths,  and 

■  secured  him  many  followers.  Oswald,  like 
Edwin,  fell  in  a  battle  against  Penda  (642). 
His  brother  Oswy  succeeded  at  last  (655) 
in  freeing  the  country  from  the  yoke  of 
Penda.  The  death  of  this  king  and  the 
victory  of  Oswy  mark  a  turning-point  in 
Christian  history — the  end  of  paganism  in 
England. 

Redwald,  king  of  East  Angiia,  had 
'  received  baptism  in  Kent,  but  soon  re- 
'  verted  to  his  heathen  worship.  His  son 
Eorpwakl's  conversion  (682)  was  more 
sincere.  Eorpwalds  successor,  Sigebert, 
brought  o\  er  from  Burgundy  the  mis- 
sionary Felix,  who,  with  the  approbation 
of  Archbishop  Honorius  of  Canterbury, 
established  a  bishopric  at  Dunwich  (635). 
About  this  same  time  Birinus  converted 
the  West  Saxons.  His'  episcopal  see  was 
Dorchester,  afterwards  transferred  to 
Winchester.  The  Chinch  only  began  to 
flourish  in  Mercia  after  the  death  of 
Penda.  Cedda,  Adda,  Betti,  and  Diuma 
are  the  great  apostles  of  this  kingdom. 
In  Essex  also  the  Gospel  again  found 
favour.  In  654  Cedda  was  created  bishop 
of  London.  Wherever  the  work  of  con- 
version had  been  either  commenced  or 
completed  by  Iii.-h  monks,  certain  pecu- 
liarities of  Iiish  church  discipline  had 
been  maintained.  They  referred  to  the 
celebration  of  Easter,  and  to  the  form  of 
the  tonsure.  Although  not  doctrinal, 
these  differences  were  a  jierpetual  source 
of  dissension  in  the  Church.  King  Oswy 
of  Northumbria  convened  a  synod  at 
Whitby,  in  which  the  contending  parties 
should  discuss  the  questions  in  dispute 
(664).  The  principal  speakers  were  Col- 
,  man,  bishop  of  Lindi.sfarne,  in  favour  of 
j  the  Irish  or  Scotch,  and  Wilfrid  of  York, 
j  in  favour  of  the  Roman  practice.  The 


ENGLISH  CHUUCH 


ENGLISH  CHURCH  317 


king  presided.  After  learning  I'roni  Wil- 
frid's eloquent  speeches  that  the  Roman 
practice  was  sanctioned  by  the  Council  of 
Nice,  by  the  decrees  of  the  Apostolic  See, 
and  by  the  usage  of  the  universal  Church, 
be  eXL-laimed :  "  Coliuan,  is  it  so  ?  Re- 
ceiving an  answer  in  the  affirmative,  he 
resumed  with  a  smile,  "  Who,  then,  is  the 
greater  in  heaven,  Columba  or  Peter  ?  " 
All  replied  "  Peter.  "  "  Then,"  said  the 
king,  "  will  I  obey  the  decrees  of  Peter  ; 
for  if  he  who  has  "the  keys  is  to  shut  me 
out,  who  is  there  to  let"  me  in?"  The 
bystanders  applauded  the  witticism,  and 
the  conference  broke  up.  The  result  was, 
that  several  of  the  Scottish  clergy  passed 
over  to  the  party  of  Wilfrid;  and  Col- 
man,  after  a  short  interval,  taking  with 
him  his  own  adherents  and  about  thirty 
natives,  returned  to  his  monastery  in  the 
isle  of  lona.  The  conference  at  Whitby 
established  harmony  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
church ;  but  many  years  elapsed  before 
the  question  was  set  at  rest  among  the 
Picts,  the  Scots,  and  the  Britons.  (Beda, 
iii.  :?5,  26;  Lingard,  "A.-S.  Church,  ' 
ch.  i.) 

The  hierarchy  was  really  established 
in  England  by  Theodore  of  Tarsus,  a 
Greek  by  birth.  He  was  consecrated  by 
Pope  Vitalian  (668),  and  landed  iu  Eng- 
land in  G69.  The  new  archbishop  visited 
the  whole  coiuitry,  preaching  and  teach- 
ing everywl'.eie.  The  princes,  the  clergy, 
the  people  received  him  with  testimonies 
of  the  most  profound  respect.  In  673  he 
held  a  synod  at  Hertford,  at  which  were 
present  the  bu-hoi)s  Bisi,  Putta,  Leutherius 
and  Wiiifrid  :  Wilfrid  sent  a  representa- 
tive. Ten  decrees,  chiefly  on  church  dis- 
cipline, were  made,  and  accepted  by  the 
bi-lio]is  at  this  synod.  Tiieudore  imder- 
stood  the  necessity  of  more  bishoprics,  and 
of  epi.scopal  sees  removed  from  the  seat  of 
temporal  power.  But  in  carrying  out  his 
reforms  he  occasionally  ventured  to  trans- 
gress the  letter  of  the  Canons,  conceiving 
himself  ju;tilied  jerhap?  by  the  wants  of 
the  pcoj  le  and  the  anomalous  state  of  the 
Church.  He  divided  the  immense  diocese 
held  by  Wilfrid  into  four  parts,  and  gave 
a  new  Ijisbop  to  each.  Hence  his  celebrated 
dispute  with  that  prelate.  Pope  Agatho, 
to  whom  Wilfrid  appealed,  seems  to  have 
approved  Theodore's  policy,  though  he 
condemned  his  treatment  of  the  bishop. 
The  same  pontiff  confirmed  to  Theodore 
and  his  successors  the  authority  which  he 
possB-sed  by  a  decree  published  iu  a 
council  at  Rome  (607)  fixing  tiie  number 
of  Anglo-Saxon  bishops  at  twelve,  of 


whom  the  Bishop  of  Canterbury  should 
be  the  metropolitan,  and  the  other  eleven 
his  suffragans.  Theodores  successor,  Brith- 
wald,  carried  on  the  work  of  subdivi.siou, 
but  the  increased  number  of  bishops  was 
not  yet  enough  for  the  spiritual  needs  of 
the  people.  Beda  was  anxious  that  the 
original  plan  of  Gregory  the  Great  should 
be  canied  out,  but  the  whole  of  the 
dioceses  remained  united  in  one  single 
ecclesiastical  province  until  by  a  decree 

I  of  Gregory-  III.  (Chron.  Sax.  anno  73o) 

i  the  bishoprics  north  of  the  Humber  were 
formed  into  a  separate  province  subject 

,  to  the  metropolitan  of  York,  and  Egbert, 
the  bishop  of  that  see,  was  duly  invested 

I  with  the  pallium  from  Rome.  Otla,  the 
powerful  king  of  Mercia,  obtained  from 
Pope  Adrian  (  787)  a  decree  raising  Lich- 
field to  be  metropolitan  see  for  East 
Anglia  and  Mercia.  By  authority  of  Leo 
III.  this  decree  was  set  aside  (803)  and 
the  southern  dioceses  were  once  more 
united  into  one  province.  The  cathedral 
chapters  remained  in  the  hands  of  monks, 
but  Theodore  made  provision  for  the  for- 
mation of  a  secular  clei  gy ,  and  for  the  esta- 
blislimeat  of  parishes  iu  connection  with 
the  manors.    Even  in  time  of  war  sym  ds 

!  were  held.  The  organisation  of  the 
Church  paved  the  way  for  the  unitication 
of  the  seven  kingdoms.  The  predomin- 
ance of  monks  in  the  Church  made  ec- 
clesiastical dignities  less  liable  to  become 
as  it  were  hereditary  in  certain  families; 
the  bishops  were  but  little  exposed  to  the 
bad  influences  of  princely  favour.  No- 
where, except  perhaps  in  Ireland,  was 
there  ever  shown  the  same  eiigerness  to 
embrace  the  monastic  life:  kings,  bishops, 
and  nobles  abandoned  their  worldly  )io>i- 
tion  to  lead  a  life  of  solitude  with  God. 
Nowhere  were  the  clerg.  honoured  as  in 
England;  the  priest  ranked  with  the 
thegn,  the  bishop  with  the  e  ildorman,  the 
archbishop  with  the  atheling.  But  this 
honourable  status  was  not  without  its 
dangers;  it  involved  the  clergy  in  worldly 
concerns.  Especially  after  the  invasion 
of  the  Danes  was  the  discipline  of  the 
Church  relaxed  ;  it  almost  seemed  that 
the  Northman  would  bring  upon  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Church  the  same  ruin  which, 
the  Anglo-Saxons  had  brought  upon  the 
British  Church.  Europe  owes  it  to  Alfred 
the  Great  that  the  Nortlimen  were  unable 
to  found  a  <rreat  monarchy  in  France  and 
England.  The  Danes,instead  of  subjecting 
the  Saxons,  became  (used  with  them  into 
one  people   During  the  lon'jrwars  churches 

I  and  monasteries  had  be»n  destroyed  and 


3i«     Exmjsn  CTirErn 


ENGLISn  CITURCH 


the  priests  put  to  death.  Keligious  zeal 
had  all  hut  disappeared.  Alfred  was 
oblisred  to  send  abroad  lor  monks  to  fill 
the  monasteries  he  had  rebuilt.  He 
also  did  much  to  revive  science  and 
ait,  yet  with  scanty  results.  No  poet 
like  Caedmou,  no  historian  like  Reda,  no 
learned  men  like  Aldhelm  and  Alcuin, 
no  missionary  like  Boniface,  were  forth- 
coming. Dunstan,  Abbot  of  Glastonbury, 
and  later  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  is  the 
only  man  of  commanding  importance 
during  this  period.  From  943  to  988 
this  great  prelate  was  the  adviser  and  the 
right  hand  of  the  kings  Edred,  Edgar, 
and  Edward  II.,  the  reformer  of  Church 
and  clergy.  He  introduced  into  the 
monasteries  the  strict  rule  of  St.  Bene- 
dict ;  he  filled  the  cathedral  chapters 
with  monks,  and  endeavoured  to  stem  the 
torrent  of  abuses.  Danes  and  Normans 
still  continued  to  invade  the  country, 
but  the  monasteries  were  respected,  and 
were  almost  the  only  safe  refuge  during 
the  raids  of  the  invaders.  The  reign  of 
]<:thelred  (979-1014)  was  disastrous  to 
England,  and  led  to  the  elevation  of 
Canute  (1016-1035),  whose  wise  admini- 
stration to  a  certain  extent  remedied  the 
soi'es  of  Church  and  State.  IMward  the 
Confessor  showed  an  excellent  will,  but 
the  baneful  intiueuce  of  the  Godwins 
prevented  him  from  giving  it  ert'ect. 
Simony  was  rife  during  his  reign,  and 
unworthy  bishops  wt-re  .•ippointcd. 

We  have  devoted  as^'i  arate  article  to 
the  examination  of  the  failh  an<l  discipline 
of  the  Antrlo-Saxon  Clnirch. 

Xonnan  I'murl  lOlUi-l  216.  —  The 
Norniuii  ( ioii'iucst  c<iuld  not  tail  to  exer- 
cise vast  iut'liu'uce  upon  the  Church. 
The  Saxon  bishops  were,  f.^r  the  most 
part,  strenuous  sup]ioi't-'rs  of  Harold. 
The  power  which  I  hey  wielded  over 
their  countrymen  made  it  expfilienf  f'T 
"William  to  oust  them  from  tlicii-  sfc-  iimi 
put  Normiui  prelate.-  in  tlieir  >te;i.!.  The 
abuses  which  had  crept  in  dnviiiL'  ilie 
long  struggles  l>e1ween  Saxolls.  I»ane<, 
and  Normans  gave  liim  a  coloiirahle  pre- 

te.Kt  for  so  high-hiinded  a    indi:  \uvj. 

Stigand,  the  Archl.isli..,,  of  ( 'miterhuiy. 
was  exconimunieuteil  by  I'ojM-  Alex- 
ander II.,  and  was  afterwards  i|epvi\eii 
of  his  see  by  the  jiapal  ]eu^■^te.  It  inns', 
however,  be  acknowled ned  that  the  Nor- 
man bis1u)]is  were  men  of  virtue  and 
learniirj-,  l^anfranc,  St.  Osmund,  and 
esperially  St.  Aiisehn,  re-established  ec- 
clesiastical discipline  and  boldly  upheld 
the  rights  of  the  Church  against  the 


tyranny  of  their  own  Norman  sovereigns. 
Although,  as  we  have  seen,  during  the 
Saxon  period  the  English  Church  was  in 
communion  with  and  subject  to  Rome, 
yet  the  semi-barbarism  and  isolation  of 
the  country  told  upon  its  communications 
with  the  rest  of  Christendom.  One  of 
the  most  important  consequences  of  the 
Conquest  was  the  establishment  of  closer 
connection  between  England  and  the 
Continent.  The  Norman  kings  held  pos- 
sessions on  both  sides  of  the  Channel ; 
their  subjects  passed  freely  to  and  fro 
from  the  mainland  to  the  island.  Hence 
we  are  not  surprised  to  find  that  the 
power  of  the  Popes  manifested  itself 
more  during  the  early  years  of  the  Con- 
quest than  during  the  later  years  of  the 
Saxon  rule.  Appeals  and  pilgrimages  to 
Rome  became  more  frequent,  and  papal 
legates  visited  the  country  armed  with 
extraordinary  powers.  A  separation  was 
made  between  ecclesiastical  and  civil 
courts,  and  the  canon  law  was  recognised. 
But  these  various  changes  of  personnel 
and  procedure  serve  only  to  bring  out  the 
identity  between  the  Saxon  and  Norman 
Churches.  William  and  Harold  belonged 
to  the  same  religion  :  the  expelled  Saxon 
bishops  difl^ered  in  no  way  concerning 
doctrine  from  their  Norman  successors. 

But  while  the  Conquest  strengthened 
the  position  of  the  Church  and  brought 
her  into  closer  union  with  Rome,  it  also 
introduced  the  elements  of  strife  between 
the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  powers.  Under 
the  Saxon  kings  the  extensive  lands 
belonging  to  the  Church  had  been  held 
by  alodial  title  or  in  frankalmoign  (free 
aims).  According  to  the  feudal  .system 
all  lands  were  held  of  the  king  by  military 
tenure,  and  the  holders  were  his  vassals. 
Hence  William  insisted  that  all  bishojis 
and  abbots  should  go  through  the  cere- 
iijony  of  investiture  (see  that  art.)  just  like 
any  other  baroti.;.  aiid  should  be  subject 
to  tlie  same  e\;irti-)n^.  Thus  bishoprics 
an<l  al)l)..'ys  wete  juirjio  ely  kept  vacant 
for  Ye;ivs  togetiier.  during  wliich  time  the 
j  king  i-laiiiied,  on  the  analogy  of  a  lay  fief, 
to  receive  all  tlie  profits  for  his  own  use ; 
and  when  at  lenirrh  a  successor  was  nomi- 
iiateil  to  the  vacant  benefice,  a  fine  was 
demanded  ei|ui\  alent  at  least  to  the  relief 
which  would  have  been  payable  by  a  lay 
heir.  Some  account  of  the  history  of  the 
PtrugLile  will  be  i'ound  in  the  art.  on 
j  Investituee.  Henry  II.  was  dissatisfied 
with  the  compromise  accepted  by  his 
j  grandfather,  and  souyht  to  establish  the 
I  complete  supremacy  of  the  State  over  the 


ENGLISH  CHURCH 


ENGLISH  CHTTICH  319 


Church.  By  the  Constitutions  of  Claren- 
don the  ecclesiastical  tribunals,  established 
by  the  Conqueror  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  of  the  Canon  Law,  were  shorn 
of  almost  all  their  authority;  ecclesiastical 
penalties  were  not  to  be  indicted  without 
the  king's  consent ;  elections  to  bishoprics 
■and  abbacies  were  to  take  place  in  obedi- 
ence to  the  king's  writ,  and  the  incumbent 
elect  was  to  do  homage  to  the  king  before 
consecration ;  the  chief  clergy  should  be  on  a 
footing  with  the  barons  as  to  feudal  duties; 
no  ecclesiastic  should  quit  the  realm 
■without  the  royal  licence ;  and  no  appeals 
should  proceed  further  than  the  arch- 
bishop's court  without  the  king's  consent. 
The  Church  found  a  worthy  champion  in 
Thomas  a  Becket.  His  death  secured  the 
downfoll  of  Henry's  system. 

The  reign  of  John  is  a  most  important 
one  in  the  history  of  the  English  Church. 
Here  we  find  clergy  and  people  baudpd 
together  to  secure  their  freedom  from  the 
royal  tyranny.  In  a  disputed  election  to 
the  see  of  Cantevbiiry,  InnocfUt  III.  set 
aside  both  the  candidates  of  the  king 
and  the  chapter,  and  nominated  Stephen 
Langton,  who  was  already  a  cardinal. 
No  better  choice  could  have  been  made. 
Langton  was  a  man  of  great  learning  and 
ability  :  a  worthy  successor  to  IjanlVanc, 
Anselm,  and  Becket.  The  king  lefused  to 
allow  him  to  land.  Innocent  laid  tlie 
kingdom  under  an  interdict  1 208)  [see  Ix- 
TEEDICt] ,  and  after  w a rd  s  e x conan  a 1 1  i (  a  t  ed 
John.  The  struggle  la-^t.  d  till  121.S,  when 
Ihe  king  submitted  Paiidulf,  the  papal 
legate,  and  did  bMin;!-/'-  to  hiui  as  his 
liege  lord.  It  is  n>>  part  of  oui-  Imsinesi 
to  tell  the  storv  of  il,,. --.var  Charter.  We 
should  note,  hn\ve\.-r.  that  the  lirst  si-aia- 
tory  is  Stephen,  "Canlinal  of  the  Holy 
Homan  Churcli  "  :  that  anotheris  r.indulf, 
"sub-deacon  and  -eivant  of  the  Lord 
Pope";  that  tlie  hrM  articU^  drchires  that 
the  English  ("'hurch  Maaihl  h,.  tive,  and 

that  this  fre.  ihun  lias  I  n  •■  e:.nnnned  by 

the  Lord  I'ope,  Innocent  III," 

T/if  Meilieral  I'erio'l  1216-1531,— 
The  signing  of  the  INfagiia  Cliarta  is  the 
beginning  of  tin'  lii>itory  of  the  English 
people.  lit'iiciriirrh  the  iinmes  Saxon, 
Dane,  and  Nnrinaii  fell  into  di-nse  :  nii.n 
called  themM.ivr-,, and  .pnke.  lai-lisb  We 
Tiave  already  desenled  the  laiih  and  prac- 
tices of  the  earliei- ]ierii  id~.  We  liave  now 
to  inquire  wliat  was  (lie  leli-inn  df  Simon 
de  Montfort,  K.l vvanl  1 1 1.,  and  Henry  V., 
names  liound  np  with  the  uhirie.s  df 
English  treeiloni  and  '''nu'lish  valour. 
The  church  of  old  Englind  was  in  lull 


communion  with  the  rest  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  identical  with  it  in  faith  and  in 
worship,  and  subject  to  the  See  of  Kome. 
Every  archbishop  of  Canterbury  acknow- 
ledged the  Pope's  supremacy,  and  received 
in  return  the  pallium  which  was  the  >\'jn 
of  his  authority  and  the  pledge  of  his 
submis.sion.  This  fact  clearly  shows  that 
the  faith  of  the  English  church  was  the 
same  as  that  of  Kome.  The  great  nu'iiieval 
Council,  the  Fourth  Lateran,  which  is 
looked  upon  by  Protestants  as  settitig  the 
seal  on  "  Roman  abuses."  was  lield  in  the 
same  year  as  the  signing  of  Magna  Charta 
(1216),  and  the  English  ambassador  was 
present.  The  English  church  was  there- 
fore committed  to  all  its  enactments  con- 
cerning transubstantiation,  confession,  in- 
dulgences, and  the  primacy  of  the  Pope, 
i  and  the  condemnation  of  the  Albigenses 
:  and  Waldeiises.  We  have  not  space  to 
describe  at  any  length  the  faith  and  de- 
votions of  this  period.  Two  admirable 
worlcs  by  Father  Bridgett,  "  The  History 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  Great  Britain" 
and  "  The  Dowry  of  Mary,"  prove  most 
co7ivincingly  that  in  the  days  of  Merrie 
Enirland  the  people  were  thoroughly 
Catholic.  They  went  to  Mass,  to  con- 
fe^sion,  and  to  Holy  Communion.  They 
were  especially  devout  to  our  Lady.  The 
Ivosary  was  in  common  use  ;  the  doctrine 
of  tlie  Immaculate  Conception  was  taught 
at  Oxfird,  and  it  was  from  England  that 
the  feast  spread  through  Europe,  The 
\  shrine  of  Our  Lady  of  AValsingham  was 
i  fanioustliroughoutChristendom.  "Among 
!  the  royal  pilgrims  we  hear  of  Henry  III. 
'  in  1241,  Edward  I.  in  1280,  and  again  in 
li'SiO;  Edward  Il.in  1315;  Edward  IIL  in 
1'!<)1  ;  David  Bruce  in  1.364:  Henry  VI.  iu 
1455;  Edward  IV.  in  14fi!1;  Henry  VII., 
j  with  the  young  prince,  afterwards  Henry 
j  VIII.,  in  1505  :  Ilenry  VIII.,  in  company^ 
with  Catherine  of  Arraaron,  in  1510" 
("Dowry  of  Mary,"p. 305).'  Tlie usual  f  irm 
of  will  was:  "I  bequeath  uiy  soul  to 
Almighty  God, our  Blessed  Lady, St .  Mary 
Virgin,  and  to  all  the  company  of  heaven,'' 
Everyone  who  had  it  in  his  power  1  eft  money 
for  Classes  for  the  repose  of  his  soul.  Thus 
Ilenry  V,,  the  hereof  Aginco\irt,  provided 
that  thiee  .Masses  .should  be  said  for  him 
every  day  while  the  world  lasted.  One 
of  these  at  least  was  alw.ays  lo  he  a  Mass 
of  the  Blessed  Viro:in,  on'  Sunday  of  the 
.\s.-;nn)j)tion.  on  Monday  ol  the  Annimcia- 
tion,  1111  Tuesilay  of  tiie  Nativity,  on 
Wl■due^day  of  the  Conception,  and  so  on. 
The  liturgy  u.sed  by  the  clergy  was  much 
the  saiue  as  that  used  in  Roiue  (see  infra, 


320       ENGLISH  CHURCH 


ENGLISH  CHURCH 


Liturgies).  All  the  great  orders  of  the 
Church,  both  of  men  and  of  woraen, 
flourished  in  England  (see  Benedict! \es, 
Carthusians,  Cistercian8,Premonstka- 
TENSiANS,  &c.).  The  mendicant  friars 
made  their  way  into  England  soon  after 
their  foundation.  St.  Dominic  liimself 
preached  in  the  city  of  London.  The 
names  Greyfriars  (Franciscans),  Black- 
friars  (Dominicans),  Whitefriars  (Car- 
melites), Crutchedfriars,  Austinfriars 
(Augustinians),  b-sides  Charterhouse 
(Carthusian  monks),  still  testify  to  the 
various  convents  of  these  orders  in  Lon- 
don. During  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 
O.^ford  became  more  famous  even  than 
Pai'is  as  a  school  of  theology.  St.  Edmund 
of  Canterbury  (d.  1242)  had  introduced 
there  the  study  of  Aristotle,  and  his  most 
famous  pupil  was  Roger  Bacon,  a  Fran- 
ciscan (d.  1292).  The  university  also 
claimed  as  her  children  Richard  Middle- 
ton,  William  Ware,  William  de  la  Marre, 
Duds  Scotus,  Occam,  Grosteste,  Adam 
Marsh,  Bungay,  Burley,  Archbishop 
Pt'ckham,  Bradwardine,  Fitzralph,  arch- 
bishop of  Armagh,  and  Thomas  Netter 
(Waldensis). 

It  is  usual  to  appeal  to  Acts  passed 
under  Edward  I.  and  Edward  III.  and  to 
the  history  of  Wyclif  as  proofs  of  the 
anti-papal  character  of  the  Church  of  old 
England.  We  shall  deal  with  these  in 
separate  articles,  hut  we  mi\y  remark  in 
pa-sill-  tliat  th.'  way  in  which  the  Lol- 
lard hfresy  was  condemned  shows  how 
Catholic  the  mass  of  tiie  peojile  were. 
Tlie  statutes  of  ^Mortmain  and  Provisors 
deal  witli  difficulties  likely  to  arise  be- 
Tween  the  Po]ie  and  Catholic  sovereigns. 
A  Protestant  king  would  treat  tlie  Church 
in  far  more  sni!ini;ir\  Inshion.  Thisishow 
Edward  111  M.Miv-'-.-  <  'lenient  IV.:  -'Our 
most  holy  l-'aihei  in  (  'hvist,and  Lord,  the 
Pope  by  Divine  Providence,  Chii'f  l)ishop 
of  the  Holy  Roman  and  Catholic  Church, 
Sic.  .  .  .  We  desire  your  Holiness  to 
recollect  how  nli^lient  our  royal  family, 
the  ch'tgy,  and  laity  of  our  kingdom  have 

The  Wars  of  the  Rr.ses  wrought  great 
havoc  in  thr  chnrch,  and  tlirew  it  nnu'e 
and  move  under  the  power  of  the  crown. 
Still,  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Henry  VII., 
there  was  little  to  forebode  the  coming 
.<tnrm.  Even  the  early  years  of  Ilenrv 
VHP's  reign  seemed  'favonrahle  to  the 
chnrch.  Had  Wol.s,.v  l„.,.n  a  woithy 
suecossor  of  Lanfi'ane,  Ansidni,  Thomas, 
and  Ildniund,  the  schism  might  have  been 
averted.    Unfortunately,  it  was  he  who 


supported  the  repudiation  of  Catherine, 
and  thus  paved  the  way  for  Henry's  vio- 
lent action  against  Rome. 

Thp  Epformafion  Period  1531-1563. 
The  separation  of  England  from  the  com- 
munion of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  national  institution, 
retaining  the  old  titles  of  the  sees,  the 
church  lands,  the  tithes,  and  portions  of 
the  old  ecclesiastical  discipline,  were 
transactions  not  easily  or  suddenly  effec- 
ted They  may  be  regarded  as  spread 
over  a  period  of  thirty-two  years,  from 
1531,  when  Henry  VIII.  first  claimed  the 
title  of  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church,  to 
l.lflS,  when  the  adoption  of  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  of  Religion  by  the  Convocation 
of  the  Province  of  Canterbury,  at  the 
very  time  when  a  general  council  was 
sitting  at  Trent,  consummated  the  schism, 
and  launched  the  Anglican  church  on  an 
independent  course. 

In  1530  tlie  bishops,  with  Archbishop 
Warhain  at  their  head,  were  in  full  com- 
munion with  Rome ;  clergy  and  laity 
alike  acknowledged  that  when  a  religious 
question  arose  the  ultimate  appeal  lay  to 
the  chair  of  Peter ;  and  the  Christianity 
of  an  Englishman  was  the  same  as  that 
of  a  Frenchman  or  a  Spaniard.  But  there 
was  a  body  of  sectaries  scattered  through 
the  country,  the  Lollards,  fanatically  at- 
tached to  subversive  ideas,  assisted  by  the 
numerous  abuses  which  great  wealth  had 
brought  into  the  Church,  and  promising  a 
"pure  Gospel"  to  their  followers,  like  the 
Cathari  of  the  middle  ages.  As  the  Van- 
dals fotind  allies  in  the  Donatists,  so  any 
enemy  who  might  attack  Catholicism 
in  England  was  sure  of  the  enthusiastic 
support  of  the  Lollards.  Wolsey  died 
in  15:;0;  and  Thomas  Cromwell  then 
gave  the  king  the  famous  advice  to  fol- 
I  low  the  examjde  of  Gustavus  "N'asa — who 
had  c.irried  through  a  religious  revolution 
in  Sweden — and  by  a  breach  with  Rome 
bring  the  clergy  into  a  state  of  uncon- 
ditional submi.s.-ion  to  himself.  Two  ob- 
jects which  he  ardently  desired  might 
th  is,  Henry  saw,  be  compassed — one,  a 
divorce  from  his  wile;  the  other,  the  re- 
pleuishment  of  his  treasury  from  the 
wealth  of  the  Church. 

The  first  step  was  taken  in  1531,  when 
the  Attonu-y -General  filed  a  bill  against 
•  the  whole  body  of  the  clergy  as  having 
been  the  "  fautors  and  abettors"  of 
Wol.sey  in  breaking  the  Act  of  Pre- 
;  munire.  [See  Pkemunire.]  The  Convo- 
cation voted  a  large  grant  of  money  to 
I  the  king,  imagining  that  nothing  more 


ENGUSH  CHURCH 


ENGLISH  CHUHCH  321 


was  required  of  them ;  but  Henry  re- 
fused to  receive  it  unless  words  were 
inserted  iu  the  preamble  to  the  grant, 
importiiiir  that  he  was  the  "protec- 
tor and  only  supi-eme  head  of  the 
Church  and  clergy  of  Eugland."  The 
consternation  of  the  cler^iy  was  great ; 
they  debated  the  matter,  and  tiually  con- 
sentfd  to  go  i.>  the  urmost  verge  of  law- 
ful compromise.  ihey  recognised  the 
king  as  the  ••  chief  protector,  the  only 
and  supreme  lord,  and,  as  tar  as  the 
luw  of  Christ  will  alloic,  the  supreme 
head,"  of  the  English  Church  and  clergy. 
The  saving  clause  preserved  the  conces- 
sion from  being  heretical,  but  it  was  evi- 
dently perilous  ;  for  the  king  mijjht,  and 
in  fact  did,  employ  the  remaining  words 
for  his  own  piu-poses,  and  omit  the  saving 
clause. 

Archbishop  "Warham  died  in  1532,  | 
and  by  the  appointment  of  Cranmer  as  ; 
his  successor  Henry  secured  a  pliant  in- 
strument iu  the  prosecution  of  his  designs 
airainst  the  Church.    The  Pope  consented 
to  the  appointment  and  expedited  the 
usual  bulls ;  imder  the  authority  of  these  1 
Cranmer  was  consecrated,  and  took  in  j 
public  the  oath  of  canonical  obedience  to  j 
the   Pope,   having   previously  made   a  1 
private  protest  before  witnesses  that  his  \ 
oath  should  uot  prejudice  the  '•  rights  of  | 
the  king,'"  nor  his  own  co-operation  with  | 
him  in  "reforming'  the  Church  of  England,  j 
Events  now  moved  rapidly.   Cranmer  de- 
clared the  king  divorced  from  Catherine 
(15;5->),  and  Acts  of  Parliament  were  j 
passed  ^1534)  abolishing  all  appeals  to 
Kome,   making   the   "  King  in  Chan- 
cery "  the  tinal  court  of  appeal  in  ecclesi- 
astical causes,  and  recognising  him  as  the 
supreme  head  of  the  English  Church.  By 
a  clause  in  the  Act  of  Supremacy  a  new  I 
oa:h  was  imposed  on  the  bishops,  by 
which  they  were  rel^uired  to  recognise, 
without  any  saving  clause,  the  supremacy 
'il  liie  kintr,  and  to  abjure  that  of  the 
Pope.     All   the  intiuence  of  the  new 
primate   was  employed  in  getting  the 
bishops  to  take  this  oath  ;  still  it  remains  ; 
matter  for  amazement  that  they  were 
found  so  pliable  that  all.  with  one  excep- 
tion, did  so.    That  exception  was  Eisher,  ; 
Bishop  of  Rochester,  who  for  the  crime 
of  refusing  to  the  king  his  title  of  supreme  ' 
head  of  the  church,  was  thrown  into 
prison  and  after  a  time  beheaded  (loSoj.  1 
A  few  days  afterwards  Sir  Thomas  More  j 
suttereil  death  for  the  like  offence.  | 

The  l-.nirlish  churcli  was  now  in  a 
state  of  schism,  beiuj;  eepai-ated  from  the  j 


see  of  Peter,  through  union  with  which 
it  had  been  for  nine  hundi-ed  years  in 
communion  with  the  Church  universal. 
But  no  other  change  was  made,  and  by 
the  statute  of  the  SLx  Articles  (1539) 
Henry  strove  to  repress  the  rising  tide  of 
heterodox  innovation.  The  dissolution  of 
the  monasteries  (see  Suppressiox  of 
MoxASTERiEs'l  gave  great  power  and 
wealth  to  the  reforming  party.  In  the  next 
reign,  that  of  Edward  VI.,  the  Protestant 
party  obtained  the  reins  of  power.  First, 
one  Prayer  Book  (1549 ),  and  then  another 
(1552) — thesecond  diverging  considerably 
more  from  Catholic  doctrine  than  the  first 
— were  substituted  for  the  Missal  and  Bre- 
viary. In  these  changes,  Cranmer  and  his 
associates,  several  of  whom  were  foreigners, 
were  unceasingly  active.  The  Ijishops 
generally — such  is  usually  the  lot  ot'  time- 
servers — found  that  if  they  wei  e  e.^pected 
to  give  up  Rome  in  the  last  reign,  they 
had  to  give  up  a  great  deal  more  in  this, 
even  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Catho- 
lic faith.  Several,  as  Gardiner.  Tonstall, 
Day,  Heath,  and  Veysev.  resisted,  with 
more  or  less  of  consistency,  the  novelties 
which  the  primate  and  coimcil  were  con- 
tinually foisting  upou  them,  and  were 
deprived  of  their  sees.  The  majority,  it 
is  to  be  feared,  acquiesced  in  all  the  ini- 
quities and  follies  ot  the  reign,  eveu  in 
that  moustmus  injunction  of  the  council 
(1552)  requiring  them  to  remove  the 
altars  fi-om  all  parish  churches  in  their 
dioceses  A  formulary  of  faith,  in  forty- 
two  articles,  was  drawn  up  by  Cranmer 
and  Ridley,  but  too  short  a  time  belore 
the  death  of  Edward  to  allow  of  its  being 
either  embodied  in  a  statute  or  assented 
to  by  Convocation. 

In  the  reign  of  Mary,  aU  the  rehgious 
changes  that  had  been  made  under  Edward 
VI.  were,  so  far  as  possible,  undone,  and 
the  old  state  of  things  restored.  Cardinal 
Pole  was  made  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, the  authority  of  Rome  was  recog- 
nisrd,  and  the  nation  reconciled  to  the 
Holy  See.  Everyone  knows  with  how 
great  severity  Mary's  government  pro- 
ceeded against  the  Protestants,  Cranmer, 
Ridley,  Latimer  and  many  others  being 
burnt,  and  hundreds  forced  to  flee  for 
their  lives  into  foreign  countries. 

At  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  the 
bishops,  and  the  higher  clergy  generally, 
were  staunch  Catholics.  But  it  was 
Elizabetli's  evident  interest  as  the  daugh- 
ter of  .\nn  Bolcyn — whose  niitrriage  with 
her  father  two  Popes  had  declared  to  be 
null  and  void — ;o  renounce  the  authority 


822       EXGTJSII  CHITRCH 


ENGLISH  CmiRCH 


of  Rome  and  throw  herself  into  the  arms 
of  the  Protestant  party.  Counsellors  and 
ministers  of  great  ability  and  determina- 
tion were  soon  by  her  side,  ready  to  con- 
firm her  in  this  course,  and  to  point  out 
the  best  means  for  effecting  it.  Pole  was 
dead;  Heath,  archbishop  of  York,  held 
the  seals  as  chancellor ;  they  were  imme- 
diately taken  from  him,  and  given  to 
Nicholas  Bacon,  a  Protestant.  Elizabeth 
made  it  known  at  once  that  she  did  not 
believe  in  tran8Libstantiation,byforbidding 
the  Bishop  of  Carlisle  to  elevate  the  host 
when  saying  Mass  before  her  in  her  private 
chapel.  Seeing  this.  Archbishop  Heath, 
upon  whom  the  office  fell,  as  Canterbury 
was  vacant,  refused  to  take  a  part,  in  her 
coronation  ;  Oglethorp,  of  Carlisle,  alone 
among  the  bishops,  was  found  sufficiently 
complying.  Parliament  met  early  in 
1559,  and"  in  the  course  of  the  session 
two  important  Acts,  those  of  Supremacy 
and  Uniformity,  were  passed.  In  the  first 
the  queen  was  styled,  not  "supreme 
head  "  of  the  Church,  but  "  supreme  gover- 
nor, as  well  in  all  spiritual  or  ecclesiastical 
things  or  causes  as  temporal."  Practi- 
cally, these  words  had  the  effect  of  sever- 
ing England  from  the  Holy  See,  and 
throwing  her  into  schism,  just  as  effectu- 
ally as  the  earlier  form.  By  the  Act  of 
Uniformity,  the  second  Prayer  Book  of 
Edward  VI.  was  restored,  and  its  use 
made  compulsory,  some  slight  alterations 
being  introduced,  the  object  of  which 
was  to  make  acquiescence  less  difficult 
for  those  who  leaned  to  the  Catholic  doc- 
trine.' 

The  English  laity,  as  represented  by 
Parliament,  had  now  adopted  the  Pro- 
testant religion;  it  remained  to  see  what 
tlie  bishops  and  clergy  would  do.  The 
bishops,  all  but  one,  stood  ffrm.  Only 
Kitchen,  of  Llandaft",  could  be  induced 
to  take  the  oath  imposed  by  the  new  Act 
ot  Supremacy.  Had  the  inferior  clergy 
shown  a  similar  spirit,  it  is  possible  that 
the  plans  of  the  Court  would  have  failed  ; 
for  it  was  notorious  that  the  elections 
had  been  grossly  tampered  with  by 
the  agents  of  tlu'  Government,  and  that 
the  general  feeling  in  the  country  was 
far  less  favourable  to  Protestantism 
than  the  easy  passing  of  the  Act  of 
Uniformity  appeared  to  indicate.  But 

1  The  words  of  administration  in  the  book 
of  1549  ("The  body  of  .Jesus  Christ,"  &c), 
■which  have  a  Catholic  sound,  were  now  pre- 
lixc'l  to  the  Zwinglian  form  of  adininistriitioii 
("Take  and  eat  this  in  reinenibrauce,"  &c.), 
employed  in  the  book  of  15o2;  and  so  the 
•words  have  remained  ever  since. 


although  a  large  number,  perhaps  about 
half,  of  the  cathedral  clergy,  archdeacons, 
and  heads  of  colleges  at  the  universities, 
followed  the  lead  of  the  bishops,  and  re- 
fused the  oath,  yet  the  other  half,  driven 
on  by  interest,  fear,  or  conviction,  to  un- 
say those  pledges  of  fidelity  to  Rome 
which  they  had  solemnly  given,  with 
the  mouth  if  not  with  the  heart,  in  the 
reign  of  Mary,  consented  to  abjure  the 
Pope,  and  adopt  the  Erastian  principle 
that  the  sovereign  of  a  country  should 
have  the  supreme  control  of  its  religion. 
This  being  so,  the  Government  feared 
not  to  eject  the  recusants  at  once,  for 
they  knew  that  among  the  men  of  uni- 
versity training  whose  Protestant  .senti- 
ments had  made  them  exiles  under  Mary, 
they  would  find  numbers  more  or  less 
qualified  in  point  of  character  and  learn- 
ing to  take  the  vacant  posts,  and  eager  to 
obej'  the  Government  in  all  things. 

But  it  was  necessary  to  find  a  work- 
ing head  for  the  new  (5hurch,  and  after 
some  time  Matthew  Parker  was  pitched 
upon,  and  consecrated  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  at  Lambeth,  according  to 
the  ordinal  of  Edward  VI.,  in  December 
1559.  [Anglican  Ordees.]  Parker  had 
been  a  Catholic  priest,  and  the  head  of  a 
college  at  Cambridge;  nevertheless,  in 
violation  of  his  canonical  obligations,  he 
had  married  a  wife  ;  and  the  irregularity 
thus  incurred  obUged  him  to  remain  in 
hiding  during  the  reign  of  Mary.  All  the 
bishops  who  refused  the  oath  were  de- 
posed. Three  of  their  number  (the  bishops 
of  St.  Asaph,  Chester,  and  Worcester) 
escaped  to  the  Continent;  the  first- 
named,  Thomas  Goldwell,  took  part  in 
the  later  sittings  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 
Men  were  soon  found  to  accept  the  tem- 
poralities of  the  vacant  sees,  with  aU  the 
conditions  attached  to  them  by  the  State. 
ThusGrindal  was  made  Bishop  of  Lon- 
don; Cox,  of  Ely;  Cheney  (who,  Cam- 
den tells  us,  had  been  a  warm  friend  and 
admirer  of  Luther),  of  (Tloucester ;  and 
Jewell,  of  Salisburj'.  V\  it\\  equal  ease 
the  vacancies  in  the  ranks  of  the  higher 
clergy  and  the  authorities  at  the  univer- 
sities were  tilled  up. 

To  consummate  the  se%'erance  of  the 
new  church  from  Catholic  Christendom, 
it  was  still  necessai  v  to  provide  it  with  a 
distinct  symbol.  This  was  done  in  the 
Convocation  of  15(j-),  which  unanimously 
adopted,  on  Parker's  suggestion,  the  re- 
vised Articles  of  Edward  VI.  From 
forty-two  they  were  reduced  to  thirty- 
nine,  but  the  omitted  articles  referred  to 


i;^"aLlSH  oiiUKCii 


E^-QLISH  CHURCH  823 


points  of  minor  importance.  Substan- 
tially the  Creed  then  adopted,  and  ever 
since  adhered  to  by  the  Aufiliciiii  church, 
represents  the  opinions  ol  Cranmer  and 
Peter  Martyr.  A  useful  note  in  Lin-rard  s 
History  of  Enfflmul  (vol.  vi.,  note  gg) 
analyses  the  diver<rences  of  the  religious 
system  put  forth  in  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  from.  Catholic  belief.  In  few 
words  it  may  be  stated  that,  while  the 
Articles  adhere  to  the  ancient  doctrine 
on  the  Trinity,  the  Incarnntiou,  and  the 
lledemption  of  man,  they  broach  novel 
views  on  lustiticatioii  (the  Lntln  ran  tenet 
of  justilication  "  by  faith  o: 
distinctly  adopted),  on  Puroat 
they  deny),  and  on  the  Sacrameiit.s  (\vh 
they  reduce  from  seven  to  two).  They 
also  declare  that  general  councils  may  not 
be  summoned  except  by  the  command- 
ment and  will  of  princes  (Article  21); 
that  they  may  err  even  on  matters  of 
faith  {ibid.) ;  that  all  the  patriarchates, 
both  Kast  and  Wrst,  have  erred  in  mat- 
ters of  f.nth  I  Article  1'.));  that  the  English 
sovereign  (ihoiit;h  he  or  she  must  not 
meddle  with  the  miuiste)'ing  of  God's  j  theological,  aiisw 
woi'd  or  of  the  Sacraments")  has  supreme  i  Catholic  pa 
authority  over  all  ecclesia.stieal  persons 
and  in  all  Church  causes  within  his  or 
'ler  dominions  (Article  ;!7);  and  that 
the  Pope  has  no  iuri.-.diction  in  England 
(ibid.) 

The  necessity  of  finding  a  firm  sup- 
port in  the  (lovernment  airuinst  the  Catho- 
lic party,  which  was  still  strong  down  to 
the  accession  of  .Tame-  !..  si-ems  to  have 
driven  the  Angliraii  lea  I.Ts  into  the 
excessive  Er^i-siiani-m  e.\hibited  by  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles.  This,  while  it  gave 
them  strength  on  the  side  of  the  ( iovera- 
ment,  alienated  from  them  large  numliers 
of  the  more  conscientious  and  consistent 
Protestants,  and  more  than  any  other 
single  cause  has  contributed  to  that 
progressive  attenuation  of  thtj  national 
Church  by  secessions  which  at  the  pre- 
sent day  has  left  her  with  little  more 
than  half  the  English  people  within  her 
pale.  For  an  account  of  the  procedure  of 
the  Holy  See  witii  reference  to  Elizabeth, 
see  DEi'iisi  rioN,  I'.ull  of. 

The  I'rrscrution  Period  156.3-1829. 
The  Acts  of  Unif)rniity  and  Supremacy 
passed  at  the  beginning  of  Elizabeth's 
reign  caused  much  consternation  among 
sincere  Catholics;  nevertheless  it  is  clear 
that  there  was  a  much  larger  number 
who  were  exceedingly  unwilling  to  op- 
pose the  Government,  and  who  flattered 
themselves  that  if  they  complied  for  a 


while  and  attended  the  Protestant  ser- 
vice the  storm  would  blow  over,  and  the 
Mass  he  restored  as  before  under  ^lary. 
liiliadeneira  '  states  that  in  the  hrst  ytars 
of  Elizabeth  the  Catholics  in  great  num- 
bers frequented  the  parish  churches, 
thinking  it  suliicient  if  they  did  not  enter 
or  leave  them  in  company  with  Protes- 
tants !  But  this  was  stopped  as  soon  as 
the  matter  was  referred  to  a  committed 
of  theologians  (cue  of  whom  was  Laynez) 
at  the  Council  of  Trent,  whofC  uuaniiiKms 
decision  was  that  such  attendance  ;ifc 
Protestant  worship  was  sinful.  The  oath 
being  I  of  supremacy,  not  being  generally  tendered 
(which  I  even  to  the  clergy,  and  not  at  all  to  the 


laity  unless  they  wished  to  hold 
under  the  Crown,  did  not  at  tirst  cause 
much  difficulty.  But  the  lawfulness  of 
the  oath  was  warmly  discussed,  and  its 
essential  repugnance  to  Scripture  and 
tradition  demonstrated,  in  writings  which 
soon  began  to  issue  in  swarms  from  the 
presses  of  Flanders,  where  Catholic  e.xiles 
found  a  secure  refuge.  The  Goverunient 
of  Elizabeth  found  a  legislative,  if  not  a 
dy  in  replv  to  the 
,  In  lot;:';  a  law 
was  passed  by  the  obse'juious  Parliament 
making  the  second  refusal  of  the  oath  of 
sujjremacy  an  act  of  high  treascm,  punish- 
able with  death.  The  Emperor  Ferdi- 
nand, in  whose  dominions  at  that  time 
Protestants  received  a  full  toleration, 
wrote  to  Elizabeth,  appealing  for  more 
indulgence  towards  the  Engli-sh  Catholics, 
and  asking  that  they  might  have  one 
church  in  every  considerable  town  iu 
which  to  celebrate  their  worship.  This, 
Elizabeth,  whose  imperious  humour  would 
not  brook  that  any  of  her  subjects  should 
have  a  diilerent  religion  from  herself, 
datly  refused. 

The  other  persecuting  Acts  of  this 
reign,  or  the  chief  of  them,  were  as 
follows : — 

1.  Statute  of  1571.  In  the  preamble, 
offences  against  the  Act  of  loG.3,  and  the 
late  insurrection  in  the  North,  are  named 
as  circumstances  calling  for  fresh  legisla- 
tion. It  is  enacted  that  if  any  persons 
procure  or  use  bulls  for  reconciling  })er- 
sous  to  the  "usurped  authority"  of  the 
see  of  Rome,  or  if  any  should  "  obtain  or 
get  from  the  said  Bishop  of  Rome  or  any 
of  his  successors  .  .  .  any  manner  of 
bull,  writing,  or  instrument,  written  or 
printed,  containing  any  thing,  matter,  or 
cause  wb'ttsoever  .  .  .  then  all  and  everv 


'  In  hio  book  De  Schis 
Mr.  Hallam,  Const,  IlUt.  i. 


led  bv 


S24       ENGLISH  CHURCH 


ENGLISH  CHURCH 


5ucli  act  .  .  .  shall  be  deemed  to  be  high 
treason ;  and  the  ofi'ender  and  offenders 
therein,"  on  conviction,  "  shall  sufl'er  pain 
of  death,  and  al«o  lose  and  forfeit  all 
their  lands,  tenements,  herediicaments, 
goods,  and  chattels."  After  the  passing 
of  this  Act,  any  man  who  might  get  a 
dispensation  from  Rome  to  marry  his 
first  cousin  did  so  at  the  risk  of  being 
reduced  to  beggary  and  hanged !  We 
have  given  the  very  words  of  the  statute, 
stripping  them  of  technicalities,  because 
even  now  it  is  a  common  belief  with  Pro- 
testants that  the  Catholic  martyrs  under 
Elizabeth  died  for  treason,  not  for  reli- 
gion. If  the  Government  could  justly 
make  into  a  treason  the  profession  of 
what  had  been  the  religion  of  the  country 
for  nine  hundred  years,  tlien  the  Catholics 
M  ere  traitors,  but  not  otherwise.  Treason 
meant,  under  the  old  English  law,'  com- 
]iassing  the  sovereign's  death,  or  levying 
wur  within  the  realm,  or  joining  liis  j 
foreign  enemies,"  and  must  be  proved  by  j 
some  overt  act.  What  resemblance  is 
there  between  any  of  these  offences  and 
such  acts  as  the  refusal  to  swear  that  the 
Queen  is  supreme  head  of  the  Church,  or 
persuading  a  person  to  become  a  Catholic, 
or  being  absolved  by  a  priest  and  recon- 
ciled to  the  Church  ?  Tliese  acts  did  not 
change  their  nature  by  being  c  lled 
"  treasons  "  ;  the  only  difl'erence  was,  that 
after  the  passing  of  the  l<]lizabethan  sta- 
tutes the  blood  of  the  Catholics  could  be 
shed  under  colour  of  law,  instead  of 
openly  and  avowedly  for  "cause  of  re- 
ligion." 

2.  Statute  of  1581.  Any  act  of  per- 
suasion to  the  Romish  religion  was  de- 
clared by  this  statute  to  be  higli  treason, 
aud  punishable  as  such.  Anyone,  after  the 
end  of  the  session,  who  should  be  willingly 
absolved  by,  and  promise  oliedience  to, 
"  the  said  pretended  authority,"  being 
taken,  tried,  and  convicted,  was  to  "sutler 
and  forfeit  as  in  cases  of  higli  treason." 
By  another  clause,  any  pev.-i(jn  saying 
INIass  was  to  forfeit  two  hundred  marks 
and  be  imprisoned  for  a  year ;  anyone 
lij-aring  Mass  was  to  forfeit  one  hundred 
marks,  and  also  undergo  a  year's  im- 
prisonment. 

3.  Statute  of  1585.  This  Act  ordered 
all  .Tesuits,  seminary  priests,  and  other 
priests  to  quit  the  kingdom  within  forty 

>  Statute  of  Treasons.  13.51. 

2  Be.'ii'les    some    other    offences — counter- 
feitina;  the  (irent  Sejil,  murrlering  the  king's 
judges,  tki:..  witli  which  no  one  ever  thought  of  i 
taxiM,  Uie  Cathi.lics.  | 


days  after  the  end  of  the  session ;  if  any 
such  should  be  found  after  that  date,  they 
were  to  be  adjudged  traitors,  and  suffer 
as  in  case  of  high  treason.  Any  person 
sheltering  or  aiding  such  Jesuit,  &c.,  was 
to  be  "adjudged  a  felon  without  benefit 
of  clergy,  and  suffer  death." 

4.  Statute  of  1587:  for  the  speedier 
execution  of  the  Act  of  1581.  It  made 
void  all  dealings  with  property,  subse- 
quent to  1558,  by  persons  who  had  not 
attended,  or  should  not  attend,  the  An- 
glican .service,  and  declared  such  property 
forfeit  to  the  Crown.  Everyone  who 
had  been  coavicted  of  not  going  to  church 
was  to  pay  a  fine  calculated  at  the  rate 
of  201.  per  month  since  the  date  of  such 
conviction. 

5.  Statute  of  1593:  against  "  Popish 
recusants."  Such  were  "  to  repair  to  their 
own  homes,  and  not  to  travel  five  miles 
therefrom  ;  if  they  had  not  goods  to 
satisfy  the  monthly  fine  of  20/.  for 
non-attendance  at  church,  they  were  to 
abjure  the  realm  :  and  if  they  refused 
to  do  so,  they  were  to  sufit;r  as  felons." ' 

These  laws  were  not  intended  to  be  a 
brutum  fulmen ;  they  were  skilfully  de- 
signed with  a  view  to  terrify  the  English 
people  into  emliraclng  the  royal  religion, 
and  to  kill  aud  reduce  to  beggary  those 
who  preferred  the  religion  of  their  fathers. 
]jeing  vigorously  executed,  they  accom- 
plished to  a  great  extent  the  ends  pro- 
posed ;  and  if  a  Catholic  remnant  still  sur- 
vived at  the  end  of  the  reign,  and  the 
estates  of  many  Catholics  still  remained  to 
them,  this  was  not  because  the  laws  were 
deficient,  but  because  common  humanity 
aud  English  good-nature  induced  many 
who  had  conformed  themselves,  to  screen 
their  less  complying  friends,  so  far  as  they 
could,  from  a  persecution  which  they  felt 
to  be  iniquitous.  Under  these  laws  the 
following  persons  lost  their  lives  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  : — 

128  priests  and  members  of  reliaious 
orders 
58  laymen* 
3  women 

189 

besides  thirty-two  Franciscans  said  by 

1  A„mthof  E>,qland.  1802. 

2  •'  X(.  layman  was  brou-ht  to  the  bar  or 
(o  tlie  l>'"ek  under  its  provi-ii>ii,s  "  (tlio^'"  of  tlie 
Act  of  l.')Sl);  Green's  Short  Hisfon/  oj  the 
Knnlish  Peoitle.  Po.ssibly  not  ;  but  Mr.  (ireen 
sbould  have  added  that  under  other  A'  ts  of  the 
same  class  lii'ty-eight  lavmen  -were  put  to  denth 
for  religion. 


EXOIJSn  CHURCH 

nr.  Law  to  have  been  starved  to  death 
in  prison  in  1683.'  Thf  nauifs  of  many 
•others  are  recorded  as  having  "  died  in 
prison,"  slowly  sinking  under  the  effects 
of  the  noisesomeness  and  filth  of  the 
horrible  bastilles  of  those  days.  In  the 
above  list  there  is  one  layman  who  died 
under  the  torture.  No  statesman  ever 
made  a  more  systematic  use  of  torture 
to  extoi  t  the  confessions  which  he  wanted 
than  the  sanctimonious  Burleigh.  Under 
his  direction  To])clitle,  the  ])ur3uivant, 
put  the  noble  llobevt  Southwell  ten 
times  to  the  torture,  to  make  hiai  confess 
in  whose  houses  he  had  been  staying ; 
but  not  a  syllable  eould  be  extracted 
from  him.  '■  Tlie  rack,"  says  Mr.  Hallam, 
"seldom  stood  iille  iu  the  Tower  for  all 
the  latter  part  of  Elizabeth's  reign.'  ^ 

The  Holy  See  regarded  with  .sorrow 
and  alarm  the  suHerings  of  the  English 
■Catholics,  and  the  rapiil  progress  of  the 
schism.  It  is  commonly  said  that  Paul  IV. 
s])oke  roughly  to  Sir  E.  C'arue  when  he 
announced  to  hiui  I'^lizabeth's  accession, 
but  at  la,«t  declared  that  it  she  would 
I)lace  herself  in  his  hands  he  would  do 
what  he  could  to  serve  her.  This  story 
appears  to  rest  only  on  the  authority  of 
Sarpi,  the  historian  of  the  Pouncil  of 
Trent.  It  is  certain  tliat  in  .May  15G0 
Pius  IV.  ninile  I'riendlv  overtures  to  her; 
for  we  hiwe  the  text  of  a  letter  of  that 
date,^  anuounciiiLr,  in  courteous  and  even 
aff'ectionate  terms,  that  the  Pope  was 
sending  to  her  Vincenzo  Parpalia,  whom 
she  knew  personally,  to  confer  with  her; 
that  he  earnestly  desired  to  accord  to  her 
whatever  .she  might  wish  for  the  con- 
firmation of  her  jirincely  dignity  ;  and 
that  nothing  could  express  the  joy  of 
himself  and  of  the  fathers  about  to  attend 
the  Council  (of  Trent)  were  they  to  hear 
of  her  returning  into  the  bosom  of  the 
Church."'  Parpaliii  wns  not  allowed  to 
■couie  into  I  jij^dimd,  and  tliu  work  of 
anti-Catholic  legislatiMi  went  on.  Re- 
monstrance and  admonition  liaviiiii  proved 
useless,  the  1  lolv  See  re^ol\  .->l,  whilr  there 
was  yet  time,  bef  uv  a  generaiion  educatiMl 
in  Protestant  schools  had  grown  up,  to 
employ  against  Elizabeth  the  censures  of 

1  Cii/e/i(Jur  iift/ie  EntiUsh  Martyrs,  T.  G.  Law 
(1870  I.  'I'lii'  iiaiiios  inul  other  particulars  are 
givni.  (  xn  i  i  ii,  ilie  case  of  the  I'"raiic;scans. 

-'  C..,,,!,!.  in.l.  ell.  iii. 

3  Ded.l  s  ChunI,  rnslorv.  III.  oorxxi. 

1  The  storv  tola  (  miu.I.  n  il,.-,t  I'ius  IV. 
offered  to  settle  iln'  I  n^li-li  l.iini-^\-  \,y  his 
Buthiirity  nml  to  ilic  lai-li^h  Caiiiolics 

the  u.se  of  the  sacrament  in  botli  kinds,  .seems 
:to  rest  on  mere  rumour. 


ENGLISH  CHURCH  825 

the  Church.  Pope  Pius  V.  published  a 
bull  fn-  this  purpose  in  1570  [Deposi- 
tion, Bull  of].  It  failed  of  its  effect; 
and  the  efforts  made  by  Sixtus  V.,  in 
1587  and  1588,  to  dethrone  her  by  means 
of  the  fleets  and  armies  of  Philip  II., 
and  terminate  the  miseries  of  the 
Catholics,  similarly  miscarried.  Nothing 
remained  but  to  console  and  sustain  the 
recusants  as  much  as  possible  under  the 
persecution,  and  hope  for  better  times 
under  a  new  sovereign.  In  Jidy  1000, 
Clement  VIII.  wrote  to  the  nuncio  in 
Flanders  that  he  was  very  anxious  on  the 
subject  of  the  English  succession,  and 
instructed  him,  as  soon  as  the  "  misera 
femina "  was  dead,  to  write  to  the 
English  Catholics,  urging  them  to  post- 
pone every  other  consideration  to  the  one 
paramount  object  of  having  a  king  who 
would,  if  not  protect,  at  least  leave  free 
the  Catholic  religion. 

The  effect  of  the  laws  described  above, 
executed  with  cold,  ruthless, stealthy  tena- 
city by  very  able  administrators,  who  were 
zealously  aided  by  the  Anglican  clergy,  was 
to  reduce  the  profession  of  Catholicism,  in 
the  last  years  of  the  reign,  to  a  minimum. 
No  cruel  stratagem,  no  conscience-rending 
de^dce,  was  spared  ;  husbands  were  made 
responsible  for  the  conformity  of  their 
wives,  wives  for  that  of  their  husbands; 
accumulated  fines  for  non-attendance  at 
church  held  up  before  fathers  the  pro- 
spect of  ruin  and  social  descent  for  their 
sons,  for  whom  yet  they  could  scarcely 
by  any  sacrifice  obtain  a  Catholic  edu- 
cation ;  the  ancient  universities  were 
perverted  ;  the  ancient  schools  were 
jierverted  ;  the  town  populace,  long- 
since  won  over  by  the  coarse  satires  of 
the  Lollards,  was  everywhere  against 
Catholics  ;  the  circumstances  of  the 
time  made  it  easy  to  fix  on  them  the 
brand  of  disloyalty.  If  anyone  wishes  to 
understanil  tiieir  unhajipv  cuiiditiun  in 
detail,  let  him  ivad  tlie  report  of  l^ither 
TInltbvjin  lolU,  t.i  (  larnet  thr  l'ro\  i,iei!il, 
publi.slied  in  the  third  volume  of  I  (odd 
(ed.  Tierney).  It  is  cominoidy  isiimated 
thtit  at  the  end  of  the  reign  tiboui  hall 
:  the  population  were  still  (Catholics;  but 
this  can  only  be  understood  of  secret  in- 
clinations, if,  even  so  limit-d,  it  be  true; 
tho.sc  who  actually  praeii-ed  their  religion 
must  have  borne  a  much  smaller  propor- 
tion than  this  to  the  mass  of  the  popula- 
tion. 

The  time  came  when  she  who,  for  the 
security  of  her  crown,  had  shed  so  much 
I  blood,  broken  so  mauy  hearts,  ruined  so 


326       ENGLISH  CIIUKOH 


ENGLISH  CHURCH 


many  lives,  had  to  depart  out  of  this 
world.  "Heaven  was  just,"  says  the 
Catholic  historian,  "  iu  making  her  in- 
consolable who  had  been  the  author  of  so 
much  grief  to  others."  '  bhe  I'ell  into  a 
settled  melancholy  ;  would  sit  silent  in 
her  chair  for  days  and  nights  together; 
and  when  urged  by  the  Lord  Admiral  to 
go  to  her  bed,  told  him  that  if  he  had 
seen  what  she  saw  there,  he  would  not 
ask  her.  •'  She  became  tedious  to  her- 
self, and  troublesome  to  all  about  her."* 
While  she  was  in  this  state  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  and  other  prelates 
called  to  see  her,  at  which  she  was  very 
angry,  "  biddinir  them  be  packing,  saying 
she  was  no  atheist,  but  knew  full  well 
that  they  were  hedge  priests,  and  took  it 
for  an  indignity  that  they  should  speak 
to  her."  ^  Such — assuming  that  the 
words  are  correctly  reported — was  her 
hnal  estimate  of  those  "Anglican  orders" 
which  she  had  done  so  much  to  establish. 
In  this  state  of  mind  she  died. 

Aware  that  James  I.  had  carried  on 
the  government  of  Scotland  in  a  tolerant 
spirit,  and  not  foreseeing  what  an  insur- 
mountable attraction  the  theory  of  "head- 
ship of  the  Church  "  would  have  for  a 
learned  fool,  and  how  it  would  work  on 
a  despotic  temper,  the  English  Catholics 
hailed  with  joy  his  accession  to  the  throne. 
But  in  the  following  year  (1604)  was 
juused  an  Act  "  for  the  due  execution 
of  the  statutes  against  Jesuits,  semi- 
nary priests,  and  other  priests."  It 
was  enacted  that  two-thirds  of  a  Catho- 
lic landowner's  I'eal  estate  might  be 
seized  to  meet  the  fine  of  20/.  per 
mouth  for  not  attending  church,  if  the 
money  was  not  paid.  Uuder  Elizabeth 
many  Catholics,  without  much  molesta- 
tion, had  provided  ior  the  education  of 
their  children  abroad.  That  scanty 
liberty  was  cut  off  by  this  statute,  which 
fined  anyone  sending  a  child  abroad  for 
education  "  in  Popery,"  for  each  offence 
100/.,  and  made  the  person  so  sent 
incapable  of  inheriting  or  enjoying  any 
property,  real  or  jiersonal,  unless  ho 
conformed  to  the  Established  Church. 
Another  clause  prohibited  the  keeping  of 
a  school  by  or  in  the  house  of  any 
recusant.*    The  alarmed  Catholics,  still 

»  Dodd's  Church  History,  iii.  70. 
2  Ibid. 

5  Ibid.  His  account  is  t.aken  from  the  narra- 
tive of  Lady  Southwell,  one  of  the  ((ueen'a 
waiting  women,  who  was  present, 

*  Recusants  were  those  who  ref  used  the  oath 
of  supremacy  under  Elizabeth,  and  the  oath  of 


I  unwilling  to  believe  that  the  hopes  whicb 

I  they  had  indulged  must  be  renounced, 
petitioned  the  king  for  the  free  exercise 
of  their  religion  in  private  houses,  re- 
minding him  how  much  they  had  sufi'ered 
"  for  your  good  mother's  sake."  '  For 
answer,  James  issued  a  proclamation 
(September  1604)  banishing  all  the 
Catholic  missionary  priests  out  of  the 
kingdom.    This  climax  of  tyranny  drove 

1  some  of  the  Catholics  to  desperation;. 

I  they  began  to  conspire,  and  the  Gun- 
powder  Plot   (1605)    was   the  result. 

■  Nothing  can  be  fairer  than  what  Bellar- 
mine  writes  on  this  subject :  "  I  excuse 
not  the  deed ;  I  hate  murders ;  I  detest 

I  conspiracies ;  but  no  one  can  deny  that 
men  were  driven  to  despair.  For  the 
Catholics  hoped  ....  that  under  a  new 
prince,  who  had  always  been  noted  for 
clemency,  and  whose  accession  they  had 
cordially  welcomed,  they  would  draw 
breath  again  alter  so  long  a  persecution, 

I  and  be  free  to  retain  that  faith  and 
religion  which  the  king's  own  mother 
and  all  his  ancestors  had  piously  prac- 

'  tised.  But  when  they  saw  that  the  cruel 
edicts  of  Queen  Elizabeth  were  confirmed, 
that  crushing  fines  were  imposed  on  those 
refusing  to  frequent  heretical  places  of 
worship,  and  that  under  colour  of  accu- 
sations for  breaches  of  the  law  they  were 
being  gradually  despoiled  of  all  their 
property,  some  among  them,  who  could 

;  not  put  up  with  their  wrongs,  driven  to 
despair,  framed  that  plot  which  we  and 
you  alike  deplore."  ^ 

Soon  after  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  James, 
with  the  assistance  of  Bancroft  and  Chris- 
topher Perkins,  a  renegade  Jesuit,  framed 
a  new  oath  of  allegiance  for  Catholics, 
the  otijeet  of  which  was  to  divide  them — 
to  i  xtract  as  iiuich  disloyalty  to  the  Holy 
See  I'roui  those  wlio  took  it  as  was  com- 
])atible  with  nut  absolutely  withdrawing 
their   obedience — and    to   mitigate  the 

1  foreign  oiiteiy  against  the  persecution  in 

j  England.  To  understand  what  followed, 
it  is  necessary  to  describe  the  measures 
which  had  already  been  taken  to  give 
English  Catholics  a  new  organisation. 
■VVhile  the  hope  was  not  yet  extinct  that 
the  nation  might  be  restored  to  Catholi- 
cism, and  some  of  the  old  bishops  de- 
posed by  Elizabeth  were  still  alive, 
questions  of  government  and  j  urisdiction 

allei;iance,  presently  to   he  described,  under 

Jiinie^  I.  iirnl  liis  successors. 
1  U,..i.l.  ,v.  App.  82. 
1      2  From  lii  llannine's  reply  to  the  ^/w/o^j/ /or 
I  the  Oath  of  AUtgiaiice ;  Opera,  iii.  645. 


ENGLISH  CHURCH 


EN'GLISH  CHURCH  327 


remained  more  or  less  in  suspense. 
Wben,  however,  after  the  foundation 
of  a  seminary  college  at  Douay '  by 
Allen,  an  ex-canon  of  York,  in  1568,  fol- 
lowed by  a  similar  foundation  at  Rome 
in  1579,  English  priests  came  over  into 
England  in  considerable  numbers,  and 
Jesuits  and  Franciscans  hastened  to  the 
post  of  peril,  questions  of  jurisdiction 
and  administration  could  not  but  emerge. 
In  15117  Father  Parsons  drew  up  a  peti- 
tion to  the  Holy  See  requesting  that  two 
Euglisli  bishops  might  be  appointed,  one 
to  reside  in  England,  the  other  in 
Flanders ;  this  last  being  ready  to  take  the 
place  of  his  English  brother,  should  he 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  persecutors. 
The  petition  also  recommended  that  the 
bishop  in  England  should  be  assisted  by 
seven  or  ei^.'-ht  ecclesiastics  of  higher 
rank— arch  priests  or  archdeacons.''  It 
was  not  thought  prudent  at  Rome  to  do 
all  that  the  petition  recommended;  but 
to  provide  a  head  for  the  struggluig 
mission.  Cardinal  Cnjetan  (1598),  the 
protector  of  the  English  nation,  appointed 
George  Blackwell  archpriest,  with  a 
council  of  twelve  consultors,  of  whom 
six  were  nominated  by  the  Cardinal,  six 
were  to  be  selected  by  Blackwell  himself. 

In  1606  the  king  caused  an  "Act  for 
the  better  discovering  and  repressing  of 
popish  recusants "  to  be  passed,  which 
contained  the  new  oath  of  allegiance 
above  mentioned.  The  Catholic  was  no 
longer  required  to  swear  that  the  king 
was  the  supreme  spiritual  authority  in 
England.  '■  He  was  to  declare  that  James 
wa.-  lawful  king,  and  that  the  Pope  had 
no  kind  of  authority  to  depose  him,  or  to 
authorise  others  to  depose  him,  or  to 
release  his  subjects  from  their  allegiance. 
The  person  thus  swearing  was  moreover 
to  declare  that  he  would  support  t!ie  king, 
notwithstanding  any  excommunii-atiou  or 
deprivation.  ...  He  was  to  add  :  •  And 
I  do  further  swear  that  I  do  from  my 
heart  abhor,  detest,  and  abjure  as  impious 
and  heretical  this  damnable  doctrine  and 
position,  that  princes  which  be  excom- 
municated by  tlie  Piipe  may  be  deposed  or 
murdered  by  their  subjects,  or  any  other 
whatsoever.' The  theory  underlying 
this  oath  evidently  was,  that  the  right  of 
a  king  to  his  throne  was  original  and 

^  On  all  tint  relates  to  Douay,  see  the 
preface  bv  F.  Kiiiix  of  the  Oratorv  to  the  Douau 
i>i«WM.  pt.  i.  (If77). 

Dodd.  iii.  Apr..  Xo.  21. 

5  Canon  Flanagan's  History  of  the  Church 
in  Enyland,  ii.  2'Ji. 


jure  divino,  and  that  no  power  on  earth, 
whether  emanating  from  his  own  subjects 
or  from  any  other  source,  could  lawfully 
depose  him.  In  times  when  a  high 
doctrine  of  royal  prerogative  was  gene- 
rally accepted,  such  an  oath,  it  was 
thought,  would  be  particularly  ensnaring 
to  Catholics ;  and  so  it  proved.  The 
archpriest  Blackwell  published  an  opinion 
favourable  to  it,  and  advised  that  it  be 
taken.  Cardinal  Bellarmine,  who  had 
been  a  fellow-student  with  him,  wrote  a 
letter  gently  remonstrating  against  the 
course  he  was  taking,  and  reminding  him 
how  inconsistent  it  was  with  the  teaching 
which  they  had  received.  James,  with 
the  help  of  Bishop  Andrewes,  then  pub- 
lished an  "  Apology  for  the  Oath  of 
Allegiance,"  which  Bellarmine  met  with 
a  "  Kespousio"'  (^1610),  under  the  feigned 
name  of  Matthias  Tortus.  In  this 
masterly  treatise  the  Cardinal  shows  that 
for  a  Catholic  to  swear  that  he  would 
continue  to  obey  the  king  in  spite  of  any 
sentence  of  excommunication  by  the 
Pope  was  as  much  as  to  say  that  the 
Pope  was  not  the  head  of  the  Church, 
had  no  power  of  binding  and  loosing 
given  him  by  Christ,  and  could  do 
nothing  against  a  heretic  king.  It  was 
equivalent  to  saying  that  the  duty  of  a 
man  to  his  king  was  antecedent  to,  and 
of  higher  obligation  than,  his  duty  to 
God  and  the  Pope  His  vicar.  But  this 
touched  faith,  and  was  not  a  matter  of 
civil  alle.nance  merely,  as  the  king  and 
I  his  Anglican  adviser^  laboured  to  prove.^ 
The  Pope  (Paul  Y.)  wrote  a  brief  to  the 
English  Catholics  in  1606,  and  another 
1  in  1607,  warning  them  against  taking 
'  the  oath;  and  after  some  time  the  general 
I  body  of  English  Catholics  carefully  re- 
I  frained  from  doing  so.  But  not  only  did 
[  a  contumacious  minority  accept  or  at 
least  delend  it,  but  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  a  large  number  of  waverers.  tliinking 
or  pretending  to  think  that  continued 
adhesion  to  their  religion  was  inconsistent 
with  their  civil  duty,  took  this  occasion 
of  conforming  to  the  Establish:nent.  The 
[  steady  continuance  of  sauijuinary  re- 
\  pression  of  course  contributed  to  this 
result.  According  to  the  list  in  Dodd  - 
twenty-four  Catholics  were  executed  for 
religion  under  James  I.,  but  Mr.  Law  * 
gives  the  names  of  twenty -seven,  of  whom 
eight  were  laymen.  These  executions 
were  scattered  pretty  evenly  over  the 
years  of  James's  reign.  The  king's  re.<olu- 
»  B<-Marni.  0,uru.  iii.  i;.'?8. 
'  DoJd,  iv.  17'J  (^lierncv).    *  Cikuilur,  &e. 


328       ENGLISH  (^HUROH 


ENGLISH  CHURCH 


tion  to  seek  a  wife  for  the  Prince  of  Wales  1 
among  the   Catholic  royal   families   of  | 
Europe,  not  the  Protestant,  inspired  new 
hopes  at  Rome,  as  we  learn  from  a  touch- 
ins  letter  addressed  to  him  by  Urban  VIII. 
on  October  2,  1623.' 

The  hopes  created  by  James's  matri- 
monial projects  were  not  entirely  defeated. 
Though  the  Spanish  match  fell  through, 
a  marriage  was  arranged  with  Henrietta 
Maria,  daughter  of  Henri  Quatre  and 
sister  of  Louis  XIII.,  the  Pope  granting 
a  dispensation  in  consideration  of  articles 
in  the  marriage  treaty  pimnisiug  a  free 
exercise  of  their  religion  !br  Henrietta  and 
her  attendants,  and  some  relaxation  of 
the  penal  laws  for  the  Engli.sh  Catholics. 
This  relaxation,  if  we  regard  the  reign  as 
a  whole,  actually  took  place.  It  is  true 
t\ii\*  Charles  did  not  carry  out  the  stipula- 
tion in  favour  of  the  Catholics  uniformly  ; 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  he  had 
to  deal  with  a  Parliament  and  a  populace 
which  a  long  course  of  Protestant  teach- 
ing and  preaching  liail  now  intlanied 
with  a  superstitious  hatred  of  Catholicism. 
Whenever  Parliament  met,  they  pe- 
titioned the  king  to  execute  the  penal 
laws  more  rigorously,  and  the  rejoicings 
of  the  mob  in  London  at  the  news  of  the 
failure  of  the  Spanish  marriage  had 
shown  how  strong  was  the  jionular 
prejudice.  Cliarles  could  not  openly  defy 
this  mass  of  popular  sentiini'ut :  we  read 
accordingly  of  pi-oclamal ions  issued  by 
him  orderiiig  pi'iests  to  quit  the  kingdom, 
parent^  tn  irciill  their  children  from 
foreign  sclionls.  ^tc,  and  in  two  crises 
(162.-^)  the  tilood  of  Catiiolics  was  shed.- 
Eut  after  tl;e  dissolution  of  1620  the 
penal  laws  gradually  almost  ceased  to 
be  executed  ;  no  one  was  put  to  death 
for  many  years  ;  the  cele))ration  of  Ma.ss 
was  little  impeded  ;  e\en  the  fines  for 
recusancy,  unless  the  King's  wants  were 
urgent,  were  langni(ll\  e\;ici(-l.'  Still, 
seventy  years  of  sevi  ra nee  i'l  Mui  lomie  had 
effectually  done  their  work:  the  nation 
was  now  Protestant.  Panzani,  a  secret 
agent  sent  by  Urban  VIII.  to  En^rhmd 
in  Ifi.'J.^,  reported  that  the  ( 'atlu /lies  in 
the  kingdom  were  about  l-M ).()()()  in 
number.''    Among  tliesedonlitl,  s~  a  much 

l-atli.a-  Ari.i.A-iiH'l,  .-in.i  .Mi.  lii.tiard 
Herst.  A  r-)ii;irKaMr  m.iia-  is  h.i.l  .-iliuut  the 
former  in  MiincrV  of  Coiitrvc:  rxii. 

■■  IIa!lain,  Cmist.  Hist.  ch.  \\n.  \  (  lan  iidon, 
vol.  i.  np|).  B. 

Ilallftin, /of.  fit.;  the  total  pii|iulatiou  at 
i\\\<  time  was  probablv  between  tour  and  live 
jmlli  .11-. 


larger  proportion  were  persons  of  property 
and  standing  than  was  the  case  in  the 
general  population.  Numerous  conver- 
sions added  to  their  .strength  about  this 
time.  Panzani  declares  in  the  Report 
just  quoted  that  "  while  he  was  in 
London,  almost  all  the  nobility  who 
died,  though  reputed  Protestants,  died 
Catholics."  Goodman,  the  Anglican 
bishop  of  Gloucester,  died  a  Roman 
Catholic.  Secretary  Cottington,  Secre- 
tary Windei)ank,  Crashaw  the  poet.  Sir 
George  Calvert  the  coloniser  of  Mary- 
land, Sir  Toby  Matthews  the  diplomatist, 
Abraham  Woodhead,  one  of  the  Oxford 
proctors,  Cres.sy,  a  canon  of  Windsor, 
with  many  others,  submitted  to  the 
Church  before  the  middle  of  the  century.' 
It  was  to  these  conversions  that  Milton, 
whose  religious  sympathies  were  Puritan, 
referred  in  his  "  Lycidas  "  (1G37): 
'•Besides  >\liat  the  grim  wolf,  with  privy  paw, 
Daily  devours  apace,  and  nothiug  said." 

The  Catholics  began,  even  in  London, 
to  go  openly  to  Mass;  schemes  of  re- 
union were  in  the  air;^  Laud's  ritual 
innovations,  and  the  measures  of  liarsh 
rejiression  taken  in  the  High  Commission 
Court  against  the  Puritans,  all  seemed  to 
point  one  way. 

In  the  civil  war  between  the  king 
and  the  Parliament,  which  soon  broke 
out,  the  English  ("atholics,  to  a  man,  took 
the  king's  side.  This  has  been  spolcen  of 
sometimes  in  their  honour,  sometimes  to 
their  dispraise  :  but,  in  fact,  they  had  no 
alternative.  It  was  no  prel'erence  for  an 
absolute  compared  with  a  constitutional 
monarchy  which  led  the  descendants  of 
the  men  who  forced  reforms  from  John 
and  the  tirst  Edward,  now  to  rally  to  the 
royal  standard ;  but  a  simple  political 
necessity.  They  could  expect  some 
justice  from  the  kiny  :  tliey  could  expect 
none  from  the  PaiTiauient .  The  popular 
party  under  Charles  !.,  ami  the  country 
party  in  the  next  la-ign,  leserx  ed  all  their 
indignation  against  intolerance  for  Pro- 
testant persecution  of  Protestants;  Protes- 
tant persecution  of  Catholics  was  in  their 
eyes  right  and  necessary.  This  is  the 
more  reni:irkable  becau.se  at  this  very 
time  the  Prote-lants  across  the  Channel 
were  enjoying  full  toleration  under  the 
Edict  ot  Nantes.    It  is,  however,  an  in- 

i  Flann^r.in,  ii.  327,  note. 

-  Moiuagu.  Bishop  of  Chiche.oter,  ni.nde 
oveitures  in  this  sense  to  Piiii/.iiiii ;  but  be 
seems  not  to  have  apareciated  the  difficulties 
iu  tlie  way.  and  his  proposal  were  somewhat 
coolly  received.    Hallam,  loc.  cit. 


EXGLISn  CHURCH 


ENGLISH  CHURCH  320 


d;«putaHe  fact,  and,  besides  being 
proved  in  many  other  ways,  it  is  estab- 
lished by  a  mere  reference  to  the  returns 
of  the  executions  of  Catholics  during  the 
reign.  Between  1625  and  1640,  only  the 
two  prsons  already  named  suffered  death ; 
but  m  the  period  between  the  meeting 
of  the  Long  Parliament  in  the  autumn  of 
1640  and  the  death  of  Cromwell  in  ]6o8, 
the  penal  laws  claimed  twenty-four  vic- 
tims. A  few  of  tliese  were  executed  by 
royal  authority,  that  authority  being  put 
in  force  in  consequence  of  pressure  from 
the  Parliament ;  but  the  greater  number 
were  hanged  at  Tyburn,  after  the  king 
had  ceased  to  govern  in  London.  For  the 
death  of  tlie  aged  Father  Southworth, 
banged  in  1654  solely  for  his  priesthood, 
Cromwell,  who  was  then  at  the  head  of 
the  Government,  wa^  responsible.  There 
is  therefore  nothing  surprising  in  the  de- 
votion with  which  Catholics  fought  and 
suffered  in  the  cause  of  Charles  I.  Many 
of  them  fell  in  battle :  e.g.  Robert 
Dormer,  Ear!  of  Carnarvon,  killed  at 
Newbury  (1643),  and  Sir  .Arthur  Aston, 
who  perished  in  the  massacre  after  the 
storm  of  Drogheda  (1649).  The  pages  of 
Dodd  record  the  names,  services,  and 
manner  of  denth  of  many  others.  It  was 
estimated  (th(iugh  the  proportion  is  pro- 
bably too  high),  that  out  of  al)out  five 
hundred  gentlemen  who  lost  their  lives 
for  Charles  in  the  civil  war,  a  hundred 
and  ninety-four  were  Catholics.'  A  tiner 
type  of  a  brave  and  loyal  gentleman, 
"true  as  the  dial  to  the  sun,"  than  the 
Marquis  of  Worcester,'^  lord  of  Raglan 
Ca.«tle,  it  would  not  be  ea.sy  to  produce. 
M'hen  Parliament  got  the'  upper  hand, 
the  Catholics  were  treated  with  great 
severity  ;  their  estates  were  often  confis- 
cated, when  their  Protestant  neighb'"iurs 
were  suffered  to  compound.  Aifter  the 
i:ing's  execution  they  cea.sed  to  play  an 
active  part  in  public  life ;  nor  did  they 
seek  to  maintain  relations  with  the  exiled 
royal  family.  Cromwell's  government, 
nn  the  whole,  treated  tbem  leniently, 
r.ut.  in  truth,  after  the  battle  of  Wor- 
cester (1650)  all  parties  were  sick  of 
bloodshed,  and  this  feeling  protected  for 
some  year.s  the  Catholic  priests,  and  caused 
a  comparative  toleration  of  their  worship. 
Reverting  to  the  subject  of  ecclesias- 

'  Dodd,  quoted  by  Hnllnin,  Count.  Hist. 
ch.  X. 

-  His  sou,  Edward,  was  also  a  staunch 
Cathnlie;  hi*  grandson,  Henry,  first  Duke  of 
Beaiit'nrt,  conformed  to  the  Church  of  England. 

(D.Hia.) 


tical  organisation,  we  find  that  the  arch- 
priest  Blackwell  (who,  being  thrown  into 
prison  after  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  had 
consented  to  take  the  new  oath  of  allegi- 
ance) was  on  this  account  deprived  by 
the  Holy  See  of  his  office  and  of  all 
faculties  (1608),  George  Birkhead  being 
appointed  to  succeed  him.  Harrison  suc- 
'  ceeded  Birkhead  in  1614.  Our  space  does 
I  not  permit  us  to  do  more  than  glance  at 
the  dissensions  which  troubled  the  Cath- 
olics, arising  out  of  the  contention  of  cer- 
tain priests  that  Blacliwell's  jurisdiction 
was  invalid,  and  out  of  differences  between 
seculars  and  regulars.  The  necessity  for 
the  presence  of  a  bishop  in  England  be- 
came more  and  more  manifest,  and  at 
length,  in  162  i,  Dr.  William  Bishop  was 
appointed  by  Gregory  XV.  as  the  first 
vicar  apostolic.  He  erected  a  chapter, 
which  exercised  some  kind  of  jurisdiction, 
in  tlie  face  of  considerable  doubt  and 
opposition,  down  to  1695,  when  a  decree 
of  Propaganda  appeared,  declaring  that 
since  the  deputation  of  the  four  vicars 
apostolic  in  1688.  all  previously  existing 
jurisdictions  had  ceased.  Dr.  Bishop 
dying  in  1624,  Dr.  llichard  Smith  suc- 
ceeded him  in  the  following  year,  but 
withdrew  into  France  in  1629,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  proclamation  having  been 
made  for  his  arrest,  and  never  again  re- 
turned to  Kngland.  He  died  in  1655. 
The  Holy  See  did  not  deem  it  prudent  to 
appoint  a  successor  for  many  years,  though 
strongly  urged  to  do  so  by  Sir  Kenelm 
Digby  and  others. 

Charles  II.,  who,  from  the  time  of  his 
enforced  residence  on  the  Continent, 
appears  to  have  been  intellectually  con- 
vinced of  the  truth  of  Catholicism,  but 
bad  not  moral  courage  enough  to  avow  it, 
was  as  fa  vourable  to  the  English  Cath- 
olics all  through  his  life  as  he  dared  to  be. 
The  Pendrells,  honesi  Catholic  yeomen 
who  sheltered  him  while  he  was  in  hidirig 
at  Boscobel  after  tlu'  liattle  of  ^N'orcester, 
were  now  rewarded  with  a  pension, 
which  their  descendants  are  said  to  receive 
to  this  day.  Between  1  fit  iO  an  1  1677  not 
a  single  Catholic  was  execi  ted:  two  Te-^t 
Acts,  however,  were  pass-'d,  requiring  tliat 
before  entering  upon  any  office  umler  the 
Crown,  or  taking  his  sent  in  Parliament, 
a  man  must  receive  the  sacrament  accord- 
ing to  the  rites  of  the  Churcii  oi'  England. 
The  ed'ect  of  these  statutes,  joined  to  the 
other  ]ienal  laws,  was  to  make  English 
Catholics  mere  sojourners  in  their  own 
land  till  the  passing  of  the  EmHUcipiUlon 
Act   in   1829.     In  1678,  through  the 


3.30       EXGLTSH  CHrRCH 


ENGLISH  CHURCH 


machinations  of  Shaftesbury,  the  frantic 
popular  excitement  about  a  supposed 
"Popish  Plot"  arose,  and  between  that 
year  and  1685  the  blood  of  twenty-four 
victims,  all  absolutely  guiltless  of  any 
crime,  flowed  upon  the  scaffold.  The 
last  of  these  was  Oliver  Pluuket,  the 
saintly  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  (/harles 
II.  liimsell  was  reconciled  to  the  Church 
on  his  deathbed  by  Father  Huddlestou. 

James  II.  had  become  a  Catholic, 
while  Duke  of  York,  and  his  change  of 
reliij  ion  was  generally  known  about  1073. 
When  he  came  to  the  throne  in  1685,  he 
was  full  of  zeal  for  Catholic  interests; 
but  it  was  a  zeal  little  "according  to 
knowledge."  Moreover,  the  scandalous 
immorality  of  his  private  life  justly 
damaged  his  advocacy  ;  pious  Protestants 
could  not  be  blamed  for  regarding  with 
distrust  the  efforts  of  the  married  lover 
of  Catherine  Sedley '  to  advance  the 
interests  of  his  religion  by  over-riding 
the  existing  laws.  It  was  a  time  when 
special  caution  was  necessary,  and  James 
proceeded  with  singular  rashness.  The 
Catholics  had  by  this  time  dwindled 
fearfully ;  ^  their  political  weight  in  the 
country  was  gone  ;  Parliament  was  more 
likely  to  add  new  penal  laws  against 
them  than  to  repeal  the  old  ones ;  their 
one  hope  lay  in  the  favour  of  the  execu- 
tive. Nor  need  this  hope  have  been 
fallacious ;  for  the  English,  when  not 
alarmed  or  fluriied,  are  a  good-natured 
and  indulgent  people ;  the  penal  laws 
were  intrinsically  unjust :  and  the  exemp- 
tion of  here  and  there  an  individual  from 
their  stringency  by  means  of  the  dis- 
pen.*ing  power,  assuming  that  the  indivi- 
dual so  exempted  had  been  really  fit  for 
posts  of  public  trust,  would  have  led  to 
no  commotion.  That  the  dispensing 
power  was  really  a  part  of  the  royal 
preroirative,  as  till  then  understood,  and 
might  lawfully  lie  exeieised,  was  decided 
by  eleven  out  of  twelve  judges  at  Sir 
Edward  Hales'  trial  in  1686,  and  cannot 
truthfully  be  questioned.  But  James, 
with  that  perverse  stupidity  which  was 
natural  to  him,  proceeded  to  use  his 
power  to  dispense  with,  as  if  it  were 
equivalent  to  a  power  to  repeal,  the  law, 
and  lilled  the  public  service  with  Cath- 

1  l,in.;,n-,l,  v<.l.  x.  ch.  2. 

-  .\i<  iii(liru'  to  a  return  quoted  b_v  Hallam, 
the  miinlicr  nf  Ciitholies  above  .lixtecn  <iton 
after  the  Kevolution  w.ns  orly  l.S.H.'ii;.  which 
would  irive  under  30,00o  for  the  whole  Catholic 
pupuliition.  Const.  Hist.  ch.  xv.  However, 
th:s  number,  as  he  adds,  "appears  iiicrelibly 
small." 


I  olics  to  an  extent  far  beyond  what  either 
1  their  numbers  or  their  qualifications 
'  justified.  He  gave  commissions  in  the 
I  army  to  a  number  of  Catholic  officers, 
and  caused  Catholic  soldiers  to  be  freely 
enlisted ;  he  ordered  four  Catholic  lords 
to  take  their  seats  in  the  Privy  Council 
without  taking  the  test  required  by  law ; 
and  he  actually  made  Father  Petre,  one 
of  the  worst  qualified  men  in  England 
for  such  a  post,  a  privy  councillor,  al- 
though the  appointment,  owing  to  the 
strong  opposition  raised,  remained  in 
abeyance.'  He  worried  the  two  univer- 
sities, especially  Oxford,  where  he  forced 
his  candidate,  Parker  (who  had  professed 
himself  a  Catholic),  upon  the  fellows  of 
Magdalen  instead  of  the  President  of 
their  choice ;  made  Massey  (another 
Catholic)  dean  of  Christ  Church ;  and 
induced  the  old  Master  of  University 
(Obadiah  Walker)  to  fit  up  a  chapel  for 
Catholic  worship  within  the  college  pre- 
cincts. But  the  most  utterly  foolish  and 
suicidal  act  of  all  was  when,  borrowing  a 
weajjon  from  the  anti-Catholic  armoury 
of  (^ueen  Elizabeth,  he  appointed  a  court 
of  Ecclesiastical  Commission  to  control 
the  Anglican  Church,  and  by  its  means 
suspended  the  Bishop  of  London,  because 
he  had  not  taken  severe  measures  against 
one  of  his  clergy  who  had  preached 
against  the  Court !  The  members  of  the 
commission,  it  is  true,  were  Protestants, 
with  the  exception  of  the  crafty  Sunder- 
land, a  nominal  convert,  who  boasted 
of  having  counselled  rash  courses  to  the 
king,  the  sooner  to  arouse  the  Protestant 
feeling  of  the  country.  But  they  were 
mere  courtiers,  and  the  odium  of  their 
acts  justly  fell  on  the  king',  who  appeared 
to  be  tising  an  ecclesiastical  supremacy 
which  his  own  Cburch  disowned  and  con- 
demned, in  order  to  vex  and  weaken  the 
body  for  whose  behoof  it  was  originally 
claimed.  None  can  wonder  that  the 
indignation  felt  was  general  and  deep. 

All  this  time  the  Whig  leaders  were 
secretly  negotiating  with  William  of 
Orange;  an  army  of  fourteen  thousand 
veterans  was  equipped  with  all  the  expe- 
dition and  secrecy  possible  ;  an  invasion 
was  determined  on  ;  and  the  landing  of 
the  troops  was  safely  effected  in  Tor  Bay 
in  November  1688.    The  general  history 

•  James  tried  hard  to  obtain  the  Cardiml's 
hat  for  F.  Petre,  but  this  the  Pope  (Innocent 
XI.)  courteously  but  firmly  declined.  Dryden, 
who  was  a  good  judi^c  of  men,  au^uied  ill  from 
the  politicil  elevation  of  the  fjivourit^' (//inrf 
and  Panther,  book  i:i,) 


ENGLISH  CHURCH 


E^sGLISH  CHURCH  331 


«f  the  period  shows  how  the  shameless 
treachery  of  Churchill  and  others,  and 
the  skilful  use  of  calumnies  against  the 
"  Papists,"  '  paralysed  the  resistance  on 
the  king's  side.  Yet  nothing  can  be  more 
clear,  on  the  whole,  than  tliis — that  it 
was  the  solid  military  strength  of  the 
foreign  troops  who  had  been  landed 
which  enabled  the  Revolution  to  succeed. 
That  strength  -would  not  have  sufficed 
without  those  calumnies,  and  without  the 
king's  unpopulai  i!  Y :  but  these  last  causes 
could  not  have  overturned  the  throne 
without  the  presence  of  the  Dutch  troops. 
Macaulay  describes  with  exultation 
William's  entry  into  Exeter  on  the  9th  of 
November,  at  the  head,  not  only  of  his 
Dutch  regiments,  but  of  mercenary  bat- 
talions of  8wedes,  Brandenburghers,  Swiss 
and  even  negroes,  followed  by  a  formid- 
able train  of  artillery.  Against  these 
veterans  James's  inexperienced  troops, 
though  much  superior  in  numbers,  would 
probably  have  made  no  effectual  stand ; 
and  Churchill's  desertion  may  have  had 
more  motives  than  one.  As  Flamiuiuus 
proclaimed  the  liberty  of  Greece  at  the 
Isthmian  Games,  so  VVilliam  displayed  a 
bnnner  inscribed  with  "  tlie  Liberties  of 
England;''  but  a  thoughtful  Englishman 
reading  the  narrative  might  well  repeat 
the  verse  of  Wordsworth — 

"  Ah  1  that  a  conqueror's  words  should  be  so 
dear!  " 

The  Revolution  was  accomphshed ;  for 
Catholics,  both  in  England  and  Irel.cnd,  a 
long  period  of  humiliation  began.  Never- 
theless, from  one  point  of  view,  the  event 
justified  them  and  confounded  their  ad- 
versaries.   There  was,  then,  a  "  deposing 
power,"  after  all !    Catholics  had  been 
tortured  and  put  to  death,  not  for  main-  | 
taining  only,  but  simply  for  refusing  to  j 
deny,  that  a  king  who  grossly  abused  his  j 
trust  might  justly  be  deposed  by  the 
sentence  of  the  Pope,  as  the  common  | 
father  of  Christendom.  Protestantism 
had  maintained  that  this  was  a  wicked 
doctriue  :  that  no  power  could  depose  an 
anointed    king ;    the    duty   of   passive  ! 

'  "  Danby,"  says  jr.imulay,  "acted  with 
rarp  dextoritv."  At  a  fieneral  meetini;  of  the 
i;i'nri_v  aiiii  f. Beholders  of  the  three  Kidiniis 
whicli  hiiii  been  sumnioneil  to  York  to  address 
the  kinj;  on  the  state  of  atfairs,  ••  the  discu.s.-ion 
had  be^un,  wlien  a  cry  was  suddenly  rai>ed 
that  tlie  Papists  were  up,  and  were  slnying  the 
Protestants."  Tliey  were  more  likely,  as 
Macaulay  says,  to  be  trenililini;  for  their  own 
eafety  ;  but  the  thing  was  believed,  the  popu- 
lace were  gulled,  and  Yorkshire  went  for  , 
William,— //is/,  of  Eng.  ch.  ix. 


obedience  had  been  solemnly  enujiciated 
by  the  University  of  Oxford  only  five 
years  before  the  Revolution.  Now,  on  a 
sudden,  the  king  was  deposed,  and  most 
Protestants  were  delighted.  It  appeared, 
therefore,  that  there  wa;-  a  lawful  "  de- 
posing power,"  but  that  it  resided,  not  in 
the  Pope,  but  w  oinj  stromj political  party 
assisted  hij  a  foreign  army.  The  case 
resembled,  in  some  respects,  the  struggle 
of  the  League  with  Henri  Quatre  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  Catholic  League, 
helped  by  the  Pope,  prevented  the  un- 
reconciled Henry  from  reigning  peaceably  ; 
the  Whig  party,  helped  by  a  Dutch 
army,  prevented  the  Catholic  James  from 
reigning  at  all.  Which  of  these  foreign 
interventions — the  helping  power  being 
moral  in  the  first  case,  material  in  the 
second— involved  the  greater  amount  of 
national  humiliation,  it  may  be  left  to  the 
justice  of  the  future  to  decide. 

From  1688  for  nearly  a  hundred  years 
English  Catholics  were  debarred  from  any 
share  in  the  public  life  of  the  nation  and 
subjected  to  countless  disabilities  and  in- 
dignities. A  new  batch  of  penal  laws 
came  in  with  William  "  the  Deliverer." 
First  it  was  enacted  (1689)  that  Papists 
and  reputed  Papists  should  remove  at  least 
ten  miles  from  We^tmintter.  Another 
statute  of  the  same  year  ordered  that 
Papists  and  reputed  Papists  should  be  dis- 
armed, and  that  a  horse  worth  more  than  5/. 
belonging  to  any  Papist  might  be  seized. 
In  the  Toleration  Act  (16^9)  a  proviso 
was  inserted,  "  that  neither  this  Act,  nor 
any  clause,  article,  or  thing  herein  con- 
tained, shall  extend,  or  be  construed  to 
extend,  to  give  any  ease,  benefit,  or  ad- 
vantage to  any  papist  or  popish  recusant 
whatsoever."  'in  the  Dill  of  Rights  it  was 
declared  that  no  Papist,  nor  anyone  tiiat 
married  a  Papist,  should  inherit  the 
crown.  In  a  later  statute  (1609)  "for 
further  preventing  the  growth  of  Popery," 
a  reward  nf  100^.  was  offered  for  in- 
formation leading  to  the  conviction  of 
a  Catholic  priest  for  saying  Ma.ss  or 
keeping  school,  and  such  priest  was  to  be 
imprisoned  for  life.  It  contained  also 
provisions  of  which  the  object  was  to 
disinherit  Catholic  landowners,  and  tran>- 
fer  their  estates  to  the  next  of  kin  beinir, 
or  becoming,  Protestant.  The  Act  of 
Settlement  (1701)  confirmed  the  decision 
of  the  former  Act,  by  which  the  son  of 
James  II.  had  been  included  in  the  sen- 
tence of  de])rivation  passed  against  the 
father,  and  settled  the  crown  on  the 
Princess  Sophia  and  her  isaue,  being 


.^32       ENGLISH  CHURCH 


ENGLISH  CHURCH 


Protestants.  In  the  Bill  of  Rights  before 
mentioned  a  new  oath  of  allegiance  was 
inserted,  by  which  aspirants  to  public 
employment  were  required  to  deny  that 
any  foreign  prelate -and  therefore,  by 
implication,  the  Pope — had  or  ought  to 
have  any  ecclesiastical  or  spiritual  juris- 
diction within  the  realm.  The  object 
being  now  to  e.vcliule  English  Catholics — 
not,  as  it  had  been  under  James  I.,  to 
entrap  them — this  was  the  simplest  way 
of  attaining  the  end  proposed,  since  no 
Catholic  could  take  the  oath  without 
abjuring  his  religion.  In  violation  of 
the  treaty  of  Limerick  (1691)  to  which 
AVilliam's  faith  was  pledged,  the  Irish 
Parliament  framed,  in  the  course  of  this 
and  the  next  reign,  their  notorious  penal 
code,  with  the  deliberate  object  of  destroy- 
ing the  nntionality,  breaking  the  spirit, 
and  pliDidering  the  remaining  property, 
of  the  Catholic  people  of  Ireland. 

A  large  proportion — perhaps  the  ma- 
jority— of  the  English  people  regarded 
Wiliiam  as  a  usurper ;  many  of  the  very 
men  who  had  set  him  up,  in  particular 
.Marlborough  and  Russell,  repented  of 
what  tli-y  had  done,  and  opened  secret 
iieiT'itiations  with  the  e.xiled  Court;  there 
were  the  war  in  Ireland,  the  plot  of  Sir 
.1.  Fenwick,  Jann's's  Cduciliatory  Declara- 
tion of  l<!i)3,  and  the  war  carried  on  by 
F";ince  from  160]  to  lOfl".  Everything 
however  miscarried— partly  through  Wil- 
liam's sagacity  and  good  fortune,  but 
chiefly  owing  to  the  rooted  aversion  of  a 
community  long  inured  to  heresy  to  come 
to  any  terms  with  Catholicism.  As  Pope 
says — 

Hopes  after  hopes  of  pious  Papists  failed, 
While  luigh'y  William's  thimdering  arm 
prc'vailfil. 

James  died  in  1701,  and  Anne  his 
daughter  succeeded  in  the  following  year. 
Her  brother,  James  III.,  was  brought  up 
at  the  Frencli  Court ;  t  he  chivalrous  gene- 
rosity of  Louis  XIV.  never  suffered  him 
to  feel  that  he  was  a  dejiendent  and  a 
helpless  exile.  If  the  young  man  would 
have  consented  to  embrace  the  Anglican 
religion,  his  accession,  upon  Anne's  death, 
would  have  been  eli'ected  with  ease. 
Curious  evidence  of  this  may  be  seen  in 
Lord  Middleton's  correspondence  with 
Cardinal  Guulterio.'  For  inst  ance,  writing 
in  171:i  to  complain  of  a  certain  coldness 
and  want  of  sympathy  on  the  part  of  the 

>  Gunlterio  Papers.  Add.  MSS.  ai2.S7,  Brit. 
Mus.  Middleton,  a  man  of  character  and 
capacity  ('ee  Macaulay),  was  Secretary  of  Slate 
at  the  exiled  Court. 


Pope  (Clement  XI.)  towards  his  imfortu- 
nate  master.  Middle  ton  says  this  is  all 
the  harder  to  bear  when  the  king  is 
surrounded  by  temptations,  and  "the 
English  are  resorting  to  every  means,  in 
the  endeavour  to  gain  him  and  bring  him 
over  to  their  side  ;  he  would  have  but  to 
comply,  in  order  to  be  recalled,  and  to 
reign  peaceably  in  his  three  kingdoms." 
But,  he  adds,  his  master's  religious  faith 
is  too  tirm  and  pure  to  allow  him  to  listen 
to  such  overtures  for  a  moment. 

As  soon  as  Anne  was  dead,  James 
made  the  attempt  to  regain  the  throne 
of  his  lathers  for  which  he  had  been  long 
preparing;  and  the  rising  of  1715  was 
the  result.  But  for  the  incompetency  of 
the  leaders.  Mar  and  Forster,  opposed  as 
they  were  by  Whig  chiefs  nf  great  vigour 
and  ability,  the  enterprise  might  have 
succeeded  ;  for  the  rule  of  a  ibi  eigner  who 
could  not  speak  a  word  of  English  was 
most  unacceptable  to  the  great  majority 

j  of  the  people.  Both  after  this  rising,  and 
the  much  more  serious  one  of  1745,  the 
scaffold  streamed  with  the  blood  of  Jaco- 
bite and  Catholic  traitors,  men  who  died 
bravely  for  hereditary  right,  and  were 
immolated  by  the  ^^'higs  on  the  altar  of 
revolution  and  parliamentary  sovereignty. 

The  elder  Chevalier  died  in  1758  ;  the 
younger,  as  time  wore  on,  was  said  to 
have  fallen  into  vicious  courses.  Despair- 
ing of  ever  seeing  the  ancient  line  restored, 
th(>  Catholics  of  England  had  begun  to  cool 
in  their  loyalty  to  the  Stuart  family,  just 
about  the  time  when  the  disasters  of  the 
later  years  of  the  War  of  Independence 
had  warned  the  English  Government  of  the 
expediency  of  conciliating  the  proscribed 
classes  in  the  population  of  England  and 
Ireland.  Sir  Ge.irge  Savile's  Act  of  1778 
repealed  the  worst  portions  of  the  statute 
of  160i»;  a  new  oath  of  allegiance  was 
fi-amed,  which  it  was  possible  for  a  Catho- 
lic to  take  without  denying  his  religion; 
and  Catholic  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
flocked  up  to  Wc>l  minster  in  great  num- 
bers to  taki'  it.  Il  would  ill  become  us, 
who  are  in  the  enjoyment  of  full  civil 
rights,  to  sit  in  judgment  on  the  conduct 
of  men  so  severely  tried  as  were  the 
English  Catholics  of  tliose  days.  Yet  it 
may  be  remarked  that  tlieir  abandonment 
of  the  Stuart  cause,  whether  justifiable  or 
not,  was  far  from  bringing  them  the  ad- 
vantages which  they  expected  from  it. 
Parliamentary  life  and  public  employment 
were  still  barred  against  them  by  the 
Test  Acts.  Fifty  years  had  still  to  elapse 
before  those  barriers  were  removed  by  the 


ENGLISH  CHURCH 


ENGLISH  CHURCH  333 


Act  of  Emancipation.  During  all  that 
time  the  Catholics — at  least  an  educated 
and  influential  section  of  them — were 
incessantly  afiitatingr ;  they  were  ready 
to  go  to  lengths  which  seem  to  us  ridicu- 
lous; to  call  themselves  "Protesting 
Catholic  Dissenters'' — give  Government 
a  veto  on  the  appointment  of  bishops — 
pledge  themselves  to  support  the  Angli- 
can Establishment' — and  repudiate  the 
temporal  jurisdiction  of  the  Roman  Pon- 
tifls  in  every  conceivable  form,'  if  only 
they  might  be  admitted  within  the  pale 
of  the  constitution.  All  was  in  vain  ;  and 
it  was  not  till  the  imminent  danger  of 
civil  war  in  Ireland,  with  a  great  man 
like  O'Connell  leading  the  Catholics, 
frightened  the  English  Parliament  into 
new  courses,  that  the  Catholic  claims 
were  conceded  (1829).  It  is  also  in- 
dubitable that  the  sight  of  so  many 
Catholic  gentlemen  coming  up  to  London 
to  take  the  oaths  excited  the  slumbering 
bigotry  of  the  Protestants:  Wesley  wrote 
several  violent  anti-Catholic  tracts;  the 
Protestant  Association  was  formed ;  and 
the  terrible  riots  of  1780  wrecked  in  a 
week — for  the  London  mission  at  least — 
the  slow  and  difficult  reparations  of  two 
hundred  years.-  Moreover — as  if  some 
secret  link  existed  in  the  minds  of  many 
Catholics  between  loyalty  to  their  princes 
and  tidellty  to  their  religion — the  aban- 
donment of  the  Stuarts  was  followed  by 
the  open  defertioii  from  the  faith  of  st-veral 
Catholics  of  high  standing,  and  ./v-n  nf 
some  priests.^  The  death,  in  18U7.  i  ■  ' 
last  male  descendant  of  James  II  .  Hf  ly, 
Cardinal  of  York,  appeared  to  the  gL-neral 
public  to  confer'*  on  the  fortunate  House 
of  Hanover,  besides  its  existing  titles  of  j 
pos.sessiou  and  Parliamentary  sanction,  tlic 
title  also  of  hereditary  right.  During  th  - 
long  Continental  war,  the  Catholic  body 

'  See  fli;irlcs  Butler's  HisU.ikd  Menmirs 
(ISIO)  ;inil  Miluer's  SHpf-lcweittari/  Memoirs 
182(1)  tur  the  history  of  the  famo'us  Catholic 
Committee  of  1787. 

■  The  numher  of  Catholics  was  now  eon- 
siiieriibly  increased,  and  "  appears,  by  the 
returns  made  in  the  Hmise  of  Lords  in  1780, 
to  have  been  Tin  England  ami  Wales]  69,376. ' 
Husenhetli'>  \if'e  of  Uishop  Ml/iier,  p.  91.  | 

'  Milner  ,i;ives  the  names  i-f  nine  peers,  four 
baronets,  and  tive  priests,  with  an  "  &c.''  after 
each  list.  See  Stippl.  Mem.  p.  44,  note.  He  is 
speaking  of  the  vear  imniediatelv  followiu.; 
1780. 

^  It  did  not  really  do  so  ;  for  the  lines  of 
Savoy  and  Savoy-Modena.  being  descended 
from'Charles  I.,  have  a  l  etter  title  to  the  crown 
on  the  lefcitimi^t  principle  than  the  House  of 
Hanover,  which  traces  back  to  Elizabeth, 
Charles  I.'s  sister. 


Strenuously  supported,  with  whatever  so- 
cial and  political  influence  was  left  to  it, 
the  king  and  the  aristocracy,  in  tneir 
struggle  against  the  crowned  anarchy  in 
France. 

I  Reverting  again  to  the  subject  of 
ecclesia-tical  org.anisation,  we  find  that, 
after  the  long  interval  of  nearly  sixty 
years  (1629-1685)  during  which  there 
was  no  resident  bishop  in  England,  the 
Holy  See,  at  the  request  of  James  II., 
nominated  four  bishops  of  sees  inpartihits 
to  be  vicars  apostolic  in  as  many  districts 
into  which  England  was  now  divided — 
the  London,  the  Midland,  the  Northern, 
and  the  Western.  The  first  holdei-s  of 
these  vicariates  were  Drs.  Leyburn,'  Gif- 
ford,  Smith,  and  Ellis,  and  the  succession 
was  from  this  time  uninterrupted.  The 
saintly  bishop  Cballoner  governed  the 
London  district,  at  first  as  coadjutor, 
from  1741  to  1781,  dying  at  the  age  of 
ninety.  The  rugged,  energetic,  noble- 
hearted  Milner,  Bishop  of  Castabala,  au- 
thor of  the  "  End  of  Controversy  "  and 
man}-  other  well-known  works,  was  vicar 
apostolic  in  the  Midland  district  from 
1808  tn  his  death  in  1826.  The  •'  Rules 
of  the  ^lission,"'  which  put  an  end  to 
mauv  disputes  of  old  standing,  were  set- 
tled "by  a  bull  of  Benedict  XIV.  in  1753. 

A  new  division  was  made  in  1840, 
when  the  number  of  vicariates  was  raised 
to  eight. 

The  Second  Sprin<i.  —  Soon  aftei 
Emancipation  (which,  as  said  above,  was 
.jlitaiued  for  English  Catholifs  by  the 
gniwing  political  power  of  tlieir  L-ish 
brethren),  what  is  known  as  the  Trac- 
tariaii  movement  developpd  itself  witliin 
the  English  Church  (18:W).  The  chief 
U-adcr  and  most  gi  ted  rt'jnesfntative  of 
the  niovenient.  .I'lhn  Henrv  Newman, 
followed  by  Dr.  Mr.  Oakeley,  and 

Several  hundreds  of  the  clergy  and  laity 
of  the  K>rablibhuient,  came  over  to  tho 
Catholic  Church  in  or  about  the  ve.ar 
184-").  An  Iri.-h  immigration  iluring  tho 
last  i'n]ty  years  has  lar-rely  increased,  in 
all  the  large  towns,  the  Catholic  element ; 
so  tliat  the  total  Catholic  population  in 
England  and  Wales  is  believed  at  the 
present  time  to  be  at  least  one  million 
and  a  half.  The  number  of  clergy  of  and 
above  the  sacerdotal  order,  secular  and 
regular,  within  the  same  limits,  is  two 
thousand  five  hundred. 

In  1850.  by  an  apostolic  brief  of  the 
late  Pope  Pius  IX.,  the  privilege  of  being 
'  Dr.  Leyburn  had  been  consecrated  as  sole 
vicar  apostolic  three  ye<irs  earlier. 


3r]4       ENGLISH  CHURCH 


ENGLISH  COLLEGE,  ROME 


governed  hj  bisliops  in  oi'dir.ary,  after  j 
an  intermission  of  nearly  three  hundred 
years,  was  restored  to  the  Etiirlish  Cath- 
olics, to  the  uiisppakable  satisfaction  of  all 
concerned,  thouirh  to  the  eousteniation 
of  many  who  were  not  concernod,  who 
T\ise(l  an  extraordinary  Imhhiih  about 
wliat  they  called  the  Pope's  "insolent 
intrusion."  Parliament  hastily  passed  an 
Act  (which,  after  vemainiiig-  inoperative 
for  some  years,  was  repealed),  ])rohibit- 
ini;-  the  new  l)ishops  from  takinp-  terri- 
torial titles.  Hy  the  Papal  brief,  the 
whole  kinirdiun,  with  Wales,  was  formed 
into  one  jtrovince  luidt'r  the  new  Arch- 
bishop(if  WtKtminster. Cardinal  Wiseman, 
with  twidve  sulfrairnn  sees:  13everley, 
Rirminirham,  Clifton,  Hexham,  Liverpool, 
Newport  and  Menevia,  Northampton, 
Notting-liam,  Plymouth,  Salfoi'd,  Shrews- 
bury, and  Soutiiwark.  In  187S,  the  dio- 
cese of  Beverley  was  divided  into  two 
new  dioceses,  Leeds  and  Middleshrouu:h  ; 
and  in  1882  the  new  diocese  of  Ports- 
mouth was  formed  out  of  Southwark. 

Tliere  has  been  little  opportunity  for 
Enfrlish  Catholics  since  the  Reformation 
to  .serve  their  country  in  civil  or  military  i 
capacities,  because  they  have  been  usually 
under  the  ban  of  the  laws.  In  literatnri'. 
the  field  being  comjiarativcly  o]ii'ii.  many 
among  them  have  attained  I'l  disi  uicf ion. 
The  names  of  Pope  and  Drydeu  will  occur 
to  everyone :  besides  tlie.<e  may  be  tuen- 
tioned  Habington,  Crashaw,  .Massinwr, 
Alban  liutler.  Ri^hops  Clialloner  and  Mil- 
ner,  Cardinal  Wiseman,  \\'aterton.  X-c.  \-c. 

Enoiiirli  has  been  said  in  tlii<  ai-ticle 
to  show  how  baselfss  are  tlie  claims  of 
the  Protestant  ( 'liurrli  of  Ivigland  to  be 
identical  with  tlie  (.' mrcii  in  I'^nglaml 
before  the  Reformation.  A  b  idy  with- 
out any  teachinir  autlioril\  ov  ni  ity  of 
belief  or  worshiji,  cannot  i  ;i'  litl\  lii'  i':dled 
a  Church  at  all.  Low  ('l.iin  h,  I '.mad 
Church,  and  Hioli  r'hnirli  must  first 
settle  which  of  them  i-;  ///r  (.'hurch  In-fore 
they  cm  set  up  the-  continuitv  llicory. 
No'doubt  therr  is  some  .'Xtfrnal  likeness 
between  Hit  iialisin  ami  medieval  Catho- 
licism. But  the  iri'rat  princi]ilp  of  autho- 
rity is  wantino-  to  the  Ritualist.  It  is 
the  cliaotic  state  of  .■\nglicani~m  which 
proves  most  coii\inring  y  tliat  it  cannot 
1)6  the  same  as  tlir  old  ( 'huicli.  In  ti-utli 
we  need  no  subih'  arirnnii'nt>  or  Irarneil 
researches  to  m;iU''  'jood  our  claim.  It 
pneaks  little  for  th.^  logical  power  of 
Englishmen,  that  they  appliud  the  anti- 
Jlaliau.  anti-Papal  utti-rances  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  whose  see  was 


founded  by  the  Italian  monk  Augustine, 
at  the  bidding  of  the  Roman  Pope 
Gregory. 

ESrCX.ZSH  COXiXiESE  AT  ROME. 

A  school  and  hostel  for  the  use  of  English- 
men dwelling  at  or  visiting  Rome  is  said 
by  Matthew  of  Westminster  to  have  been 
iounded  by  Ina,  King  of  Wessex,  in  727. 
Matthew  of  Westminster  is  somewhat  a 
late  authority  ;  his  statement,  tlierefoi-e, 
cannot  be  accepted  with  confiilence, 
^lalmesbury  ("Gest.  R  -g."  lib.  ii.)  asserts 
that  the  school  was  founded  by  Offa.  Kiu'j- 
of  ^Mercia.  On  the  other  hand,  ISIatthew 
Paris  '  tells  us  that  this  same  Otta  only 
7'!S!fed  the  school,  in  701,  and  found  it 
flourishing  ;  also  that  he  endowed  it  for 
all  time  to  come  M  itb  an  annual  penny 
payable  by  every  family  in  his  kingdom. 
Ilowever  this  may  be,  we  have  it  on 
excidlcnt  authority-  that  the  school  of 
till-  Lnulish  nation,  "  Angelcyunes  scolu," 
was  burnt  down  in  BIG.  Tradition  said 
that  it  was  rebuilt  by  Egbert,  again  burnt 
down  in  S.53,  and  restored  bv  Ethdwulf, 
the  father  of  Alfred.'  In'  8-^4,  Pope 
!Marinus  freed  it  from  all  tribute,  at  the 
request  of  Alfred.*  Nearly  three  hundred 
years  afterwards,  St.  Thomas  of  Canter- 
bury is  said  to  have  rt'sid.'d  at  the  hostel 
.■ind  visited  till'  cliuich  near  it,  in  the 
\'ia  di  Mon>errato,  formerly  built  l)y 
( Ilia  in  honour  of  the  Holy  Ti-inity.* 
Close  to  this  church,  two  centuries 
later,  in  1.380,  "certain  Englishmen, 
being  in  Rome,  procured  licence  of  the 
Pope  to  build  a  hospital.""  The  old 
school  and  hostel  seem  to  have  dis- 
i!]ipeared;  the  church,  soon  after  the 
martyrdom,  had  received  the  name  ot 
St.  Thomas :  it  was  desecrated  by  the 
Fiench  .Tacobins.  Among  the  founders 
were  two  bishops  (Bravbroke  of  Lon- 
don and  Brampton  of  liochester)  and 
some  of  the  principal  citizi'us  of  Londiin. 
The  hospital  was  for  tlie  use  of  English 
travellers  or  pilgrims:  a  gentleman  was 
to  be  lodged,  )(ut  not  fed,  for  three  days ; 
a  commoner  was  to  be  lodged  and  fed 
for  eight  days  :  if  a  pregnant  woman  was 
confined  there,  she  was  to  be  kept  with- 


»  Vila  Otf.v  II. 


2  S<:.<.  ( 

/irnii.  Mib  anno. 

S  M  ihii. 

/,„:  cit. 

■1  Assol-, 

■■>  It.ie... 

Hit  sriMu  impossiblethnt  St. Thomas 

h  l?.-rkot  Vi. 

'I'll  l.'ceiu'  in  the  course  of  hi«  four 

ye.-irs"  resiili 

iicf  al  Sens  ( 1 1  OS-l  1 70')  ;  hut  no 

ciintompornr 

v  writer  mentions  anything  of  the 

Uinil. 

Stow's 

Hiftiinj  of  Lnndim.  quoted  by 

Dodd. 

ENGLISH  COLLEGE,  ROME 


ENGLISH  COLLEGE,  ROME  ^35 


out  charge  till  after  her  purification,  and 
then  to  depart  with  the  child ;  but  if  she 
feared  to  takf  the  child  with  her,  it  -R-as 
to  be  maintained  till  it  was  seven  years 
old.  A  considerable  endowment  must 
have  been  provided  in  order  to  enable  so 
munificent  a  charity  to  be  carried  out. 
In  144i>,  the  hospital  was  rebuilt  on  an 
improved  plan;  to  meet  the  expense  a 
collection  was  made  in  every  parish  in 
England  ;  but  the  plan  is  said  to  have 
answered  but  ill,  owing  to  the  great 
cost  of  transmitting  the  money.  Lender 
Henry  VIH.  several  persons  whom  fear  of 
the  tyrant  had  driven  from  England  were 
relieved  in  this  Roman  hospital.  When 
the  Catholic  bishops  were  driven  from 
their  sees  at  the  accession  of  Elizabeth, 
Thomas  Goldwell,  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph, 
came  to  Rome,  and  was  allowed  by  the 
Pope  to  have  the  use  of  the  hospital,  along 
with  several  Marian  priests  and  two  or 
three  laymen.  The  same  Goldwell  soon 
afterwards  sat  as  one  of  the  fathers  of 
Trent. 

A  great  change  now  passed  over  the 
hospital  ;  it  had  heretofore  served  to 
supply  the  material  wants  of  the  few 
English  who  visited  Rome:  it  was  now  to 
be  remodelled,  and  serve  for  the  future 
the  spiritual  wants  of  the  whole  English 
nation,  then  fast  la])sing  into  heresy.  The 
generous  soul  of  (Gregory  XIIL,  moved 
with  a  deep  compas-ion  for  the  state  of 
England,  and  instigated  by  Dr.  Allen 
(afterwards  Cardinal)  and  Owen  Lewis, 
Archdeacon  of  Canibrai.  resolved  upon 
the  conver.-ion  of  the  hospital  into  a  mis- 
sionary college.  For  this  purpose  (l.o7s) 
he  added  plentifully  to  the  old  rents, 
assigning,  till  other  provision  should  be 
made,  ."^.OOO  crowns  annually  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  college  from  the  Apostolic 
Datary,  and  maliing  Cardinal  Morone, 
the  legate  whose  able  diplomacy  had 
done  so  much  for  the  success  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  its  first  protector.  The 
bull  effecting  all  this  begins  Quantmn 
bonitas.  The  design  was  that  the  college 
should  maintain  about  sixty  students, 
all  English,  and  that  tliese  .should  swear 
to  go  on  the  English  mission  on  the 
completion  of  their  education  as  might  be 
directed  by  their  superior.  Dr.  Maurice 
Olenock  was  nominated  the  first  rector, 
but  in  about  a  year  '  the  college  was 

1  The  cau.<e  of  Dr.  Clenock's  reinovnl  was 
ail  unhappy  (iirt'.-rence  which  arose  between  the 
Welsh  and  l•-Ilg^^^h  students.  The  latter  con- 
plained  thae  the  rector,  a  Wel'^hmaii,  showed 
i*rtiality  towards  his  countryuien,  and  became 


'  made  over  to  the  Company  of  Jesus,  who 
1  had  the  charge  of  it  down  to  the  sup- 
1  pression  of  the  society  in  1773.  The 
I  supply  of  students  came  at  first  from  the 
Rheinis  seminary,  afterwards  from  the 
Jesuit  school  of  St.  Omev.  Gr.'gory  XI 11 . 
enriched  the  college  with  many  gift  -  and 
privileges:  Sixtus  Y.  (Pert.'tti)."th.>ii>;h  he 
favoured  its  design,  found  himself  com- 
pelled by  financial  difficulties  to  make  a 
large  deduction  from  the  revmue  hitherto 
assigned  to  it  from  the  Datary  ;  Gregory 
XIV.  raised  the  grant  again,  though 
not  to  its  former  level.  By  1647  the 
college  could  count  among  its  alumni 
forty  priests  who  had  suffered  martyrdom 
in  England.  Pictures  of  many  of  these 
hung  upon  the  interior  walls  of  the 
college  previous  to  the  havoc  and  rapine 
made  by  the  French  invaders  in  1798. 
So  near  to  certainty  was  their  chance  of 
winning  the  palm  considered,  that  when 
St.  Philip  Neri  the  founder  of  the  Oratory 
met  any  of  the  students,  he  usi^d  to  salute 
them  with  the  words,  "  Salvete,  Jfores 
marfi/rian .'"  ("Hail,  ye  flowers  of  the 
martyrs").  On  the  (lis])utesand  difficulties 
which  commenced  in  the  sixteenth  and 
continued  on  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
because  some  of  the  student?,  either  for 
the  sake  of  a  more  secure  subsistence,  or 
in  the  belief  that  it  could  not  be  wrong 
to  embrace  a  more  perfect  way  of  lift-, 
neglected  the  missionary  oath  by  which 
they  were  bound  to  sen  e  as  seculars  on 
the  English  mission,  and  joined  religious 
orders,  siime  particulars  may  be  seen  in 
Flanagan,  vol.  ii.  eh.  2-').  All  such  pro- 
I  ceedings  were  severely  coml'  Uined  bv  a 
j  brief  of  Alexander  VII.  dated  in  KifiO. 
i  After  the  su])pression  of  the  Jesuif^.  and 
till  the  French  invasion,  the  colh-irt'  aji- 
pf'ars  to  have  Vieeii  managed  by  seculars. 
The  advent  of  th>>  Jacobins  involved  it 
and  most  of  tlie  otli^r  colleLjes  in  ruin: 
j  and  it  was  only  n>-torfl  in  1^1-.  iliiriiig 
{  the  pontificate"  of  I'm-  VIL.  who  aj'- 
pointed  Dr.  Robert  Gradw.H  i-.ctor 
Nicholas  Wiseman,  aftei^ards  Cardinal, 
was  rector  imder  Gregory  XV  [.  (Is31- 
1846).  and  celebrated  the  Pope's  visit  to 
the  college,  in  1S.3H,  by  a  charming  Latin 
address,  which  may  be  <ei'n  inscribed  on 
the  walls.  The  divs-  of  the  students  is 
the  soutane,  the  manfei/one,  or  long  cloak, 
of  black  cloth,  and  the  clerical  hat. 
Among  the  Cardinal-protectors  since  the 

insubordi'>ate.  Bfinsr  ivquired  to  obey  or  leave 
Koine,  they,  to  the  uniiiber  of  twenty,  cho^e 
the  latter  alternative.  .">ee  FlanatLan's  Clmnh 
History,  Vi  1.  ii  ch.  12. 


3C6 


EPACT 


EPiiEsrs,  cou>;ciL  of 


rpstoration  of  the  college  have  been 
Oonsalvi,  Zurla,  Weld,  Antonelli,  and 
Howard.  A  new  church,  dedicated  to 
St.  Thomas  k  Becket,  has  lately  been 
completed.  (Dodd's  "Church  History," 
part  iv. ;  Moroni,  "  Dizionario  Eccle- 
siastico.") 

EPACT.   [See  Cycle.] 

EPARCHV  (tnapxia).  This  was  the 
Greek  word  for  prorhuifi.  On  the  transfer 
of  the  term  to  the  ecclesia.-stical  organisa- 
tion, it  meant  an  ecclesiastical  province 
governed  by  a  metropolitan  {eTTap^ns) 
and  containing  several  bishops'  sees. 
(For  tliis  use  Suicer,  in  his  "Thesaurus," 
quotes  Macarius  of  Ancyra.)  The  Council 
of  Antioeh  (341)  limited  the  exercise  of 
a  bishop's  power  to  his  own  eirapxia;  by 
which  some  have  understood  "diocese;" 
but  it  is  better  to  understand  it  of  his 
ecclesiastical  province. 

In  the  Russian  schismatical  church 
at  the  present  day  a  bishop  is  called 
an  "eparch;"  in  1839  there  were  in 
Russia  forty-six  "eparchies  "  or  episcopal 
sees. 

EPHESirS,  COWCZIi  OF.  The 

Third  General  Council  met  at  Ephesus 
in  4:il,  defined  the  Catholic  dogma  that 
the  l)l('s>ed  Virgin  is  the  mother  of  God, 
and  condemned  the  contrary  error  of 
Xestorius. 

1.  The.  Occasion  of  the  Dtjinition. — 
The  Cliurcli,  which  had  taught  the  reality 
of  Christ's  linman  nature  in  o]iposition  to 
th(^  r»oeet;e,  expressly  defined  His  true  and 
])"iroct  tiodlicad  when  it  was  denied  by 
the  Arians  ;  and  at  a  later  date  the  ques- 
tion as  to  the  way  in  which  tiK'se  two 
natures  wei'f  united  began  to  be  agitated. 
Early  Fathers  had  used  (liilrrent  expres- 
sions to  indicate  this  union,  hut  tliey  had 
not  investigal  rd,  or  at  least  discussed,  the 
point  with  scientific  precision.  Ignatius 
speaks  of  Christ  as  "  bearing  ficsli  "(o-a/jKo- 
(^o'pos) ;  '  Tertullian  describes  Ilim  as 
"clotlied  with  flesh;"  very  often  the 
early  Fathers  use  the  word  "mixture" 
(Kpao-is,  conimi.vfio)  of  the  inii"ii  iieiwnn 
the  two  natures.^  No  ihadit  t  hi  >c  ,  x- 
pressionsare  ineaut  to  exjires  - 1  lie  (  '.iiIimHc 
doctrine  that  tiie  two  nm  ;,;  e.  of  ( ;.,d  and 
Man  are  united  in  the  one  I'er-on  m|'  the 
Word,  that  tlie  one  ("hn,-l  is  hotli  (iod 
and  Man;  butthetlieol.>;/ieal  controversies 
wliich  began  in  the  i'onrlh  century  made 
it  phiin  that  formal  definition  on  the 

*  Ad  Smyrn.  5. 

2  See  Ireii.  iii.  19,  1  ;  Redepennine's  note 
on  Oi  ifT.  JM  Princip.  p.  106  ;  Cyprinn,  l>e  Vuit- 
ital.  hl'il.  iii. 


union  of  the  two  natures  of  Christ  waa 
imperatively  demanded. 

The  doctrine  of  Apollinaris,  who 
taught  that  the  divinity  in  Christ  sup- 
plied the  place  of  intellect  which  is  proper 
to  man,  amounted  to  a  denial  that  Christ 
really  was  perfect  man  and  to  a  confusion 
of  the  divine  with  the  human  nature.  In 
opposition  to  this  false  doctrine,  great 
teachers  in  the  school  of  Antioeh,  ])articu- 

'  larly  Diodorus  of  Tarsus,  and  Theodore, 
afterwards  ni>ho])  of  Mopsuestia,  fell  into 
ei-ror  at  the  n|.]i(isite  extreme.  Theodore, 
who  developed  the  idea  of  Diodorus  and 
is  the  great  representative  of  the  school, 
in  his  anxiety  to  maintain  the  perfect 
manhood  of  Christ,  conceived  of  Ilim  as  a 
man  in  whom  God  the  Word  dwelt — i.e. 
he  confessed,  not  that  the  Word  became 
man  {(uavdpwTTrja-is),  but  merely  that  tlie 
Word,  who  dwells  in  all  good  Christians, 
dwelt  in  a  special  way  and  with  extra- 
ordinary  power   in    Christ  {(uoUriaLs). 

<  True,  he  distinguishes  the  indwelling  of 

{  the  Word  in  Christ  from  His  indwelling 
in  Christians,  jiointing  to  Christ's  super- 
natural birtli,  His  sinlessness,  and  to  the 
fact  that,o\vinf^  to  the  union  between  the 
^\'ord  and  (yhrist,  the  latter  participated 
in  the  glory  of  the  former ;  still,  far  as 
he  may  have  been,  and  doubtless  was, 
from  intending  it,  the  logical  result  of 
his  premisses  was  to  reduce  Cliiist  to  a 
mere  nnm,  diHering  from  others  in  the 
degree  and  not  in  the  Iniid  of  His  union 

[  with  tiod.  Furtlier,  Theodore,  as  he  did 
not  acknowledge  the  unity  of  Person  in 

I  Christ,  was  forced  to  recognise  in  Ilim  two 
different  and  distinct  agent  ^.    ^See  ( 'o^i- 

MI  NIC'ATIO    IlJIO.MATUM.]     ( 'a  t  I  lol  ic.^  vay 

"  God  suffered,"  "  the  man  (  hri-t  raised 
the  dead,"'  because  the  one  Person  of  the 
Word  sullereil  in  Ills  human,  raised  the 
dead  in  the  mi<rht  of  His  divine  nature, 
just  as  ill  the  case  of  ordinary  men  it  is 
the  one  personal  beini;'  who  reasons  with 
his  mind  and  moves  with  his  body.  Here 
Theodore  was  a1  i.-Mie  with  the  laiioiiage 
of  Scri|itiiie  and  the  Fathers  fnun  the 
.■arliest  limes.     St.  Peter  says  (Acts  iii. 
j  15)  the  Jews  ■•  killed  the  prince  of  life," 
and  one  of  his  earliest  successors,  Clement 
I  of  Rome,  speaks  of  "  the  sufferings  of 
I  God."    In  ])arlicidar, 'I'lieodore  refused  to 
;  call  the  P,le.<ed  Vn-in  .M.iiher  of  God, 
although  the  title  had  been  ajijiroved  by 
Origen,  Alexander  of  Alexandria,  and 
Athanasius.'    '^)nly  in  a  loose  sense,  he 

'  See  C'lr'iinal  Newman's  note  in  Oxford 
trnnshition  of  St.  Allianasius,  p.  420  (in  the  old 
edition). 


EPHESUS,  COUN'CIL  OF 


EPHESUS,  COUNCIL  OF  337 


urged,  "could  Mary  be  called  the  Mother 
of  (lod,  viz.  because  God  dwelt  in  Christ 
after  an  extraoi  dinarv  manner.  Properly 
speaking  she  bore  a  man,  in  whom  the 
union  with  the  Word  had  begun,  but  was 
so  far  from  being  perfect  that  he  was  nnt 
Ttill  his  baptism  called  th.'  Son  of  God.'' 
In  another  place  he  writes,  "  It  is  mad- 
ness to  say,  G'ld  was  born  of  the  Virgin ; 
not  God,  bui  the  temple  in  which  God 
dwelt  M  as  born  of  Mary." 

Nf^^toriiis  was  a  vouiiger  contemporary 
of  and  bt'loiipfd  to  the  school  of  Theodore. 
Born  in  a  .'^yriiin  town,  Germanicia,  he 
camp  for  his  >.  fMl;ii'  iMlutation  to  Antioch, 
entered  a  nion.-i.-'.-rv  tlifre,  became  after- 
wards a  priest  I't  the  cathedral,  and  made 
a  good  reputation  by  his  eloquence  and 
strictness  of  life.  lii  428  he  was  con- 
secrated Bishop  of  Constantinople.  Al- 
most immediately  afterwards  the  strife 
on  the  title  OforoKus  began  :  indeed,  Nes- 
torius  said  he  found  the  strife  already 
kindled  when  he  came  to  Constantinople. 
In  homilies,  fragments  of  which  are  pre- 
served, Xestoriiis  defended  the  doctrine 
which  had  been  propounded  by  Theodore, 
to  the  great  scandal,  not  only  of  priests, 
but  of  lay  people.  The  orthodo.x  cause 
was  defended  in  Constantinople  itself  by 
the  bi^hl)])s  Eiisebius  of  Dorylfeum  and 
Proclus  01  C'yzicum,  while  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria stated  the  true  doctrine  in  a  ser- 
mon preached  at  Easter  429,  and  wrote 
twice  to  Nestm-ius,  conjuring  him  to  re- 
cant. Cyril's  letters  were  in  vain,  and 
both  he  and  Xestorius  referred  the  case  to 
the  I!(jmaii  bishop.  The  Pope,  Celestine 
I.,  called  on  Nestorius  to  recant  within 
ten  days,  and  ci  •mmi>sioned  Cyril  to  de- 
pose him  in  case  of  l  efusal.  At  a  council 
held  in  Alexandria  Cvril  published  twelve 
anathemas  against  the  doctrine  of  Xes- 
torius. Nestorius  answered  with  twelve 
anathemas  of  his  own.  John  of  Antioch, 
Theodoret  of  Cyrus,  and  others  sided 
with  Xestorius,  and  to  restore  peace  the 
Emperor  TheodosiusII.  convoked  a  coun- 
cil at  Ephesus  in  431.  Pope  Celestine 
wrote  to  Theodosius  on  May  15  of  that 
year  promising  to  send  legates. 

2.  The  History  of  the  Council. — For 
some  time  the  bisho]is  whohad  assembled 
at  I'phesus  waited  for  the  arrival  of  John, 
Patriiirch  of  .\ntioch ;  when,  however, 
there  seemed  to  be  no  hope  of  his  arrival, 
the  council  opened  on  June  22.  There 
were  160  bishops  present,  and  before  the 
end  of  the  first  session  this  number  had 
increased  to  198.  The  Fathers  met  in  the 
cathedral  dedicated  to  the  Mother  of  God, 


I  and  Cyril,  who,  as  the  Acts  expressly  say, 

I  represented  the  Pope,  presided.  Xes- 
torius refused  to  appear,  on  the  ground 
tiiat  the  council  was  not  ronijilete  ,~o  long 
as  John  of  Antioch  and  his  bishops  wero 
absent,  while  a  considerable  nuniliei'  of 
bishoj)S  from  Asia  Minor,  including  Theo- 
doret of  Cyrus,  refused  to  take  part  for 

I  the  same  reason.  During  the  session, 
which  lasted  late  into  the  night,  letters 
of  Cyril,  Xestorius,  Celestine,  as  well 
as  passages  of  the  Fathers  confirming  the 
Catholic  faith,  were  read  and  compared 
with  the  utterances  of  Nestorius,  who  was 

I  at  last  solemnly  deposed  by  the  council. 
All  the  bishops  subscribed  this  sentence. 
The  people  of  the  town  received  the  news 
of  the  result  with  great  joy.  The  city 
was  illuminated  in  manj"  parts,  and  the 
bishops  were  escorted  home  with  torches. 

j  Candidian  (who  represented  the  em- 
peror at  the  council)  and  Nestorius  pro- 
tested against  the  proceedings  as  null  and 

j  void,  because  they  had  taken  place  before 

I  the  arrival  of  the  Antioclu'ne  bishops. 

j  John  of  Antioch  came  at  last  on  the  26tli 
or  27th  of  June,  and  in  a  council  of  forty- 

I  three  bishops  deposed  Cyril  with  Memnon, 
Bishop  of  Ephesus,  and  excommunicated 
all  who  agreed  with  them.  On  July  lOth 
the  second  session  opened,  in  presence  of 
the  three  Papal  legates,  two  of  whom, 
Arcadius  and  Projectus,  were  bishops; 
the  third,  Philip,  a  priest.  The  legates 
•were  directed  by  the  Pope  to  see  that  his 
sentence  against  Nestorius  was  carried 
out,  and,  in  case  of  approval,  to  confirm 
the  acts  of  the  synod.  The  Pope's  letter 
was  received  with  acclamation  by  the 
council,  and  the  Fathers  declared  that  in 
their  condemnation  they  had  but  follow  ed 
the  sentence  and  rule  {\jfrj(pov  k<h  tvttov) 
of  Celestine.  In  the  third  session,  the 
legates  approved  the  resolutions  passed 
before  their  arrival.  In  the  fifth,  John 
of  Antioch  and  his  bishops  were  excom- 
municated. The  Fathers  also  addressed 
a  letter  to  Celestine,  giving  a  history  of 
the  council  and  stating  their  acceptance 
of  the  Western  decrees  against  the  Pela- 
gians. In  the  sixth  session,  the  Nicene 
("reed  was  read  and  all  new  symbols  of 
faith  j)rohibited;  in  th(>  seventh  and  last. 
Cyprus  was  declared  inde]iendent  of  the 
Antiochi^ne  Patriar.  hate  :  a  circuhir  letter 
was  addressed  to  the  whole  Cluirrh,  and 
six  canons  were  published.  The  legates 
siiiiied  the  decrees,  and  they  were  con- 
hrmed  next  year  by  Pope  Sixtus  III. 
The  emperor  was  at  first  extremely 
averse  to  the  proceedings  of  the  Ephesine 


308   EPHESUS,  COUNCIL  OF 


EPISTLE 


Council,  and  lie  began  by  declaring  it  his 
■n-ill  that  both  Cyril  and  Nestorius  should 
bf  dfjiosed.  At  last,  however,  he  sent 
■deputies  t(i  meet  the  bishops  at  Chalcedon 
and  examine  the  matter,  and  he  ended 
by  accepting  Cyril's  doctrine  and  allowing 
him  tlie  i]uiet  possession  of  his  see.  Nes- 
torius was  contineil  in  his  old  monastery 
at  Antioch,  and  afterwards  banished  to 
Upper  I'-vpt,  wliere  he  died  in  440.  It 
was  only  irradiially  that  the  Syrian  bishops 
made  peace  witli  the  Egyptian  and 
'\^'estel■n  Ijishnps.  ■  However,  this  opposi- 
tion of  tile  forni.'r  really  arose  from  per- 
sonal feeling  and  misumlerstanding  rather 
than  from  dillerence  of  faith  ;  and  less 
than  two  years  after  the  council,  early  in 
4.'5.3,  peace  was  restored  between  Antioch 
and  Alexandria.  Some,  however,  of  the 
Antiiicliene  bishops,  particularly  Theo- 
doret  of  Cyrus,  continued  their  opposition 
longer.  The  priest  Ibas,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  hpretieal  as  well  as  schismatic; 
he  was  devoted  to  the  doctrine  of  Nes- 
torius, and  his  friends,  failing  to  obtain 
toleration  within  the  Roman  empire, 
emigrated  to  Persia,  where  one  of  them, 
Barsumas,  founded  a  Nestorian  church 
at  Nisibis.  The  later  history  of  the 
Nestorians  will  be  found  in  a  separate 
article. 

Two  points  in  the  history  of  the  coun- 
cil seem  to  call  for  further  explanation. 

First,  it  may  be  well  to  state  more 
fully  the  definitions  of  faith  promulgated 
by  the  Fathers  at  Ri)hesus.  They  declare 
that  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  mother  of  God 
(^foroVos- ')i  because  she  "  after  the  flesh 
bore  the  Word  from  ( xod,  who  had  become 
flesh  ;  that  the  Word  is  united  substan- 
tially (ku^'  xmoa-Taaiv)  to  flesh" — i.e.  as 
substance  to  substance  ;  whereas  the 
Nestorians  made  the  union  one  of  Person 
to  Person,  and  so  merely  accidental^;  that 
the  same  person  {rov  avrov)  is  God  and 
man,  so  that  it  is  heresy  to  distinguish  the 
things  which  the  Scripture  says  of  Christ 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  say  that  some  be- 
long to  the  man,  conceived  of  as  with  a 
proper  existence  over  and  above  the  Word 
of  (rod  (irapa  tov  €K  Bcov  'koyov  IhiKcos 
vonvjiei'oi),  Others  only  to  the  Word. 
Further  the  council  anathematises  those 
who  call  Christ  a  man  who  bore  God" 
(Bf<>(p6i)«v) ;  who  say  that  the  Word  is 
the  God  or  Lord  of  Christ;  that  the 

•  "  Dei  uoiietrix  "  rather  than  "Dei  mater" 
IS  the  .accurate  tiMiisl.'ilion. 

^  The  old  Latin  vcisioii  renders  vir6(rTa<Tis 
here  bv  "sub.staiK-e  :  "  sec  Petav.  De  Incai  nat. 
\i.  17.' 


risen  Christ  is  to  be  adored  rvifh  the 
Word ;  &c.,  &c. 

Next  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the 
council  forbade  alterations  in,  or  additions 
to,  the  Nicene  Creed,  for  special  reason. 
The  Nestorian  party  at  the  time  were 
using  a  Creed  which  had  been  written  by 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  and  imposing  it 
on  Quartodecimans  who  wished  to  join 
the  Catholic  Church.  To  prevent  abuses 
of  this  kind  the  council  prohibited  the 
use  of  any  other  Creed  than  that  of  Nic;ea, 
imder  pain  of  excommunication.  But 
this  was  plainly  a  disciplinary  rule,  which 
a  competent  authority  had  imposed  and  a 
competent  authority  could  abrogate. 

EPiGoirATZonr.  [See  Vestjienis, 
Greek.] 

EPIPHA.M'-S'  {(TTKpdvfia).  A  feast 
kept  on  January  G  to  commemorate  the 
manifestation  of  Christ's  glory — (1)  when 
the  Magi  adored  Him ;  (2)  in  His  baptism, 
when  the  voice  from  heaven  proclaimed 
Him  the  Son  of  God ;  (3)  in  the  miracle 
of  changing  water  into  wine,  when  Christ 
began  His  miracles  and  "  manifested  "  His 
glory.  In  the  fourth  century  the  feast  of 
the  Epiphany  ranked  among  the  greatest 
of  the  Church's  solemnities.  Sometimes, 
as  appears  from  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
the  baptism  only  of  Clirist  was  comme- 
morated on  the  Epiphany,  and  hence 
probably  the  Greek  name  for  the  feast, 
"the  holy  day  of  lights"  (17  ayta  twv 
(jyoorav  r}ji(f)a),  which  alludes  to  the  "  illu- 
mination" of  baptism,  or  possibly  to  a 
very  ancient  tradition  that  at  C/'hrist's 
baptism  lights  appeared  on  the  Jordan. 
However,  the  Breviary  hymn  for  the 
day,  composed  by  Prudentius  in  the 
fourth  century,  proves  that  the  threefold 
commemoration  on  the  Epiphany  is 
ancient  in  the  West. 

The  vigil  of  this  feast  is  not  a  fasting 
day,  because  the  whole  Christ nin*  -■  ason 
is  regarded  as  a  prolonged  l-  M-t.  Tliere 
is  no  invitatory  in  the  matin-  ni'  the  ilay, 
probably  because  the  psalm  ■''S'eiiite" 
occurs  in  Nocturn  III.  Solemn  baptism 
was  given  in  the  East  on  the  vigil  of  the 
Epiphany ;  and  at  the  present  day  among 
the  Oriental  sects  it  is  usual  for  the 
clergy  to  bless  the  river  of  the  place  at 
this  time,  and  the  devout  plunge,  despite 
the  cold,  into  the  hallowed  water.  (Tho- 
massin,  "Traite  des  Festes.") 

EPISCOPACV.     '.-^ee  l^lsiror." 

EPISTI.E.  A  portion  ol'  Scri|)lure 
read  after  the  collects  and  iieioir  the 
Gospel  in  the  Mass.  This  portion  of 
Scripture  is  generally,  but  not  always, 


EnSTOL.E  ECCLESIASTiaE 


ERA 


330- 


taki  n  I'rom  the  Epistles  of  the  Apostles, 
and  above  all  from  those  of  St.  Paul; 
whence  in  old  MSS.  of  the  Missal  it  is 
inscribed  "  1  le  Apostolo."  Sometimes, 
however,  it  is  taken  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment;  in  the  Ambrosian  and  Mo/.aialjic 
Missals  tliere  are  two  lessons  read  before 
the  Gospel — one  from  the  Old,  the  other 
from  the  Xcw  Testament.  In  early 
times  letters  of  bi>liops  and  Popes  were 
sometimes  read  at  Mass,  especially  letters 
of  peace  and  commuuiou  testifying  to 
the  unity  which  bound  orthodox  bishops 
to  each  other,  and  to  the  see  of  Peter. 
Our  present  arrangement  of  the  Epistles 
and  Gospels  is  commonly  attributed  to 
St.  Jerome. 

The  priest  who  celebrates  always 
reads  the  Epistle,  but  in  high  Masses  it 
is  also  sung  by  the  subdeacon,  who 
receives  special  authority  to  do  so  at  his 
ordination.  However,  tlie  old  forms  of 
ordination  make  no  allusion  to  any  such 
function  of  subdeacons,  and  till  the 
eighth  centurv  it  was  the  lector,  not  the 
subdeacon,  who  used  to  exercise  it.  The 
Congi-egation  of  Kites  permits  a  clerk  in 
minor  orders  to  sing  the  Epistle  at  high 
Mass,  if  a  subdeacon  cannot  be  had,  but 
the  clerk  must  not  wear  the  maniple. 
(Benedict  XIV.  "De  Miss.") 

EPzsToXiX:  z:ccx.i:sxA.STzcx:. 
Of  these  there  are  many  kinds,  the  follow- 
ing being  the  most  important : 

1.  Apostolicfe.  Letters  written  by  the 
Roman  Poutitl'  in  virtue  of  his  apostolic 
authority,  whfther  they  be  constitutions, 
or  briefs,  or  rescripts,  &c. 

2.  Cwnmendatorice.    [See  OOMMEN- 

DATORT  LEriERS.] 

3.  Communicatoria.  Letters  granted 
to  all  who  were  in  the  coninuniiou  of  the 
Church,  and  cultivated  peace  with  her. 

4.  Confessorice.  Letters  by  which 
martyrs  and  confessors  for  the  faith  en- 
treated bishops  that  particular  Lapsi 
(jiersons  who  had  consented  to  sacrifice) 
might  be  restored  to  the  peace  of  the 
Church. 

5.  Deci-etales.    [See  Deceetals.] 

6.  Dimissoria.    [See  Dimissoeials.] 

7.  Erwyclicee.    [See  Encyclical.] 

8.  Enth-onistica.  Letters  addressed 
by  bishops  after  their  consecration  to 
other  bishops,  in  testimony  of  their  faith 
and  orthodo.xy,  and  that  they  might  re- 
ceive from  them  letters  of  peace  and 
communion  in  retain. 

y.  FoniiaUc.  Hoth  commendatory 
and  dimissorial  letters  were  anciently 
called  by  this  name,  after  the  Xicene 


I  Council  had  ordered  that  they  should  be 
'  composed  according  to  a  certain  form. 
Some  ai-e  of  opinion  that  they  were  so 
called  from  the  form  of  the  seal  attached 
to  them.  The  object  in  either  case  was 
to  assure  the  receiver  of  the  genuineness 
of  the  letter.  In  later  times  it  came  to 
mean  a  letter  of  ordeis,  containing 
certain  signs,  usually  Greek  letters,  only 
understood  by  the  bishops,  certifying 
that  an  order  hud  been  conferred  on  the 
bearer. 

10.  Paschales.  Letters  by  which 
metrojiolitans  announced  to  their  S'lfi'ra- 
gaus,  and  these  to  their  clergy,  the  right 
time  of  keeping  Easter. 

11.  rantvi-dles.  Letters  of  instruction 
sent  to  particular  churches,  as  some  of 
those  of  St.  Paul  and  of  St.  Ignatius. 
(Ferraris,  Epistolm;  Wetzer  and  Welte, 
Liter<e  Formatce.) 

ERA  (Lat.  cBra).  The  word  is  pro- 
bably derived  from  mra,  the  plural  of  as, 
which  seems  to  have  been  useil  in  classical 
times  in  the  sense  of  ''a  gi\t  n  number.'" 
It  has  been  proposed  (art.  by  Mi-,  llensley 
in  the  "Diet,  of  Christ.  Antiq.,"  Smith 
and  Cheetham)  to  use  era  of  any  suc- 
cession of  years  commencing  at  a  certain 
date,  and  epoch  of  the  date  from  which 
such  era  is  reckoned.  But  this  appears 
to  be  a  departure  from  the  ordinary  use 
of  the  word  for  which  sufficient  reason  is 
not  shown.  It  seems  better,  with  the 
writer  in  Ferraris,  to  distiu;:uish  between 
era,  a  date  ti.\ed  upon  by  the  consent  of 
some  nation  or  community,  and  epoch,  a 
date  fixed  by  chronologers. 

There  is  no  trace  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment of  the  Jews  having  dated  events 
from  a  recognised  era  until  we  come  near 
to  the  time  of  Christ.  Attempts  seem 
to  have  been  made  to  establish  an  era, 
but  they  came  to  nothing.  A^'e  read  of 
events  which  happened  "  in  the  second 
year  of  their  going  out  of  Egypt 
(Xum.  i.  1),  or  "in  the  twentieth  year" 
(■2  Esdras  i.  1),  or  "  in  the  thirtieth  year 
(Ezech.  i.  1);  but  in  none  of  these  cases 
did  the  event  temi)orarily  chosen  as  an 
era  come  to  be  generally  used  as  such. 
The  indications  of  time  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  usually,  therefore,  either  vague 
{"m  the  (lu\>  of  Josias  the  king."  "in 
the  days  .>f  Ib  li  the  l)viest,"  kc).  or  else 
they  are  taken  from  lln'  regnal  yr.iis  of 
some  king  ('•  in  the  lii>i  \  .  mi- nl'  ( '\ l  us," 
1  Esdras  i.  1  :  "  in  tlir  tlrr-l  wm-  uI'  the 
reiu-n  of  .loakim,"  l>.-in,  ;.  I,  X.-.i.  Not 

till  the   time  of  the  .M.,rlu,bee> 

Jews  use  4U  era,  and  then  it  was  one- 


840 


ERA 


ERA 


adopted  from  the.  Greeks— that  of  the  ! 
SeleucidjB.' 

Setting  aside  the  systems  of  com- 
putiug  time  in  uso  in  IliiiJostan  and 
China,  we  find  no  eurlier  adoption  of  an 
era  than  that  by  the  Greeks,  who  began 
in  the  fifth  century  before  Christ,  and 
perhaps  earlier,  to  date  events  by  the 
"  Olympiad,"  or  period  of  four  years,  in 
which  they  hajipened,  the  first  Olympiad 
being  that  the  iirst  year  of  which  was 
<listinguished  by  the  victory  of  Corojbus, 
and  was  found  to  answer  to  the  year 
B.C.  77().  Thus  A.D.  1  is  the  first  year  of 
the  105th  Olympiad. 

Em  of  Ronif,  a.tj.C.  The  exact  date 
of  this  era  has  been  much  disputed,  but 
the  determination  made  by  Varro  is 
generally  received,  according  to  which  it 
fell  in  753  B.C. 

Era  of  Nabonassar.  Ptolemy  and 
other  ancient  astronomers  employ  this 
era,  which  is  named  after  a  king  of 
Babylon  who  is  said  to  have  delivered 
his  countrymen  from  bondage  to  the 
.\ssyriaus,  and  ciirrcspoiids  to  747  B.C. 

'Era  of  the  S,.l,'„ri,hr.  Thi>  cMnv- 
.■<ponds  to  Ihi'   !-t   (  '^\->  \\A\.  ;it 

which  date  Srlnicii-  Nicator  iv,-o\ nv.l 
Babylon  iVom  Ant  i-miuis,  and  fouml.Ml 
his  empire.  Ii  is  calli-d  also  the  Greek 
era,  and  th.'  n-a  of  contracts.  The  Jews 
adopted  it,  a,-  w  e  ha\  i'  ,-een,  and  used  it 
till  the  elc\eiuh  reiitiiry  after  Chri.st, 
when  they  Milistituted  for  it  tlie  supposed 
date  of  the  creation  of  tlie  world.  It  is 
still  used  by  the  Ara])s. 

Spanish  Era.  This  corres])onds  to 
•'IS  B.C.,  and  "is  supposed  to  mark  some 
important  epoch  in  the  organisation  of 
t  he  province  by  the  Romans."  -  It  was 
employed  in  the  Peninsula  long  after  the 
Christian  eia  had  I'Muie  into  general  use 

in  Europe.  ha\iiii:   1  n  "preserved  in 

Aragun  till  l:i5s,  in  Castile  till  l;J8;j,and 
in  I'ortug.al  till  1415."  ■' 

Chrifs/ian  Era.  Called  also  the 
Dionysian  era,  from  Dionysius  Exiguus, 
a  Scythian  ablx)t,  who,  wi-iting  at  Rome 
early  in  the  sixth  century,  computed  that 
Jesus  Christ  was  born  in  the  year  of 
Rome  754,  and  proposed  that  events 
should  be  dated  from  His  Incarnation. 
This  era  soon  came  into  use  al  Rmni', 
and  gradually  spread  to  other  cumt  i  p  s  ; 
the  Venerable  Beda,  by  adoptini;  n  in 

1  "  After  Antioi-hus  had  r.ivnued  Kijypt  ?n 
the  one  hundred  mi rl  fnrln-lliird  year  ;  "  1  Mach. 
i  21.    See  also  >  Mn.  l,.  i.  7.  10. 

2  Mcrivalc's  History  of  Ihf  /{ninnns  under 
(he  Empire,  V  il.  iv.  p.  114.  "  Ibid. 


his  "Ecclesiastical  History,"  greatly 
assisted  in  its  wider  diffusion.  It  cannot 
be  exactly  correct,  for  Herod  the  Great, 

according  to  Josephus,  died  in  the  year 
of  Rome  750,  and  our  Saviour  must  have 
been  born  some  considerable  time  before 
his  death.  It  is  usual  to  make  a  correc- 
tion of  four  years  on  this  account,  and  to 
date  the  Crucifixion  a.d.  29  instead  of 

A.  D.  3.3 ;  but  Hefele  and  others  would 
put  back  the  birth  of  Christ  as  much  as 
six  or  seven  years — to  a.u.c.  747.' 

Era  of  bioclctinn.    This  era,  which 
is  still  ujed  by  the  Copts  in  Egypt,  cor- 
responds to  A.D.  284.    It  was  in  general 
use  in  the  Western  Empire,  till  displaced 
by  the  Christian  era. 
'       The  Indict  ton.    This  became  a  com- 
I  mon   way  of  reckoning   time   in  the 
1  Eastern  Empire,  the  indiction  being  a 
period  of  fifteen  years,  and  the  first  in- 
diction deemed  to  commence  on  Sep- 
tember 24,  A.D.  313. 

T/ie  Ilcf/ira.    This  era,  which  is  the 
I  date  of  Mohammed's  flight  from  Mecca, 
'  and  is  used  by  aU  Mussulmans,  corre- 
sponds to  622  A.D. 

Era  of  Constantinople:  called  also  the 
ilyzantine  era.  This  was  long  in  use 
among  the  Greeks  and  Russians,  and  is 
still  employed  by  the  Albanians.  It 
reckons  from  the  Creation,  which  it  dates 
5.J08  B.C. 

Jncixh  Era.  This  is  used  by  the 
modern  Jews,  and  is  also  referred  to  the 
creation  of  the  world,  which  it  dates  in 
3761  B.C. 

Chronologers  have  invented  the 
"  Julian  period,"  a  multiple  of  the  num- 
ber of  the  years  in  the  solar  cycle  (2.S), 
of  those  in  the  Uuiar  cycle  (19),  and  those 
in  the  Indiction ;  of  this  product,  7980 
years,  they  place  the  first  year  in  4713 

B.  C.,  Ijecause  in  that  year  all  three  cycles 
stood  at  1  simultaneously,  and  will  not 
do  so  again  till  a.d.  3268.  Into  years  of 
this  Julian  period,  any  year  expressed  in 
terms  of  any  one  of  the  above-named 
epochs  may  be  converted.  But  in  fact 
no  era  could  l)e  devised,  or  can  be  con- 
ceived, which  is  more  convenient  for 
dating  events  either  before  or  after  it, 
than  the  Christian,  and  it  cannot  ))e 
doul)ted  that,  with  the  advance  of  the 
world  in  civilisation,  this  era  will  super- 
sede all  others.  The  Republicans  of  the 
first  French  Revolution,  conscious  how 
much  the  human  imagmat  ion  i-  influenced 
by  these  things,  attempte,!  i,,  Miljstitute 
the  commencement  of  their  own  blood- 

'  See  Hefele's  art.  in  Wetzer  and  VVelte. 


ESPOUSAL 


ESTABLISHMENT,  CIIUKCII  .'J41 


etained  republic,  September  1792,  after 
first  inaugurating  it  by  tbe  massacre  of 
the  eleven  hundred  prisoners  in  the  jails 
of  Paris,  as  the  year  1  of  tlie  new  pci  iod 
of  universal  fraternity;  l)ut  tlie  attempt 
did  not  survive  the  suppi''»iou  <>t'  tln' 
anarcliical  factions.  5l.  Coiutf,  ilif 
founder  of  Positivism,  reconniieiiJed  to 
his  followers  the  a<loption  of  this  revo- 
lutionary epoch,  or  of  a  similar  one 
frame:!  by  himself;  but  it  is  not  known 
that  the  Positivists  as  yet  make  much 
use  of  it.  (F.'iT.ris.  ,-7iw  :  Wetzer  and 
Welte,  art.  by  llefele:  Smith  and  Cheet- 
ham,  art.  by  ili  usley.) 

ESPOVSAZi  {sjhjiisalia)  is  defined 
by  Ciury  as  '-a  dclil)erate  promise  to 
uiarrj'  made  by  each  party,  expressed  by 
outward  signs,  each  beiug  capable  of 
entering  u])on  such  an  engagement." 
This  (h'fiiiit ion  im])lii'-  tli;it  the  engage- 
ment rcl'iTs  t.i  till'  f.iturf — i.e.  the  jKirties 
do  not  give  them>i'lvi>s  to  each  other 
there  and  then,  but  prnini-.'  t"  dn  so  on 
a  future  occasion.  The  pr.  -niif  dih-i  l)e 
made  and  accepted  on  eucli  >i<\'-. 
party  must  be  aware  of  th(>  ol)lii;;it ion 
incun-ed;  hence  there  can  be  no  bimliiig 
engagement  between  children  wlio  Iium- 
not  come  to  the  u>c  of  reason.  ^:e.  Each 
party  must  act  fn.ly.  La,-tly,  there 
must  be  no  impeiiimrnt  '-hich  would 
nullify  the  marriage,  or  even  make  it 
unlawful — e.ff.  one  cousin  cannot  bind 
himself  or  herself  to  marry  the  otlier, 
because,  till  a  disjiensat ion  is  obtained, 
a  union  between  the  two  would  be  no 
marriage  at  all.  If  a  valid  engagi  iuent 
has  been  made,  then  neither  can  lawfully 
withdraw  from  it,  unless  the  other  gives 
consent,  or  unless  changes  have  occurred 
or  circumstances  come  to  light  which 
alter  the  nature  of  the  case.  Thus  a 
man,  having  engaged  to  marry  a  giil 
whom  he  tlioiii;lit  virtuous,  would  not. 
of  course,  >iill  bound  if  she  turned  out 
to  be  of  bad  charucter. 

The  engagement  may  be  made,  and  is 
at  present  made,  in  most  parts  of  the 
Church,  witliout  ceremony  or  publicity 
of  any  sort.  Among  Komans  a  man 
sent  a  riua:  of  iron  to  his  future  wife; 
and  this  custom  was  adopted  by  Chris- 
tians. The  ayinulns  2)i-o»i(hiis  is  men- 
tioned by  TertuUiau.  St.  Gregory  of 
Tours  speaks  of  the  man  as  presenting 
Lis  intended  wife  with  ring  {."ponxalius 
onnuliis  [■■<ic])  and  shoes.  The  Franlfs 
used  to  betroth  their  wives  with  pieces 
of  money — a  relic,  according  to  Chardon, 
of  the  old  custom  of  buying  girls  from 


'  their  parents.  Betrothal  among  the 
Greeks  takes  place  with  prayer  and  much 
solemnity  in  the  church,  and  on  the  same 
day  as  the  man-iau.-.  (  lli-torical  [.ovtion 
from  Chardon,  ''Hist,  des  Sacrfin.") 

ESPOUSi\.X.S  (SESPOItrSATZO) 
OF  THE  BI,ESS£S  VZRCZN.  A 
I  feast  kept  on  January  23.  An  olHct- 
commemorating  this  event  was  written 
by  the  famous  Gerson.  lu  ihf  >i-\ti'entli 
century  Paul  III.  allowed  the  friars  and 
nuns  of  the  Franciscan  Order  to  recite 
an  office  of  the  Espousals.  The  office 
was  simply  that  of  the  Blessed  \'irgln'.> 
Nativity,  e\ce]it  that  a  new  Gospel  was 
chosen  anil  the  word  "nativita?"  was 
changed  into  '•  ile>ponsatio."'  However, 
ix  special  office  of  the  I"sp(m>als  \va> 
written  by  the  Dominican  refer  Oore 
and  approved  bvthe  same  Pop.',  Paul  III. 
An  indidt  of  Benedict  XIII.,  m  1 7i':,, 
lieniiitted  its  use  throughout  the  States 
of  the  Church.  The  i'east  is  kepi  in 
England  as  a  greater  double.  (Benedict 
XIY.  "De  Fest.") 

ESTABXiZSHnXElTT,  CBVRCH. 
A  state  of  things  in  which  the  civil 
])ower,  for  political  and  moral  ends,  l  ecog- 
nises  a  particular  religion  in  preference 
to  all  others,  and  regards  its  ministers, 
as  sui'h,  as  bodies  coi]iorate,  capable  of 
suing  and  being  sued,  of  holding  property, 
I  and  trfinsmittiug  it  to  their  successors. 
The  questions  beaiinL"-  on  the  utility 
of  a  Church  establishment  lia\e  long 
been  keenly  debated  in  this  country  be- 
tween tlie  Ani^licans  and  the  non-esta- 
blished Protectant  sects;  but  Catholics 
are  little  concerned  in  the  controversy. 
A  word  or  two  of  criticism  on  the  chief 
arguments  advanced  is  all  that  we  shall 
offer.  AMial  the  Anglicans  say  as  to  the 
ad\antages  secured  to  a  nation  by  the 
pnlilic  recognitiini,  on  the  part  of  the 
ci^  il  ]iower,  of  ( 'lii'istianity  and  its 
ministers,  is  of  cour-e  jieri'ectly  true;  and 
■w  hen  they  a])]>eal  to  history,  and  show 
what  benefits  accrued  to  English  society 
from  Ethelbert's  supporting  the  Roman 
missioners,  (U'  Ethelwulf's  appropriation 
of  the  tithe  to  reli^ioHs  uses,  or  from 
many  other  like  act- on  ilie  part  of  our 
civil  rulers,  it  is  inip"--dile  not  to  agree 
with  them.  So  Ion,:  a-  l'.nj:l)-!nuen  con- 
tinued lo  l)e  oi'  one  religion,  and  to  lie  in 
communion  with  the  lf>ly  See.  the 
benefits  of  Church  e-t  al^li-iinieiu  ,  on  the 
whole,  were  undemalile.  Ueli^non,  by  it, 
^  was  brought  to  every  nianV  door;  it  lent 
a  form  and  a  splendour  to  human  life; 
I  and  an  Englishman's  fidelity  to  Jusua 


342  ESTABLISHMENT,  CHURCH 


EUCHARIST 


Christ  and  His  Cliui-ch  was  mmle  t  asii  r 
for  liim  by  the  fact  that  the  kin--  to 
whom  he  owed  hiyalty  was,  no  less  than 
himself,  an  obedient  son  of  the  same 
Chinch,  and  also  its  zealous  protector. 
The  chief  drawljack  accompanying  these 
benehts  of  establislnueiit  was  that,  in 
times  of  lidiewaniiiicss  and  relaxed 
discipline,  kiiiiis,  ciii^rd  on  by  worldly 
Coun,>ello)  s,  availi'd  t  heni>elves  of  the 
connection  between  (_'hurch  and  State 
to  impede  free  communication  with 
Rome  (laws  of  Provisors,  Priemunire, 
&c.),  and  to  brin^  the  heads  of  the 
Church  in  En^'land  more  under  their 
own  power.  This  evil  tendency,  long 
operating,  with  other  causes,  brought 
the  Church  in  this  country  to  the  ruin 
which  we  have  attempted  to  describe 
in  the  article  English  Chuech.  But 
to  return  to  the  Anglican  argument. 
Down  to  the  Rel'oi-mation,  as  has  been  1 
said,  we  dili'er  little  from  them  in  our  ; 
estimate  of  the  benefits  of  establishment. 
Since  that  time,  as  they  maintain,'  the 
same  Catholic  Church  has  continued  to 
be  established  in  England  with  the  like 
beuehcial  results  ;  to  which  we  must 
reply  that  the  common  sense  of  mankind 
and  the  i-eceived  use  of  words  are  against 
them.  Everyone  but  an  Anglican  can 
see  that  it  does  not  follow — assuming 
that  Church  establishment  was  beneficial 
before  the  Reformation — that  it  is  equally  1 
beneficial  now,  because  the  body  esta-  i 
blished  is  no  longer  the  same.  Whether, 
and  how  far,  the  ])resent  Anglican  esta- 
blishment is  beneficial,  is  a  question  on 
which  we  cannot  here  enter. 

On  tlie  other  side,  the  great  argument 
of  the  Nonconformists  against  Establish- 
ments is  that  there  is  no  guarantee  for 
their  being  applied  in  support  of  pure 
Christianity,  and  that  they  may  thus 
become  the  means  of  stereotyping  en-or. 
"  Human  establishments  ....  have  been, 
and  are,  productive  of  the  greatest  evils ; 
for  in  this  case  it  is  requisite  to  give  the 
preference  to  sfune  particular  system  ; 
and,  as  the  m agist late  is  no  better  judge 
of  religion  than  others,  the  chances  are 
as  gTeat  of  his  lending  his  sanction  to 
the  false  as  the  true.'"-  As  between  the 
Anglicans  and  the  Dissenters,  this  seems 
to  be  unanswerable.  "  The  magistrate  " — 
i.e.  Elizabeth  and  her  Government — 
established  Anglicanism   in   lo59,  and 

1  Scf  fI..oU's  Church  Dictionary,  ari.^^  Es- 
l,ibli^lni!e..t.-' 

liucU's  Thenl.  Dictionary,  eit.  by  Hender- 
bou,  ait.  ■•  Establishment."  I 


tilings  have  so  continued  to  the  present 
<lay  ;  but  "  the  magistrate  "  was  not 
infallible,  nor  were  the  handful  of  divine* 
who  assisted  him ;  he  may,  therefore, 
have  ajiplied  the  forces  of  Establishment 
to  the  sii]ip(irt  of  what  was  more  or  less 
false;  and,  of  course,  the  Dissenters  hold 
that  he  did  so  apply  them.  Against  a 
Catholic  theologian  the  argument  is 
powerless  ;  tor,  although  it  is  quite  true 
that  the  magistrate,  as  stich,  is  "no 
better  jiidgf  of  religion  than  others,"  yet, 
if  he  allows  himself  to  be  guided  by  the 
Churi-h  and  the  Pope,  he  rests  upon  a 
basis  of  infallible  truth,  and  his  action  in 
a])])lyiiig  the  forces  of  Establishment  to 
the  su])p()rt  of  religion  cannot,  in  that 
case,  be  either  mistaken  or  mischievous. 

EUCHARIST.  The  Catholic  doc- 
trine on  the  Eucharist  is  stated  with 
great  clearness  by  the  Council  of  Trent, 
Sess.  xiii.  xxi.  and  xxii.  The  Church 
regards  the  Eucharist  as  a  sacrament 
and  also  as  a  sacrifice,  so  that  our  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  falls  naturally  into- 
two  great  divisions,  to  which  we  will  add 
su]i]ilcmentaiy  remarks  on  the  adoration 
and  reservation  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament. 
Considered  as  a  sacrament,  the  Eucharist 
is  tile  true  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
under  the  appearance  of  bread  and  wine. 
Like  all  the  sacraments,  it  was  instituted 
by  Ciirist,  and  like  them,  it  consists  of 
an  outward  part — viz.  bread  and  wine, 
or  the  ajipearance  of  bread  and  wine ; 
and  an  inward  or  invisible  part — viz.  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  with  the  grace 
which  they  impart  to  those  who  com- 
municate woithily.  I^ut  as  this  definition 
of  the  I'hicliarist  is  rejected  by  most 
Protestants,  and  as  there  are  many  other 
points  concfrning  this  mystery  which 
need  explanation,  we  are  obliged  for  the 
sake  of  clearness  to  make  many  subdivi- 
sions and  to  take  the  points  in  debate 
one  by  one. 

1.  The  EvcJiarist  as  a  Sacrament. 

(a)  Its  Institution,  inchuUng  the  Mat- 
ter and  Form. — Christ  Himself  instituted 
the  Eucharist  on  the  night  before  His 
Passion.  The  first  three  Evangelists 
and  St.  Paul  in  his  first  Ejiistle  to  the 
Corinthians  give  the  history  of  the  first 
Eucharist.  C)ur  Lord,  they  tell  us,  took 
bread  into  Ilis  hands,  and  having  given 
thanks  ff  i' v(i/j»rri}o-«r,  Luc.  xxii.  19, 
whence  the  name  J'lucharist),  lie  broke 
It  and  i!;,v«  it  to  His  disriph's,  saying, 
•■'I'liis  is  my  body  which  is  givri'i  lor 
you:  this  do  for  a  commemoration  of 
me."    In  the  same  manner  He  took  the 


EUdlAKlST 


EUCIIAIllST 


chalice  and  said,  "  This  is  the  blood  of 
the  New  Testament  which  is  shed  for 
you."  From  this  it  apijeais  tha^  bread 
and  wine  are  the  matter  to  be  used  in 
the  sacrament.  It  is  certain,  further, 
that  whcaten  bread  ought  to  be  used,  for 
the  Council  of  Florence  declares  that 
"  wheateu  bread  and  wine  "  are  the  mat- 
ter of  this  sacrament,  and  nearly  all 
theologians  hold  that  no  other  kind  of 
bread  can  be  used  without  inralidatiiig 
the  sacrament,  lieeaii.-e,  when  bread  with- 
out further  -lualilieiitieu  is  mentioned 
wheaten  bread  wnuld  be  commonly 
understood.'  The  (.■..uiuil  of  Florence, 
in  the  Decree  of  Union,  defined  tliat  con- 
secration either  in  leavened  or  iinleavened 
bread  is  valid.  Latin  priests  are  bound 
to  use  the  latter;  Orientals,  except 
Maronites  and  Armenians,  use  the  former. 
It  is  certain  that  the  Latin  Church  follows 
the  use  of  Christ  Himself,  for  leavened 
bread  could  not  have  been  employed  at 
the  paschal  supper,  so  tliat  the  violent 
attacks  made  on  the  Latin  Cluirch  for  its 
use  of  unleavened  bread  by  Michael 
Cserularius  in  1043,  and  often  repeated 
by  the  schismatic  Greeks,  are  clearly  un- 
warranted. It  is  impossible  to  ascertain 
with  certainty  the  use  of  the  ancient 
Church  on  tliis  head,  .'^irmond  contends 
that  e\  ('ii  the  Latins  used  leaveneil  br(>ad 
for  ei^lit  years  and  more.  Au- 

thor!'ot'i  (!ual  rejiutation — viz.  Mahil- 
lon  and  Chi  1,-1  iaiiii-  Lupus— hold  that 
the  Latins  ha\e  al\vay<  used  unleavened 
bread  since  A]ioMolie  tuni's.  IJ.nia  thinks 
that,  wlievii-  the  ( Greeks  have  always 
used  leaveui'd  liread,  the  Latins  in  the 
early  ages  u>ed  eitiier  leavened  or  un- 
leavened bread  according  to  convenience, 
and  that  the  use  of  the  latter  was  not 
ohiigatory  among  them  till  the  tenth 
century.-  The  wine  must  of  course  be 
the  fei  nented  juice  of  the  grape.  Water 
is  mi.\ed  with  it  according  to  a  custom 
which  must  iiave  lieen  I'oUowed  by  Christ 
(for  the  paschal  wine,  wliieh  He  used  in 
the  first  Eucharist,  was  alw  ays  so  mixed), 
and  which  is  proved  to  be  Ajio.-tolie,  both 
because  it  is  mentioned  hy.lustin  Martyr" 
in  the  sub-Apostolie  a-e,  and  lieeansi^  it 
is  followed  at  tliis  day,  not  only  tlirongii- 
out  the  Cath(dic  Church  in  all  the  varying 
rites  according  to  which  Mass  is  said,  but 

•  Cajctaii  (ajnnl  Billuart,  De  Euch.  diss.  iii. 
a.  1)  (ii'iucd  rliaf  tlie  use  of  wheaten  l)rpa(l  wa.s 
absolutely  iifce-s  ry.  "ApTos  is  the  word  used 
by  the  F.vau-i-li-ts,  and  that  means  wheaten 
bread,  ixa^a  hoiriir  ihe  word  tor  tmrlev  bread. 

3  Benedifi  XIV.  IJe  Fest.  V.  1.  clxiv. 

5  Apol.  i.  o6. 


also  by  all  heretical  sects  wliicli  have  pre- 
served the  priesthood,  with  the  single  ex- 
ception of  the  Armenian  .Monophysites.* 
Ihit  tlie  mixture  of  water  witli  the  wine 
does  not  beh>ng  to  the  essence  of  tbe 
sacrament,  and  it  must  be  made  in  small 
(plant  ity,  since  wine,  not  wine  atid  water, 
is  a  constituent  part  of  tlie  matter  of  thii 
sacrament.  Lastly,  the  bread  and  the 
wine  are  consecrated  by  tlie  words  "This 
is  my  body,"  "This  is  my  blood,"  iis  has 
been  shown  in  the  article  on  Coxsj;ck.\- 

TION. 

The  Heal  Presence. — The  Council 
of  Trent,  Sess.  xiii.  De  Euch.  can.  7, 
teaches  that,  after  the  conseeration,  the 
body  and  blood,  together  with  tlie  soul 
and  divinity  of  our  Lord  .Tesus  Clii'ist, 
are  contained  "truly,  really,  and  sub- 
stantially in  the  saeraimuit  ol'  the  must 
Holy  Eucharist,"  and  it  anathematises 
those  who  say  that  Christ's  body  and 
j  blood  are  there  in  sign  and  figure  only, 
I  or  virtually.  Christ  is  in  the  Eucharist 
I  truly — i.e.  the  Avords  "This  is  my  body" 
are  not,  as  the  Zwinglians  contend,  a  mere 
figure :  I  le  is  there  really — i.e.  objectively, 
so  that  His  presence  does  not  depend,  as 
Calvin  said  it  did,  on  the  faith  of  the 
recipient.  He  is  there  substantially, 
which  word  excludes  the  Calvinistic  error 
tliat  Christ's  body  is  in  heaven  and  no- 
where else,  though  it  exercises  its  virtue 
and  ])ower  in  the  Eucharist. 

Tlie  real  ])reseiice  is  clearly  implied  in 
Seri]iture.  It  was  taught  first  of  all  by 
our  Lord  Himself  in  the  synagogue  at 
Capliarnaum,  just  a  year  liefore  His  Pas- 
sion. On  the  day  preceding  this  dis- 
course He  liad  fed  the  five  thousand  by 
the  miracuhuis  multiplication  of  bread, 
and  the  crowd  went  to  Capharnaum  next 
day  in  i|nest  of  Him  (John  vi.).  Christ  re- 
buked thein,  because  they  set  greater  value 
on  earthly  bread  than  on  the  food  of  the 
soul:  and  they  asked  Him  for  a  "sign"' 
in  confirmation  of  His  authority.  The 
miracle  of  the  day  liet'ore  was  not  enough. 
He  had,  after  all,  only  fed  the  crowd  witii 
c<immoii  bread.  What  was  tliat  to  the 
miracle  of  the  desert  ?  "  Our  fatliers  eat 
the  manna  in  the  desert,  as  it  is  written, 
He  ga\c  them  bread  from  heaven  to  eat.' 
Christ  answered  that  He  was  the  true 
bread  come  down  from  hea\  en;  the  food 
of  the  soul  to  those  who  believed  in  Him, 

1  Th(y  in  all  iircli.-ilalify  altered  this  rite 
to  exiirc-"-  their  dctr-tatiMii  o'f  the  Catholic  doc- 
trine on  the  twii  naliires  ot'  Christ,  and  ihe 
Cliurch  has  nt'iised  to  tder.ite  iheir  present 
custom.    Beimrkt  XIV.  De  Miss.  xi.  10. 


S44 


EUCHARIST 


EUCHARIST 


as  the  manna  bad  been  tbe  food  of  tlie 
body.  So  far — i.e.  down  tn  verse  oO — 
there  is  nothing  in  tbe  discouive  to  prove 
the  real  presence.  But  Cbri,-t  goes  on  to 
saj',  "The  bread  which  I  will  give"  is 
(not  my  doctrine  but)  "my  flesh."  "He 
who  enteth  my  flesb  and  drinketh  my 
blood,  hath  eternal  life."  The  future 
tense  (tbe  bread  which  I  irill  give)  shows 
that  tbe  mysterious  gift  of  which  Christ 
spoke  was  not  yet  t)estowed.  It  was 
possil:)le  to  belie\e  in  Him,  but  it  was 
not  possilile  as  vet  to  eat  His  flesh  and 
drink  His  1,1, H,d.'  This  feeding  on  Christ's 
flesh  and  blood  can  only  refer  to  the  Holy 
Kiicliarisf.  No  doubt  Christ  might  most 
fltly  lune  siiokeu  ot'  belief  in  Himself  as 
a  feeding  on  hea\  enly  bread  ;  but  to 
describe  faith  in  Him  as  a  feeding  on  His 
flesh  and  blood  would  ]je  a  violent  and 
unnatuial  use  of  words  in  any  language, 
and  as  addrt'ssed  to  Jews  it  would  have 
been  worse  than  unnatural.  They  were 
accustomed  to  use  the  \\-ords  "eating  a 
man's  flesh"  metaphorically,  but  the 
metaphor  signified,  not  to  accept  a  man's 
doctrine,  Init,  on  the  contrary,  to  tieat 
him  with  brutal  cruelty.  Thus  the 
Rsahnist  sjieaks  of  bis  euemies  coniing 
near  him  to  "eat   bis  fle.-b  ; ''  and  .lob 

Our  Lord,  tberefore,  sjifak.-  of  a  literal, 
not  of  a  metapborical.  eating  of  His  tli's!i 
and  drinking  of  His  blood.  Another 
argument  for  the  Catholic  interjin^tation 
is  supplied  by  the  way  in  which  Christ's 
words  were  received.  Tbe  .lews  ex- 
claimed, "  How  can  this  man  give  us  his 
flesh  to  eat  ?  "  ^\'llereul)on  our  Lord, 
instead  of  explaining  that  He  meant  only 
to  say  that  tlu'v  must  belie\e  in  His 
doctrine,  n-peated  His  former  assertion  in 
tbe  most  soleujn  and  enipbatic  manner: 
"Amen,  amen,  I  say  to  you,  unless  you 
eat  tbe  flesb  of  tbe  Son  of  M;in  and  drink 
his  blood,  yon  have  not  lil'e  in  von.  .  .  . 
:My  flesh  is  truly  food,  and  my  blood  is 
truly  drink."  Otbei-s  who  beard  the 
doctrine  from  His  disciples  found  it  hard 
and  intoleralfle.  To  remo-\-e  thi^  scandal 
ibey  bad  taken,  Christ  a])]iealed  to  that 
divine  power  which  He  was  to  manifest 
in  His  Asceusiim,  and  added,  "  It  is  the 
spirit  which  quickeneth,  tbe  tli'--h  profiteth 
nothing:  the  words  which  I  ba\  e  spoken 
to  you  are  spirit  and  lile  :  Init  there  are 
some  of  you  who  do  not  b>>lieve."  In 
tbe  first  part  of  this  verse  Christ  cannot 

'  V*.  xxvi.  (in  Heb.  xxvii.)'2.  Job  xix. 
2-2.  Tbe  <  liald-i'  Tji  ^wm  preserves  tlie  same 
iiictiipliur  in  both  p.Tss.igts. 


have  meant  to  say  that  His  flesh  was  ab- 
solutely luiprofltable :  to  do  so  would 
have  been  to  contradict  the  substance  of 
His  previous  discourse,  even  if  we  accept 
the  ultra-Protestant  interjiretation  of  it. 

!  Christ  was  to  give  His  flesh  for  the  life 
of  the  world,  so  that  He  could  not  -peak 

I  of  this  flesb  as  utterly  unproHtaljle.  His 
meaning  is  that  flesh  in  itsnll,  even  His 
own  flesh  apart  from  that  Spirit  which 
(Tod  had  given  Him  without  measure  ' 

1  and  which  was  united  to  it,  could  not  be 

i  of  any  avail.  Nor  again,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  verse,  "The  words  I  have 
spoken  to  you  are  spirit  and  life,''  does 
Christ  contrast  faith  in  His  words  v\-ith 
feeding  ou  His  flesh,  for,  apart  from  other 
objections,  our  Lord  does  not  speak  of 
His  word  generally,  ljut  of  those  particular 
words  wliich  He  has  just  uttered  and 
which  some  of  His  hearers  did  not  believe. 

;  The  discourse  in  the  synagogue  had  been 
a  scandal  to  them,  and  our  Lord  declares 
that  His  words,  far  from  giving  any  real 
occasion  fin'  scandal,  were  spirit  and  life 
to  those  who  received  them;  the  fault 
lay  not  in  Him  or  iu  His  words,  but  in 
their  unbelief. 

This  exposition  is  confirmed  by  the 
last  part  ot'  tbe  chajiter.  Clearlv,  tbe 
I'vangelist  did  not  think  that  Christ  had 
soft  (ill '(1  down  or  ex  plained  His  mysterious 
promisi',  for  he  goi-s  on  to  t'-ll  us  that 
from  that  tinn'  many  of  Christ's  disciples 
went  back  and  walked  no  more  witli 
Him,  so  tliat  our  Lord  was  constrained 
to  ask  the  twelve  Apostles  if  they  also 
would  go  away. 

At  the  last  supper,  Christ  explained 
by  the  institution  of  the  Eucharist  that 
mysterious  eating  His  flesh  and  drinking 
His  Ijlood  which  He  had  announced  a  year 
1)efore  in  the  synagogue  of  Capliarnaum. 
He  celebrated  with  the  chosen  twelve 
the  paselial  rite.  This  rite  was  a  sacrifice 
comnienioi'ative  of  Israel's  redemption; 
it  was,  indeed,  the  one  commemorative 
sacrifice  of  the  old  law.  Further,  it  was 
a  feast  upon  a  sacrifice,  and  the  eating 
of  the  paschal  lamb  bound  the  Israelites 
together  in  the  unity  of  the  Jewish 
Church.  Christ,  as  His  disciples  knew, 
was  the  true  paschal  lamb,  come  to  take 
the  sins  of  the  world  away.  As  He  sub- 
stituted His  atoning  death  for  the  -aerifice 
of  the  ],aschal  lamb,  so  He  gave  His  body 
and  lilood  in  ])lace  of  the  lamb  on  which 

they  hnil  1  11  used  to  feast.    Just  when 

lie  was    about    to    abolish    types  and 

I  .shadows  by  His  death.  He  instituted  for 
'  1  Julm  iii.  oi. 


EUCHARIST 


EUCHAKIST 


all  time  the  new  paschal  rite  which  was 
more  than  a  type  or  shadow.  It  was  to 
be  at  one  and  the  same  time  a  sacrifice 
commemorative  of  the  redemption,  a 
feast  on  Himself,  the  Lamb  of  God,  the 
great  means  of  sanctification  for  His 
1  euple,  and  the  bond  which  was  to 
unite  the  "Israel  of  God"  thnniijhdut 
the  world.  He  said  of  the  Ijn  .iil,  '■  This 
is  my  body ; "  of  the  wini",  This  is  my 
blood,"  He  incited  His  disciples  to 
eat  and  drink  of  the  banquet  prepared 
for  them. 

St.  Paul,  in  1  Cor.  x.,  testifies  to  the 
same  doctrini'.  He  warns  his  ilisciples 
aLi'ainst  pai't  icipahnt^  in  l]i<-  .-aci'ilices 
(itli'i-i'<l  to  ulnl-,  ami  ]Hiiiii-.  lint  the  iiinin- 
.'■i.-tcncv  of  I'atiiii;  till'  t]i'Nli  of  victims 
ofiered'  to  idols  '  an.l  al>o  ratiiii:-  the 
flesh  and  drinking  the  blood  ol  Christ. 
Christians  are  to  "  flee  from  idols '"  be- 
cause they  receive  the  Eucharist.  St. 
Paul  contrasts  the  real  tlesh  of  victims 
sacrificed  to  idols  with  the  real  flesh  pre- 
sent in  the  great  Christian  sacrament. 
"  I  cannot  partake,"  he  says,  "  of  the 
table  of  the  Lord  and  the  table  of 
devils  " — i.e.  of  idols.  And  in  ordrr  that 
there  may  lie  no  por-siljility  of  mistaking 
the  "f  lii>  words,  he  asks,  "The 

cup  of  I.!.  >-in^  wliich  we  bless,  is  it  not 
a  particijiation  in  {Kdwoiuia)  the  blood  of 
Christ:-  the  broad  which  we  broal;.  i.-  it 
not  a  participation  in  tho  body  of  Christ  ?" 
St.  Paul  does  not  >ay  that  tlie  consccratod 
bread  and  ^^■ine  nw  a  symljol  of  Christ's 
body  and  Itlood,  but  a  partici]iation  in 
them.  lie  u-i's  the  -^ery  same  •word 
(koivoivoY)  to  (1(  .-i  rii)!'  till'  "  partaking;'  " 
in  the  .Tewisli  altai-.  rrr-on>  '•  jiartoo'k  " 
in  Jewish  anil  heatln-n  sacrilii-fS  by  really 
eating  the  flesh  of  the  victim;  just  in 
the  same  way  they  "  partook "  of  the 
Chri.«tian  Eucharist.  P)Ut  the  participa- 
tion in  each  case  was  ordered  to  ends 
widely  diiVerent  from  each  other,  so  that 
it  was  a  gross  inconsistency  to  unite  any 
two  of  the  three  difl'erent  participations 
with  each  other. 

AVe  can  ouly  select  a  few  from  the 
mass  of  j)atristic  testimonies  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  real  presence.  St.  Ignatius, 
St.  John's  disci])le,  is  arguing  against  the 
Docetse,  who  denied  the  reality  of  our 
Lord's  body  altogether.  St.  Ignatius ' 
points  out  the  consequences  of  this  un- 
belief. Not  admitting  that  our  Lord 
took  on  Himself  true  flesh,  those  men 
"abstained  from  the  Eucharist  and 
prayer,  because  th(>y  do  not  confess  that 
1  All  Smi/ni.  7. 


I  the  Eucharist  is  the  flesh  of  our  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ."  Had  the  Church  of  those 
days  believed  that  the  Ivu  harist  was  no 
more  than  a  symbMl.  tli''r>'  was  nothing 
in  the  celebration  of  th''  >arrament  which 
need  have  offended  thorn.    They  grantt-d 

j  that  our  Lord  had  an  apparent  body,  and 
they  could  offer  no  obji-cticjn  to  the  om- 

:  memoration  of  His  death  under  a  ■sym))olic 
form.  But  they  coidd  not  partake  in  a 
sacrament  which  pri  ifessed  to  communicate 
the  true  body  of  Christ,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  they  denied  the  reality  of 
Christ's  body  altngether.  It  may  be 
worth  while  to  lui'iitlon  in  passing  that 

;  the  celelirated  Protestant  commentator 

:  Meyer'  ailniits  the  I'.iree  of  1lii>  pas-age. 
In  an  histnrical  account  of  the  Eucha- 
rist ic  doctrine,  a]i]iended  to  his  commen- 
tary on  St.  Matthew,  he  allows  that  St. 
Ignatius,  in  opjxisition  to  the  Piii-et:e, 
"undoubtedly  states  the  doctrine  that  in 
the  Eucharist  Christ's  flesh  and  blood  are 
given  in  a  real  way."  In  the  earliest 
account  which  we  possess  of  the  liucha- 
ristic  celeliratioii  among  the  primitive 
Christians  we  find  the  same  unhesitating 
belief  in  the  real  presence.  "This  i'ooil," 
sa\s  Justin  ^lartyr,  who  died  in  the  year 
IOC),  "is  known  among  us  as  the  Eu- 
charist. .  .  .  AVe  do  not  receive  these 
lliinus  as  common  bread  and  commcii 
drink;  but  as  .Tesiis  Christ  our  Sa\'ie(ur, 
being  made  ih-h  by  the  Word  of  God, 
had  both  tie.-h  and  l.lo.id  for  our  sal- 
\  at  ion,  so  we  Iia\e  been  tattght  that  the 
food  o^  er  which  thanks  have  been  given 
{evxnfitaTrjSfiircw),  through  prayer  in  His 
words,  and  from  which  our  blood  and 
flesh  are  nourished  in  such  a  way  as  to 
be  changed,  are  the  flesh  and  blood  of 
that  Jesus  who  was  made  flesh.''"  Some 

j  words  in  this  passage  are  very  dillieult  to 
understand,  or  even  to  ti'anslate,  ami  they 

;  have  proved  the  crur  of  commentators, 
but  the  part  relating  to  the  real  ju-.'sence 
is  clear  and  simple.  Justin  considers  the 
presence  of  Christ's  flesh  and  blood  in  the 
Eucharist  as  certain  as  the  fact  that  He 
took  flesh  and  blood  in  His  Incurn.ition. 
And  here  again  we  may  remark  tliat 
Meyer  interprets  St.  Justin  e\acily  a>  we 
have  done.    At  the  close  of  the  second 

j  century,  St.  Irena-us,  the  disciph'  of  St, 
Polvcarp,  who  was  the  disciph-  of  Si. 

I  John,  uses  the  vervar-nment  a-ain-t  the 

;  Gnostiowhi.-hSt.'lguatiii-lKhlenii^lnv.-d 
against  theDnceta'.    A-aiu-'  t  le- l  i  im  i-tic 
error  that  the  material  world  is  e\  il  and 
»  Comm.  nil  St.  Mutlktw,  ed.  5,  ISGt. 
'  ApoL  i.  l^'J. 


EUCHARIST 


EUCPIARIST 


tliat  Christ  was  not  the  Son  of  that  inferior 
God  who  made  the  world,  St.  Irenreus. 
argues  tlui?  :  "  If  the  Lord  came  from 
another  latlicr,  how  did  He  act  justly 
when.  takiDg  the  bread  of  the  creaticm 
which  lies  around  us,  He  confessed  that 
it  was  His  own  liody,  and  afhrojed  that 
the  mixture  of  tl;e  clialice  [wine  mixed 
with  water]  was  His  own  blood?"' 
Again,  repelling  the  (i noetic  error  that 
the  Hesh  is  incapable  nf  salvation,  and 
so  would  not  rise  again,  St.  Iren<Teus 
argues  that  on  the  Gnostic  theory  Christ 
w.iuld  not  hare  redeemed  us  with  His 
bloorl,  fir  sanctified  «ur  bodies  with  His 
(iwn  biidy  and  blood  in  the  Eucharist. 
•'  If  this  tlesh  of  ours  is  not  saved,  then 
clearly  the  Lord  did  not  redeem  us  with 
His  blood,  nor  is  the  chalice  of  the 
Eucharist  the  communication  of  His 
blood,  nor  the  bread  which  we  brealv 
the  commimication  of  His  bodj".  For 
there  is  no  blood  except  that  which 
comes  from  veins  and  flesh  and  the  rest 
of  man's  substance,  which  human  sub- 
stance the  Word  of  God  truly  became. 
He  redeemed  us  with  His  blood  ;  .  .  . 
and  since  we  are  his  members  and  are 
nourished  through  His  creatures,  and 
since  He  Himself  bestows  His  creatures 
on  us,  .  .  .  Ho  confessed  that  the  chalice 
[taken]  from  the  creature  was  His  proper 
blood,  with  which  He  bedews  our  blood, 
and  the  bread  [taken]  from  the  creature 
He  atfirn:ed  with  a  strong  aflirmatiou 
to  be  His  proper  body,  from  which  He 
nourishes  our  bodies."^  Let  the  reader 
observe  that  St.  Irenaeus  puts  the  blood 
of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist  in  the  same 
category  with  that  shed  on  the  cross,  the 
former  being  real,  just  as  the  latter  was 
real ;  next,  that  Irenfeus  tells  us  what 
he  means  by  blood — viz.  literal  blood, 
taken  from  the  veins  ;  lastly,  that 
Irenaeus  intimates  that  he  is  speaking 
of  a  stupendous  mystery,  for  he  tells  us 
that  our  Saviour  solemnly  or  strongly 
affirmed  (Sie/^f/inicoirdT-o)  that  the  bread 
was  His  proper  body.  We  may  conclude 
our  patristic  citations  on  this  head  with 
a  few  words  from  Cyril  of  Jerusalem 
(died  386).  "  Since  then  He  has  declared 
and  said  of  the  bread,  'This  is  my  body,' 
who  after  that  will  venture  to  doubt  ? 
And  seeing  that  He  has  affirmed  and 
said,  '  This  is  my  blood,'  who  will  raise 
a  question  and  say  it  is  not  His  hlf.od  ?  "  » 
Even  if  the  witness  of  Si  i-i].linv  to  tlie 
real  jiresence  were  doubtful,  tin-  luct  that 

'  fron.  iv.  .33,  2.  -  Iren.  v.  2,  2. 

Cvril.  Hierosol.  Cat.  xxii.  Mystag.  4. 


I  a  doctrine  so  mysterious,  so  difficult  to 
'  reason,  found  such  speedy  and  universal 
:icre]if.ince  throughout  the  Church  that 
Isiiiatius  a  disciple  of  St.  John  could  take 
it  for  granted  in  his  controversy  with 
heretics,  should  be  enough  to  turn  the 
scale  in  favour  of  the  Catholic  interpre- 
tation. 

(y)    Transuhfitantifition. — It   is  not 
enough  to  confess  Christ's  real  presence 
in  the  Eucharist.    The  Council  of  Trent 
requires  us  further  to  confess  the  "change 
of  the  whole  substance  of  the  bread  into 
the  body,  of  the  whole  substance  of  the 
I  wine  into  the  blood  [of  Christ],  only  the 
[  appearances  of  bread  and  wine  remaining^ 
I  which  change  the  Catholic  Church  most 
I  fitly  calls  traiisubstantiation."  The  word 
"trniisubstaiitiat  ion  "appears  to  have  come 
into  use  during  the   controversy  with 
Berengarius,  and  a  jierson  who  rejected  it 
as  "foolish  and  barbarous"  would  not 
thereby  fall  into  heresy,  though  his  con- 
duct, Suarez  says,  would  be  scandalous 
and  rash,  and  woidd  expose  him  to  just 
i  suspicion  of  heresy.    But  the  word  im- 
i  plies  a  truth  beyond  the  mere  fact  of 
I  Christ's  presence  in  the  sacrament ;  and 
j  this  truth  is  of  faith.     It  is  necessary 
then  to  begin  by  explaining  the  word. 

The  Church  has  adopted  the  distinction 
made  by  the  Aristotelians  between  sub- 
stance and  accident.     The  essence  or 
substance  is  that  which  constitutes  the 
thing,  which  makes  it  what  it  is,  and  it 
is  distinct  from  accidents  or  qualities 
,  which  may  change  while  the  thing  itself 
i  remains.    Common  sense  teaches  us  this, 
distinction.    If  water  undergoes  certain 
accidental  changes — e.g.  if  having  been 
cold  it  becomes  heated  to  the  boiling 
point — we  still  call  it  water:  in  other 
words,  we  recognise  the  fact  that  though 
I  the  water  has  become  hot  instead  of  cold,, 
t  the  substance  of  water  is  there  still,  and 
that  the  change  is  merely  accidental.  If, 
however,  the  water  were  changed  by 
natural  procass  into  blood,  or  grape-juice, 
I  or  again  by  miracle  into  wine,  anyone 
I  would  see  that  not  merely  the  qualities, 
:  but  the  thing  was  changed.    The  sub- 
stance of  water  would  have  ceased  to  be, 
and  would  have  been  replaced  by  that  of 
grape-juice,  blood,  or  wine.  Substance 
is  the  inner  reality  in  which  the  qualities 
or  accidents  inhere,  or  in  the  more  exact 
language  of  tlie  Schools,  substance  is  that 
which  naturally  staiuls  1)V  itself  witliout 
anv  subject  or  substratum  in  which  it 
inheres.     An   accident   is  that  which 
naturallv  inheres  in  a  substance  as  its. 


EUCHARIST 


EUCHARIST 


347 


subject  or  substratum.  Now,  whereas 
the  change  which  the  elements  in  the 
other  sacraments  undergo  is  an  accidental 
(whereas,  e.g.,  the  water  in  baptism  re- 
mains water,  and  sinijily  receives  a  new 
power  to  cleanse  from  sin),  the  change 
of  the  elements  in  the  Eucharist  is  an 
essential  or  substantial  one.  The  sub- 
stance of  bread  and  wine  ceases  to  be, 
for  it  is  changed  into  Christ's  body  and 
blood.  In  one  respect,  however,  this 
substantial  change  dirters  from  all  other 
substantial  changes.  In  other  cases,  when 
one  substance  changes  into  another,  the 
accidents  also  change.  Here  the  accidents 
lit'  bread  and  wine  remain  unaltered ;  and 
so  long  as  they  remain,  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  also  remain  concealed 
beneath  them.  Hence  it  follows  that  in 
the  Eucharist  there  is  no  deception  of 
the  senses.  What  we  see,  feel,  or  taste 
in  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  real,  for  the 
accidents  are  real  entities,  and  the  acci- 
dents are  all  that  the  senses  ever  do 
perceive.  From  the  existence  of  the 
accidents  reason  infers  that  of  the  sub- 
stance to  which  theynaturally  correspond, 
but  with  regard  to  the  Eucharist  tliis 
inference  would  be  false,  since  faith 
assures  us  that  in  this  case  the  accidents 
conceal  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ, 
not  the  substaaces  of  bread  and  wine. 
It  is,  moreover,  because  the  accidents 
remain  that  the  Eucharist  is  a  sacrament. 
They  constitute  the  outward  part — they 
are  the  sensible  sign  of  that  refreshment 
of  the  soul  which  follows  from  a  worthy 
reception  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament. 

Taking  for  granted  the  real  presence, 
we  may  fairly  claim  to  prove  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation  from  the  words  of 
consecration  as  given  in  the  Gospels. 
On  the  Lutlieran  theory  of  consubstantia- 
tion — according  to  which  the  substances 
of  bread  and  wine  are  still  present  after 
consecration,  thougli  the  substance  of 
Christ's  body  is  there  also — Christ  could 
not  have  said  "  This  is  my  body,"  but 
only  •'  My  body  is  here  " — "  My  body  is 
present  with  tin's  bread."  The  sensible 
signs  or  accidents  indicate  the  substance 
which  underlies  them  :  so  long,  therefore, 
as  the  substance  of  bread  remains,  the 
pro])Osition  "  This  is  bread  '"  must  be  true, 
and  any  other  proposition — e.g.  "This  is 
Christ's  body  " — must  be  false.  It  is  of  | 
no  avail  to  urge  that  Christ's  body  is 
also  ])resent.  The  question  is  not  whether 
it  is  jm-sent,  but  whether  it  is  directly 
indicated  by  the  accidents  of  bread.  If 
the  substance  of  bread  remains,  the 


natural  connection  between  accidents 
and  substance  remains  also :  and  to  say 
of  bread  "  This  is  Christ's  body  "  is  not 
less  absurd  than  it  would  be  to  say  of 
bread  in  which  a  gold  coin  was  concealed 
"  This  (pointing  to  the  bread)  is  gold." 
True,  we  may  point  to  a  cask  and  say 
"This  is  wine,"  because  everybody  knows 
that  the  ca>k  i-  ni.  ant  to  contain  liMiiid, 
and  by  a  p'  rini-^iMe  licence  of  -jici-h 
we  put  the  thin-  ^\  liicL  contain^  I'.jr  that 
which  is  contained  in  it.  But  the  acci- 
dents of  bread  are  not  intended,  on  the 
theory  of  consubstantiatiou,  either  by 
nature  or  use,  to  contain  the  body  of 
Christ ;  and  the  word  "  this  "  could  only 
sigiufy  the  substance  of  bread  visible  by 
its  accidents.' 

We  pass  to  patristic  testimonies,  and 
here  we  shall  have  an  opportunity  of 
adding  to  tlie  proofs  from  tradition 
already  given  for  the  real  presence  ;  and 
we  shall  also  be  able  to  set  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation  in  a  clearer  light, 
and  to  show  that,  although  the  term  is 
philosophical,  the  truth  which  it  implies 
is  very  simple.  The  Fathers,  then,  imply 
this  belief  in  transubstantiation  when 
they  say  that  the  bread  is  changed  into 
or  becomes  the  body  of  Christ :  because, 
on  any  theory  except  that  of  transub- 
stantiation, the  substance  of  bread  re- 
mains, and  is  not,  therefore,  changed 
into  another  substance.  The  following 
((notations  are  taken  from  Cardinal 
Franzi'lin's  treatise  on  the  Eucliarist. 
Tertullian,  "Adv.  Marc."  iv.  40.  says: 
"Takino  bread.  He  made  it  His  bodv." 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  "Cat."  iv.  1,  2  :  "Of 
old  He  changed  water  into  wine,  which 
is  akin  to  blood,  in  Cana  of  (jalilee ; 
shall  we  think  Him  unworthy  of  I'aith 
now  that  He  has  changed  wine  intu 
blood.''  "  The  change  of  water  iiit')  wine 
was,  of  course,  an  instance  of  transub- 
stantiation; so,  also,  according  to  Cyril, 
is  the  change  etl'ected  in  the  Eucharist. 
"Before  consecration,*' savs  St.  Ambrose, 
"  De  Clyster."  ix.  54,  "  it  is  called  some- 
thing else  :  after  consecration  it  is  named 
blood  ;  and  thou  sayest  '  Amen  ' — i.e.  it  is 
true."'  St.  James  of  Sarug  writes  : 
"  From  the  point  of  time  when  He  took 
bread  and  called  it  His  body,  it  was  not 
bread,  but  His  body."    Theodoret,  on 

'  The  arcruniPnt  fjiven  from  the  words  of 
consecration  is  aiiopted  by  most  theologians, 
and  seems  to  be  favoured  bv  the  laniruaire  of  the 
Council  of  Trniit,  xiii.  4  However,  Sci^tiis  and 
Durandus  denied  that  the  words  in  t/itiiiselves 
proved  transubstantiation. 


348  EUCHARIST 


EUCHARIST 


-Matthe-w  xxvi.  2G:  "It  [the  bread]  is 
changed  by  a  wonderful  operation,  though 
to  us  it  appears  bread  Bread,  in- 
deed, it  appears  to  us,  but  flesh  in  fact 
(ro)  ovTi)  it  is."  Against  such  testimonies 
(which  might  easilv  be  multiplied)  it  is 
useless  to  quote  passages  from  Scripture 
or  the  Fathers  in  which  the  appearances 
which  remain  after  consecraliou  are  called 
bread  and  wine.  They  are  naturally  called 
according  to  the  outward  appearance 
which  they  present ;  and  it  would  be  easy 
to  prove,  b}-  the  same  argumeut,  that 
Catholics  at  the  present  day  do  not  be- 
lieve in  tran^ulistantiation. 

(5)  '/■//(•  Made  of  Christ's  Presence. — 
The  Council  of  Trent  defines  that  Christ 
is  contained  whole  and  entire  under 
either  >]iecies — i.e.  that  His  body,  blood, 
soul,  and  ilivinity  are  given  both  under 
tbe  form  of  bread  and  under  that  of 
wine.  Where  Christ's  body  is,  there  His 
Godhead  must  be  also,  because  by  the 
hypostatic  union  the  Godhead  became 
indissolubly  united  to  human  nature. 
Moreover,  as  Christ,  having  died  once, 
lives  for  evermore,  it  follows  that  the 
human  >'>ul  niii>t  iieeiis  be  united  to  that 
risen  and  gloi-itied  body  which  we  receive 
in  communion.  Hence  Christ  spealis  of 
eating  His  flesh  as  equivalent  to  eating 
Him.'  Fui'tlier,  the  same  kind  of  reason- 
ing certifies  that  Christ  is  given  whole 
and  entire  under  either  kind.  True,  the 
force  of  the  words  of  consecration  puts 
the  body  under  the  appearance  of  bread, 
the  blood  under  the  apjiearance  of  wine  ; 
but  C'lu-iat  has  uo  body  except  that 
glorified  one  united  to  His  blood — no 
blood  except  such  as  is  united  to  His 
body.  Otherwise  Christ  would  be  slain 
over  again  every  time  Mass  is  said ;  for 
on  each  occasion  the  body  woidd  be 
separated  from  the  blood.  Again,  the 
constant  practice  of  the  Church  reheves 
us  from  any  fear  that  this  reasoning  may 
be  precarious.  Since  the  C(umcil  of 
Constance  it  has  been  the  general  law  in 
the  West  that  all  except  the  celebrant 
should  communicate  only  under  the 
species  of  bread.  And  the  Church,  though 
it  has  changed  its  discipline  in  this 
matter,  has  by  no  means  introduced  a 
new  principle.  Infants  among  the  early 
Christians  received  communion  tinder  the 
form  of  wine,  and  sick  persons,  solitaries, 
kc,  under  the  one  form  of  bread.  The 
principle  was  fixed — -viz.  that  Christ  was 
given  whole  and  entire   under  either 

1  John,  vi.  57,  .38,  ■'  He  that  eateth  me ; "  . . . 
"  He  that  eateth  tliis  bread."' 


species ;  it  was  merely  the  application  of 
this  principle  which  varied.    [See  Coji- 

The  Council  of  Trent  goes  on  to  say 
that  whole  Christ  is  present  under  every 
separate  part  of  each  species  {sub  sirtf/ulis 
(iijusque    speciei    jmrtihus,    sepai'at  ione 

facta).  What  has  been  said  in  defence 
of  Christ's  presence  under  either  species 
admits  ot'  obvious  application  here  ;  and 
we  will  only  add  tbat  Christ  said  of  the 

j  divided  host,  "  This  is  my  body." 

This  seems  the  fitting  place  to  explain 
•what  theologians  mean  by  the  sj)iritual 
presence  of  Christ's  body  in  the  Eucharist. 

'  It  is  not  meant  to  deny  that  Christ's  body 
in  tbe  Eucharist  is  a  real  one  (such  a 
denial  would  be  heresy),  but  just  as  all 
bodies  after  the  resurrection  become 
spiritual  without  cea-ing  to  be  bodies, 
because  they  have  certain  properties  of 
.spirit ;  so  it  is  with  Christ's  body  in  the 
Eucbari.st,  only  to  a  much  wider  extent 
and  in  a  more  wonderful  way.  At  one 
and  the  same  time  Christ's  body  is  in 
heaven  and  on  a  thousand  altars.  As 
the  spirit  is  present  entire  in  the  whole 
body  and  in  each  part  of  it,  so  the  body 
of  Christ,  with  all  its  substance  and 
qualities,  is  present  in  each  host  and  in 
each  part  of  the  host.  Consequently,  the 
Eucharistic  body  of  Christ  is  not  ex- 
tended in  S])ace — i.e.  one  part  of  Christ's 
body  does  not  correspond  to  one  ])articidar 
part  of  the  host.  All  tbis,  of  course, 
involves  a  series  of  stujjendous  miracles. 
It  does  not,  however,  imply  any  contra- 
diction ;  and  nothing,  we  know,  is  impos- 
sible to  God  Almighty. 

{f)  The  Ministration  of  the  Eucharist 
is  committed  to  priests.  They  alone  can 
consecrate  validly ;  for  it  was  His  Apostles, 
and  not  the  faithful  generally,  to  whom 
Christ  said,  "Do  tliis  for  a  commemora- 
tion of  me."  .liistin,  in  his  account  of 
the  luicharist  already  referred  to,  .speaks 
of  the  TT^xifdTios,  or  president,  as  the  cele- 
brant ;  and  TertuUian,  "  De  Coron.  Mil." 
3,  tells  us  that  the  Eucharist  "  was  taken 
from  the  hands  of  nobody  else  except 
those  of  the  presidents."  The  "presi- 
dent "  is  evidently  another  word  for  the 
bishop,  who,  in  early  times,  celebrated 
the  Eucharist  while  the  priests  around 
him  joined  in  the  sacred  acts  as  conmcri- 
Jicantes.  The  Fir^t  General  Council  takes 
for  granted  tliat  priests  alone  can  conse- 
crate. It  condemns  the  abuse  of  deacons 
administering  the  Eucharist  to  priests, 

I  becau.se  it  was  unseemly  that  those  who 

I  cannot  sacrifice  should  "give  the  body 


EUCHARIST 


ErCIlAEIST  349 


of  Christ to  those  who  could  offer  it 
(roif  t^ovcriav  fifj  «';^oiTar  Trpoa<f>fpeiv  rois 
7rpya(pepov(Ti  StSiii'ni  to  ao>fia  rov  \pi(Trov). 

Tlie  Eiieliarist  of  course  remains  the 
body  of  Christ  whoever  administers  it. 
But  priests  alone  do  so  lawfully  and  by 
■virtue  of  their  office.'  Deacons  may  ad- 
minister it  if  emjKnvered  to  do  so,  and  at 
one  time  they  did  commonly  give  the 
chalice  to  communicants  ^see  De.vcost], 

(0  The  Effects  of  thi Eucharist.— Ho 
communicate  with  profit  we  must  do  so 
■without  the  stain  of  mortal  sin  on  the 
soul.  This  appears  from  St.  Paul's 
■words,  1  Cor.  xi.  27,  "Let  a  man  prove 
himself,  and  so  let  him  eat  of  the  bread 
and  drink  of  the  chalice;"  from  the  con- 
stant practice  of  Christian  antiquity,  as 
testified  by  the  declaration  of  the  Fathers, 
the  exclusion  of  penitents  from  com- 
munion, the  words  "sancta  Sanctis"  in 
the  ancient  liturgies  ;  from  the  nature  of 
the  sacrament,  which  is  intended  as  the 
food  of  the  soul,  and  therefore  can  conler 
no  benefit  on  a  soul  dead  by  sin.-  In  a 
soul  duly  disposed  the  Eucharist  pro- 
duces ert'ects  similar  to  those  of  natural 
food  on  the  body.  It  unites  us  to  Christ, 
the  author  of  grace  and  virtue.  It 
sustains  and  increases  the  spiritual  life  ; 
it  repairs  the  injuries  done  to  the  soul  bv 
sin,  for  it  increases  the  love  of  God  and 
of  true  virtue,  and  tills  us  with  spiritual 
sweetness;  on  the  same  grounds  it  pre- 
serves the  Christian  I'rom  future  falls.  It 
is  also  both  to  soul  and  body  the  pledge  of 
future  glory,  since  Christ  is  bestowed  on 
us  for  this  special  end,  that  we  may  pre- 
serve and  obtain  that  happiness  which 
God  reserves  for  the  virtuous;  while  the 
body  has  a  new  title  to  a  glorious  resur- 
rection. It  is  fitting  that  Christ  should 
regard  the  flesli  of  the  worthy  communi- 
cant with  a  special  interest,  and  conform 
it  in  due  time  to  His  own  glorified  body. 

II.  The  Euchaviift  us  a  Sacri/ice. 

A  sacrifice  is  defined  as  "  the  oblation 
of  a  sensible  thing  made  to  God  through 
a  lawful  minister  by  a  real  change  in  the 
thing  offered,  to  testify  God's  absolute 
authority  over  us  and  our  entire  depen- 
dence on  Him."    This  is  not  the  place  to 

1  Concil.  Trid.  xiii.  8. 

-  One  exreption  must  be  here  made.  Many 
theolo^'ians  hold  that  a  person  wlio  without 
fault  of  his  own  aiiproai-hes  comn  union  in  a 
state  of  mortal  sin,  for  which  lie  lias  sup^r- 
nntural  sorrow,  but  not  that  sorrow  known  as 
perfect  contrition,  would  be  reconciled  to  God  in 
the  act  of  reception.  Such  a  case  niiclit  occur, 
e.g.,  if  a  person  erroneously  supposed  that  he 
had  been  absolved. 


discuss  the  historj'  and  meaning  of  the 
primitive  sacrifices.  Catholic  theologians 
have  generally  taught  that  in  sacrifice 
the  life  of  the  victim — or  the  existence  of 
the  thing,  if  the  oblation  be  of  a  thing 
without  life — is  substituted  for  the  life 
of  those  in  whose  name  it  is  oflered.  The 
thing  oriered  must  be  visible,  for  sacrifice 
pertains  to  external  worship,  and  it  is  only 
in  a  metaphorical  sense  that  the  prayer 
of  the  heart  and  the  like  are  called  sacri- 
fices. It  can  be  made  lawfully  to  God 
alone,  for  no  other  but  He  is  the  Lord  of 
life  and  death,  and  the  very  act  of  sacri- 
fice must  effect  a  cbuuge  which  destroys, 
or  tends  to  destroy,  that  which  is  offered, 
for  without  this  destruction  we  should 
fail  to  confess  by  an  external  act  God's 
supreme  doniiniou,  and  so  to  satisfy  the 
end  of  all  sacrifice.  Such  sacrifices  were 
offered  from  the  earliest  times  to  the 
true  God  by  the  patriarchs,  and  among 
heathen  nations  to  their  false  deities. 
God  accepted  and  approved  sacrificial 
worship  from  the  first ;  and  when  the  law 
was  given  to  the  people  of  Israel  sacrifice 
was  enjoined  and  its  mode  carefully  regu- 
lated on  divine  authority.  Christ  ofiered 
on  the  cross  a  sacrifice  for  our  redemp- 
tion, and  from  that  moment  the  Jewish 
sacrifices  ceased  tn  lune  any  efficacy. 
They  were  iustituti  d  to  typit'y  the  s<icri- 
fice  of  Christ,  and  now  that  the  reality 
had  come  the  types  were  no  longer  needed. 
The  worship  of  sacrifice,  however,  was 
not  to  cease  in  the  Church,  and  the 
Council  of  Trent  defines  that  in  the 
Eucharist  or  Mass  a  true  and  proper 
sacrifice  is  offered  to  God. 

The  Old  Te.-tament'  foretells  this 
sacrifice  of  the  Mass  just  as  clearly  as  it 
predicts  the  sacrifice  of  the  cross.  Xo 
prophet  seems  to  f])edk  more  lightly  of 
the  Jewish  ritual  than  Jeremias.  He 
looks  forward  to  a  time  when  the  ark  of 
the  co\'enant  will  not  be  remade  or  evcu 
missed.  '•  They  will  not  say  any  more 
'  The  ark  of  the  covenant  of  the  Lord,'  and 
it  will  not  be  thought  of:  they  will  not 
remember  it  or  miss  it,  and  it  will  not  be 
made  again ''  (iii.  16).  He  looks  forward 
j  instead  to  that  new  covenant  which  God 
will  write  on  the  heart.  But  is  there  to 
be  no  sacrifice  under  this  new  covenant  ? 
Let  the  following  jiassage  answer:  "In 
those  days  .ludah  will  be  saved,  and 
Jerusalem  w"dl  dwell  confidently,  and 
this  is  the  name  which  they  will  call  it 

*  The  pas,<ages  of  Scripture  here  and  else- 
where throufihout  this  article  are  translated 
for  obvious  reasons  from  the  original  texts. 


350 


EUCHARIST 


EUCHARIST 


[Jerusalem],  the  Lord  our  justice.  For 
thus  saith  the  Lord,  a  man  shall  not  be 
cut  off  to  David  sitting-  on  the  throne  of 
the  house  of  Israel :  and  to  the  priests, 
the  Levites,  a  mau  shall  not  be  cut  otl' 
from  before  my  face  presenting  the 
holocaust  and  Dtleriucr  the  meat  [.t  flour] 
offering  and  making  sacrifice  all  the  days. 
And  the  word  of  the  Lord  came  to 
Jeremias  saying:  Thus  saith  the  Lord, 
if  ye  will  break  my  covenant  [consisting 
in1  the  day  and  my  covenant  [consisting 
in]  the  night,  so  that  there  should  be  no 
more  daytime  and  night  in  their  season; 
then  also  shall  my  covenant  be  broken 
with  David  my  servant,  so  that  he  should 
not  have  a  son  reigning  on  his  throne, 
and  with  the  Levites,  the  priests  who 
minister  to  me.  As  the  host  of  the 
heavens  cannot  be  nuniliered,  and  the 
sand  of  the  sea  cannot  be  measured,  so  I 
will  multiply  the  seed  of  David  my 
servant,  and  the  Levites  who  minister  to 
me"  (xxxiii.  16  seq.).  Evidently  this  is 
a  Messianic  prophecy.  The  son  of  David 
is,  as  orthodox  Protestants  gladly  admit, 
no  other  than  Christ  the  son  of  David, 
and  the  Son  of  God.  Surely,  then,  there  is 
no  escape  from  the  conclusion  that  in  the 
Messianic  kingdom — i.e.  in  the  Cburch — 
sacrifice  will  continue  to  be  offered,  and 
will  last  while  sun  and  moon  endure,  or,  in 
other  words,  till  the  end  of  the  world  and 
of  the  Christian  dispensation.  A  recent 
Protestant  writer  who  belongs  to  the 
sceptical  school,  and  has  scant  sympathy 
with  Catholic  doctrine,  admits  that 
"  taken  literally,  the  eternity  of  Tjevitical 
sacrifices  as  t\\i>vessi'd  in  xx.viii.  18, 
seems  quite  incDiisistent  with  all  else  in 
Jeremiah's  prophecies,"  and.  "taken  typi- 
cally, only  tits  the  saerihcf  of  the  ^iass 
to  which  Roman  Catholic  expositors  refer 
it;  for  the  sacrilices  are  to  be  offered 
continually  in  all  time."' 

Malachias,  in  a  t'n miliar  passage,  ex- 
presses the  same  lilea  -till  more  strongly 
and  definitely.  lie  .-]ieaks  of  God  as 
rejecting  the  Jewish  sacrifices.  "I  have 
no  pleasure  in  yon,  saith  the  Lord  of 
hosts,  and  a  meat  [or  flour]  offering  I 

»  Robertson  Siiiitli,  T/ie  Ohl  Testament  in 
the  Jewish  Cliiii,  !,.  y.  40-2.  Tlic  pa-sMue  is  w;int- 
iDg  in  the  ehicf  .MSS.  of  tlie  I.W  J  li-  lAX 
version  of  .lernni:!-  omits  -nmr  'J..'in  \v(.rils 
found  in  our  Ilebn-w  text,  .■ind  ^l\  r~  mniiy  ..ttlie 
chapters  in  a  difTerent  order,  so  tlml  oiiiis- 
pion  need  not  surprise  us.  Hitzi.',  !<>c..  .and 
Kuenen.  Het  nnstuan  en  de  verzniiic/infj  nm  ile 
bnelten  de  ouden  verbnnds,  ii.  p.  -in.!,  t  rent  the 
pas.sage  as  an  interpolation.  Ewalil"s  opinion 
(^Propheten,  ii.  p.  2(>9)  is  diametrically  opposite. 


I  will  not  accept  from  your  hands."  But 
is  sacrifice  to  cease?    On  the  contrary, 

1  "  from  the  rising  of  the  sun  even  to  its 
going  down  great  is  my  name  among  the 
(lentiles,  and  in  every  place  incense  is 
offered  to  my  name,  and  a  pure  flour 
offering,  since  great  is  my  name  among 
the  Gentiles,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts" 

^  (Malach.  i.  10,  11).  The  sacrifices  of  the 
old  law  were  offered  only  in  Palestine ; 
the  new  sacrifice  of  Messianic  times  is  to 
be  offered  among  the  Gentiles.  Jewish 

,  sacrifices  could  be  offered  only  in  one 

I  place ;  the  new  sacrifice  is  to  be  offered 
all  over  the  world.  The  sacrifice  here 
predicted  cannot  be  that  of  the  cross, 
which  was  made  once  for  all  on  Calvary. 
The  rabbins  and  Protestant  scholars, 
whether  sceptical  or  orthodox,  have  been 
utterly  unable  to  explain  this  passtige 
even  plausibly.  To  say  with  Ebn  Ezra 
and  Kimchi '  that  the  prophet  means 
that  the  heathens  would,  if  God  com- 
manded them  to  do  so,  offer  acceptable 
sacrifice,  is  doing  violence  to  the  plain 
meaning  of  the  words.  Again,  the  whole 
context,  which  speaks  of  sacrifice  in  the 
literal  sense,  excludes  the  sup))osition 
that  the  offering  of  the  Gentiles  is  to  be 

i  a  mere  sacrifice  of  praise  and  prayer ;  nor 
would  a  prophet  of  the  Persian  period 
have  regarded  the  offering  of  such  a 
sacrifice  in  every  place  as  aiaytliino  ex- 
traordinary.- Still  more  des))irate  is 
Hitzig's  interi)retation,  which  attributes 

!  to  Malachias  the  modern  and  utterly  un- 
Hebrew  notion  that  "  Jahve,  Ormuzd, 
Zeus  (^!),  and  perhaps  others,  were  only 
different  names  of  the  one  Supreme  God." 
The  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  and  that  only, 
satisfies  the  requirements  of  a  scientific 
exegesis. 

[  Christ  at  the  last  supper  fulfilled  these 
J  prophecies  and  instituted  the  transfigured 
I  Passover  of  the  new  lav,-,  in  which  He 
Himself,  the  true  jjaschal  lamb,  was  to  be 
continually  sacrificed  and  eaten.  When 
He  blessed  the  bread  and  wine  His  eye 
;  was  fixed  on  the  morrow  when  He  was 

'  Quoted  bv  Steiner  ad  loc.  in  his  commen- 
tary published  in  18S1. 

'-'  This  interprerntion,  adopted  by  many  Pro- 
testants (e.jr,  bvKeil,  ad  /oc),  is  sjiven  in  tlie 
Tar-uiii.  Ill  tlie  (jli:ihice  the  verse  is  para- 
])lirased  thus  :  ••  Since  from  the  rising  of  the 
sun  and  to  its  si  tliiiu  ^reat  is  niy  name  anioni,' 
the  ]ieoples.  anil  in  every  time  wjien  vai  do  niy 
will,  I  will  receive  your  prayer  and  my  great 
name  will  be  .sanctified  by  means  of  you,  and 
your  prayer  shall  be  as  a  "pure  olilation  before 
me.  since  "great  is  my  name  among  the  peoples, 
saith  Jehovah  of  hosts." 


EUCHARIST 

to  suffei  and  die ;  but  His  priesthood, 
begun  when  He  assumed  our  human 
nature,  was  not  to  end  with  a  single  act 
of  sacrifice.  He  was  to  continue  it 
throughout  time  by  the  hamU  of  His 
earthly  representatives,  who  weir  to  offer 
Him  on  the  altars  of  the  Cliun  li  under 
the  forms  of  bread  and  wine.  He  speiiks 
of  Himself  under  the  forms  of  bread  and 
wine  as  already  in  the  state  of  a  victim 
oflt!red  as  sacrifice  for  men.  He  speaks 
of  His  body  in  the  Eucharist  as  "  given 
for  you"  (Luke  xxii.  19),  just  as  He  had 
said  a  year  before  of  "  the  bread  which  I 
will  give  is  my  tiesh,  which  I  will  give 
for  the  life  of  "the  world"  (John  vi.  'r2). 
He  says  of  the  chalice — i.e.  of  the  blood 
therein  contained — that  it  is  "shed  for 
you  "  (Luke  xxii.  20).  We  lay  no  stress  [ 
on  the  fact  that  it  is  the  present  and  not 
the  future  tense  wliich  Chrir-t  employs  ;  i 
to  do  so  would  show  great  ignorance  of 
Scriptural  usage.  But  the  fact  remains 
that  Christ  speaks  of  the  body  under  the 
form  of  bread,  of  the  blood  in  the  clialicv 
as  presented  in  a  sacrificial  state  for  tiie 
life  of  men.  The  perpetual  sacrifice  of 
the  altar  was  to  be  one  with  the  sacrifice 
of  the  cross.  The  one  ofi'ering  worthy  of  | 
God  was  to  replace  the  typical  sacrifices  ' 
prescribed  in  the  Pentateuch.  The  sacri-  [ 
fice  of  the  altar  was  to  represent  and 
commemorate  that  of  the  cross  and  also 
to  supply  all  that  was  wanting  in  the 
latter.  The  Jews  were  commanded  to 
eat  of  their  peace  oir>'riiiL;s  iiml  .^o  to  enter 
into  communion  wit  li  (iinl.  Noonecould 
eat  of  tlie  sacrifice  oliei  ed  on  Calvary,  but 
Christians  for  all  time  were  to  feed  on  the 
divine  victim  present  in  the  Eucharistic 
oblation.  The  sacrifice  of  the  cross  was 
offered  once ;  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  altar 
the  Christian  Church  was  provided  with 
the  noblest  form  of  worship,  to  be  offered 
day  by  day.  The  sacrifice  of  the  cross 
was  "  dishonoured,  without  public  testi- 
mony to  its  dignity  and  power."  The 
sacrifice  of  the  altar  was  to  be  the  centre 
of  the  Church's  worship  and  solemnities, 
the  object  of  her  unceasing  veneration. 
It  was  to  unite  the  faithful  to  God  and 
to  each  other ;  it  was  to  teach  them  how 
to  offer  themselves,  body  and  soul,  iu 
sacrifice  to  God  in  union  with  the  perfect 
sacrifice  of  Christ ;  it  was  to  separate 
them  wholly  and  utterly  from  parli(  i])a- 
tion  in  Jewish  and  heatlien  saciifice>. 
This  last  point  i.s  clearly  bi-ought  out  li\ 
St.  Paul  in  a  way  whieli  sliows  hevDnil 
possibility  of  mistake  hi;-  belief  in  the 
Eucharistic    sacrifice.     In   urging  the 


EUCHARIST 


Corinthians  not  to  partake  in  heathen 
sacrifices  he  reminds  them,  as  we  have 
.seen  above,  that  the  Euclmristic  liiv>ad 
imparts  the  body  of  Christ,  the  cliulii'e  of 
benediction  His  blood,  and  he  concludes, 
"  Ye  cannot  partake  in  the  table  of  the 
Lord  and  the  table  of  devils."  The  table 
of  devils  was  of  coui-se  the  heathen  altar, 
and  partaking  in  the  table  of  devils 
means  eating  of  the  sacrifices  olfered  to 
false  gods,  whom  St.  Paul  declares  to  l)e 
really  demons.  The  Apostle  therefore 
sets  altar  against  altar,  sacrifice  against 
sacrifice,  communion  against  communion 
This  belief  iu  the  sacrifice  of  the  alta: 
has  prevailed  at  all  times  and  all  places 
within  the  Church.  St.  Ignatius  '  tells  the 
Philadelphians  they  must  partake  of  one 
Eucharist,  since  there  is  one  flesh  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ;  one  chalice  which 
unites  us  to  His  blood ;  one  dwuiaTr^piov 
or  place  of  sacrifice.  "  The  chalice,"  says 
Irenoeus,'-  "which  comes  from  this -world 
of  ours,  He  [Christ]  confessed  to  be  His 
blood  and  tauglit  the  new  oblation  of  the 
New  Testament,  which  oblation  the 
Church,  receiving  it  from  the  Apostles, 
oH'ers  in  the  whole  world  to  God."  "The 
oblation  of  the  Church,"  he  continues, 
referring  to  the  prophecy  of  ^falacliy, 
"which  our  Lord  taught  to  be  offered  in 
the  whole  world,  is  counted  a  pure  sacri- 
fice before  God."  He  proves  that  Catho- 
lics alone  have  the  right  to  celebrate  this 
new  oblation,  heretics  being  excluded 
becau.'e  a  belief  in  the  real  presence  is 
inconsistent  with  their  other  theories ; 
Jews,  because  "  their  hands  are  full  of 
blood,  for  they  have  not  received  the 
word  which  is  offered  to  God."  '  This  is 
nothing  less  than  a  distinct  a.ssertion  of 
the  Catholic  truth  that  the  divine  victim 
who  shed  His  blood  for  us  on  the  cross 
applies  to  us  the  merits  of  His  Passion,  by 
offering  Himself  continually  on  the  altar. 
AVe  may  add  that  the  Fathers,  frPfm  very 
early  times,  explained  the  words  in  Psalm 
ex.,  "  Thou  art  a  priest  for  ever  after  the 
order  of  Melchisedec,"  as  referring  to  the 
Eucharistic  sacrifice.  They  knew  from 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  that  Melchi- 
sedec, "  the  king  of  justice  and  of  pe^ice," 
was  a  type  of  Christ.    They  remembered 

>  .Id  PhUad.  4. 

2  Iren.  iv.  17,  5  ;  18.  1. 

^  Iren.  iv.  18.  1.   "Vrrl)Uiii  quod  eflTertiir :  ' 
is  tlie   ro:i(liii  ;    of  til.'   throi'   hrst    M  SS. 
ir'aroni.,  V.'t.  .T  VM^,.  l.  ,.xr.-.|,l    lh;lt  tb.-  tu-.. 
l.rt.T  omit  the  iinnie  or!  uit  ■•  \\^.,r  The 

roa.lin-  a.l  iuimI  l,v  llarvev  and  Nemder 
( Kin  hi'iKii  si  lii.  hte.  i.  p.  424)  rests  on  very 
inlorier  autlmritv. 


352  ErCHARIST 


EUCHARIST 


the  words  in  Genesis  xiv.  18,  "  Melchise- 
(lec,  king  of  Salem,  brought  forth  hread 
and  wine,  and  he  was  the  priest  of  God 
most  liiirh,"  and  the  prophecy  in  Psalm  ex., 
"  Thou  art  a  priest  for  ever  accoi-ding  to 
the  order  or  manner  of  Melchisedec,"  and 
accordingly  they  fonnd  the  reality  typified 
bv  Melchisedec  in  the  Eucharist  when 
Chvi.-t  Mtl'tTs  Ilimse'f  throMgh  llis  priests 
unHcr  the  ;i[ipe;ii-ances  of  bread  and  wine. 

T\'h.>,"  ask>  Cypiian,  "  is  more  truly  a 
priest  of  God  most  high  than  our  Lord 
Jesns  Clirist,  who  offered  a  sacrifice  to 
God  the  Father  and  off'ered  the  same 
sacrifice  which  Melchisedec  offered  (that 
is  bread  and  wine) — namely,  His  own 
body  and  blood?"'  "His  body,"  says 
St.  Augustine,  "  is  offered  up  instead  of 
all  those  sacrifices  and  oblations,  and  it  is 
given  to  the  communicants.''  Ambrose, 
Chrysostom,  and  a  multitude  of  other 
Fathers  hold  similar  language.  The 
ancient  liturgies,  written  in  many  lan- 
guages and  used  in  many  different  parts 
of  the  Church,  testify  likewise  to  the 
universality  of  this  belief.  They  speak  of 
tlie  "  tremendous,  divine,  unbloody,  tlie 
perpetual,  the  living  sacrifice "  of  the 
Lamb  "  who,  being  sacrificed,  never  dies ; " 
they  declare  that  "  our  sacrifice  is  the 
body  and  blood  of  the  priest  Himself, 
Christ  our  Lord.'"' 

Having  established  the  truth  of  the 
Church's  doctrine  on  the  sacrifice  of  the 
Mass,  it  onh'  remains  to  state  and  explain 
that  doctrine  more  fully,  avoiding,  how- 
ever, as  far  as  possible,  merely  scholastic 
([uestions.  All  that  is  included  in  the 
idea  of  .sacrifice  is  found  in  the  Eucharist. 
There  is  the  oblation  of  a  sensible  thing — 
viz.  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  under 
the  apjii'arances  of  bread  and  wine.  The 
oblation  is  made  by  a  lawful  minister — 
viz.  by  Christ  Himself  acting  through 
eartldy  priests,  who  are  His  representa- 
tives. There  is  a  mystical  destruction  of 
the  victim,  for  Christ  presents  Himself  on 
the  altar  "  as  in  a  state  of  death,  because 
He  is  deprived  of  those  functions  of  natural 
life  which  He  exercised  on  earth,  and  be- 
cause He  is  there  witli  the  ^ii;iis  of  death 
througli  the  mystical  sc,.ar.ttion  between 
body  and  blood  "  •''  made  by  the  words  of 
'  "  Suuni  scilicet  corpus  et  sanguiuem  ;  " 
Cyprian,  Ep.  63.  See  also  Clem.  AI.  i^trnm. 
iv.  '2!}. 

-  Sep  the  quotations  in  Franzelin,  De  Euch. 
p.  3UI  s,  q. 

3  L"  Brim,  Explication  de  la  Mcssc,  i.  22. 
The  words  of  consecration  would  of  tlK-mselves 
pu',  tlic  b'.ily  only  under  the  form  of  biea  l,  the 
blood  only  under'  that  of  wine,  were  it  not  for 


consecration.  There  is  the  protestation 
of  God's  supreme  dominion,  for  the  Mas» 
is  and  can  be  offered  to  God  alone.  More- 
over, it  fulfils  the  form  and  ends  of  sacri- 
fice. Like  the  holocausts,  it  oflTers  homage 
to  God;  like  the  sin-offerings,  it  propi- 
tiates Him  by  the  very  fact  that  it  is  an 
oblation  of  Cln  ist,  the  victim  for  our  sins. 
Like  the  peace-oll'erings,  it  pleads  for 
grace,  for  we  oiler  here  tire  victim  of  our 
peace.  In  tiiis  sacrifice  of  tlianksgiving 
we  offer  God  the  m  ist  excellent  gift  He 
has  bestowed  on  us — namely,  the  Sou  in 
whom  He  is  well  pleased.  Lastly,  the 
sacrifice  of  the  altar  is  one  with  that  of 
tlie  cross.  True,  no  blood  is  shed  on  the 
altar,  nor  does  Christ  die  any  more,  so 
that  it  is  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  cross,  not 
of  the  Mass,  that  we  were  redeemed  from 
sin  and  its  penalties.  But  on  the  cross 
and  altar  we  have  the  same  victim  and 
the  same  priest,  and  therefore,  in  the 
words  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  Mass,  though  a  commemora- 
tion, is  "  not  a  mere  commemoration  of 
the  sacrifice  on  the  cross."  It  is  truly 
"  propitiatory  "  '  and  may  be  offered  for 
the  living  and  dead,  for  sins  and  penalties, 
fur  satisfaction  and  other  needs,  spiritual 
and  temporal.  "  Moved,"  says  the  same 
council,  "by  the  oblation  of  this  sacrifice, 
the  Lord,  granting  grace  and  the  gilt  of 
rt'pentance,  forgives  crimes  and  sins,  even 
if  they  be  great ;  and  in  another  place, 
that  it  is  the  most  efficacious  means  of 
helping  the  souls  in  Purgatory.^  The 
Mass  is  off'ered  for  the  salvation  of  all  the 
living  and  of  all  the  dead  who  still  sulfer 
in  the  state  of  purgation;  but  it  may  also 
be  applied  specially  for  the  needs  of  indi- 
viduals. It  is  necessary  that  the  priest 
should  communicate  in  every  Mass  which 
he  celebrates,  for  consumption  of  the 
species  forms  an  integral  part  of  the 
sacrifice,  but  it  is  not  necessary  that 
anyone  else  should  do  so.  The  Council 
of  Trent  does,  indeed,  express  a  desire  that 
in  each  Mass  the  faithful  who  assist,  aa 
well  as  the  priest,  should  communicate; 
but  it  "does  not  cmulemn,  as  private  and 
unlawful,  those  Classes  in  which  the  piiest 
alone  communicates  sacramentally,  but 
approves  and  even  commends  them,  since 
such  Masses  should  be  considered  public 
(communes),  partly  because  the  people 

I  lie  fact  of  concomitance  explained  above.  But 
the  il'i'^irins  hold  difTerent  theories  as  to  what 
consritiiles  the  essence  of  the  sacrifice. 

1  Sc>s.  xxii.  can.  3. 

-  .Sess.  xxii.  cap.  2. 

5  Scss  xxv.  De  Purgat 


EUCHARIST 


EUDISTS 


353 


in  them  communicate  spiritnallv,  partlv 
hecause  they  are  celebrated  by  a  public 
minister  of  the  Church,  not  for  himself 
only,  but  for  all  the  faithful  who  belong 
to  the  body  of  Christ."  ' 

ni.  Adorntion,  Reservation,  ^-c,  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament. 

Several  other  subjects  counect"d  with 
the  Eucharist  are  treated  of  under  sepa- 
rate articles~f>  v-  REXEi'tcTiox,  Com- 
.MFXION,  CoRrrs'  Christi,  Expositiox, 

PBOCESSIfiXS.      ResERVATIOX      or  THE 

Blessed  Sacramext.  But  it  wlU  be 
well  to  state  here  one  or  two  docrmatic 
principles  relating  to  these  matters. 
Christ  gives  Himself  in  this  sacrament 
to  be  the  food  of  the  soul :  and  every 
host  is  consecrated  in  order  that  ulti- 
mately it  may  be  received  by  the  com- 
mimicant.  Thus  the  host  which  is  used 
for  Benediction  is,  after  a  few  days,  re- 
ceived by  the  priest  at  Mass,  and  the 
particles  reserved  in  the  tabernacle  are 
all  given  to  communicants  and  replaced 
by  other  particles.  IIo\^ver,  as  food  has 
the  qualities  which  noWish  before  it  is 
eaten,  the  actual  reception  being  only 
the  condition  without  which  it  wiU  not 
actually  nourish,  so  the  I^ucharist,  so  | 
long  as  the  appeai-ances  of  bread  and 
wine  remain,  is  always  the  true  body 
and  blood  of  Christ.  Tliis  truth  appears 
from  the  words  of  institution.  Our  Lord 
<aid  of  the  bread,  •'  This  is  my  body : 
not  "  This  will  be  my  body  the  moment  j 
you  receive  it ; "'  and  it  is  defined  by  the 
Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  xiii.  can.  4.  In 
consequence  of  this  belief,  the  Church 
has  from  the  earliest  times  treated  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  with  the  most  anxious 
reverence.  "  We  are  full  of  anxiety," 
says  Tertullian,"  "lest  anything  of  our 
chalice  and  bread  should  fall  to  the 
ground."  Severe  ji^nalties  were  imposed, 
both  in  East  and  West,  upon  the  minis- 
ters of  the  altar,  if  through  their  negli- 
gence any  accident  liaiipene<l  to  the 
Blessed  Saci-ament.  Again,  the  Church 
commands,  and  at  the  same  time  regu- 
lates by  stringent  laws,  the  reservation 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  for  the  sick. 
Lastly,  Catholics  pay  to  the  Eucharist, 
present  on  the  altar,  reserved  in  the 
tabernacle,  or  carried  in  ])roeession — to 
the  Eucharist,  in  short,  wherever  it  may 
be  present — that  sujireme  worship  which 
is  due  to  God  alone.  "The  Eucharist," 
says  the  Council  of  Trent,*  "  is  not  the 
less  to  be  adored  because  Christ  instituted  t 
>  Ses^=.  x.\ii.  cip.  tt.  •  De  Coron.  Mii.  3. 
5  Se-'s.  xiii.  cap.  5. 


it  in  order  that  it  might  be  received  ;  for 
we  believe  that  that  same  God  is  present 
in  it  of  whom  the  eternal  Father,  bring- 
ing Him  into  the  world,  said,  'Let  all 
the  angels  of  God  adore  Him ; '  that  God 
whom  the  Magi  adored  falling  down 
before  Him;  who,  finally,  was  adored  by 
the  .\postles  in  Galilee,  as  the  Scripture 
bears  witness."  (A  masterly  summary  of 
the  New  Testament  doctrine  on  the 
Eucharist  will  be  fomul  in  Bollinger's 
"  First  Age  of  the  Church."  Chardon, 
torn,  ii.,  is  the  best  authority  on  the 
history  of  the  rites.  The  great  work 
"  Per]ii?tuite  de  la  Foi"  is  a  storehouse 
of  materials  for  the  defence  of  the  Catholic 
doctrine.) 

EXTCBOX.OC-S-  (EirxoXoytov).  The 
book  which  contains  the  ritual  of  the 
Greek  church,  for  the  celebration  of  the 
Eucliarist  and  other  sacraments,  and  all 
ecclesiastical  ceremonies.  It  corresponds 
to  the  Missal,  Pontitical,  and  Kitual  of 
the  Latin  Church.  It  was  published  by 
Goar,  at  Paris,  in  1647.  under  the  title 
"  Euchologion,  sive  Rituale  Grsecorum, 
compleetens  ritus  et  ordines  divinje  litur- 
giye,  otKciorura,  sacramentorum,&c.,juxta 
usum  Orientalis  Ecclesiae." 

EirS  ZSTS.  A  congregation  of  secu- 
lar priests  established  under  the  names  of 
Jesus  and  ^lary  for  the  purpose  of  train- 
ing clergy"  and  giving  missions,  and 
named  after  their  founder,  the  Pere 
Eudes.  M.  Eudes  (a  native  of  the  diocese 
of  S^ez,  in  Normandy")  was  bom  in  1601. 
At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  made  a  vow  ol 
chastity,  and,  having  a  strong  predilec- 
tion for  the  ecclesiastical  state,  was  re 
ceived  into  the  French  Oratory,  lately 
founded  at  Paris  by  the  celebrated  Abb^, 
afterwards  Cardinal,  de  BeruUe.  After 
being  ordained  priest,  he  laboured  for 
sevei-al  years  as  an  Oratorian,  chiefly  in 
Normandy,  preaching  with  gi-eat  power 
and  abundant  fruit.  Desiring  to  found  a 
special  congi-egation  for  the  ends  specified 
above,  he  left  the  Oratory,  and,  being 
joined  by  eight  zealous  priests,  established 
the  first  house  of  his  community  at  Caen 
in  164^^'.  In  the  course  of  his  long  life 
he  conducted  no  less  than  a  hundred  and 
ten  missions  in  all  the  jjrincipal  towns  of 
France.  He  wrote  several  works,  among 
which  "  Le  Bon  Confesseur  "  and  "  Le 
Predicateur  Apostolique  "  are  distin- 
guished. He  died  at  Caen  in  16K), 
leaving  his  community  in  a  flourishing 
condition.  The  Eudists  make  no  vows; 
yet  very  few,  after  being  once  incoi*])orated 
in  the  congregation,  have  been  known  to 


EUDISTS 


EUXOMIANS 


leave  it.  They  wear  the  ordinary  dress 
of  secular  priests.  It  is  tlieir  principle, 
while  residinjr  iii  any  house  of  the  order, 
scrupulously  to  obey  the  superior,  al- 
though they  are  not  bound  by  vow  to  do 
so.  Frt'ijuent  change  of  the  superiors  of 
the  ditlert'iit  houses,  with  the  approval 
of  the  l)i>hop,  is  a  fundamental  rule  of 
their  institute.  They  are  said  never  to 
have  been  inl'ei'ttMl  l)y  .lansenism.  At  the 
devolution  the  grncral  of  the  order  was 
M.  Pierre  Dumont,  superior  of  the  house 
at  C'outances.  Ilis  coadjutor,  M.  Hubert, 
was  ch< 
replace 
taken  tl 
of  tlieC 
and  loa 
|)riests  at 


by  Louis  \'VI.,  in  1791,  to 
is  former  confessor,  who  had 
oatli  to  the  Civil  Constitution 
■  jy .  Soon  after,  he  was  arrested, 
Ilis  life  in  the  butchery  of  the 
the  ( 'armelite  convent  ordered 
the  Paris  Commune  in  Septenibrr 
17i):*.  There  was  a  cliapel  in  the  convent 
garden  :  on  the  steps  of  the  altar,  before 
a  statue  of  the  Plessed  Virgin,  M.  Hdbert 
toolc  refuge.  The  ;!Psassins  lirokc  in  ;  one 
of  them  saw  him,  and,  brandishing  his 
sword  over  him,  said,  "  Take  the  oath." 
"Xo,"  he  replied:  "1  will  not  deny  the 
laith."  The  murderer  then  attacked  him, 
and  despatched  liim  with  repeated  blows 
of  his  sword.  Eight  or  nine  other  Eudists 
Avere  butchered  in  the  same  massacre. 
jMany  found  refuge  in  England.  In 
tlie  order  was  revived,  with  F.  Blnnchard 
for  superior;  thirty  years  afterwards  they 
were  more  than  eighty  in  number,  with 
four  flourishing  colleges,  the  chief  house 
being  at  Rennes,  in  Prittauy.  Mgr. 
Poirier,  the  late  Archbishop  nl  Trinidad, 
who  had  himself  been  a  Eudist,  suc- 
ceeded in  procuring  for  them  the  formal 
approbation  of  the  Holy  See;  before  the 
Itcvolution,  owing  to  the  opposition  of 
the  Oratorians  and  other  causes,  they 
had  onlv  obtained  partial  approbation. 
(Ilelvot.) 

ETTIOGIJE  (from  evXoyeiv,  to  bless, 
Matt.  \xvi.  26).  The  Blessed  Sacrament 
is  the  great  bond  of  union  among  the 
faithful.  "  We  being  many,"  says  the 
A])ostle,  "are  one  bread"  (I  Cor.  x.  17). 
However,  wlien  many  of  the  faithful 
no  lunger  communicated  as  a  matter  of 
cours"  at  every  .Mass,'  tjie  need  was  felt 
of  sliowing  by  some  outward  sign  that 
they  «ere  in  full  communion  -with  the 
<  'hurch.  Accordingly  the  celeljrant  con- 
s.'cnited  so  much  only  of  tlie  bread 
placed  nn  the  altar  as  was  nerdcd  lor  the 
conimuiiicauts  :  the  rest  ol'tln-  bread  was 
merely  bles.sed  and  distrihuted  to  those 
I  See  Cyprian,  7Je  Orat.  J)om.  c.  18. 


who  did  not  actually  communicate,  though 
they  had  the  right  to  do  so.  The  Eulogia, 
then,  was  a  substitute — though  of  course 
a  most  imperfect  one — for  Holy  Commu- 
nion, whence  the  Greek  name,  diTiSajpor/, 
"that  which  is  given  instead." 

The  custom  can  scarcely  have  arisen 
before  the  third  century.  In  the  fourth 
it  was  well  known  throughout  the  East.' 
In  the  West  we  tind  it  mentioned  by 
Gregory  of  Tours  in  the  sixth  century, 
and  by  the  Council  of  Nantes  in  6-3-'. 
The  bread  used  was  sometimes  the  same 
as  that  which  was  set  aside  for  conse- 
cration ;  sometimes  ordinary  bread  was 
placed  on  the  altar  and  used  for  the 
Eulogife.  Usually  the  latter  bread  was 
bless(>d  after  the  offertory;  but  sometimes, 
as  Ilonorius  of  Autun  tells  us,  at  the  end 
of  Mass.  The  Council  of  Nantes  gives  a 
form  of  benediction  which  the  Church 
still  employs  in  the  blessing  of  bread  at 
Easter.  The  Eulogiaj  were  not  given  to 
the  catechumens,  to  the  excommunicated, 
or  to  the  possej^ed.  Eulogi;ie  were  also 
sent  by  one  bisuop  to  another  in  sign 
of  intercommunion  and  as  a  mark  of 
peace  and  good  will.  Here  too  the  Eu- 
logia was  a  substitute  for  the  Eucha- 
rist, since  in  the  earliest  times  tlie 
Blessed  Sacrament  itself  was  sent  from 
Church  to  (,'hurch.* 

Various  traces  of  the  Eulogise  may 
still  be  discovered  in  the  present  usages 
of  the  Church.  The  avri^wpov  or  Eulogia 
is  still  distributed  among  the  Greeks, 
and  the  "  Pain  B^nit  "  is  given  in  some 
French  churches  at  Mass.^  Moreover, 
words  which  occur  in  the  canon  of  the 
Roman  Mass  after  the  consecration,  "  by 
whom,  0  Lord,  thou  dost  ever  create  all 
these  good  things,  dost  sancti  +  fy  tliein, 
quick  +  en  them,  ble  +  ss  them,  and  bestow 
them  on  us,"  in  all  likelihood  were  used 
at  first  over  the  Eulogia,  not  over  the 
Blessed  Sacrament.*  (Chardon ;  Hefele ; 
Kraus,  "  Real-Encycl.") 

EVN-OMXAifS.  The  followers  of 
Eunomius,  a  disciple  of  Aetius  [see 
Aetians^.  Etmomius,  born  of  poor 
parents  in  Cappadocia,  probably  about 
320,  not  feeling  disposed  to  hold  the 
plough,  trusted  to  his  wits  for  a  living. 
After  various  adventures,  he  heard  that 
there  was  a  great  teacher  (Aetius)  re- 
siding at  Antioch.  He  went  there,  and, 
finding  that  Aetius  had  departed,  followed 

*  Concil.  Laod.  can.  14. 

2  Ircn.  ,a|Hi.l  Eiistl,.  //.  E.  v.  24. 

»  Th.-ii-dcii.  Snvmn.  ium.  iii.  p.  534  seq. 

1  TI>'l,'l.'.  HvilnhK.  ii  i>.  288. 


EUSEniAXS 


EUSTATHIAN? 


865 


him  to  Alexandria,  where  George,  his 
countryman  (a  violent  Arian),  had  at 
that  time  (3ij(i)  intruded  himself  into  the 
see  of  St.  Athanasius.  Eiinomius  at- 
tached himself  to  Aetius,  and  learned 
from  him  theology — i.e.  Ariaiusm.  In 
358,  Eudoxus,  an  Arian,  lia\  iiii:  esta- 
blished himself  in  the  see  of  Autioch,  sent 
for  Aetius ;  he  -went  there,  accompanied 
by  Eunomius.  But  a  semi- Arian  council 
held  the  same  year  deposed  Eudoxus,  and 
banished  him  and  his  friends  from  An- 
tioch.  Eunomius  was  sent  to  Midfea  in 
Phrjfria.  Two  years  afterwards  there 
occurred  an  extraordinar^•  revolution  ;  a 
council  held  at  Constantinople  raised 
Eudoxus  to  the  patriarchal  tlu-oue  there, 
and  made  Eunomius  bishop  of  Cyzicus. 
Here  he  soon  began,  in  suite  of  the  warn- 
ings of  his  friend  Eudoxus,  to  broach 
his  heretical  opinions.  Complaints  were 
carried  to  the  emperor  (Constantius) ; 
and  Eudoxus,  being  pressed  on  all  sides, 
was  obliged  to  depose  him.  This  was  in 
o61  or  362.  Eunomius,  retiring  to  his 
native  country,  lived  there  for  many 
years,  frequently  ordaining  bishnjis  and 
priests,  though  he  had  been  dipo>.  (l.  lie 
made  known  his  opinions  IVeely  ;  and  his 
numerous  admirers,  considering  that  he 
had  been  ill-u«ed  by  Eudoxus,  attached 
themselves  ardently  to  hiiu  in  his  mis- 
f'lrtiDics  and  took  liis  name.  St.  (iregory 
of  Xn/.ian/.imi,  writiiiL:-  to  \eci;irins,  who 
had  succeeded  hini  as  ratriaieh  of  Con- 
stantinople in  .'J81 ,  calls  Eunomius  "our 
bo.som  mischief,"  to  iyKo^TTLOv  fjfxcoi' 
KOKov.  Gregory,  it  will  be  remembered, 
was  himself  a  Ca]i]>adocian.'  The  five 
f>rations  of  this  autlur  "  I)e  Theologia  " 
are  mostly  directed  against  the  Euno- 
mians,  who,  he  savs,  "  confessed,  when 
pre-sed  in  argument,  that  the  Son  was 
God,  but  said  that  it  was  only  a  partici- 
pation of  name  and  designation"- — i.e. 
not  one  of  nature.  St.  Basil,  another 
great  Ca])])adocian  (t379),  also  wrote 
a  treatise  against  Eunomius.  (Fleury, 
Hist.  Eccl."  xii.-xiv.) 
EVSESXAJTS.  [See  Akitjs  axd 
Aria>'is.m. 

EVStAtkia.N'S.  I.  A  congrega- 
tion of  fanatical  monks,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  versatile  Eustathius, 
Bishop  of  Sebaste,  about  ."lOO,  in  Armenia. 
These  monks,  like  the  Cathari  of  later 
times.  Condemned  maiTiage  as  iiiipnie, 
rejected  the  religious  services  of  priests 
who  had  lieen  married,  and,  while  the\ 
di>regarded  the  Church  fasts.  fa«t<d  (ui 
'  Or.  xlvi.  2  O/-.  xxxv. 


Sundays  and  feast  days,  like  those  sati- 
rised in  "Hudibras" — 

"  That  with  more  care  keep  holid.iy 
The  wrong,  than  others  the  ri.i;ht  way." 

The  council  of  Gangra,  the  date  of  which 
is  uncertain,  condemned  and  suppressed 
these  monks. 

II.  The  party  among  the  Christians  of 
Antioch  w  ho.  after  the  unjust  deposition 
of  their  bishop  (St.  Eustathius)  by  the 
machinations  of  the  Eiisebians  (3.jO  or 
•t-'j1  ),  retused  to  recntiiiise  any  of  the 
Arianisiiig  successors  w  hcmi  that  faction 
thrust  into  the  see.  ami  wiuild  not  liold 
communion  with  those  who  did  so. 
AVhen  Meletius  was  apjieinted  in  '■'>(')() 
there  was  a  prospect  of  peace  :  hut  al- 
though -Meletius  was  personally  orthodox, 
tlie  Eustatliian  jiarty  would  not  accept 
him,  becau^e  he  had  communicated  with 
Arians.  In  a  short  time  the  Arian 
party,  distrusted  with  Meletius  for  the 
open  ]>rolessions  which  he  had  made  of 
agreement  with  the  faith  of  Niea/a,  ob- 
tained his  deposition  and  the  aiipoiiUiiie  iit 
ot  luizoius  in  his  ]ilace.  There  were  now 
three  bodies  of  (Christians  at  Antiocli  : 
two  orthodox- — the  Eustathians  and  the 
Aleletians  (i.e.  those  who  held  that  the 
removal  of  Meletius  was  unjust,  and 
regarded  him  as  still  bishop),  and  one 
heretical — nanielv,  those  in  coniiuiinion 
with  Kii/oius.  -Many  holy  iiisln.i.s  .lesired 
the  termination  ol  the  srlusin  between 
the  orthodox  parties:  ami  (since  Eusta- 
thius had  died  in  exile)  this  result  would 
soon  have  been  brought  about  by  the 
general  reception  of  Meletius  but  tor  the 
officious  zeal  of  Lucifer  of  C'agliari,  who, 
going  to  Antioch  in  :',G-2,  consecrated 
I'aulinus  bisho]).  The  Eustathian  ]iarty 
nt  once  recognised  him  :  and  through  the 
influence,  in  a  great  measure,  of  Lucifer, 
he  was  recognised  at  Rome  and  in  other 
pHrts  of  the  ^\'est.  Nevertlieless,  as 
Ballerini  shows,' the  mediate  communion 
of  St.  Meletius  with  the  see  of  St.  IVter 
was  not  broken,  for  he  was  in  full  com- 
munion with  St.  Basil  and  others,  who 
were  in  communion  with  Rome.  This 
state  of  things  Ir.sfed  many  years.  Sr. 
Meletius,  who  luid  been  allowed  to  return 
to  Antioch,  died  in  Sx\.  His  f.llow.'rs 
elected  Flavian  to  sucreed  him  :  but  the 
lloinan  see  still  recognisi'd  I'auliuns  as 
true  liishop  of  Antiorli.  ranliuus  dying 
in  :'t^8,  Evagrius  was  chosen  in  his  ])iace; 
but  the  E.ustathian  jiartx  had  by  this 
timedwindled  to  insigniticant  jn'oportions, 

«  Ut:  Viet  liutUme  I'nmu  „s,  u.  .I'll. 


356  EUTYCIIIAXS 


EVANGELTCAL  COrXSELS 


and  Evagrius  obtained  little  recognition 
either  in  East  or  "West.  At  the  death  of 
Evagrius,  Flavian  succeeded  in  prevent- 
ing the  election  of  a  successor,  and  -vvas 
himself  admitted  to  communion  as  Bishop 
of  Aiitioch  by  Pune  Siricius  in  ■'>'.)8.  But 
a  small  Eustathian  party  lingered  on 
for  some  years,  until  the  vigorous  action 
of  Alexander,  the  second  successor  of 
Flavian,  about  414,  finally  extinguished 
them . 

EXTTYCHXANS.     [See  MOXOPHYS- 

EVATTGESilARITTlVT  Or  JIVANOE- 
IilSTASllinvi.  A  hiHik  containin^r  the 
>ecti(iii.~  of  the  (^M-prl  tn  be  read  at  Mass. 
Suc-h  a  book  is  calli/d  by  the  Greeks  evay- 
y(\i<iv  ;  tbev  g  i  vi'  the  name  f  uayytXioTa/jior 
111  a  book  which  merely  marks  ihe  bpgiii- 
iiing  and  t-iid  of  each  Gospel,  but  -u-liicli 
givr>.  b>  >i(les,  rules  for  findiiit;  llu'  Go-jiel 
on  null  Sunday,  a  calriidar  with  canmis 
for  tixiiig  the  date  of  Easter  Sumlay 
(Trao-p^aXtof  BirjvfKes),  the  tones  of  the 
chant,  and  the  matins  for  the  different 
Sundays. 

EVANCEX.iCAZ.  cou»r5z:x.s. 

St.  Thomas  thus  explaii  >  the  diiferenoe 
between  commandmi'iit.-  and  counsels. 
Eternal  happiness  is  the  end  at  which 
every  man  is  bound  to  aim,  and  this  end 
he  cannot  possibly  reach  exce])t  Ijy  the 
kee]iing  of  the  commaDilmenls.  The 
observance  of  the  commandments,  then, 
is  a  matter  of  absolute  neces>ity  for  all 
wlio  wish  to  be  >aved.  He  who  make., 
the  tilings  of  tlii>  world  his  end,  and 
worldly  prudeiue  In^  ultimate  rule  of 
action,  luu-t  need-  )nr!'it  eternal  life 
and  is  laying  u\)  lor  ]iim>eli'  everlasting 
misery  in  the  w  oiM  to  come.  However, 
a  mail  inav  \vi>h  to  do  more  tli.aii  what 
is  ab>olutelv  iieee-xirv  to  MM-ure  heaven. 
Instead  of  a^kiii-  >iniply,  "  What  iiui.it  I 
do  to  be  saved:-"  he  niny  iii'|nire  what 
are  the  readie-t  and  surest  niean>  of 
securing  lii>  .--ahation.  lie  knows  that 
if  he  makes  the  good  things  of  this  lite 
his  end,  he  has  no  hope  of  life  in  lln' 
world  to  come,  and,  recognisine  tin.' 
danger  there  is  in  earthly  pleasures,  he 
trie>  t.i  -ee  leiw  far  he  can  kee])  i'rom 
them,  lie  learned  from  tin'  command- 
ments how  to  avoid  heinu  blinded  by  the 
god  of  this  world,  and  to  t  ike  the  indis- 
pensable means  of  .^er  nrin^  hi-  -alv.itiou. 
Now  the  counsels  come  to  his  lielji.  'I'hey 
teacli  him  the  shortest  way  to  heaxcn, 
the  most  ]ierfect  maimer  of  >er\ inu  (  nid. 
The  great  objects  which  men  |iur.-iu'  are 
riches,  pleasure  and  honour,  the  de.-ire  of  ' 


tlie  eyes,  the  desire  of  the  flesh,  the  pride 
of  life,  spoken  of  by  St.  John.  The  three 
evangelical  counsels  encourage  ns,  .so  far 
as  we  can,  to  renounce  all  these  desires — 
to  renounce  riches  for  voluntary  poverty, 
pleasure  for  perfect  chastity,  our  own.oelf- 
will  and  love  of  power  for  obedience  to  a 
religious  superior. 

The  distinction  between  precept  and 
counsel,  altliough  denied  by  the  Protes- 
tant Reformers,  is  recommended  by  the 
common  sense  of  mankind.  We  all  feel 
and  recognise  in  our  ordinary  language 
the  difference  between  a  man  who  simply 
does  his  duty  and  another  who  does  acts 
of  singular  generosity.  Moreover,  this 
distinction  IS  clearly  marked  by  Christ. 
Ill' told  the  yonno  man  that  "if  he  would 
enter  into  life  "  lie  must  keep  the  com- 
iii.Hiilments,  hut  that  if  he  wished  to  be 
perfect  he  was  to  sell  all  he  had  and  give 
it  to  the  poor.  St.  Paul  imjioses  strict 
prece])ts  on  the  Corinthians  (1  Cor.  vii.) 
of  abstaining  from  iinmoi'ality,  remaining 
in  the  married  state  if  they  had  already 
entered  it,  &c.  But  he  e-iv,.s  his  "  coun- 
std  "  in  favour  of  jierfect  chastity  on  the 
giiiunil  among  others  that  it  is  easier  for 
the  unmarried  to  serve  God  with  an  un- 
divided heart.'  There  is  little  occasion 
to  dwell  on  the  tradition  of  the  early 
Church.  In  fact,  the  very  quairel  of  the 
Itelbrmers  with  Christian  antiquity  arose 
in  great  measure  from  the  high  estima- 
tion in  which  the  Fathers '  held  the 
evangelical  counsels.  So  strong  was  the 
ieehne  ot'  the  early  Christians  in  favour 
of  these  counsels,  tliat  even  in  Apostolic 
times  the  danger  was  that  men  would 
refuse  to  see,  not  the  excellence  of  vir- 
ginitv,  but  the  lawfulness  of  marriage. 
(See'l  Tim.  iv.  ■?,.) 

An  objection  is  made  to  the  whole 
idea  of  "  counsels  "  on  the  ground  that  we 
cannot  even  keep  the  commandments 
]ierrectly.  At  the  best  we  are  "  uuprotit- 
alile  servants."  How,  then,  can  we  pre- 
tend to  do  more  than  the  law  of  Christ 
ivfiuiri  s^  Now,  it  is  most  true  that  no 
oni;  can  pei  liu-tlv  observe  either  the  pre- 
cejits  or  the  counsels  of  Christ.  No  one 
can  observi'  either  'he  one  oi-  the  other  at 
all  without  (Jod'shelp,  so  that  a  man  who 
thought  he  did  his  duty  perfectly,  and 
could  thei:jfore  go  on  to  do  more  than 
his  dtity,  would  show  that  be  had  not 
lenrnt  the  rudiments  of  Christian  humility, 

I  The  cclili.nte state,  lie  says,  is  kuXSv — i.e.  as 
Meyei  trmislates  it,  "sonieihing  iiierally  e.K- 
celleiii  ■■ — iiiid,  again,  Kpuacrov,  of  liighermoral 
excelf  lice. 


EYAN^tELISTS 


EVIL,  ORIGIN  OF  3:7 


But  the  saints  who  practised  the  evan- 
gelicul  counsels  were  of  all  men  furthest 
removed  from  such  Pharisaical  pride. 
They  attributed  all  that  they  did  to  fri-^iue, 
and  sinc.Mely  ackiiowledg-ed  the  iuipert'ec- 
tion  of  their  Ijesi  actions.  Moreover,  it 
is  an  obvious  fallacy  to  speak  as  if  by 
following  the  counsels,  men  take  on 
themselves  fresh  ditriculties,  whereas  the 
obsevviiuce  of  ihe  cummandments  is  hard 
enough.  On  the  contrary,  a  .nan  who, 
beinfr  called  t'^  it  by  Gods  grace,  embraces 
evangelical  perfection,  removes  from  him- 
self numberless  temptation-  to  break  the 
commandments.  Indeed,  ail  C.iristians  i 
iiud  the  i.ecessity  of  following  the  counsels  i 
to  a  certain  extent.  Such  is  the  weakness 
of  human  nature  that  a  man  who  never 
gave  away  money  he  could  keep  without 
positive  sin,  never  thought  of  foiegoing  a  ] 
lawful  pleasure  of  sense,  never  submitted 
to  anotlier  except  under  tiin  constraint  of 
positive  diitv,  would  infal  ibly  full  into 
sin.  It  is  easy  to  imjigine  special  cases 
in  which  a  man  finds  that  the  religious 
life  is  the  only  one  in  which  he  can  save 
his  soul. 

Again,  it  is  urged  that  if  the  whole 
world  followed  the  evangelical  counsels, 
society  would  be  di-sorganised  and  would 
rapidly  come  to  an  end.  The  answer  to 
that  is,  that  the  evangelical  coun.sels  are 
not  meant  for  most,  much  less  for  all. 
The  state  most  perfect  in  itself  would  in- 
crease temptation  and  endanger  the  souls 
of  those  who  lack  the  vocation,  and  there- 
fore the  strength,  to  follow  it.  Those 
-who  have  the  strength  have  been  the  salt 
of  society,  the  men  who  cared  for  others 
because  they  forgot  themselves,  and  ex- 
hiliitfd  an  ideal  life  bt-fore  a  corrupt  and 
sordid  world.  (St.  Thim.  "Sum."  1»  2% 
qu.  108.) 

EVANCEXiZSTS.  The  authors  of 
the  four  gospels,  Mattliew,  Mark,  Luke 
and  John.  The  breviary  office  of  Evan- 
gelists, says  Gavantus,  is  the  same  as 
that  of  Apostles,  except  that  they  differ 
from  each  other  in  the  prayer  and  in  the 
les.5ous  of  the  three  nocturns;  and  he 
adds  tliat  the  same  arrangement  is  to  be 
found  in  the  most  ancient  MSS.  of  the 
Breviary.' 

From  the  second  century  at  latest  the 
living  creatures  mentiontni  in  Ezekiel  and 
the  .\pocalypse  were  believed  to  typify 
the  four  evangelists.  Commonly  Matthew 
is  supposed  to  be  signified  by  the  man, 
since  he  begin-*  with  the  human  origin  of 
Christ :  Mark  by  the  lion,  on  account  of 
•  Gavaat.  torn.  II.  §  viii.  ca,>.  1. 


the  "  voice  of  one  crying in  the  desert, 
at  the  opening  of  his  gospel ;  Luke  by 
the  ox,  the  beast  offered  in  sacrifice,  since 
he  sets  out  with  the  historj-  of  the  priest 
Zacharias;  John  by  the  eagle,  because 
he  wings  his  flight  at  once  beyond  all 
created  thinys  to  the  contemplation  of 
the  eternal  "\\'ord.  This  interpretation  is 
found  in  Jerome,'  and  has  been  generally 
adopted.  Irenajus,"  however,  assigns  the 
lion  to  John,  the  ox  to  Luke,  the  man  to 
Matthew,  the  eajile  to  Mark.  Augustine, 
followed  by  Bede,  maiies  Matthew  the 
lion,  Mark  the  man,  Luke  the  ox,  John 
the  eagle.  These  symbols  appear  for  the 
first  time  in  Christian  art  on  the  mosaic 
of  S.  Pudeuziaua,  assigned  by  De  Ilossi 
to  the  time  of  Pope  Siricius,  384-398.^ 

EV21,,  ORzazN-  or.  The  Church 
has  combated  and  cuudemued  two  ex- 
tremes of  error  on  this  point.  The  Gnos- 
tics and  the  Manichees,  in  early  time?, 
denied  that  God  could  be  in  any  .^ens'- 
tlie  author  of  evil.  Hence,  observing  the 
patent  fact  that  evil  does  exist  in  the 
world,  they  attributed  the  creation  of 
material  thinu->  to  an  inferior  God ;  to  a 
principle  iguurant  and  defective,  or  even, 
as  some  of  them  asserted,  positively  wicked 
and  malicious.  Again,  the  Reformers, 
especially  Calvin,  went  to  the  other  ex- 
treme. Rightly  maintaining  that  God  i.- 
the  author  of  all  that  exi.-ts,  they  made 
Him  the  author  of  siu.  They  shrank,  at 
least  after  a  time,  from  a^.-erting  this  in 
plain  words,  but  the  Calvmi.-tic  doctrine 
that  God  ])redestines  some  men  to  eternal 
ruin,  leaves  them  without  the  grace  which 
is  essential  for  good  actions,  and  even 
instigates  them  to  wicked  actions  ("Dei 
imiiu'.su''),^  is  in  fact  tantamount  to  a 
declaration  that  God  is  the  author  of  sin. 
Beiore  stating  the  doctrine  of  the  Church, 
which  is  opposed  to  the  error  of  the 
Manicheaus  on  the  one  hand,  of  Calvinists 
and  Lutherans  on  the  other,  it  will  be 
well  to  give  a  brie!'  sketch  of  St.  Thomas's 
teaching  on  the  nature  of  evil. 

Evil  according  to  the  Thomi^t  theology 
has  no  positive  existence.  It  is  the  priva- 
tion of  good — i.e.  not  the  mere  absence  oT 


Matt. 


s  Kr 


KarurL-Beal. 

1  '•  11. nil. >  ju-t..  Dei  impulBu  agit  quod  sibi 
non  li.  Lt.  '  C.ih  111,  lu.itit.  I.  iv.  18,  §  2.  Beza 
and  Zwiiii;li  teuch  the  same  doctrine  in  .still 
more  oti'ensive  terms.  So  did  Me'.anchthon  at 
first,  but  he  and  the  Lutherans  geuenilly  altered 
their  doctrine  on  this  point  for  the  better.  See 
the  accurate  and  interesting  account  in  M.jliler, 
Si/iiibolik,  u  1,  §  4. 


358        EVIL,  OrJGIN  OF 


EXAMINATION  OF  BISHOPS 


it,'  but  its  absence  in  a  person,  an  action, 
or  thing,  when  the  integrity  or  perfection 
of  the  person,  ac'ion,  or  thing  demands  it. 
It  is  evil,  i  jj.,  for  a  man  to  be  blind,  for 
sight  is  a  sense  necessary  to  man's  physical 
integrity:  evil  for  wood  to  be  suVijected 
to  the  action  of  fire,  because  in  >u.-b  a 
case  the  wood  is  corruiitid  and  soon 
ceases  to  be  wood  altogether:  evil  for  a 
man  to  get  drunk,  bee  i  use  the  drunkard 
secures  a  certain  sensual  pleasure  at  the 
cost  of  taking  from  his  action  that  recti- 
tude which  would  I  elong  to  it  if  it  were 
moderated  by  reason  and  directed  to  God. 
Theread.Twi'lnow  be  able  to  understand 
the  way  in  wliicb  St.  Thnnias  classes  I  be 
dirt'erent  kimls  df  evil,  b'.vil  may  arise  in 
the  natural  course  of  things  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  need  not  have  any  con- 
nection with  the  free  will  of  creatures. 
Substances  are  corrupted,  animals  die,  by 
the  mere  ojieration  of  natural  laws,  Tliis 
is  what  St,  Thomas  calls  "malum  in  cor- 
ruplitaie  ren\ni."  .Modern  writers  usually 
call  il  pliysi(  :il  evil.  Again,  evil  nia\  be 
a  privation  inllicted  just  because  it  is  con- 
trary to  the  free  will  of  him  who  has  to 
endure  it.  This  is  "malum  poentB,'' evil 
inflicted  as  punishment.  T-astly,  evil  may 
consist  in  this,  that  the  agent  Ijeing  free 
to  conform  his  actions  to  (ind's  law,  re- 
fuses to  do  so.  This  is  "  m  iliun  cidp;e,'' 
the  evil  of  sin — evil  in  the  strictest  sense 
of  the  word. 

There  is  nodifficulty  in admittingthat 
God  causes  ]ili\sical  and  retributive  evil. 
He  does  not,  indeed,  intend  even  this  kind 
of  evil  fur  its  iiwn  sake,  but  He  causes 
corruption  and  death  because  they  suli- 
serve  the  order  und  peife  tiim  of  the 
universe.  The  power  of  (i(jd  is  mani- 
fested, and  the  beauty  of  the  world  en- 
hanced, by  the  constant  changes  which 
bring  li!e  out  of  death.  So,  a.;zain,  God 
inflicts  pMiiisliment  because  His  justice 
requires  that  sinners  should  suffer,  and 
that  fear  of  God's  judgments  should  lead 
men  to  take  refuge  in  His  infinite  love. 
But  God  cannot  be  the  authdi'  of  sin;  if 
SO,  God  would  Himself  be  i  i  s]H)iisililH  for 
it  and  would  cease  to  be  Ged,  t  -r  Imliiiess 
is  His  very  essence.  Sin  ai  i-e-  -iiiI  n  iVom 
defect  in  the  freewill  of  eriatuiis  who 
will  not  correspond  to  (bid's  ui-ace  and 
order  their  actions  to  Hliu  tlieir  last  end. 
God  iliK  s,  indeed,  for  wise  and  boly  ends, 
permit  moral  evil,  and  brings  good  even 

1  Eufcpnius  IV.  in  the  decree  for  the  .Inco- 
bite.s  teiu  hes  that  "evil  is  not  a  positive  entity 
(nulLim  niali  esse  oaturam),  because  every  natu- 
ral thing  as  such  is  good." 


out  of  sin.  The  malice  of  persecutors 
occasioned  the  heroism  of  the  martyrs, 
and  enaliled  them  to  win  their  crowns. 

It  only  remains  to  confirm  the  above 
by  the  testimonies  of  Scripture  and  the 
authority  of  the  Church.  .Scrijiture,  then, 
constantly  declai-es  that  there  is  one  tbjd, 
who  is  I  be  creator  of  all  things,  and  is 
thercfoi'e  the  cause  of  physical  evil  from 
tlte  very  fad  that  He  has  made  creatures 
subject  to  coirnption.  "The  Lfird  killetli 
ami  maketh  alive''  (f  lleg,  ii.ti).  "Slial! 
there  l.e  evil  in  the  citv,  .'nid  the  Lord 
hath  n.il  done  it  P  "  ( Anms  iii.  6).  It  also 
in  nuiul)erless  places  sjieaks  of  (bid  as 
inflicting  jiunisbnient.  He  "  rendeis  t.i 
every  nnin  according  to  his  works* 
(Kom.  ii.  (i).  \'eng"auce  is  His,  and  He 
"will  repay"  (Heb.  x,  ;iO),  though  He 
has  "  no  pleasuie  in  the  death  of  him  who 
dietb"  ■  i  ;/,.  ch.  xviii.  --Vl).  Ti^ese  truths 
ba\-e  bifii  enfoiced  by  imjdication  in  the 
Nu-eiie  ('rei-(l  and  more  explicitly  by  the 
bourth  Lateran  Council.  ButGodisnot 
and  cainiot  be  the  authcu'  of  sin.  His 
;  "  works  are  perfect,  and  all  his  ways  are 
j  judgments"  (I)eut  xx.xii.  4).  He  is  not 
"a  (iod  that  "wills  iniquity"  (Ps.  v.  5). 
"Is  there  inju-tiee  with  (bid  ?  God  for- 
bid "(Kom.  ix.  14).  The  contrary  error 
is  anatbematise'd  bv  tin'  ( 'oiincil  of  Trent, 
S.'ss.  vi.  De  Just'if  call.  K'-  (See  St. 
Thomas,  "Sum."  i.  (|U.  4.^,  40.) 

EX  CATHEBRA.  [See  C.VrHEDFA.] 
EXAX.TATIOM'  OF  CROSS.  [See 

Cross.] 

EXAnXin-ATZON  OF  BISHOPS. 

A  l.iisbop-elect  has  to  make  a  profession 
of  fiith  according  to  the  formula  pre- 
scribed by  Pius  I^'.  in  tlie  constitution 
in  Siur(:Sfinctii,  and  to  answer  eighteen 
(|uestions,  which  may  be  read  in  the 
Ivoman  I'oiitilical.  These  questions  relate 
"to  the  filiedience  due  to  tlie  authority  of 
the  Church,  to  tlie  moral  conditions  of  a 
lile  tndy  episcopal,  to  the  profession  of 
revealed  verities,  and  to  the  rejection  of 
the  opposite  endi-s."i  To  the  first  (|ues- 
tion  the  liisliop-ideel  rep  1  ies,  "  So  ^\■it  h  my 
whole  heart  it  is  ni\  will  to  consent  and 
obey  in  all  things"';  to  tl  l-hl  follow- 
ing questions  lie  answers  /'</.<,  "I  will;" 
to  the  rest,  Cm/e,  "I  beliexe."  At  the 
end  the  coumti ator  says,  "  Mav  this  thy 
laitli.  most  beloved  brotiier  in  Chri.st,  be 
ini  ii'ased  liy  the  Lord  unto  true  and 
everlasting  lieat  it  ude."'  'i'bere  is  also  a 
litnreieal  examination,  which  may  be 
described  as  the  lonnal  outcome  of  the 
more  strict  inquiry  into  the  canonical 
1  Mast  in  Wetzer  and  \Veite. 


EXAMINATION  OF  CONSCIENCE 


EXCOMMUNICATION  369 


q  inlifications  of  the  bi>hoj)-elect,  already 
Diiidc  in  the  process  of  information  insti- 
tuted in  every  such  case  by  order  of  the 
Holy  See.  ' 

EXAMZNATZOIV  OF  COITSCZ- 
Eircs.  It  is  necessary  to  ascertain  the 
nature  of  the  disease  before  remedies  can 
be  applied  ;  and  in  the  moral  and  spiritual 
life  pei-sons  have  to  search  their  conscience 
in  order  to  ascertain  their  past  and  present 
sins,  that  they  may  confess  them  to  God, 
repent,  and  be  forgiven,  and  take  precau- 
tionsagainst  futurefalls.  Spiritiialwi-iters 
recommend  that  this  examii.ation  should 
bt!  made  at  least  every  evening,  in  order 
to  ascertain  and  to  repent  of  the  sins 
committed  that  day.  Such  examination 
is  a  matter  of  aiisolute  necessity  before  ap- 
proaching the  sacrament  of  penance.  The 
penitent  must  try,  with  such  reasonable 
care  as  he  would  use  in  any  other  matter 
of  grave  importance,  to  ascertain  at  least 
all  the  mortal  sins  he  has  committed  since 
his  last  confession ;  otherwise  he  is  in- 
capable of  absolution.*  (Concil.  Trid, 
Sess.  xiv.  cap.  5.) 

St.  Ignatius,  followed  by  many  other 
ascetical  writers,  also  recommends  a  par- 
ticular e.xamen  to  lie  made,  at  least  daily, 
not  on  sin  in  general,  but  on  that  par- 
ticular sin  into  which  the  individual 
most  frefjuently  falls. 

EXARCH  (?^npx"J>  ruler).  A  bishop 
having  charge  of  a  province,  and  next  in 
rank  to  a  patriarch.  The  terms  "  Metro- 
])olitan,"  " Archbi.-l(op,"  "Exarch,"  and 
"  Patriarch,"  are  used  by  the  early  eccle- 
siastical writers  with  little  discrimination; 
thus,  in  the  First  Council  of  Constanti- 
nojjle,  we  tind  the  Bishops  of  Alexandria, 
Antioch,  and  Constantinople,  who  in 
liiter  times  were  only  known  as  patriarchs, 
di-nominated  "  exarchs  "  In  the  "  Notitia 
Imperii  "  (supposed  to  have  been  compiled 
aliout  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century) 
the  (civil)  diocese  of  Asia  has  ten  ]iro- 
vinc(\s :  the  ecclesiastical  "  exarchia  of 
the  sanip,  eleven ;  and  so  in  other  cases. 
The  Bishops  of  Ei)hesus,  Ileraclea,  and 
Csesarea  in  Cappadocia,  were  exarchs, 
and  claimed  to  exercise  jurisdiction  over 
the  met ro])oli tans  of  their  respective  pro- 
Tinces.  This  brought  them  into  conflict 
with  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinojile : 
the  suljject  was  considered  at  the  Council 
of  ( "halcedon ;  and  the  result  was  that 
the  jiii-isdiction  of  these  three  exarchs 
was  abolished,  though  they  retained  the 

'  Of  course  j>poiili.ir  circumstances  may 
exi-iisc  the  penitent  t'rum  the  fultilment  of  this 
oUiiiatuin. 


I  title  and  the  rank,  and  were  allowed  to 
sit  in  council  next  after  the  five  patri- 
archs. (  fhomassin,  •'  V'etus  et  Nova 
Eccl.  Pisciplina.") 

EXCOMMXTiffZCATZOM'.  An  eccle- 
siastical censure  by  which  a  Christ  ian  is 
separated  from  the  communion  of  the 
Church.  It  is  a  power  included  in  the 
power  of  the  keys,  or  of  binding  and 
loosing,  given  by  Christ  to  Peter  and  the 
Apostles,  and  may  be  deduced  from  our 
Saviour's  words  (^Iatt.  xviii.  17) — "If  lid 
will  not  licar  tlif  Church,  let  him  be  to 
t!iee  as  the  hcathrn  and  publican."  For 
to  treat  a  man  as  a  heathen  and  a  publican 
is  to  ri'pel  him  from  the  Church  and  all 
things  s^icred — that  is,  to  excouiniunicate 
him.  We  find  it  put  in  practici'  by 
St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  v.  ■'{'I,  when  he  said  of 

I  the  incestuotis  Corinthian— "  I  .  .  .  have 

I  a'lready  judged  .  .  .  him  that  bath  so 
done,  in  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  you  being  gathered  together  and 
my  spirit,  with  the  power  of  our  Lord 
•Jt'sii-.  t(i  deliver  >Ui'li  a  one  to  Satan,"  &c. 
St.  A  ugu.-t  ine  ex|ilains  :  '•  r>ccause  outside 
thf  Cliurch  is  the  devil,  as  within  it  is 
Cliri>i.  and  accordingly  he  who  is  sepa- 
rated tVora  the  commninon  of  the  Cliurch 
is  as  it  were  delivered  to  the  devil." 

Excommunication  is  of  two  kinds,  the 
major  and  the  minor.  The  minor  kind 
is  an  ecclesiastical  censure,  by  which  a 
Christian  is  deprived  of  the  right  to  jiar- 
ticipation  in  sacraments,'  and  indirectly, 
as  a  consecjueuce,  of  the  right  of  receiving 
a  benefice.  It  is  incurred  by  communi- 
cating with  a  jierson  under  major  ex- 
communication, in  any  case  where  such 
communication  is  not  excused. 

The  major  excommunication  deprives 
of  all  ecclesiastical  commimion,  and  is 
e(|ui\  alent  in  siili<tanceto  imnihema,  t'roni 
wliich  it  only  iliil'ers  in  regard  to  the 
foi-niiilities  by  wliich  the  latter  is  sur- 
rounded. For  the  major  excommunica- 
tion can  he  inflicted  by  mere  force  of  law, 
or  by  the  written  sentence  of  a  judge, 
whereas  an  anathema  is  publicly  pro- 
nounced, and  "cum  strepitu." 

Those  under  major  excommunication 
again  fall  into  two  classes:  fidcrati,  whom 
tlie  faithful  are  not  bound  to  avoid  ;  and 
noil  tolerati  {i.e.  those  excommunicated  by 
name  and  publicly  denounced,  and  those 
notoriously  guilty,  by  themselves  or 
others,  of  violence  to  clerics),  with  whom 
the  faithful  are  forbidden  to  hold  either 
religious  or  civil  communication.  Civil 
interctmrse  is,  however,  permitted,  for 

I  '  Fermris. 


160  EXCOMMUNICATlOxX 


j:xequatur 


the  sake  of  the  faithful  themselves,  under 
various   circumstauces   and   to  various 

classes  o(  ]icrMins. 

Exrumnuiniciitions  are  also  divided — 
aii'l  this  is  a  must  imixirtant  distinction — 
into  thosf  /(';■<' si  iitcnlirc  and  those 
hifff  senteiitxi'.  In  the  case  of  the  foi'njer 
it  is  enjoined  tluit  .1  sentence  of  exconi- 
nmuiciition  he  i)roiiomi(vd  {eg.  "we  for- 
bid this  on  ]iaiu  ol'  excoiinnunicatiou ; 
whoev  er  does  it,  let  hiin  he  excoiiiinuni- 
C:ite(l,"m'"  will  incnr  excoiunmnieatioii," 
i*(:c.),hut  tlie  deliiKiiieiit  does  not  ,-ictiiallv 
incurthe  sentence  till  il  has  heen  inllu  le.l 
l)v  a  com ])< 'tent  jiidiJe.  In  the  second  i-ase, 
the  words  of  the  law  or  other  insti'nnient 
in-e  so  chosen  that  npon  a  fjiven  act  heinir 
di'ne  the  doer  of  it  falls  at  once  nnderthe 
han  of  the  Chui-ch,  as  when  it  is  said  — 
"let  hitn  incur  excoinninnication  ipm 
facfii."  Nor  are  such  seniences  iinjnst.  as 
some  ha\e  ari;iied,  on  the  i^ronnd  that 
the  (l(dill(|neii;s  who  incui-them  lia\e  not 
been  duly  warned,  as  tlie  (iospel  rei|uiivs, 
of  the  nature  oi'  their  nlli'n.-e  ;  for  the  law 
itself,  which  they  must  he  presumed  to 
Imow.isa  st  andinu  an.l  ]ier|iel  nal  w  aniimr. 
At  the  same  time,  the  exriimmiinical  ion 
iatfP  sentfiiiiie  is  operati\e  unh'  111  the 
internal  foriun  and  in  the  siuht  of  God; 
to  uial<e  it  ell'ectnal  in  the  extei'nal  forum 
also  it  is  necessary  that  the  guilt  be 
proved  before,  and  declared  by,  a  com- 
petent judge. 

Excomnuinications  are  also  divided 
into  those  reserved  to  the  Po])e.and  those 
notreserved.  Those  nf  1  lu'  hi>i  i  la~-  now 
in  force  are  enumerated  in  the  r.nis  iiu- 
tion  "  Apostolicie  S.  dis,"  is-ued  l)y  I'liis 
IX.,  in  lSt;i).  in  which  are  also  sjiecilied 
all  excommunications  hitu-  sciiii-nl and 
■tji.si,  fiii  tii  incuri-ed  henceforth  in  vii;oiir. 

11  it  l)e  asked,  \\\\o  can  excommu- 
nicate:-" it  may  be  answci-ed,  tliose  who 
possess  ordinary  or  delet^ali'd  jnri-dielion 
in  the  external  f )rum  in  iVLrard  to  ilm-.' 
subject  to  them;  lint  not  parish  |irie.-ls 
(\\  ho  have  as  siudi  only  jurisdiction  in  the 
forum  of  conscience ),  and  ne\er  lavmeii 
or  women.  To  the  (|Uestiou,  Who  can 
he  exconimuincated  the  .answer  is,  that 
only  ( 'lirisl  laii-.  alivr  ami  of  sound  mind, 
guih\'  of  a  tiiavc  cilli'uce  and  persisting 
in  it,  and  subject  to  the  jiidg,.  n-'ivintr  seii- 
tf^nce,  can  he  excommunicated.  Not  Jews, 
ther-l'ore,  nor  Pagans,  nor  the  unbaptised 
heathen,  nor  the  dead;  but  the  sentence 
may  justly  be  inflicted  on  heretics  or 
scliisniatics. 

The  elfects  of  excoinmuniciition  are 
thus  summed  up.    "  As  man  by  baptism 


is  made  a  member  of  the  Church,  in  which 
there  is  a  communication  of  all  spiritual 
goods,  so  by  exconininnication  he  is  cast 
forth  from  the  Church  and  placed  in  the 
position  of  the  heathen  man  aud  tlie 
]>ublican,  and  is  deprived  accordingly  of 
sacraments,  sacritices,  sacred  ofhct-s,  bene- 
hces,  diuinties,  ecclesiastical  jurisil  ctiou 
and  power,  ecclesiastical  se])idture — in  a 
word,  of  all  the  rights  which  he  had  ac- 
(juired  by  ba])tism — unt  il  he  make  anien<ls, 
and  satisfv  the  Church."' 

EXECRATION-.       [See  l)ESi:CR.\- 

1  Tlox/ 

EXEMPTZOTr.  A  privilege  by 
wdiich  persons  or  places  are  withdrawn 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary  and 
ininii'diat.'lv  subjected  to  the  llolv  See. 
It  nia\  he  eniupaivd  to  dis(.ensati('in.  the 
objeei  nf  liMih  i.emii'  the  same— viz.  to 
axiiid  Iriciion  111  ^'-Mvernment.  It  differs 
from  di-p.  usation.  in  that  this  last  with- 
draws persiins  fioni  the  operation  of  a 
law,  while  exenijitloii  withdraws  them 
from  the  authority  of  a  nder.  To  tak(^ 
I'aniiliar  instances  ivri-Kuis  are  exempt 
in  many  resjiects  t'roiu  tin-  jurisdiction  of 
the  liishops  in  wliose  diocesps  t  heir  cmi- 
vents  are;  the  Spanish  jieop'e  is  dis- 
])eiised,  by  a  special  l^apal  iinliilt.  fri'in 
the  observance  of  the  i^eueral  law  pre- 
scribini;- abstinence  from  meat  on  hridays. 

The  exenijition  of  regulars  from  the 
juris<licti(ui  of  the  ordinary  is,  however, 
caiel'ully  limited  by  the  law;  were  it 
otherwise    the  abuses  ami  conHictsthat 

coiinterliahiuee  'the  beurtits  of  the  tree- 
(loni  of  action    which   exeinjition  cenlers 
on   tllnse  pi  i>seS>inii'  it.     Sjii'akiu^  tiene- 
rallv     in  what  ivlates  to  pro]ierty  aud  to 
delini|Uencies  (unless  attended  liy  juiblio 
sciindal),  and  to  their  rule  and  conventu^  1 
life,  regulars  are  exem])t  ;  in  what  relates 
to  ]ire,aehine  and  the  administration  of 
tlir   sacrauieuts    they    are   m.it  exempt, 
hi  ir  di-ia  ii>  !  ri'at  ises  on  can  mi  law  must  be 
consulted.     .Vn  impiirlani  cont  ribiltiou  to 
the  latest         (in  thissuliject  wasmade  by 
the  ('..usiiliition  ■•liominios  Pontilices,"" 
:  ])ubhshed  iiy  His  Holiness  Leo  XIII.,  on 
i  May  8,   1881,   in   which  the  relations 
I  between  the  bishops  and  the  regular 
j  clergy  in  this  country  were  more  ac- 
]  cuiately  dehned.    (Ferraris,  Regulares, 
art.  -2. ) 

EXEQVATVR.     The  right  claimed 
on  behalf  of  bishops  or  temporal  rulers  to 
examine  Papal  bulls  and  constitutions, 
and  j  udge  of  the  expediency  of  admitting 
'  Sogha,  lib.  iv.  cap.  4. 


EXEQUATUR 


EXERCISES   SPIRITUAL  .301 


them,  before  suffering  them  to  take  effect 
and  prtss  into  execution  in  their  dioceses 
or  territories. 

With  rejrard  to  this  claim,  so  far  as 
bishops  are  concerned,  Benedict  XIV.' 
laid  down  that  it  could  have  no  reference 
to  Papal  constitutions  treating  of  faith  or 
moral.*,  or  of  sacred  rites,  CPremoni<'s, 
sacraments,  and  the  life  of  the  cler^'v, 
since  such  Constitution.*  cannot  in  any 
way  be  subjected  to  the  judgment  of  in- 
feriors. In  regard  to  other  matters,  it  is 
held  that  if  a  bishop  is  of  opinion  that 
the  e.xecution  of  a  particular  Constitution 
in  his  diocese  would,  on  account  of  the 
existence  of  special  circumstances,  pro- 
duce serious  inconvenience  or  scandal,  he 
may  be  justified  in  delayinsrits  execution 
for  a  while,  until  he  has  laid  these  circum- 
stances before  the  Po^ie,  if  at  the  same 
lime  he  have  the  firm  intention  of  obeying 
the  final  direction  of  the  Holy  See  in 
the  matter,  whatever  it  may  be. 

The  excquiitiir,  as  claimed  on  behalf 
of  temporal  rulers,  dilfors  little  from  tlie 
placitum  regium,  on  which  see  under 
C.4.V0X  L.\w.  In  England,  the  extreme 
doctrine  of  exeqiintur  was  carried  out  in 
the  statute  of  Piyciinmiri'  (1303),  which 
"vindicated  the  right  of  the  State  of 
England  to  prohibit  the  adnii-Moii  or  the 
execution  of  all  Papal  bulls  or  briefs 
within  the  l  eahii."  '-'  Martin  V.,  the  able 
Pope  elected  ai  the  Council  of  Constance, 
protested  aoainst  this  statute,  but  with- 
out ert'ect ;  it  was,  however,  greatly  re- 
strained in  its  operation  by  the  exercise  of 
the  dispensing  power  of  the  Crown.  In 
later  times  the  sovereigns  of  Naples  and 
Piedmont  were  conspicuous  for  their  vex- 
atious assertion  of  the  exequntur :  .see  a 
letter  of  Clement  YIII.  (1506),  quoted 
by  Ferraris,  to  Olivarez,  the  Viceroy  of 
Na])les.  The  Holy  See  has  never  admit- 
ted as  a  matter  of  ria-ht  the  claim  of  the 
State  to  impede  the  execution  of  Papal 
rescripts ;  but  de  fado,  and  to  prevent 
greater  evils,  it  has  often  acquiesced,  and 
does  so  at  the  jiresent  day,  in  the  exercise 
of  this  power.  Thus,  although  the  Roman 
Pontitf  does  not  recogni.se  the  Italian 
kingdom  as  constituted  by  the  revolu- 
tionary movements  of  1860-1«70,  yet  l.e 
allows  Italian  bishoj)s  on  their  election, 
that  the  churches  may  not  be  widowed  of 
their  chief  pastors,  to  a])j)ly  for  the  e.r- 
equntur  to  the  sovereign  of  that  kingdom, 
as  the  de  facto  occujiant  of  power. 

>  Set-  Soglia,  Inst.  Can.  i.  I.  §24. 
-  Milman's   Latin    Chrhtiwiitu,  bk.  xiii. 
Ch.  6. 


Among  the  •writers  on  canon  law  who 
have  been  favourable  to  the  e)y>(^(/ff'M;-are 
Oliva  (a  celebrated  Portuguese  doctor], 
Salirado,  and  Van  Espen.  On  the  other 
side  are  Bellarmine,  Suarez,  Zallwein, 
Zaccaria  (author  of  "  Antifebronius  Viii- 
dicatus "),  Droste  zu  Vischering.  and 
John  de  Dominis  (writer  of  the  treatise 
"II  Regio  Exequatur,"  Naples,  IfctJO). 
(Ferraris.  Plncifinn  Bef/i'inn.) 

EXETZCZSES,  SPZRXTVAI..  A 
name  given  by  St.  Ignatius  of  Loyola  to 
a  series  of  meditati'ins  on  the  truths  of 
religion,  accompanied  by  examination  of 
conscience  and  considerations  respecting 
present  or  future  duty  in  the  clioice  of  a 
new  state  of  life,  &c.,  &c.  St.  Ignatius 
wrote  them  at  Manresa,  near  Montserrat, 
in  Spain,  duriii"-  the  early  days  of  his 
spiritual  lile.  The  saint  had  at'the  time 
litth'  a.^|iiaiiitaiice  with  human  letters, 
but  tlie  Spirit  of  Clod  supplied  to  the  full 
what  was  wanting  in  liunian  learning, 
and  the  bool;  abounds  in  maxims  of  ex- 
traordinary wisdom,  and  insfructinn  in 
the  hiohe.t  points  of  spirit  iiallty.  Medi- 
tation and  retirement  had  always  lieen 
practised  by  pious  ms,  but  the  admir- 
abl(>  order  of  the  ni'ilitatiniis,  tlie  judicious 
choice  of  maxims,  and  the  marvellous 
knowledge  of  the  human  heart  shown  in 
the  book'  belong  to  St.  Ignatius  hiii;;elf. 
There  is  no  gTound  for  disputing  its 
authorship  or  for  supposing,  as  a  Bene- 
dictine writer  has  done,  that  the  plan  of 
the  book  was  due  to  Garcias  Cesniros, 
abbot  of  31onfseirat.  The  p''i>i:)ii  who 
makes  the  exercises  is  su]i])osed  to  receive 
them  from  a  director,  and  the  exercises 
are  arranged  for  a  retreat  of  four  weeks  ; 
they  can,  however,  be  adajited  for  a  much 
.shorter  time.  The  exercitaiit  begins  with 
meditations  on  the  end  of  man,  and  on 
the  penalties  of  sin,  that  he  may  flee  with 
horror  from  it ;  passe>  next  to  those  o-u 
Christ's  life  and  death,  Christ  being  the 
model  which  we  have  to  cojiy  ;  and  ends 
by  contemplating  the  resurrection  of 
Christ,  happiness  of  heaven,  &c.,  that  he 
may  learn  to  unite  himself  t<i  ttod.  The 
Exercises  were  written  originally  in 
Spanish,  translated  into  Latin,  r'  vi-ed 
and  published  at  Rome  in  154S;  "all  and 
everything "  which  they  contain  having 
been  solemnly  approved  in  a  bull  of  Paul 
III.  It  is  tiie  glory  of  the  Jesuits  to  be 
"  men  of  the  Exercises,"  and  they  have 
been  from  the  first  an  instrument  of  ex- 
traordinary power  for  good  in  the  hands 
of  those  apostolic  men  and  great  masters 
of  the  spiritual  life. 


362 


EXOKCISM 


EXPOSITION 


EXORCISM  iind  EXORCIST.' 
1.  The  custom  of  attempting  to  drive  out 
the  devil  from  possessed  persons  wns 
l'ainili;ir  to  the  Jews,  as  appears  from 
Matt.  xii.  27,  Acts  xix.  1.'3.  For  this 
end  they  eniplo\ed  nian'ical  forms  said  to 
lie  derived  IVoiii  Solomon.  Our  Lord 
pave  His  di.'iciples  the  real  power  of  driv- 
ini;-  out  demniis,  and  in  the  earliest  times 
tlii>  ])n\v('r  \\  .is  exercised  by  such  persons, 
whi'iher  elrrics  or  lay  people,  men  or 
women,  ns  had  received  the  Special  <rrace 
{'■liarhynn)  which  enaliled  them  to  do  so. 
However,  in  the  middl"  of  the  third  cen- 
turv,  I'(i]>e  f'Mi-ti.'liu^  (a]iiid  Kuscjb.  "U.K." 
vi.  -1-)  ,-|i(':iK-  (if  iIm' lv\ni-cisis  as  aspecial 
ordi'i- "I'  thi'  cli'i'i^'y  ;  aii'l  tln'  Oonncil  of 
I^aodicca,  can.  forbids  tho.se  who  have 
not  been  ordained  to  exorcise  eitlier  in 
chufch  or  in  private  houses.  The  so- 
calli'd  Fourth  ('ouncil  of  Carthai^e  (anno 
?,'.\y'>\  |iivs(Tib.  s  a  fiirni  i'or  the  ordination 
of  cxoicist.--  I  111'  same  in  substance  as  that 
givrn  in  the  Roman  PoiUiiical  auil  usid 
at  this  da\'.  The  bislidj)  gives  tli^'  bo.il; 
of  excn-cisms  into  the  hand  of  tlic  pcrs.m 
to  be  ordained,  biddiufr  liim  learn  them 
by  heart  and  receive  jiower  of  laying  his 
hands  on  the  jiosscssiMi.  Innocent  I. 
(Isj),  i.  ad  Dcci'ul.)  ]in)liil)ited  exorcists 
fiMm  exerci-ing  tlirir  iiiiiiis(i-y  on  the 
possessed  wilhout  I'Xjin  ss  pri'uiission  fr(un 
the  hisho]),  and  this  law  is  still  in  force. 
The  order  of  Exorcist  is  the  third  of  the 
minor  orders.  Power  is  still  given  to 
drive  out  the  devil,  but  the  exercise  of 
this  power  is  restrained,  and  the  ordt^r  of 
]'^x<n-cist  has  come  to  be  regarded  chiefly 
as  a  sifji  to  the  priesthood. 

1?.  ( 'atrrbumens,  even  if  not  posses- 
sed, still  bcldiiged  in  a  sense  to  the  king- 
dom of  darlniess,  and  exorcisms  were 
from  early  times  empbiyed,  as  they  are 
in  our  present  Ixitual,  to  snap  tli(>  band 
lietwrcn  ihr  sf)ul  of  the  candidate  for 
b;i]iti-iii  and  llir  devil.  As  even  bajitism 
docs  not  ri.iii|ilr|(.ly  destroy  the  devil's 
power  ovei- the  soul.tliese  exorcisms  are 
sujiijlied  alter  b:i|.iiMus,  wIhmi  e.r/.  a 
child  indan,;;ernr,le:,lhh;i,sb,.  u  bai.tised 
without  the  eei-emouies  ain!  .iliei-wards 
recovers.  Hence  the  e\,irci,Ms  of  th(- 
ancient  ('hureh  came  In  exereisi'  a  general 
.supi'rintendence  over  the  catecluimens  as 
well  as  over  the  possessed.    It  would  be 

'  "Ei^opKiCu  in  ol.'issicnl  Creek  me.ins  to  put 
a  pcrvin  mi  e.-illi.    Sn  (icn.  xxiv.  M.  In 

LXX.  .lu.l.  xvii.  it  i.M-.nis  le  take  an  .lalli. 
Then  in  cecle.siMstirn;  Gnrk  it  lias  tin-  seii>e  uf 
(Irivin;;-  (Hit  liy  adjuration,  and  (^opKitrrr]!  i.s  so 
used  iu  tlie  Acts. 


I  their  business,  for  example,  to  remove 

I  energumens  and  catecluunens  before  the 
mure  solemn  part  el'  tlie  M.ass.  Thispro- 
li:ililv  -irves  te  ex|,l,MMi  the  words  the 
lir-le.p  a.l,ln--,.>  at  tins  day  te  those  who 
ai-e  t(i  be  ordained  exorcists  when  he  tidls 
them  it  is  their  olliee  to  see  that  those 
who  do  not  communicate  "give  place."' 
3.  I^xorcisms  are  also  used  at  this 
day  by  priests  over  inanimate  objects — 
e.ff.  in  blessing  water  for  baptism,  &c. 
This  jii'actice  is  also  very  ancient,  for 
Cyprian  (Rp.  70)  alludes to'it.  Itsprings, 
not  from  any  Manichean  idea  tliat  matter 
is  evil,  but  from  the  Christ iiin  doctrine 
that  all  creation,  since  the  fall,  has  been 
marred  l)y  the  powers  of  evil. 

EXPECTATIVE.  The  right  of 
being  collated  to  a  benefice  not  at  present 
vacant.  If  the  right  be  determined  to  a 
parlieiilar  lieneiiee,  it  is  a  survivorship ; 
it  net,  it  is  simply  a  provision.  The 
I'ejies  liegan  to  create  e\]>ectatl\-es  about 
t  lie  t  w  elli  h  century,  ti\-  issuing  maiidafa 
<h' jivridrndo  Xn  bi-lmps  and  cliaiit  ers  in 
fa\.iiir  of  clerks  not  ordained  to  particu- 

I  lar  benefices.  These  recommendations 
usually  had  reference  to  prebends  and 

:  other  preferment  in  capitular  ]iatrcinage. 
Kings  fVdlowed  the  example  of  the  Holy 
See,  and  began  to  claim  the  jux  priniarimi 
jircrinii,  by  \\  hich  was  meant  the  i  iLdit  of 
claiming  for  their  nominees  the  collation 
to  the  tirst  prebend  in  each  clLijiter  which 
miglit  fall  vacant  after  tliew  accession. 
Chapt(>rs  themselvei  gavi<  tlu'  survivor- 
ships to  soni''  of  ilirir  pi-ebeiid>  to  jiar- 
ticular  indiv  iduals,  often  on  the  grtnind 
merely  of  noble  birth  and  social  influence. 
The  Third  Council  of  the  Lateran  (1179) 
abolished  all  survivorships,  but  did  not 
touch  l*apal  expectatives,  because  they 
wei-e  indeterminate.  The  Council  of 
Trent  (sess.  xxiv.  can.  19,  De  Ref) 
almlished  these  last  also  ;  but  the  deci-ee 
was  never  carried  into  complete  execu- 
tion.   (Wetzer  and  AVelte,  art.  by  Thiss.)' 

EXPOSITION'  OF  THE  BI.ES- 
SED  SACRAMEN-T.  The  Church  has 
adored  Christ  in  the  Eucharist  ever  since 
that  great  sacrament  was  instituted,  as 
lia-  been  shown  in  another  article  (see 
IlrcnAHisr),  but  it  is  only  in  times  com- 
])ar;iti\cly  modern  that  the  most  Holy 
Sacrament  has  been  publicly  exposed  for 
tlis  veneration  of  the  faithful.  In  the 
li  arned  and  laborious  work  of  Thiers  on 
tills  subject,  all  that  is  known  on  the  hi.*- 

i  1  See  Vales.  Not.  in  Euseb.  Mart.  Palest. 
c.  2. 


EXPOSTTIOX 


EXTREME  UXCTION  303 


tory  of  this  devotion  has  been  collected, 
and  we  take  the  following  details  from 
his  bonk. 

The  proce-ssion  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment on  Corpus  Christi  was  probably  in- 
troduced some  time  after  the  institution 
of  the  feast,  under  Pope  John  XXII., 
who  died  in  133.3.  We  cannot  be  sure 
that  even  then  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
was  exposed,  for  the  earliest  vessels  in 
which  it  was  carried  seem  to  have  hidden 
it  com])let('ly  from  view.  However, 
Thiers  found  in  a  vellum  MissaP  dated 
1373  a  miniature  portrait  of  a  bishop 
carrying  the  Host  in  procession,  the 
monstrance  in  which  it  is  borne  having 
sides  ])artly  of  glass.  We  may  thus 
reii.sonably  conclude  that  in  the  four- 
teenth century  the  Host  was  exposed 
at  least  on  Coi-pus  Christi.  In  the  six- 
teenth century  it  became  common  to 
expose  the  Ilost  at  other  times — on 
occasions,  e.ij.,  of  public  di.stress — and 
generally  the  Blessed  Sacrament  was  e.\- 
posed  for  forty  continuous  hours.  This 
devotion  is  still  familiar  to  Catholics 
throughout  the  world  as  the  usual  form 
for  the  more  solemn  expositinn  of  tlie 
Blessed  Sacrament.  The  Host  alter  Higli 
Mass  (the  M:iss  of  Exposition)  is  jjhaced 
on  a  throne  above  the  altar  in  the  mon- 
strance. Persons  are  a])])ointed  to  relieve 
efich  othernight  and  day  in  watching  and 
praying  before  it.  On  tlie  second  day  a 
.Vlass  "for  peace"  is  sung,  and  on  the 
third  the  Host  is  again  placed  in  the 
tabernacle  after  a  High  Mass  (that  of 
Deposition). 

The  first  introduction  of  this  devotion 
was  due,  so  far  as  can  bo  ascertained,  to 
Fr  Joseph,  a  Capuchin  of  Milan  (died 
1556).  He  arranged  the  forty  hours'  ex- 
position in  honour  of  the  time  that  our 
Lord  spent  in  the  tomb.  In  15(>0 
Pius  IV.  approved  the  custom  of  an 
association  called  the  Confraternity  of 
Prayer  or  of  Di'atli.  They  exposed  the 
Host  for  tiie  forty  hours  every  month. 
In  150-.'  Clement  VIII.  provided  for  tlie 
public  and  perpetual  adoration  of  the 
JJlossed  Sacrament  expo-ed  on  the  altars 
of  the  different  churches  at  Rome.  The 
forty  hours  in  one  church  succeeded  to 
those  in  another,  so  that  the  Ble.esed 
Sacraiiicnt  \\as  always  exposed  in  some 
cliurcli  the  w  luile  year  round.  Tvirlier 
than  this,  in  1  the  Jesuits  in  Macerata 
exposed  the  Blessed  Sacrament  for  forty 
hours  in  order  to  meet  the  danger  of 

1  The  Missal  is  a  Roman  one,  and  tlie  MS. 
written  by  a  native  of  Boli.gua. 


disorders  prevalent  at  that  time,  and 
St.  Charles  adojited  this  devotion  for 
Carnival  with  great  zi'al.  At  jire-'iit  the 
forty  hours'  prayer  is  olj-erv.!  .luring 
Lent  in  very  many  of  the  E.nelis'i  and 
Scotch  dioceses. 

In  the  "  Instruction"  of  Clement  XI. 
and  the  decrees  of  the  Congreg.  Rit. 
there  are  numerous  rules  with  i'e;^aril  to 
jniblic  exposition  of  the  IJlesseil  Sacra- 
ment. It  cannot  take  ])!ace  even  in  the 
churches  of  ref^ulars  without  leave  from 
the  bishop  or  Apostolic  indult.  Twelve 
lights  at  least  must  burn  before  the  Host. 
Relics  and  images  must  be  removed  from 
the  altar  of  exposition,  and  no  Mass 
celebrated  there,  so  long  as  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  is  exposed,  except  the  .Ma.-s  of 
Deposition,  and  the  bell  is  not  rung  at 
the  Masses  which  are  said  during  the 
exposition  at  the  other  altars.  (The 
great  authority  is  Thiers  in  the  work 
already  quoted.    The  "  Manuale  Decre- 

.  torum "  contains  numerous  rnles  to  be 
observed  with  regard  to  exposition.) 

EXTRA VAGAirTS.  The  fifth  and 
sixth  portions  of  the  Canon  Law  are  so 
called  because  they  wander  over  various 
matters  not  touched  upon  in  the  Decretals, 

j  and  because,  till  brought  into  the  code, 
they  had  no  recognised  jilaee  in  eerl.  >las- 
tical  jurisprudence.     They  consi.-t  ( I  )  of 

i  the  Extravagants  of  John  XXII.  (131H- 
I  ■!34),  to  the  number  of  twenty  consti- 
tutions, divided  into  fourteen  titles:  (If) 
of  the  Extravagants  Common  (so  called 
because  they  issued  not  from  any  one 
Pope,  but  from  s(>veral),  divided  into  five 
books,  containing  a  number  of  titles  and 
cha])ters,  each  title  being  devoted  to  one 
or  more  "  Ivxtravagant "  Constitutions. 
[See  Caxon  Law.]    (Ferraris,  Jus.) 

EXTREnzE  tJWCTiON-  may  be 
defitu'd  as  a  sacrament  in  which  the  sick 
in  dangerof  death  are  anointed  by  a  jiriest 
for  the  health  of  soul  and  body,  the  anoint- 
ing being  accompanied  by  a  set  form  of 
words. 

St.  James  (v.  14,  16)  describes  the 
nature  and  effects  of  this  sacrament.  "Is 
any  man  sick  among  you  P  Let  him  call 
to  hiui.self  (Trpoo-KaXfo-atr^o))  the  presbyters 
I  of  tlie  Church,  and  let  them  pray  over 
him,  anointing  him  with  oil  in  the  name 
o|'  the  Lord.  AikI  the  prayer  of  faith 
>hall  save  tlie  sick  man,  and  the  Lord 
will  raise  him  up,  and  if^  he  has  com- 

1  This  is  the  usual  and  natural  renilerinir  of 
the  GrccU.  It,  is  ri.;lu,  tmwever,  to  remarii 
th.1t  KOLv  ill  the  Now 'rc.'itainent  never  meuLS 
"  and  if"  {koI  (av),  but  only  "even  if." 


S64      EXTRE^NfE  I'^TTION 


EXTEEME  TTN'CTION 


mitted  sins,  it  shall  forgiven  him."  ' 
Let  us  see  what  the  passage  implies. 

Oil  was  an  ordinary  means  of  healing 
familiar  to  the  Jews,  as  appears  from 
I.uke  X.  -"jJ  {cf.  the  "halm"  in  Jerem.  viii. 
22,  xlvi.  11).    However,  it  is  plain  that 
St.  James  does  not  here  recommend  an 
ordinary  ap];)lication  of  the  medical  art, 
for  if  so,  ii]iait  from  the  oltjection  that 
unction  could  only  be  of  use  in  certain  ' 
l<inds  of  illness,  he  would  have  advised 
the  sick  man  to  summon  the  physician 
and  not  the  presbyters  of  the  Church. 
Nor,  again,  can  we  reasonably  suppose  that 
the  Apostle  is  referring  to  those  extra- 
ordinary gifts  of  healing  (the  ;(api'a-/x«ra  j 
ui/xarajf,  1  Cor.  xii.  9)  common  in  the  I 
primitive  Church.     There   is  not   the  : 
faintest  reason  for  believing  that  pres-  I 
hyters    generally   possessed    any   such  ' 
powers:  and  it  was  imposition  of  hands,  i 
not  unction,  by  which,  as  a  rule,'  the  ' 
extraordinary"  grace  of  healing  was  con- 
veyed.-   Nor  does  St.  James  make  any 
allusion  to  the  xupirrfm  or  grace  of  heal- 
iug  in  this  place.    The  unction,  then,  of 
wliicli  St.  James  speaks  was  intended  I 
primarily  to  heal  the  m.uI.     The  rliief  ' 
effect  of  the  rite  is  detinitely  stated:' 
"The  Lord  will  raise  him  up;  and  if  he  I 
has  C'liiiiiiitted  siii>,  it  shall  l)p  forgiven 
him."    No  doubt  botlily  cure  is  indicated  I 
also  as  an  effect  of  the  unction,  for  the  ' 
words  "  the  prayer  of  faith  will  save  the 
sick  man,"  "  the  Lord  will  raise  him 
up,"  include  bodily  healing.    Hut  as  St. 
James  saw  the  first  generation  of  f  !!iris- 
tians  dying  out  before  his  eyes,  he  cannot 
have  supposed  that  this  unction  ot  the 
sick  was  an  infallible  remedy  for  disease. 
In  short,  we  have  all  the  constituents  of 
a  sacrament  in  these  two  verses  of  St. 
James.    Tliere  is  the  outward  sign — viz.  I 
luiction  by  the  priest  accompanied  with 
prayer.    Tliere  is  the  grace  given  on  con-  ' 
dition  of  faith  and  re))entance — viz.  for-  ' 
giveness  ot  sins,  the  renewed  health  and  ' 
strength  of  the  soul,  and,  if  God  sees  fit, 
of  tlie  body.     Tliere  is  institution  by 
Christ,  for  St.  James  could  not  have 
asserted  that  the  unction  would  convey 
grace,  unless  Christ,  the  author  of  grace, 
had  promised  that  the  grace  of  forgive- 

'  Mark  xvi.  1«  ;  but  sonic;  inies  Miperiiiitu- 
ril  fHires  (if  the  body  wen-  (■llcclcd  liy  unction. 
See  Mnrk  vi.  13. 

^  Probably  it  is  not  the  sncrament  of  unc- 
tion which  is  mentioned  in  Mark  vi. ;  but  we 
may  reasonably  believe  that  it  foreshadowed 
the  sacrament,  and  was  meant  to  prepare  the 
disciples  for  Christ's  further  teacbin<;  on  this 
point.  '. 


ness  and  spiritual  healing  should  accom- 
pany the  use  of  the  oil.  Lastly,  the 
effective  sign  of  grace  was  to  he  em- 
ployed permanently  in  the  Church,  for 
St.  James  recommends  its  use  to  Chris- 
tians generally  without  distinction  of 
time  or  place,  and  we  find  clear  though 
scarcely  abundant  traces  of  its  use  in 
Christian  antiquity.  "  Origen,"  says 
Chardon  (torn.  iv.  p.  38-3),  "  rightly  con- 
sidering this  last  sacrament  as  a  comple- 
ment to  that  of  penance,  marks  it  out 
(Horn.  2  in  Levit.)  as  a  means  which 
God  has  put  into  our  hands  in  order  that 
we  may  cleanse  ourselves  from  our  sins. 
St.  John  Chrysostom  ('  De  Sacerdot.'  i. 
p.  .384)  u.ses  the  passage  of  St.  James 
already  quoted,  to  show  that  priests  have 
received  from  Jesus  Christ  the  power  to 
remit  sins.  Pope  Innocent  I.,  the  con- 
temporary of  this  last  Father,  speal;s  of 
the  sacrament  still  more  cleai-ly  in  his 
letter  to  Decentius.  .  .  .  He  puts  extreme 
unction  among  the  sacraments,  telling 
Decentius  it  should  not  be  given  to 
jjenitents  (still  unreconciled),  because  it 
IS  a  kind  of  sacrament."  We  can  now 
pass  on  to  consider  one  by  one  different 
points  in  the  administration  and  doctrine 
of  the  sacrament. 

1.  The  matter  of  the  sacrament,  ac- 
cording to  the  Council  of  Trent  (sess.  xiv. 
cap.  1),  is  "oil  blessed  by  the  bishop." 
iMost  theologians  hold  that  this  blessing 
is  esseutial,  though  it  suffices  for  validity 
if  the  blessing  has  been  given  by  a  priest 
who  has  received  jurisdiction  to  do  so.' 
Innocent,  in  the  letter  already  referred  to, 
says  priests  are  periuitted  to  administer 
the  sacrament  if  the  oil  has  been  bles.sed 
by  the  bishop.  The  Council  of  Florence, 
in  the  Decree  of  Union,  pre.scribes  that 
the  unction  is  to  be  given  with  olive  oil 
on  eyes,  ears,  nostrils,  mouth,  hands,  feet, 
and  reins,  and  such  is  the  present  custom 
of  the  Church,  except  that  the  unctio 
reiiHiii  is  omitted  in  the  case  of  women. 
Some  theologians  hold  that  without  unc- 
tion of  the  five  senses  the  sacrameut  is 
invalid.  On  the  other  hand,  Chardon 
proves  that  t!ie  discipline  of  the  Oluirch 
on  this  mattei'  l:ns  varied  at  different 
places,  and  in  dilferent  times,  to  an  extra- 
ordinary degree.  The  common  practice 
was  to  anoint  the  five  senses,  but  some- 
times the  unction  was  given  oidy  on  one 

1  The  Greek  jiriests  bless  the  oil  of  the  sick 
by  commis.sion  from  the  bishop,  and  this  cus- 
tom of  theirs  was  approved  by  Clement  VIII. 
in  a  Constitution  dated  1598.  See  Billuart,  De 
Extrem.  Unci.  art.  2. 


EXT1{E^[E  UNCTION 


EXTEEME  UNCTION  865 


place — c.y.  on  the  breast  or  on  the  seat  of  [ 
the  malady.  According  to  the  Roman 
ritual  the  oil  is  a]i]ilicd  in  the  form  nf  a 
cross.  The  out.-id.'  of  a  ]ii'ii  st's  hands  is 
anointed,  the  inside  of  a  hiy  pfi-.-on's,  pro- 
bablv  because  the  inside  of  the  priest's 
hands  has  already  been  anointed  in  or-  | 
dination 

2.  The  form  of  words  used  in  the 
Roil  an  Ritual  is  (at  the  unction  of  the 
eyes),  "  By  this  holy  unction,  and  by  his 
most  tender  mercy,  "may  the  Lord  forgive 
thee  whatsoever  sin  thon  hast  committed 
by  sight,"'  the  same  words  being  re])eated 
at  each  unction,  exce))t  that  for  "l)y 
sight,"  '•  by  hearing,"'  \'C.,  is  substitutrd. 
Tlie  Greek  unction  is  also  accompanied 
by  prayer.  Still,  although  a  va.^1  mindier 
of  mediajval  theologians  h.-i\c  inaintaiiu-d 
that  the  word.<  mu.<t  be  [irecatory,  and 
although  both  Latins  and  (h-erUs  '  do  in 
fact  employ  a  form  of  the  kind,  the  an- 
cient Rituals  contain  sometimes  preca- 
tory, sometime.^  absolute  forms,  some- 
times such  as  are  ]'ailiy  iii-rcatoi  x ,  partly 
absolute;  and  lifiici.^"  the  ln'st  critics 
(M^rard,  Martene,  Chardon.  \-c.)  deny 
that  a  precatory  form  brlon^^s  to  the 
essence  of  the  sacrament.  It  stems  to 
be  enough  if  the  tinction  is  given  "  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord  "  and  the  words  indi-  ' 
cate  the  grace  conferred.  ' 

'^.  The  »iiiii<fer  oi'  the  sacrament  is  a  ' 
priest.  Lft  him  bring  in  the  pi'esbytci-s 
of  'he  ('burcli,"  It  is  certain  that  a 
piicst  oidy  can  give  this  sacrament,  and 
the  presen't  discipline  of  the  C'hnrcli  for- 
bids anyone  l)nt  I  lie  jiarish  ]iriest,'-'  or 
some  otli.  r  ]irie>t  w  ith  his  leavi',  to  do  so. 
Some  .lillicullv  ha.s  been  caused  by  the 
leit<  V  ol'  1  iiiio( cut.  in  whicii  lielaysdowu 
the  ]irincipl.-  I  !iat  tli.'  oil  of  the  .«ick  is  to 
be  blessed  1,N  I  he  laJ;,,p  and  then  u.«ed 
by  all  Christians  111  iheirneed:  "  Qiwd" 
(sic  apud  C'liardoii)  ab  ejiiscopo  con- 
fectum,  noil  >oliini  sacei-dotibus  sed  et  ' 
omnibus  utl  ( 'In  i-tianis  licet,  in  sua  aut 
in  snormn  iieee->;tate  iniingendum."  At  • 
first  ^^Lthi.  no  lioubt,  these  words-,  seem 
to  mean  that  Christians  generally  could 
njiply  the  lifily  oil,  and  Tillemont  thought 
it  impo.«sible  to  take  tl'.em  otherwise. 
Chardon,  however,  and  many  other 
authors,  e.\plain  the  words  to  mean  that 
with  the  oil  consecrated  by  the  bishop 

'  Tlie  Greek  form  is  Tlarip  ayu,  larpi  rSiv 
\^j\S>v  K.T-K.:  ''Holy  K.-itlicr.  I'hysician  oC  souls 
a'  il  lioilics.  heal  this  thy  servant  tVoni  tliat 
iiiliniiitv  of  bodv  and  .soul  «hicli  i>os,-esses  . 
him."  ■ 

*  In  England,  the  rector  of  the  mission.  | 


all  Christians  might  be  anointed  in  their 
need — viz.  by  the  priest.  In  ancient 
time.s  all  over  the  world  several  priests 
jointly  administered  the  >ai  ranieiit, 
though  examples  are  not  wanting  of  the 
adniinistratioii  by  a  single  priest,  so  that 
clearly  the  ancient  ('hnrcli  did  not  con- 
sider tlie  presence  of  more  than  one  priest 
essential.  Among  the  Creeks  the  sick 
niiin  is  anointed  by  se\en,  or  if  that  is 
impossible,  liy  three  priests.  ''Some- 
times," says  Chardon,  speaking  of  ancient 
usage,  "  one  priest  applied  the  holy  oil 
while  the  other  pronounced  the  form  of 
prtiyer  ;  sometimes  all  together  anointed 
the  different  parts  of  the  body,  each 
reciting  the  same  form.  Sometimes 
several  priests  anointed  one  part,  others 
other  parts,  the  prescribed  prayers  being 
recited  by  the  anointing  priests  in  each 
case." 

4.  The  persons  who  may  rea-ire  the 
sacrament,  {a)  They  must  be  sick,  a3 
St.  James  declares,  and  the  Council  of 
Trent  understands  the  Apostle  to  S])eak 
of  dangei-ons  sickness.  Hence  the  sacra- 
ment is  not  intended  for  persons  ill  but 
not  dangerously  ill,  or,  a^ain,  for  such  as 
are  in  <hinger  of  death  lint  not  from 
sickness.  After  a  sick  man,  among  the 
Orienlal.-.  has  Iieeii  anointed,  the  priests 
anoint  lacli  other  and  the  bystiinders 
with  the  holy  oil,  but  Kenaudot  points 
out  that  tlie  prayers  are  said  only  over 
the  sick  nnin,  so  that  evidently  there  is 
no  intention  of  administering  the  sacra- 
ment except  to  him.  iji)  The  sacrament 
beini;  lnli'ndi'<l  to  remit  sin,  it  cannot  be 
received,  according  to  the  common 
ojiinion,  except  by  those  who  have  com- 
iiillteil  sill  al't  er  bapt  Isiii.  Infant  s,  t  here- 
fore,  and  all  such  other  persons  as  have 
iie\  er  had  t  he  use  of  reason,  are  incapable 
of  the  sacianient.  {y)  In  order  that  it 
may  bi'  recened  with  jirolit ,  t  be  recljilent 
must  he  In  a  state  ,.f  era,-,..  All  the 
Oriental  Rituals,  according  to  Ueiiaudot, 
prescnbi'  ]ire\  Inns  confession. 

4.  The  ellecls  of  the  sacraineut  are 
thus  stated  by  the  Couiici  1  of 'I'rent  (,sess. 
xiv.  caji.  -2):  "  The  inner  part  (/v.v)  and 
ellect  of  this  sacrament  is  set  forth  in 
these  words  'And  the  ]iraver  of  faith 
will  save  the  sick,  and  thi'  Lord  will 
raise  him  n]>,  and  if  he  be  in  sins  they 
will  be  forglxen  him.'  I'or  this  inner 
part  {rca)  is  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
whose  unction  wi)ies  away  sins,  if  any 
are  still  to  be  atom-d  for,  and  the  remains 
of  sin  "  {i.e.  the  proneness  to  evil,  torpor, 
and  weakness  left  by  past  and  forgiven 


8C6      EXTEEME  UNCTION 


FABRIC 


Bins),  "  raises  and  strengtbens  the  soul 
of  the  sick  man,  by  awakening  a  great 
confidence  in  the  divine  mercy,  by  which 
contidence  tlie  sick  man  being  relieved 
bears  more  patiently  the  troubles  and 
pains  of  his  sickness,  more  easily  resists 

the  temptations  of  the  devil,  and 

sometimes  obtains  health  of  body  -when 
it  is  expedient  for  the  health  of  the 
soul." 

Of  course  the  sacrament  cannot  be 
contemned  without  great  sin,  and  very 
often  a  person  may  be  under  a  grave 
obligation  of  receiving  it,  on  account  of 
the  care  he  is  bound  to  take  of  his  eternal 
salvation.  Still  the  sacrament  is  not  in 
itself  necessary  to  salvation,  and  this 
may  account  for  the  fact  that  we  hear  so 
little  of  it  in  the  first  ages  of  the  Church, 
when  the  heathen  persecution  made  its 
administration  a  matter  of  serious  diffi- 
culty. Some  authors  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury held  that  it  could  only  be  received 
once  by  the  same  person  ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  some  ancient  Rituals  show 
that  it  was  once  customary  in  certain 
parts  of  the  Church  to  reiterate  the  unc- 
tion during  seven  successive  days.  Char- 
don  refers  to  several  ancient  Rituals  in 


proof,  and  St.  Rembert,  bishop  of  Ham- 
burg, was  anointed,  as  we  learn  from  a 
contemporary  Life,  on  several  consecutive 
days.  It  is  now  certain,  from  the  words 
of  the  Tridentine  Council,  that  the  sacra- 
ment may  be  received  again  and  again 
by  the  same  person  if  he  recovers  from  a 
dangerous  illness  and  afterwards  falls 
into  another ;  but  once  only  by  the  same 
person  while  he  remains  under  the  same 
danger  of  death. 

o.  The  time  of  administration.  The 
present  custom  of  the  Church  is  to  give 
it  after  the  reception  of  Viaticum.  For- 
merly, it  was  usual  to  administer  it 
before  Viaticum,  and  Chardon  gives 
numerous  instances  I'rom  the  churches  of 
England,  France,  and  Germany,  in  which 
this  order  was  observed.  St.  Thomas 
evidently  was  accustomed  to  see  extreme 
unction  administered  first,  for  he  says 
("  Sum."  iii.  65,  a.  3),  "  By  extreme  unc- 
tion a  man  is  prepared  worthily  to  re- 
ceive Christ's  body."  Even  from  ancient 
times,  however,  instances  of  the  present 
order  may  be  adduced,  so  that  the  matter 
cannot  be  of  any  great  moment.  (Chiefly 
from  Chardon,  "  ffist.  des  Sacrements.") 


FABXtXC.  A  church — that  is,  a 
building  set  apart  for  the  public  divine 
worship  of  the  faithful — can  only  be 
erected  with  the  approval  of  the  bishop 
of  the  diocese,  and  after  due  provision 
has  been  made,  by  endowment  or  other- 
wise, for  the  permanent  sustentation  of 
the  cure.  Once  built,  canon  law  adopts 
many  precautions  with  a  view  to  its 
fabric  being  kept  in  good  repair.  The 
Council  of  Trent  ordered  that  bishops,  on 
their  annual  visitations,  should  see  that 
churches  which  required  repair  received 
it,"  and  a  later  decree '- specified  the  funds 
on  which,  and  the  persons  on  whom,  this 
obligation  rested.  A  parish  church  fallen 
out  of  repair  was  to  be  repaired,  first  of 
all,  out  of  the  labric  endowment  fund,  if 
such  existed.  If  tlnie  were  no  such 
fund,  or  it  were  iusullicinit,  the  charge  , 
was  to  fall  on  the  patron  or  patrons,  and  ! 
other  persons  deri\  ihl;'  any  benefit  from 
the  parochial  endnumriit.  It  tliese  re- 
sources were  insuliicient,  ihr  lii.-li<]p  was 
1  Sess.  vii.  C.8,  De  l!el. 
*  Sess.  xxi.  c.  7.  De  Kef. 


to  compel  the  parishioners  ly  every 

means  in  his  power,  omni  appellntione  re- 
mota,  to  defray  the  cost  of  the  necessary 
repairs.  Finally,  if  the  poverty  of  all 
concerned  were  such  as  to  disable  them 
from  meeting  the  outlay  required,  the 
bishop  was  to  annex  the  parish  either  to 
that  of  its  mother  church  {matricis  ecclc- 
sice)  or  to  some  neighbouring  parish,  with 
leave  to  use  the  dilapidated  church  for 
secular  purposes  not  of  a  mean  or  degrad- 
iug  character,  after  having  erected  a 
cross  there.  The  erection  of  a  cross  is 
not  now  required. 

The  actual  state  of  the  law  as  to  the 
reparation  of  the  fabric  is  stated  by  Fer- 
raris to  be  this.  Those  are  bound"  to  it 
in  the  first  place  on  whom  either  custom 
or  a  statute  imposes  the  burden.  If  there 
be  no  such  custom  or  statute,  the  part  of 
the  endo\vment,  if  any,  reseived  to  the 
fabric  must  be  resorted  to.  If  there  be 
no  such  i)art,  the  legal  obligation  next 
falls  on  the  revenue  derived  by  the  parish 
priest  from  the  benefice,  after  deducting 
what  is  sufficient  for  his  decent  mainten- 


FACULTY 


FAITH 


367 


ance.  Next,  all  others  deriving  benefit 
from  the  parochial  revenues— e.^^.  lay  im-. 
propriators  of  tithe — are  hound  to  con- 
tribute. Under  this  head  many  disputed 
questions  have  arisen,  on  which  special 
treatises  must  be  consulted.  These  dis- 
putes resemble,  in  certain  points,  the  long 
controversy  between  the  Anglican  clergy 
and  the  nonconformists  resj)ecting  church 
rates— &  controversy  settled  a  few  years 
ago  by  an  Act  (1874)  which  relieved  the 
latter  from  the  burden. 

In  the  case  of  a  cathedral  church,  the 
bishop  is  bound  to  put  and  keep  it  in 
repair,  reserving  to  himself  the  rifrht  of 
taking  legal  steps  against  those  who  are 
bound  to  aid  bim  in  doing  so  [^e.y.  the 
chapter,  or,  in  the  last  resort,  the  inferior 
clergv),  or  against  those  on  whom  the 
obligation  is  imposed  by  custom. 

In  France  the  duty  of  kee-pingchurches 
in  repair  rests  on  the  consul  de  fabrique, 
an  institution  organised  with  admirable 
skill  and  completenes.s  by  a  decree  and  an 
ordinance  dated  in  ISO!)  and  LS25,  and 
Corresponding  to  the  vestry  of  an  Angli- 
can parish.  The  official  persons  on  the 
council  are  called  marguilliers  (cburcli- 
■wardens). 

FACir:LTT.  I.  A  constituent  pare 
of  a  university,  being  the  body  of  profes- 
.sors,  lecturers,  teacliers,  graduates,  and 
students  engaged  in  the  study  of  a  par- 
ticular department  of  learning  (e.y.  luedi- 
cine,  law,  theology.  &c.),  or  stamped  as 
proficients  in  the  same.  In  a  narrower 
sense,  the  term  "  faculty  "  is  restricted  to 
the  professors  labouring;  in  this  dejiart- 
ment  of  learning.  These,  in  a  normal 
state  of  things,  form  a  council  which 
meets  periodically,  under  a  dean  elected 
by  themselves,  to  arransre  all  questions 
respecting'-  the  due  ordering  and  develop- 
ment of  the  studies  of  the  faculty.  If  a 
university  be  fully  organised,  it  has  five 
faculties,  viz.  theology,  arts  (or,  philo- 
sophy and  letters),  law,  medicine,  and 
natural  science. 

II.  An  authorisation  properly  authen- 
ticated, addressed  to  any  person  or  persons 
by  the  Roman  P<  ntifl'  or  s(jme  Cailmlic 
prelate,  empowering  bim  or  them  to  per- 
form some  act  or  occupy  some  position 
which  they  could  not  others' ise  legally 
perform  or  occupy,  is  called  &  faculty. 

FAZTH.  An  act  of  divine  laith  is 
the  undoubiing  a<sent  given  to  revealed 
truths,  not  because  of  the  evidence  which 
can  be  produced  for  them,  but  simply 
because  they  are  revealed  by  God.  Thus 
the  trutbs  which  faith  accepts  are  not 


evident  in  themselves,  or  if  evident,  as  is 
the  case  with  the  truths  of  natural  re- 
ligion, are  not  accepted  with  divine  i'aith, 
because  so  evident. 

Divine  faith  excludes  all  doubt.  So 
much  is  implied  in  the  very  word,  for 
nobody  would  say  that  we  put  faith  in  a 
mans  statement  if  we  doubtfd  its  truth ; 
and  the  I'aith  required  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  clearly  incomjuitible  with  doubt. 
"I  know,''  St.  Paul  says,  "in  whom  I 
have  believed,  and  I  am  certain "  (2 
Timothy  i.  V2). 

Yet  this  exclusion  of  doubt  is  not 
caused  by  the  mere  I'oj-ce  of  the  evidence. 
No  words  are  in  e  !•  d  to  show  that  the 
truths  of  the  I'lii  i.-tian  religion — such, 
e.(/.,  as  the  divinity  of  Christ,  the  person- 
ality of  the  Holy  Ghi  sr,  the  atonii:g 
efiicacy  of  Christ's  death — are  not  sell- 
evident.  Moreover,  the  evidences  of 
Revelation,  which  is  in  the  first  place  an 
historical  fict,  are  not  of  such  a  nature 
as  absolutely,  like  metaphysical  or  mathe- 
matical reasoning,  to  constrain  a.«sent. 
No  doubt,  from  the  fulfilment  ol  prophecy ; 
from  the  way  in  which  the  Gosjiel 
triumphed ;  from  the  moral  character 
and  teaching  of  Christ;  aud  from  other 
grounds  of  a  like  kind,  we  pet  an  accumu- 
lation of  arguments,  ccrti.^.-tima  sii/na  et 
omnium  inteUiijentife accommodata ,  "most 
cer:;ii:i  proofs,  and  suited  to  the  intelli- 
gerice  if  all,"  as  the  Vatican  (.'ouucil  suv-.i 
which,  taken  together,  make  it  pi  r'ecly 
certain  that  Christianity  is  divine,  uiiii 
are  abundantly  sufiicient  to  conviiue  a 
prudent  man  that  he  ought  to  assent  un- 
doubtingly  to  the  truths  which  the  Clmi  ch 
of  Christ  propounds.  Still,  all  this  evi- 
dence is  not  enough  in  itself  to  account 
for  the  certainty  oi  divine  faith,  the  very 
highest  of  all  cei  ti'inty. 

We  must,  then,  make  a  sharp  distinc- 
tion between  the  "  motives  of  credibility  " 
on  the  one  hand,  and  faith  on  the  otlier. 
On  account  of  these  motives  we  prudently 
judge  that  the  truths  faith  accei't>  are 
j  deserving  of  belief.    If  >  "i;.   kiio\vh  (]:,ra 
of  the  arguments  in  favour  ol  Christianity 
did  not  prepare  us  to  believe  it,  our  belief 
j  would  be  unreasonable  and  fanatical;  nor 
conld  anyone  be  justly  comleiuned  for 
lacking  faith.    The  arguments  are  not, 
however,  of  such  a  nature  as  to  constrain 
assent,  and  men  will  form  very  different 
]  opinions  of  their  strength  according  to 
I  tlieir  moral  dispositions.   That  Ciirist.  for 
;  example,  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount, 
"spake  as  never  man  spake  "  is  a  stro;  g 
I  Do  1-  i.lo.  cap.  iii. 


368 


FAITH 


FAITPIFUL 


arg:ument  for  the  divinity  of  our  religion,  I 
but  it  will  scarcely  come  home  to  a  man  | 
•who  cares  little  for  moral  excellence.    In  ' 
short,  the  "  motives  of  credibility  '"  are 
necessary :  a  man  incurs  great  moral  re- 
sponsibility by  tlie  way  m  which  he  deals 
witli  them  ;  but  they  cannot  produce  the 
absolute  :uv]  perlect  certainty  of  faith. 

Wlien  the  uiind  is  convinced  that  the 
objects  of  faith  are  worthy  of  belief  and 
tliat  here  and  now  there  is  an  obligation 
ot  accepting  them,  the  grace  of  God  fills 
the  soul  witli  ajiious  inclination  to  believi' 
("pia  allectiii  ad  credendum '"t,  liavini.' 
for  its  motive  that  duty  and  obligttion  of 
I'l'lieving  which  lias  been  brought  hfime  to 
it  by  the  motives  of  credibility,  and  then,  I 
putting  aside  all  doubt  and  looldng  away 
iVom  all  human  arguments  and  motives, 
it  assents  simply  on  the  authority  of  God 
wlio  reveals  the  truth  in  question.  God 
cannot  deceive  and  cannot  be  deceived. 
He  is  the  eternal  essential  truth,  and 
lifnct>  truths  received  on  His  word  are 
more  certain  than  any  of  those  which 
present  tlicinsclves  to  natural  reason. 

The  reader  will  observe  that  the 
Catholic  Church  is  not  mentioned  in  tlie 
definition  with  which  we  began.  Tlie 
reason  is  that  faith  does  not  rest  on  the 
authority  of  creatures.  It  is  a  theological 
virtue — i.e.  one  which  relates  immediately 
to  God,  and  therefore  it  is  founded  idti- 
niatelyupon  His  word  and  on  that  alone. 
The  Church  is  the  ordinary  and  the  in- 
fallible means  by  which  we  know  wliat 
tlie  truths  are  which  God  has  revealed. 
The  testimony  of  the  Church  is  the  rule 
by  which  we  can  distinguish  between 
true  and  false  floctrine.  In  other  words, 
we  learn  from  the  Church  that  God  has 
spoken,  and  then  because  of  His  word, 
not  because  of  the  Church's  authority, 
we  believe  witliout  doubt.  It  is  possible, 
m<u-eover,  for  a  man  who  does  not  believe 
in  the  infallibility  of  the  Cliurch  to  possess 
true  and  divine  faith.  He  may  have 
assured  himself  on  good  grounds — e.ff.  by 
the  reading  of  Scripture — that  God  has 
revealed  certain  truths ;  he  may  without 
fault  of  his  own  lie  ignorant  of  the 
Church's  authority,  n nd  be  p'Tl'ectly  will- 
ing to  accept  the  whole  of  divine  revela- 
tion so  far  as  he  liiiows  it.  If  such  a 
man,  moved  by  the  grace  of  God,  receives 
the  revealed  truths  with  which  he  is  ac- 
qiuiinted  on  the  divine  word,  then  lie  has 
done  all  that  is  necessary  to  constitute  an 
act  of  faith. 

"  Without  faith  it  is  impossible  to 
please  God."  Man  is  intended  for  a  super- 


natural end;  he  must  know  this  end,  for 
otherwise  he  cannot  direct  his  actions  so 
as  to  reach  it,  and  this  knowdedge  can 
never  be  attained  liy  natural  reason. 
Ignorance  may  excuse  a  man  for  living- 
in  heresy  and  schism  ;  nothing  can  excuse 
the  lack  of  faith,  and  God  give=  every 
man  the  means  of  attaining  it.  No  man 
can  lie  saved  who  does  not  at  least  believe 
witli  (lixiiir  faith  that  God  exists  and 
tliat  111'  rewards  those  who  seek  Him 
(Iteb.  xi.  0).  A  great  many  theologians 
say  that  under  the  present  dispensation 
it  is  alisolutely  nece.-sary  for  salvation  to 
know  and  believe  the  mysteries  of  the 
Trinity  and  the  Incarnation.  This  is  a 
doubtful  point,  but  it  is  certain  that  all 
who  have  the  opportunity  are  bound  to 
acquaint  themselves  with  the  primary 
truths  of  religion  contained  in  the  Creed, 
and  to  know  the  commandments  of  God 
and  the  Church,  as  well  as  the  most  es- 
sential truths  regarding  the  sacraments 
and  their  use.  Moreover,  all  are  bound 
(and  can  only  be  excused  from  doing  so 
by  invincible  ignorance)  to  believe  all 
that  the  Churcli  teaches.  Of  cour.se  a 
]ierson  is  not  bound  to  ascertain  all  the 
definitions  of  the  Church,  but  he  must 
b(dieve  tliat  the  Church  cannot  err,  and 
that  wliatever  it  teaches  is  infallibly  true. 
Although  faith  is  necessary,  it  is  not 
suiKcieut  for  salvation  unless  it  is  perfected 
by  cliarity.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  the 
"faith  working  by  charitv "  of  which 
St.  Paul  speaks  (Gal.  V.  6)  as  opposed  to 
that  "  faith  witliout  woidvs  which  is  dead." 
Still  faith  without  charity  is  a  true  faith, 
ffir  a  man  immersed  in  vice  may  accept 
tlie  truths  of  revelation  with  a  super- 
natural belief  The  virtue  of  faith,  how- 
ever, is  destroyed  by  a  single  act  of 
disbelief  ill  revealed  truth  previously 
accepted  on  the  authority  of  God. 

(Any  of  the  treatises  "  De  Fide"  in 

dogmatic  ll  logians  maybe  consulted, 

and  also  Coiicil,  Tri<lent.  De  JiistiHc. 
sess.  vi.,  Coiieil.  Vatic.  De  Fide,  caji.  iii., 
and  the  corresjioiidina  eaiions.  The 
possibility  of  a  habit  of  faith  m  mlaiiis  is 
exjiiained  in  the  article  on  Bvriis.M,  the 
rule  of  faith  in  those  on  the  Chuech  and 
on  the  PorE  ) 

FAITH  FVZi  {Jideles)  in  itself  means, 
persons  who  have  the  faith  ;  but  even  in 

I  So  tliat.  e.q.  if  a  Catholic  ceases  to  believe 
in  Tniiisulist  oitiation  but  continues  to  believe 
ill  the  l  iinily.  his  .■u-ec| ii ;ince  of  the  latter  is 
nici'.'  _v  a  ii.it  ur.il  as.-oiit  aiuldoes  not  proceed  from 
divine  faith.  Tliis  is  the  general,  though  not 
the  universal,  teaching  of  Catholic  theologians^ 


FALDSTOOL 


FALSE  DECRETALS 


Acts    X.   45    (oi   fK   TTfplTOfirjt   TTtOTC'l)  We 

find  the  word  used  as  a  technical  expres- 
sion for  persons  incorporated  by  baptism 
and  Christian  profession  into  the  Church, 
and  this  use  of  the  word  has  been  con- 
tinued ever  since.  Thus  the  "  Mass  of 
the  Faithful  "  was  distinguished  from 
the  "Mass  of  the  Catechumens,"  althoufrh 
catechumens  mi^rht  nf  course  have  laith  ; 
and  in  the  same  sense  the  Church  con-  | 
Btantly  prays  in  the  Mass  and  office  for 
the  faitliful,  livinfr  and  dead. 

FAXiSSTOOIi  {faldistorium).  A 
seat  which  can  easily  be  moved,  and  [ 
which  is  used  by  bishops  and  other  pre- 
lates in  the  sanctuary  when  they  do  not 
occupy  the  throne.  The  faldstool  is  much  ' 
more  simple  than  the  throne,  the  latter 
being  covered  with  a  baldacchiuo  and 
furnished  with  a  back  and  arms.  More- 
over, the  fiildstool,  unlike  the  throne, 
may  be  occupied  by  a  prelate  who  has 
no  ordinary  jurisdiction.  Thus  the  Con- 
gregation of  Kites  requires  auxiliary 
bi.-iiops  and  administrators  when  a>>'>ting 
pontifically  at  Mass  to  content  tlienist  h  es 
with  the  faldstool.  However,  a  bishop  in 
his  own  diocese  sometimes  sits  in  or  kneels 
at  a  fahls'ool — e.g.  in  giving  Conlirma- 
mation,  in  making  his  thanksgiving  after 
Mass,  .tc. 

FAX.SX:  DECSETAX.S.  The  col- 
lection ostensibly  M;ad.'  by  Isidorus  Mer- 
cator,  in  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century, 
passes  by  this  name.  |[See  Canon  Law.] 
The  e.xact  date  of  its  first  appemince 
cannot  be  determined.  It  could  u'lt 
have  been  before  821),  because  it  quotes 
a  canon  of  a  Council  of  Paris  held  in  that 
year.'  Before  84o,  according  to  Mohler,- 
it  was  well  known  and  often  quoted  ;  he 
therefore  dates  its  composition  between 
829  and  845  ;  the  place  of  origin  he  be- 
lieves to  have  been  Mayence.  Hiuschius, 
on  the  other  hand,  thinks  that  the  place 
of  origin  was  Rheims,  and  that  the 
work  was  compiled  between  847  and 
85:1  It  is  quite  uncertain  who  wrote  it. 
It  has  been  variously  ascribed  to  Bene- 
dictus  Levita  of  Mayence,  to  Paschasius 
Rrtdbert,  to  Otgar,  archbishop  of  Mayence, 
and  to  Agobard,  archbishop  of  Lyons. 
All  that  is  known  on  the  subject  is  that 
the  writer  chose  to  call  himself  Isidorus 
Mercator  ("Peccator"  in  some  MSS.), 
'  This  is  Miihler's  view,  but  Hefele  (art.  in 
Wefzer  .md  Welte)  thinks  it  as  likely  that  the 
council  (luotcd  from  the  Pseudo-Isidore  as  the  t 
other  way.  This  is  a  .sarn|ile  of  the  inextricable  j 
d.llii'ul  ies.bv  which  the  determination  of  date  i 
and  authorship  is  surrounded.  I 
"  Kirchengesch  ii.  171.  [ 


probably  after  the  great  St.  Isidore,  who 
had  made  a  similar  compilation  tCaxon" 
Law,  p.  114]:  that  (if  bis  ]n■pfac>-^s|.,■llks 
the  truth)  he  had  been  strongly  urg.'d  by 
many  ecclesiastics  of  lank  to  make  such 
a  collection,  and  that  the  frequent  mis- 
carriat;i's  of  justice  which  he  had  seen, 
owin;^-  to  uiicei-tainty  as  to  the  law  and 
the  jurisdiction,  had  powerfully  impelled 
him  to  undertake  the  work. 

The  collection,  as  socui  as  made,  passed 
into  immediate  acceptance  and  use :  it 
met  a  palpable  want,  and  no  one  thought 
of  questioning  the  genuineness  of  the 
Papal  letters  which  it  contained.  It 
opens  with  the  fifty  Apostolic  Canons 
[see  that  article  i-eci'ivpd  and  publislied 
by  l)i(uiysius  Ivxiguus  ;  then  it  proceeds 
to  give  a  quantity  of  decretal  letters 
written  by  early  Popes,  from  Clement  of 
Rome,  one  of  the  .\p'>stolic  Fathers,  to 
Melchiades,  at  the  end  of  the  third  cen- 
tury. Xone  of  these  letters  are  genuine. 
A  quantity  of  conciliar  decrt-es,  beginning 
with  those  of  Nica-a,  and  ending  ■«  ith  the 
second  Council  of  Seville  ((ill))  are  ne.xt 
insei'ted  ;  many  of  these  are  unauthentic. 
To  the  decrees  of  councils  a  fresh  series- 
of  decretal  letters  of  Popes  succeeds, 
beginning  with  Sylvester  [who  succeeded 
Melchiatles)  and  endini:  «ith  Gregory 
the  Great.  In  this  series  the  first  that 
is  genuine  is  a  letter  ot'  Pope  Siricius 
{.384-3i)9).  The  last  thing  in  the  com- 
pilation is  a  copy  of  the  canons  passed  by 
Gregory  II.  (t7;31)  at  a  council  held  at 
Home. 

According  to  a  Protestant  wTiter,  this 

famous  collection  comjirehends  "  the 
whole  dogmatic  system  and  discipline  of 
the  Church,  the  whole  hierarchy,  from 
the  highest  to  the  lowest  degree,  their 
sanctity  and  immunities,  their  persecu- 
tions, their  disputes,  their  right  of  appeal 
to  Rome.  They  are  full  and  minute  on 
Church  property,  on  its  usurpation  and 
spoliati(ui  :  on  ordinations,  on  the  sacra- 
ments, on  baptism,  confirmation,  mar- 
riage, the  Eucharist  ;  on  fasts  and  fes- 
tivals;  the  discovery  of  the  cross;  the 
discovery  of  the  reliques  of  the  Apostles; 
on  the  chrism,  holy  water,  consecration 
of  churches,  blessing  of  the  fruits  of  the 
field  ;  on  the  sacred  vessels  and  habili- 
ments."' 

Of  the  unknown  author,  Mohler 
writes: — "Pseudo-Isidore  seized  exactly 
that  in  his  own  age  which  corresponded 
to  the  wishes  of  all  the  higher  and  better 
order  of  men.  Thence  it  was  that  this 
'  Milinan,  Lat.  Chrisfianilif.  iii.  192. 

B  B 


870      FALSE  DECRETALS 


FALSE  DECRETALS 


legislation  was  so  joyfully  received.  No 
one  suspected  anything  false,  because  it 
contained  so  much  that  Avas  weighty  and 
true.  If  we  examine  carefully  these 
invented  decretals,  and  try  to  characterise 
their  compo.-t'i-  in  accnnhnice  with  their 
general  import  and  spirit,  -we  must  con- 
fess that  he  was  a  very  learned  man, 
perhaps  the  most  learned  man  of  his 
time,  and  at  the  same  time  an  extremely 
intelligent  and  wise  man,  who  knew  his 
age  and  its  wants  as  few  did.  Rightly  he 
perceived  that  he  must  e.xalt  the  power 
of  the  centre — that  is,  of  the  Pope — be- 
cause by  that  way  only  was  deliverance 
possible.  Nay,  if  we  would  pass  an 
unconstrained  judgment,  we  may  venture 
even  to  call  !iim  a  great  man." 

Nevertheless,  the  work  is  in  great 
part  what  we  now  call  a  forgery  ;  ana- 
chronisms and  blunders  have  been  dis- 
covered in  it,  which  force  this  conclusion 
on  tlie  mind  of  every  fair  critic.  But  at 
the  time  of  its  appearance,  and  for  many 
centuries  afterwards,  it  was  in  such 
thorough  harmony  with  the  prevalent 
temper  of  European  society,  and  with  the 
ecclesiiistico-political  ideas  which  Avere 
held  to  indicate  the  true  path  of  human 
progress,  that  those  who  appealed  to  it, 
and  even  those  whose  action  was  thwarted 
by  it,  never  troubled  themselves  to  ques- 
tion the  authenticity  of  the  documents 
which  it  contained.  Supposing  some  one 
in  the  twelfth  century  had  anticipated 
the  labour  of  the  moderns,  ajid  announced 
the  spuriousness  of  a  great  part  of  the 
decretals  ;  what  then  ?  The  feeling  would 
have  been  :  what  Fabian,  Cornelius,  Syl- 
vester, &c.,  are  made  to  say  is  true  and 
useful ;  if  they  did  not  actually  write  it, 
they  might  have  written  it ;  if  these  are 
not  the  genuine  letters,  then  the  genuine 
letters  which  they  did  wi-ite,  and  which 
would  have  Iteen  to  much  the  same  eftect 
as  these,  have  been  lost;  finally,  if  the 
Popes  of  the  third  century  did  not  com- 
mand all  this,  the  Popes  of  the  twelfth 
century  are  ready  to  command  it,  because 
it  is  true,  wholesome,  and  highly  ne- 
cessary to  be  observed.  If  in  the  four- 
teenth irnliiry  some  one  had  demon- 
stratid  thr  s]]iii'i(iiisness  of  the  charters 
(see  the  "  (JliKinicIc  of  Ingulfus")  by 
which  Croyland  AIjIm  v  ii.'l.l  its  lands; 
wliatthen.*'  Thi;  lands  Ii.nl  innjuestion- 
ablv  been  given  to  the  ubbi'v;  hut  the 
title-deeds  had  been  hist  or  destroyed 
during  tlie  Danish  invasions:  iLn<l  when 
a  litigious  race  like  thi'  Normans,  who 
would  not  be  satisfied  except  by  the 


production  of  actual  documents,  got 
possession  of  England,  the  monks  had  to 
manufacture  charters,  utterly  false  as  to 
the  form,  but  true  as  to  the  substance, 
or  they  would  have  l)eeu  ousted  from 
their  possessions.    A  passage  in  the  pre- 
face of  the  Pseudo-Isidore  shows  plainly 
enough  that  some  similar  motive  was 
present  to  him  in  making  his  compilation. 
1  "  Most  good  Christians,"'  he  says,  "  keep 
j  silence  [when  wrong  is  done]  for  this 
reason,  and  put  up  with  the  sins  of  orliers 
which  they  know,  because  they  are  often 
unprovided  with  documents  by  which 
they  could  prove  to  the  ecclesiastical 
judges   things  which   they  themselves 
know  ;   since,  although  certain  things 
j  may  be  true,  those  things  only  are  to  be 
j  believed  by  judges  which  are  demon- 
j  strated  by  certain  proofs,  established  by 
j  a  clear  sentence,  and  published  in  judicial 
I  form  and  order."  To  supply  "documents" 
so  desirable,  and  also  to  provide  for  the 
use  of  the  faithful  generally  a  store  of 
authoritative  statements  on  matters  af- 
fecting Christian  life  within  the  Church, 
seem  to  have  been  the  principal  objects 
of  the  writer. 

The  first  note  of  doubt  respecting  the 
genuineness  of  the  work  came  from 
Nicholas  of  Cusa,  an  eminent  theologian 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  Magdebui  g 
!  Oenturiators  [Chuech  History]  took 
up  the  matter  eagerly,  and  many  Pro- 
,  testant  writers  following  them  have 
shown  much  zeal  in  demonstrating  the 
unauthentic  character  of  most  of  the  de- 
cretals, imagining  that  they  were  in  some 
way  sapping  the  foundations  of  the  Papal 
power  by  doing  so.  The  fact  really  is, 
that  the  authority  of  the  Popes  derives  no 
confirmation  from  the  False  Decretals, 
but  that  the  False  Decretals  derived  the 
currency  and  influence  which  they  once 
had  from  their  agTeement  with  the  idea  of 
the  Papal  power  pre-existing  in  the  minds 
of  men.  The  life  of  our  own  St.  Wilfrid, 
the  story  of  the  foundation  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  German  churches,  the  letters 
of  St.  Leo  the  Great,  and  innumerable 
other  evidences,  show  that  there  is  abso- 
lutely nothing  new  in  the  doctrine  of  the 
Pseudo-Isidore  on  the  Papal  power. 

Moreover,  as  has  been  shown  by 
Phillips  and  Hef'ele,  it  is  certain  that  the 
greater  numberof  the  spurious  documents 
incorporated  by  the  rsendo-I-idoiv  m  his 
collection  were  not  mauufact  ui-id  h\  him, 
but  had  been  in  existence,  soni«  lor.i  Iohm-oi-^ 
others  for  a  shorter  period  of  t  ime.  Such 
are  the  Apostolic  Canons,  the  Donation  of 


FAMILIAR 


FAST 


871 


Con.-tantinp,  the  Letter  of  Pope  Sylvester, 

The  names  of  the  principal  writers  on 
this  question  are: — the  brothers  Ballerini, 
liiimont,  Eiclihom,  Gfrorer,  Hefele,  Hin- 
schius,  Kniist,  Mbhler,  Noorden,  Phillips, 
Kosshirt,  Spittler,  Walter,  and  Was'ser- 
schlehen. 

(Hefele,  in  Wetzer  and  Welte ;  Paulus 
Hinsdiius,  "  Pecretales  Pseudo  -  Isido- 
rian,T,"  Leipsic,  1S63.) 

FAniZX.XAR.  The  familinris  of  a 
Pope  or  bishop  is  a  person  belonging  to 
his  household,  who  is  supported  by  him 
or  at  liis  table,  and  renders  him  domestic, 
but  not  menial,  services.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  he  should  live  under  the  same 
roof  with  his  master,  but  the  law  will  not 
treat  him  as  his  familiar  if  he  lives  habitu- 
ally out  of  the  diocese,  or  in  a  distant 
city.  The  nephews  and  cousins  of  a  bishop 
living  in  his  palace,  in  order  to  be  con- 
sidered his  familiars,  must  render  him  real 
B-rvice. 

For  eight  centuries  previous  to  the 
French  Revolution,  the  clerical  profession 
— owing  to  the  largeness  of  the  clerical 
immunities  and  the  wealth  and  power 
possessed  by  the  Ciiurch — was  the  object 
of  desire  to  many  whose  motives  were 
mixed,  or  altogether  worldly.  An  easy 
way  by  which  such  persons  could  obtain 
ordination,  was  by  entering  the  household 
or  family  of  a  bishop.  It  was  commonly 
and  reasonably  held  that  a  bisho]!  ordain- 
ing members  of  his  own  family,  knew 
•what  he  was  about,  and  would  not  lay 
hands  on  unworthy  persons ;  great  free- 
dom, therefore,  in  respect  to  these  ordina- 
tions was  for  a  long  time  allowed.  But 
abuses  arose ;  a  class  of  ecclesiastics  with- 
out benefices  appeared,  who  hung  about 
Rome  and  the  great  ejiiscopal  cities, 
and  were  importunate  petitioners  to  the 
holders  of  preferment.  Hence  the  Council 
of  Trent  decreed'  that  no  bishop  should 
be  able  to  ordain  his  familiar,  who  was 
not  his  si/htlifHS,'^  unless  he  had  first  lived 
with  him  three  years,  and  unless  the 
bishop,  immediately  and  actually,  con- 
firmed a  benefice  upon  him. 

Tlie  familiars  of  the  Pope  [CuElv  Ro- 
MAN,\ — Famxjlia  I'ontificiri]  enjoy  many 
privileijes  Cardinal  priests  have  the  right 
of  conf-'niiig  on  their  familiars,  if  tliey 
have  lived  three  years  with  them,  the  ton- 
sure and  the  other  minor  orders.  A  Con- 
stitution of  Innocent  XII.  ("Speculatores 
domus  Israel")  adds  to  the  requirements 
»  Sess.  xxiii.  c.  9,  De  Ref. 
'  Belonging  to  his  diocese. 


of  the  Council  of  Trent  the  condition  that 
before  ordaining  his  familiar,  if  not  his 
subditus,  the  bishop  must  make  him  pro- 
duce testimonial  letters  from  the  bishop  of 
origin  or  domicile.  [See  Dimissoeials.] 
(Ferraris,  Famib'arie.) 

TAH  {Jlabellam  muiscarium  ;  whence 
esmoiK  her,  mouchoir :  pinlt,  pmlhiov)  is 
mentioned  as  a  liturgical  instrument  in 
the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  viii.  li'. 
There  the  rule  directs  that  betwe.-n  the 
otTertory  and  communion  two  deacons 
stand  by  the  altar  and  use  fans  of  linen, 
fine  skin,  or  peacocks'  featliei's  to  drive 
away  insects  and  keep  them  from  touch- 
ing the  sacred  vessels.  The  use  of  the 
fan  during  the  consecration  is  also  men- 
tioned in  the  liturgies  of  St.  Basil  and 
'  St.  Chrysostom.  Indeed,  ancient  writers 
I  S])eak  of  the  "holy  "or  "mystical  fan" 
]  {ayiov  piTtibiov,  fivaTiKrj  pnrU),  and  regard 
it  as  one  of  the  insignia  of  the  deacon's 
office.  Although  the  fan  is  not  men- 
1  tioned  in  the  ancient  Roman  "  Ordines," 
its  liiur^'ical  use  was  undoubtedly  known 
in  the  West,  for  we  find  it  noticed  in 
ancient  monastic  rules — e.^.  in  that  drawn 
up  by  St.  Benignus  of  Dijon,  and  in  the 
Dominican  ceremonial.  The  Western 
Church  does  not  seem  to  have  resi'rved 
its  use  to  deacons.  After  the  fourteenth 
'.  century  it  fell  into  disuse  throughout  the 
West.  However,  magnificent  fans  of 
peacocks"  feather^  are  ^till  carried  by  the 
attt-nd  iiits  of  the  Pope  in  solemn  proces- 
sions, and  in  several  Italian  churches — 
according  to  the  writer  of  the  article  on 
this  subject  in  Kraus'" Arcliaolog.  Ency- 
clopadie  " — the  use  of  the  fan  is  still  re- 
tained, not  only  in  processions  but  also  at 
the  altar. 

FAST.  \.  The  Principle  of  Fast  in  (/.— 
Theologians  distinguish  the  natural  from 
the  ecclesiastical  fast.  The  former  consists 
in  total  abstinence  from  food  and  drink, 
and  is  required  of  those  who  are  about  to 
communicate;  thelatter, which  alone  con- 
cerns us  here,  imposes  limits  both  on  the 
I  kind  and  quantity  of  our  food.  \\'lint  tlie.^a 
limits  are  will  be  explained  in  the  course 
1  of  I  his  article,  but  the  definition  given  is 
I  sutlicient  for  our  immediate  purjjose — 
viz.   to  justify   the   Catholic  practice 
from  reason  and  revelation.  Experience 
tells  us  that  there  is  a  jierjietual  struggle 
between  the  .spirit  and  the  body,  and  that 
mortitic.'itlon  of  the  flesh  is  a  great  means 
of  ine\ cut  iiii:  it  from  inciting  us  to  re- 
bellion ai;ain>t  God's   law.    Again,  by 
i  denying  ourselves  the  lawful  jileasures  ot 
I  sense,  we  are  able  to  turn  with  greater 
S  B  2 


372 


FAST 


FAST 


freedom  and  earnestness  to  the  thought  of 
God  and  virtue,  so  that  spiritual  writers 
speak  of  fasting  as  one  of  the  wings  of 
prayer.  Lastly,  our  conscience  tells  us 
(and  even  heathens  have  felt  and  acknow- 
ledged it)  that  we  ought  to  sufier  for  our 
sins  and  mortify  the  flesh  which  has 
■oflended  God. 

However,  we  are  not  left  to  the  mere 
-exercise  of  reason  on  this  point.  Fasting 
as  a  means  of  grace  has  lieen  approved 
by  God  Ilinisrlf.  A  <lay  of  iasting— viz., 
the  Day  of  Atoll,  nii'iit  on  tlie  tenth  day 
■of  tlir  seventh  month— was  imposed  by 
God  on  tlie  Israelites.  Moses  and  Elias, 
those  great  servants  of  God,  fasted  for 
flirty  days  :  so  did  Christ  Himself  before 
beginning  His  public  ministry.  He  takes 
fur  granted  ("  when  ye  fast,"  Matt.  vi.  16) 
that  his  disciples  will  fast,  and  warns  them 
against  doing  so  ostentatiously.  The 
Apostles  fasted  (Acts  xiii.  i',  xiv.  22, 
2  Cor.  xi.  27),  and  St.  I'aul  expressly 
spealis  of  fasting  as  a  means  iiy  wliieh 
Christians  are  to  commend  tliemselves  as 
servants  of  God.'  It  may,  indeed,  Vie  ob- 
jected that,  after  all,  no  fasting-days  are 
imposed  under  precept  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  that  tlien-tore  the  Catliolic  is 
diHerenl  fninillie  Ajio-tolie  i.h-,  ot'fa-ling. 
To  this  It  mav  lie  Mie-wered  tl.:i1  of  such 
Protest ant.-^a.s  make  1  his  ohjecle.usenreely 
any  e^ver  fast  at  all,  and  most  of  them 
Avould  regard  the  practice  as  su])erstit  ious, 
a  jilain  proof  of  the  Chiu'ch's  wisdom  in 
pro\  iding  for  the  weakness  of  human 
nature  by  positive  legl>lation.  Besides, 
as  St.  Thomas  points  out,  secular  princes 
have  the  right  of  maldng  regulations  more 
strict  and  definite  than  the  precepts  of 
the  natural  law,  in  order  to  promote  the 
welfare  of  their  subjects.  The  natural 
law  requires  us  to  pay  just  debts:  the 
prince  may  order  them  to  be  paid  witliin 
a  certain  time  and  with  certain  f  irnialities. 
TheChurcli  surely  may  talve  similar  iiieims 
of  securing  the  spiritual  well-iieing  of  its 
subjects.  The  hxw  of  nature  imposes  the 
duty  of  fasting:  our  ,-|iiritual  rulers  de- 
termine the  time  and  t he  way  in  which 
this  dutv  is  to  lie  perronui  d. 

■2.  'Hid  Vrcsfiii  Lair  of  tlir  Church.— 
All  bajitised  ])e?->oMs  who  have  completed 
their  twenty-lii-st  \r:ir  are  lioimd  under 
mortal  sin  (see  l'io|j.  i'.;  eonJeiune.l  hv 
Alexander  VII.)  to  u\,-,  vxr  \Ur  .lays  of 

1  2  Cor.  vi.  n  ;  vrtardats  can  only  ni.'nn 
voluntary  alistinonre  frein  t'.xxl,  .-is  Mpyor.  ml 
loc.  proves.  In  xi.  27,  f'listinn' (  ^i/  pTjrrTeiats)  i.s 
<;leiiTly  distinijiiislio.l  from  involuntary  want  of 
food  {iv  Ki/xtf  Kol  di^iiet)' 


fasting.  On  these  days  they  are  required 
not  to  eat  more  than  one  fuU  meal,  which 
must  not  be  taken  before  midday.  They 
may,  however,  take  wine,  &c.,  at  discretion, 
for  drink,  accordingto  the  maxim  receive! 
among  theologians,  does  not  break  the  fast, 
unless  the  drink  be  such  as  chocolate  and 
the  like,  which  are  really  intended  to 
nourish  rather  than  to  satisfy  thirst  or 
maintain  the  animal  spirits.  Of  course 
a  person  may  by  drinking  wine  in  large 
quantities  act  against  the  spirit  of  the  law 
and  forfeit  the  advantages  which  fasting 
is  inteniled  to  secure.  Even  at  the  full 
meal  flesh  meat  is  prohibited.  Eggs,  milk, 
cheesi'.  Xc,  are  only  forbidden  during 
Lent,  liesides  this  single  meal,  the 
Church  permits  a  collation  of  about  eight 
ounces,  consisting  of  fruit,  vegetables, 
liread,  &c.,  or  even  of  fish,  provided  that 
the  fish  are  small,  or  that  not  more  than 
two  or  three  ounces  of  larger  fish  be  taken. 
Custom,  moreover,  at  least  in  England, 
allo\^■s  about  two  ounces  of  bread  Xo  he 
lak.  ii  al  hrealvfast.  Persons  engaged  in 
hard  hilioiir  ;  tlie  poor  who  have  a  ditli- 
culty  in  obtaining  sufficient  food  at  any 
time ;  those  who  are  over  sixty  years  of 
age  ;  persons  in  weak  health,  kc,  are  ex- 
cused from  the  law  of  fasting. 

By  a  recent  indult  gTanted  to  the 
English  liishops  the  use  of  milk,  butter, 
anil  cheese  at  collation  on  fasting  days  is 
j  p.'rniitted. 

•  !.  lliM.ory  of  Fasting. — From  the 
earliest  times  Catholics  have  observed 
fasting  days  of  precept.  TertuUian,  con- 
trasting the  numerous  fasts  of  the  Mon- 
tanists  with  the  less  strict  observance  of 
Catholics,  says  of  the  latter,  "  They  think 
that  in  the  Gospel  those  days  are  marked 
out  for  fasting  during  which  the  bride- 
groom was  taken  away" — i.e.  the  days  of 
Holy  Week,  alluding  to  Luke  v.  35.'  St. 
Jerome  (  Ep.  54),  making  tlie  same  com- 
])arison  between  Montanistsand  Catholics, 
says,  "  We  fast. me  I.ent  according  ti^  the 
tradition  of  thi'  Apostles."  St.  Ambrose 
(Serm.  25)  asserts  that  it  is  "no  light 
sin"  t.i  break  the  fast  of  Lent.  The 
Greek  Fathers  hold  similar  language;  and 
one  of  them.  Si .  Epiphanius  ("  IltEr."  75), 
tells  us  that  .iM-ius  the  heresiarcli  was 
conih'mned  because  he  maintained  that 
all  t'a>ting  on  particular  days  was  a 
malt.^r  of  devotion,  not  of  obligation. 

As  to  the  manner  of  fasting,  it  may  be 
said  generally  that  there  was  less  formal 
])recept  and  therefore  greater  variety  of 
custom;  but  that  still  fasting  in  the  early 
was  much  more  severe  than  in  the  modern 


FAST 


FAST 


373 


Ohurch.  Throughout  East  and  West, 
Catholics  abstained  on  fasting  days  from 
wine  as  well  as  from  flesh  meat,  the 
former  as  well  as  the  latter  being  only 
permitted  in  cases  of  weak  health.  The 
Fathers  constantly  put  abstinence  from 
■wine  and  animal  food  on  the  same  level. 
The  days  of  Holy  Week  were  known  as 
days  of  xerophagy,  or  dry  food  (Epiphan. 
in  "Exposit.  Fid."  n.  22;  "Constit.  Ap." 
V.  17),  because  then  the  faithful  were  ac- 
customed to  feed  on  bread  and  salt,  to 
which  some  added  vegetables.  The  meal 
was  not  taken  before  sunset  (Greg.  Nyss. 
"Orat.  in  Princip.  Jejun.''):  till  that  time 
an  absolute  fa.^t  even  from  water  was  ob- 
served. Hence  the  ancient  custom  in  the 
Latin  Church  of  celebrating  Mass  during 
Lent  in  the  evening  and  encouraging  all 
the  faithful  to  communicate  at  it.  Dinner 
—i.e.  the  midday  me:il — and  fastinir  were 
regarded  in  ancient  times  as  incompatible; 
so  much  so  that  in  order  to  comply  with 
the  law  of  the  Church  which  forbade 
fasting  on  Sundays,  the  ancient  monks 
took  their  single  meal  on  that  day  at  noon. 
Usually  the  faithful  went  to  church  on 
week-days  in  Lent  at  -j  p.m.  for  none, 
followed  by  Mass  and  vespers,  after  wliich 
they  were  at  liberty  to  eat.  We  find  tlie 
■first  traces  of  relaxation  near  the  ch  ise  nf 
the  eighth  century.  Theodulf,  bishop  of 
Orleans,  in  a  Capitulary  of  7i)7,  blames 
people  who  began  to  eat  at  the  hour  of 
none  (3  p.m.)  without  waiting  for  office 
or  Mass.  About  the  same  time  Charle- 
magne introduced  the  custom  of  having 
none  sung  at  his  Court  an  hour  before  the 
usual  time,  in  order  to  spare  the  courtiers, 
who  dined  alter  hiui  at  several  tables 
in  succession  according  to  their  rank. 
Ratherius, Bishop  of  "\'erona,inthe  middle 
of  the  tenth  century,  speaks  of  this  custom 
of  dining  at  noon  as  already  established. 
St.  Thomas  (2*  2®,  qu.  147",  7)  fully  re- 
cognises the  lawfulness  of  this  usage.  He 
even  considers  it  enou.-h  if  the  meal  was 
taken  about  the  hour  of  none,  and  makes 
allowance  for  persons  in  weak  healtli 
who  were  unable  to  fast  so  long  and 
needed  (lis)H  ii<ation  to  eat  earlier  in  the 
day.  riu'  oHh  .  -  nf  none,  Mass  and  vesp'-rs 
were  all  n  )iirl  ik  led  in  the  later  part  of  the 
middle  iiizt  s  before  three  o'clock,  and 
Paludanus  and  other  schoolmen  were  so 
little  aware  of  the  ancient  discipline  of 
the  Church  07i  this  point  that  they  re- 
garded the  old  j)roliibition  to  eat  before 
•evening  ("ante  vesperam")  as  meaning 
simply  that  the  fast  was  not  to  be  broken 
Jiefore  the  vesper  office  ;  thus  completely 


ignoring  the  fact  that  the  hour  of  vespers 
during  Lent  had  been  changed.  Lastly, 
the  rule  of  St.  Thomas  that  the  'ast 
might  be  broken  nhout  none  was  inter- 
preted more  and  more  loosely  till,  in 
1500,  we  find  the  synodal  decrees  of 
Paris  approving  the  modern  custom  of 
taking  the  meal  at  midday.  The  Greeks, 
according  to  Goar,  have  adopted  the  same 
relaxation. 

The  word  "collation,"  in  its  presejit 
sense,  marks  another  important  change  in 
the  manner  of  fasting.  St.  Benedict  in 
his  rule  requires  his  religious  to  assemble 
after  supperand  before  compline  and  listen 
to  "  collations  '' — i.e.  conferences  (of  Cas- 
sian),  the  Lives  of  the  Fatliers,  or  other 
edifying  books  which  were  then  read  aloud 
by  one  of  their  number.  Xow,  in  an 
ancient  monastic  rule  known  as  the  "Re. 
gula  Maci'istri,'"  we  find  the  reli^inns  pe)-- 
mitte.l  1.11  the  special  fasts  of  tlie  -irder 
to  partake  together  of  wine  and  \\:\X-y  in 
very  moderate  quantity:  and  in  a  chapter- 
general  of  abbots  and  monks  held  at  Aix 
la  Chapelle,  in  817.  tlie  monks  were  per- 
mitted to  drink  before  compline,  even  on 
fasts  of  the  Church,  if  wearied  by  manual 
labour,  the  recitation  of  the  office  of  the 
dead  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  office,  or 
the  like.  This  refreshment  was  taken  just 
before  the  reading  of  the  "collations;" 
and  in  130-^,  in  a  statute  of  the  congrega- 
tion of  Cliigny,  we  meet  with  the  word 
"collation"  used  for  this  refreshment.  It 
was  not  till  a  still  later  date  that  any 
solid  fill  1(1  was  taken  on  fasting  days  in 
theAN'estern  Church,  except  at  the  single 
meal.  The  Greeks,  indeed,  even  in  the 
eleventh  century,  ate  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables in  moderate  quantity  over  and 
above  the  single  meal,  but  Cardinal  Hum- 
bert reproached  them  with  breaking  the 
fast  by  this  very  practice.  St.  Thomas 
only  permits  the  use  of  "  eh'Ctuaria  "  out 
of  the  single  meal  on  the  ground  that  they 
were  taken  as  medicine,  not  as  food.  In 
Gerson's  time,  a  collation  of  ve^^i^table 
food  was  approved  by  custom.  The  ruli> 
of  the  Tbeatines,  drawn  up  under  Cleun-nt 
VIT.,  inention>  these  eollations  ami  the 
>].iritnal  reailin- whieli aeconqianied t liem. 
The  quantitv  pevniivsible  at  colla.tion  lias 
been  gradually  enlaroed.  St.  Charles,  in 
the  rules  which  he  made  for  his  servant 
only  allows  them  a  glass  of  wine  with  an 
ounce  and  a  half  of  bread  to  be  taken 
as  a  collation  on  the  evening  of  fasting 
days. 

(The  present  rules  of  fasting  will  be 
found  in  any  modern  treatise  on  Moral 


874      FATHER  (TITLE  OF) 


FEAR  OF  GOD 


Theology.  The  principle  of  f;isting,and  the  ' 
practice  of  his  own  time,  are  explained 
by  St.  Thomas,  "Summa,''  2'>'  2®,  qii.  147. 
Tlie  sketch  of  the  history  of  fasting  given 
ahove,  and  the  references,  are  taken  from 
the"Trait(?  surli's.Ieunes,"byThomnssin  ) 
FATHER  (  TZTXiE  OP)  was  given  in 
early  times  to  all  bishops.  The  title  of 
spiritual  father  was  also  used  to  desig- 
nate confessors,  and  thus  an  early  Bene- 
dictine rule  provides  that  none  of  the 
religious  should  become  a  spiritual  father 
without  leave  from  his  abbot.  I^astl}', 
the  head  of  a  monastery  was  called 
"  Father,"  this  name  being  of  course  a 
translation  of  the  Oriental  word  abbot. 
[See  also  the  beginning  of  the  art. 
Pope.] 

FATHERS   OF    THE  CRVRCH. 

The  appellation  of  Fathers  is  used  in  a 
more  general  and  a  more  restricted  sense. 
In  a  general  sense  it  denotes  all  those 
Christian  writers  of  the  first  twelve  cen- 
turies who  are  reckoned  by  general  con- 
sent among  tlie  nifist  eminent  witnesses 
and  teachers  of  the  orthodox  and  Catholic 
doctrine  of  the  Church.  Taken  in  this 
sense,  it  includes  some  names  on  which 
there  rests  more  or  less  the  reproach  of 
lieterodox  doctrine.  Origen,  whose  works, 
as  we  have  them,  contain  grave  errors 
frequently  condemned  by  the  highest 
authority  in  the  Church,  is  one  of  these. 
Nevertheless,  his  writings  are  of  the 
highest  value  for  tlieir  orthodox  contents. 
Eusebius  of  Ciesarea  is  another.  Tertul- 
lian  became  an  open  apostate  from  the 
Catholic  Church  ;  yet  his  writings  as  a 
Catholic  are  among  the  most  excellent 
and  precious  remains  of  antiquity.  There 
are  some  others  included  among  the 
l-'athers  in  this  greater  latitude  of  desig- 
nation who  have  not  the  mark  of  eminent 
sanctity. 

In  its  stricter  sense  the  appellation 
denotes  only  those  ancient  writers  whose 
orthodoxy  is  unimpeachable,  whose  works 
are  of  sii^nal  excellence  or  value,  and 
whose  sanctity  is  eminent  and  generally 
recogtiised  The  following  list  includes 
tlie  names  of  the  most  illustrious  Fathers, 
according  to  the  most  exclusive  sense  of 
this  honourable  title : — 

First  Century— s;t  Clempnt  of  Rome. 
Second  Century— St.  Ignatius,  St..Tu>lin, 
St.  IrenffiUS.  Third  Centui'v  St.  ( 'y- 
])rian,  St.  IHnnysius  of  A  li'XMiidriii. 
Fourth  Crntiirv — St.  Ath:nia.-ius,  St .  Hi- 
lary of  Poitiers,  St.  Cyril  of  .bTn.-al.MU, 
St.'  Basil,  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  St. 
Gregory  of  Nyssa,  St.  Ephrem,  St.  Am- 


brose, St.  (^ptatus,  St.  Epiphanius,  St. 
John  Clnys(.stom.  Fifth  Century— St. 
Jerome,  St.  .\ngustine,  St.  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria, St.  Leo  the  Great,  St."  Prosper,  St. 
"\'incent  of  Lerins,  St  Peter  Chrj'sologus. 
Si.vth  ( 'entury  — St.  C.'csarins  of  Aries,  St. 
Gi-egory  the  (ireat.  Seventh  Century — 
St.  Isidore  of  Seville,  l-'-ighth  Century — 
Yen.  Bede,St  .Tohn  Damascene.  Eleventh 
Centiirv — St.  Peter  Damian,  St.  Anselm. 
Twelftii  Century  -St.  Hernard.  A  com- 
plete coUect  ion  of  the  worlis  of  the  Fathers 
contains  many  more  names  than  these. 
Moreover,  it  is  plain  that  the  Fathers  of 
the  first  six  centuries,  by  the  mere  fact 
of  their  j)riority  in  time,  are  much  more 
valuable  witnesses  to  primitive  faith  and 
order,  and  that  their  writings  are  in  a 
stricter  sense  sources  of  theological  tradi- 
tion, than  the  works  of  those  who  came 
later,  however  illustrious  the  latter  may 
be.  There  is  also  a  gradation  of  rank 
among  the  Fathers,  some  having  a  much 
higher  authority  than  others.  As  private 
doctors,  no  one  of  them  lias  a  final  and 
indi.sputable  authority  taken  singly,  ex- 
cept in  so  far  as  his  teaching  is  warranted 
by  somi'  extrinsic  and  higher  criterion,  or 
sii])]iorted  by  its  intrinsic  reasons.  As 
wit  iic.^sc.-^,  each  one  singly,  or  several  con- 
curring together,  must  receive  that  cre- 
dcncr  which  is  reasonably  due  in  view  of 
all  the  qualities  and  circumstances  of  the 
testimony  given.  Their  morally  unani- 
mous consent  concerning  matters  pertain- 
ing to  faith  has  a  decisive  and  irrefragable 
authority.  It  has  ahvays  been  held  that 
God  raised  up  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the 
Church  th<'.^i.  liiglily  gifted,  l(>arned,  and 
holy  men,  ami  eiulowed  tliem  with  special 
and  extraoidiiiaiy  giaii  s  that  theymight 
be  the  princijial  teachers  of  the  mysteries 
and  doctrines  of  the  faith.  Their  writings 
are  the  great  source  of  light  and  truth  in 
theology,  after  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The 
autliority  of  their  doctrine,  in  the  proper 
seii,-eof  that  word,  is  nevertheless  derived 
from  the  sanction  of  the  Eccle.-ia  Docens, 
the  only  supreme  and  infalliltle  trilmnal. 

FEAR  OF  GOD  falls  into  two 
great  dnisions.  Servile  fi'.ir  is  the  fear 
such  a  slave  might  have  torhis  master, 
and  it  ImmK,-  to  the  ]iiiiiislinients  which 
God  nifii.ts.  Fdial  fear  is  the  fear  of 
sons;  it  eoiu-i>ts  in  dread  of  oifeiidiiig 
(Jod  who  Is  worthy  of  all  love,  and  ot 
heiii"  se|iarated  t'rom  Ilim  liy  sin. 

It  M  i  \  lie  tear  be  so  utterly  .servile  that 
it  is  united  with  the  will  to  sin  if  only  it 
[  were  possible  so  to  do  without  risk  of 
I  punishment,  it  is  of  course  evil.  But  the 


FEASTS  OF  THE  CHURCH 


FEASTS  OF  THE  CHURCH  zih 


iVar  of  God's  punishments  proceeds,  ac- 
cording to  the  Council  of  Trent,  from  the 
Holy  Ghost,  disposes  the  sinners  to  justi- 
fication, and  remains  even  in  the  saints 
while  on  earth  and  still  liable  to  fall. 
"Perfect  charity"  does,  indeed,  "cast 
out  fear  (1  John'iv.  18),  but  it  does  this 
only  so  far  as  a  man  perfected  in  the  love 
of  God  has  a  gi-owing  knowledge  that  his 
conscience  is  free  from  sins  which  will 
incur  the  judgment  of  God,  and  has  also 
an  increasing  coHfidence  in  God's  mercy. 
The  fear  of  God's  judgment  still  remains, 
and  the  saints  more  than  other  men  were 
ready  to  make  the  Psalmist's  words  their 
own :  "  Pierce  my  flesh  with  thy  fear :  for 
I  am  afraid  because  of  thy  judgments" 
(Ps.  cxviii.). 

Filial  fear  increases  with  the  increase 
of  charity,  since  the  more  a  soul  loves 
God  the  more  it  will  fear  offending  Him, 
so  long  as  there  is  any  danger  of  doing  so. 
Even  this  filial  fear  of  offending  God  is 
absent  in  the  case  of  the  blessed,  because 
they  are  not  exposed  to  any  such  peril. 
But  they  are  still  said  to  fea"r  God  in  the 
sense  that  they  constantly  recognise  their 
own  nothingness,  and  revere  God's  infinite 
majesty.  (See  St.  Thomas,  "Summa," 
2*  :2%'qu.  19;  Estius  ou  1  John  iv.) 

FEASTS  OF  THE  CBTTRCH. 
Days  on  which  the  Church  joyfully  com- 
memorates particular  mysteries  of  the 
Christian  religion  or  the  glorv  of  her 
saints.  Such  days  have  not  'been  im- 
posed on  us,  as  on  the  Jews,  by  the 
express  enactment  of  God,  and  in  this  as  | 
in  other  respects  the  Christian  law  is  one 
of  liberty.  The  whole  life  of  a  perfect 
Christian  is,  as  Origen  says,  a  perpetual 
feast,  on  which  he  dies  to  sin,  rises  with 
Christ,  and  receives  the  gifts  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  But  the  Church  has  wisely  insti- 
tuted recurring  festivals,  which  impress 
the  great  truths  of  religion  on  our  minds, 
and  bid  us  remember  that  "we  are  the 
children  of  the  saints."  ' 

At  first  the  number  of  the  Church's 
feasts  -was  small.  Easter,  the  Ascension, 
Pentecost  were  celebrated  in  St.  Augus- 
tine's time,  and,  as  he  believed,  by  Apo- 
stolic tradition.  He  was  familiar  with 
the  feasts  of  Christmas  and  Epiphany. 
The  feasts  of  martyrs  were  at  first  only 

•  St.  Paul  reproaches  the  Galatians  (iv.  10) 
for  observing,'  "days"  (such  as  the  Sabbath), 
"months"  (such  "as  the  Feast  of  the  New 
Mood),  "  limes  '  {Kaipovs,  annual  festivals,  such 
as  the  Passover),  "  years "'  (such  as  the  Sabbat- 
ical Year  ami  Year  of  Jubilee,  &c.).  The  refer- 
ence is  clearly  to  Jewish  feasts.  The  Apostles 
themselves  observed  "days,"  viz.  Sundaj-s. 


local,  and  those  of  confessors  were  ot 
later  introduction  even  as  local  leasts. 
We  may  form  some  idea  of  the  number 
of  feasts  during  the  first  five  centuries 
from  a  Calendar  of  the  African  churdi 
published  by  Mabillon.  It  is,  according 
to  that  great  critic,  the  most  ancient 
which  we  possess,  and  it  agrees  in  a 
remarkable  degree  with  a  list  given  by 
I  Possidius  of  St.  Augustine's  sermons  on 
the  festivals.  This  Calendar  notes  feasts 
j  of  African  martyrs,  and  of  some  con- 
fessors. It  mentions  also  the  feasts  of 
certain  martyrs  not  Africans — e.g.  St. 
'  Stephen,  St.  Lawrence,  St.  Vincent,  SS. 
Gervasius  and  Protasius,  of  St.  James 
the  Greater,  of  "  the  Holy  Apostles,"  of 
St.  John  Baptist,  the  Holy  Innocents, 
St.  Andrew,  St.  Luke,  and  the  Macha- 
bees.  It  gives  no  feast  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  nor  is  there  a  word  in  St.  Au- 
gustine's genuine  works  which  would 
lead  us  to  believe  that  such  feasts  were 
known  to  him.  Thomassin  thinks  the 
multiplication  of  feasts  and  their  more 
solemn  observance  must  be  attributed  in 
great  measure  to  the  monastic  orders. 

(1)  Feasts  are  divided  into  holidays  of 
obligation  ("  festa  fori "),  on  which  the 
faithful  are  bound  to  hear  Mass  and  rest 
from  servile  work,  and  holidays  which 
the  Church  observes  in  the  Mass  and 
office  without  imposing  any  obligation  ou 
the  faithful. 

(2)  Again,  feasts  are  divided,  accord- 
ing to  their  rank,  into  doubles,  semi- 
doubles,  simples,  &c.  The  following 
seems  to  be  the  origin  of  these  names. 
Lanfranc  speaks  of  double,  simple,  and 
semi-double  offices.  It  was  the  custom, 
till  late  in  the  middle  ages,  always  to  re- 
cite the  office  of  the  feria  [see  Feria],  in 
spite  of  any  feast  which  might  occur  on 
it.  Hence  on  greater  solemnities,  clerics 
were  obliged  to  recite  a  double  office — one 
of  the  feria,  another  of  the  feast.  These 
double  offices  were  few  in  number :  even 
the  office  for  the  feasts  of  the  Apostles 
was  not  double.  On  lesser  feasts  the 
office  was  simple — i.e.  the  feast  was 
merely  commemorated — and  on  a  third 
class  of  feasts  the  office  of  the  feria  and 
feast  were  welded  into  one,  much  after 
the  fashion  of  the  modern  breviary  offices 
for  certain  Sundays  in  the  Octave — e.g.  of 
the  .\scension.  These  last  offices  were 
called  semi-double.  As  time  went  on 
the  ferial  gave  way  more  and  more  to 
the  festal  offices,  and  we  find  Durandus, 
who  died  in  12'J0,  using  the  words 
"double,"  "semi-double,"  "simple,"' in  a 


876  FERROXIANISM 


FEBROXTAXISM 


uew  sense.  He  applies  the  word  "  double," 
not  to  the  two  offices  recited  on  one  day, 
but  to  the  single  office  of  a  feast  on  which 
the  antiphons  were  doubled — i.e.  repeated 
fully  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  psalm. 
On  semi-doubles,  half  of  the  antiphon 
was  repeated  before,  the  whole  after  the 
psalm :  in  other  words,  it  was  half  doubled. 
The  office  for  simple  feasts  differed  little 
from  that  of  the  feria.  The  practice  of 
taking  the  hymn  on  simples  from  the 
common  of  saints  and  reciting  the  Sunday 
psalms  at  lauds  only  dates  from  Pius  V. 

In  the  modern  office-books  the  doubles 
are  further  subdivided  into  doubles  of  the 
first  class,  doubles  of  the  second  class, 
greater  doubles,  and  ordinary  doubles. 
The  object  of  this  division  is  to  determine 
which  of  two  feasts  must  give  way  to  the 
other,  should  both  fall  on  the  same  day. 
The  inferior  feast  is  either  transferred 
to  some  other  day  or  commemorated  at 
certain  portious  of  the  office — e.g.  Mass, 
lauds,  &c.  Further,  certain  great  feasts 
have  octaves — i.e.  are  celebrated  through- 
out eight  daj's,  and  on  the  eighth  with 
special  solemnity.  Lastly,  feasts  are 
moveable  or  immoveable,  according  as 
the  time  of  their  celebration  is  fixed  for 
a  particular  day  of  the  civil  year,  or  cal- 
culated from  Easter. 

The  Pope  or  General  Councils  may 
make  feasts  of  obligation  for  the  whole 
Church ;  a  bishop  may  do  so  for  his  own 
diocese,  after  consulting  the  clergy  and 
faithful.  liut  a  bishop  cannot,  on  his 
own  authority,  institute  new  feasts,  alter 
the  breviary  or  missal,  nor  can  he  change 
the  rank  of  feasts — e.y.  by  making  a  semi- 
double  a  double — except  by  Apostolic 
indult  or  leave  from  the  Congregation  of 
■Rites. 

(See  Thomassin,  "  Traits  des  Festes ;" 
GavantuswithMerati's  notes;  and  Probst, 
"  Brevier  uiid  Brevier-gebet."  There  was 
a  celebrated  controversy  between  Granco- 
las,  who  ex])lained  tlie  origin  of  the  terms 
"double,"  "simple,"  kc,  from  the  old 
jiractice  of  reciting  two  offices,  and 
Guyetus,  who  argued  that  the  term 
"  double  "  referred  to  the  doubling  of  the 
antiphon.  An  account  of  the  arguments 
of  both  is  given  by  Merati  on  Gavantus, 
P.  II.  sec.  iii.  cap.  2.  The  view  of  Probst, 
which  we  have  followed,  does  justice  to 
the  facts  adduced  on  either  side.) 

FEBRONXATTZSMC.  A  name  given 
to  certain  views  on  the  constitution  of  the 
Church  and  the  relations  of  Cliurcli  and 
State,  which  may  be  roughly  describi^d  as 
an  exaggeration  of  Gallicanisni.  They 


were  propounded  in  the  middle  of  last 
century  by  an  author  who  assumed  the 
name  of  ^ebronius. 

His  real  name  was  John  Nicolas  von 
Hontheim.  He  was  born  of  a  noble 
family  at  Treves  in  1701,  and  studied 
canon  law  with  great  diligence  at  Lou- 
vain,  under  the  famous  Van  Espen.  The 
principles  which  Hontheim  learned  from 
his  professor  evidently  left  a  lasting  im- 
pression on  his  mind,  for  Van  Espen  was 
remarkable  for  his  spirit  of  opposition  to 
Rome^  no  less  than  for  hi?  uiuloulited 
talents  and  learning.  Having  taken  his 
Doctor's  degree  in  law,  Hontheim  returned 
to  his  native  city  and  lectured  on  the 
"Digest"  in  the  University  of  Treves 
from  1732  to  1738.  Ten  years  later,  he 
was  consecrated  suffi'agan  or  auxiliary 
bishop  of  Treves  with  a  title  in  partihus, 
and  under  three  successive  Prince-Arch- 
bishops e.xercised  great  influence,  both  on 
the  spiritual  administration  of  the  arch- 
diocese and  on  the  temporal  government 
of  the  electorate.  He  wa  s  j  ustly  esteemed 
for  his  exemplary  life,  and,  in  spite  of 
engrossing  occupations,  he  found  time  to 
write  and  publish  two  learned  works  on 
the  history  of  Treves ;  nor  was  it  till  he 
liad  reached  old  age  that  he  did  anything 
to  tarnish  his  fair  name.  In  1703  a  book 
appeared  under  the  following  title : — "  De 
Stilt u  Ecclesia^  et  de  legitima  Potestate 
Roniani  Pontificis,  liber  singularis  ad 
reuniendos  dissidentes  in  religione  Chris- 
tianos  coni])ositus.  Bullioni,"  The  real 
name  of  the  author  remained  for  a  con- 
siderable time  unknown,  and  at  this  day 
the  name  of  Febronius,  which  occurred  to 
Hontheim  as  a  nom  de  plume  because  his 
niece  was  called  Febronia  in  religion,  is 
familiar  to  many  who  never  heard  of 
Hontheim  himself.  The  book,  liowever, 
soon  became  notorious.  It  put  into  shape 
opinions  which  were  exceedingly  popular 
at  the  time — nowhere  more  so  than 
among  German  Catholics. 

Christ,  according  to  Febronius,  had 
conferred  the  power  of  the  keys  on  the 
^vhole  body  of  the  faithfid,  although  it 
was  to  the  prelates  of  the  Church  that 
the  actual  administration  of  the  power 
was  committed.  Each  bishop,  as  a  suc- 
cessor of  the  Apostle.s,  received  his  power 
straight  from  God,  and  had  unlimited 
authority  to  disi)ense,  judge  heresy,  and 
consecrate  other  bishops.  Peter,  inde 'd, 
and  his  sucees.sors,  were  endowed  hy 
Christ  witli  the  primacy,  l)Ut  through 

1  lie  would  net  accept  tlioluill-Uuigenitus," 
and  had  to  tlce  Iruiii  Louv.-iin. 


FEBRONIANISM 


FEBRONIANISM  377 


tliis  primacy — which,  by  the  way,  was  not 
necessarily  attached  to  the  Roman  see — 
the  Pope  was  superior  to  his  brethren  in 
the  episcopate,  only  so  far  as  a  metro- 
politan is  superior  to  the  other  bishops  of 
his  province.  Moreover,  although  the 
Pope  was  superior  to  any  single  bishop, 
the  body  of  the  episcopate  was  sujierior 
to  him.  He  could  do  nothing  against  the 
canons,  his  power  being  confined  to 
watching  over  their  execution.  An  appeal 
might  always  be  made  from  the  Pope  to 
a  general  council,  since  the  Pope  was  not 
a  supreme,  and  much  less  an  infallible, 
judge;  nor  could  it  be  said  that  a  council 
without  the  Pope  was  like  a  body  with- 
out its  liead,  since  the  Pope  had  to  exer- 
cise his  jirimacy  in  the  Church,  not  over 
it.  Without  the  consent  of  the  Church, 
he  could  issue  no  laws  of  universal  obliga- 
tion, and  it  was  idle  to  try  and  enforce 
6uch  laws  by  threatening  the  disobedient 
with  excommunication.  True,  partly  by 
the  concessions  of  the  bishops  themselves, 
still  more  by  Papal  extortion,  the  power 
of  the  Holy  See  had  grown  to  monstrous 
dimensions;  but  it  was  high  tiuje  to 
restore  primitive  discipline.  To  efiect 
tliis,  it  was  the  duty  of  the  bishops  to 
refrain  from  publishing  in  their  dioceses 
such  Papal  bulls  as  were  injurious  to 
episcopal  authority,  while  secular  princes 
ought  to  promote  the  same  end  by  con- 
voking General  Councils,  and  by  availing 
themselves  of  the  Placet  and  a2)pel  comme 
d'abics,  and  by  open  refusal  to  submit. 

These  propositions  are  manifestly  op- 
posed to  Catliolic  doctrine,  and  they  are 
not  even  consistent  with  each  other.  The 
book,  moreover,  was  every  way  unworthy 
of  its  author,  for  it  shows  no  sign  of  the 
learning  which  he  actually  possessed. 
What  he  said,  had  been  said  before  by 
Eicher  and  by  the  Spaniard  Tostatus,  but 
Febronius  does  not  seem  even  to  have 
had  recourse  to  them,  and  was  content  to 
draw  from  Dupin.  Clement  XIII.  con- 
demned the  book  on  February  27,  1764, 
although  only  some  of  the  German  bisliops 
— among  whom,  however,  was  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Treves — prohibited  it  in  their 
dioceses.  Many  refutations  appeared,  of 
which  the  most  famous  are  the  "  Autife- 
bronio"  of  the  Jesuit  Zaccaria  (Pisaur. 
1767,  4  vols.  8vo.,  "  Antifebronius  vindi- 
catus,  Csesen.  1768,  4  vols.  8vo),  the 
"  Italus  ad  Febronlum  "  of  the  Capuchin 
Viator  a  Cocaleo  (Luc.  1768,  TridtMit. 
1774),  and  the  "  De  Potestate  Ecclesiastica 
Summoi'uiu  Pontificum  et  Conciliorum 
generalium  liber,  una  cum  vindiciis  auc- 


toritatis  pontificiffi  contra  o^us  Just, 
Febronii,"  by  Peter  Ballerini  (Veron. 
1768,  4to).  Febronius  defended  himself 
under  various  new  pseudonyms,  such  as 
Justinianus  Novus,  Joannes  Clericus, 
Aulus  Jordanes,  &c.  Further,  he  was 
energetic  in  attempting  to  have  his  prin- 
ciples realised,  for  he  had  a  great  part  in 
the  composition  of  a  document  in  which 
the  three  ecclesiastical  Electors  of  Ger- 
many protested  against  Papal  interference 
in  their  dioceses.  This  document  was 
addressed  to  the  Emperor  in  1769.  That 
same  year  Clement  XIII.  died,  and  the 
troubles  which  embarrassed  his  successor, 
Clement  XIV.,  prevented  him  from  taking 
any  fresh  step  in  the  matter. 

So  things  stood  till  1778,  when  Pius 
VI.,  feeling  the  need  of  more  stringent 
measures,  pointed  out  to  the  Archbishop 
of  Treves  that  FebroniuB  must  make  a 
formal  recantation  or  else  fall  under  the 
censures  of  the  Church.  With  great 
difficulty  Febronius  was  persuaded  to  give 
a  general  explanation  of  his  meaning, 
which  explanation  was  sent  to  Rome  and 
returned  as  insufficient.  At  last,  the 
Pope  and  the  archbishop  persuaded  him 
to  make  a  specific  retractation  of  erroneous 
propositions  in  his  book,  which  by  this 
time  had  grown  to  six  volumes.  Pius  VI. 
announced  the  good  news  in  the  con- 
sistory, and  communicated  it  to  the 
Catholic  Courts.  They,  however,  and 
particularly  tlie  Courts  of  Vienna  and 
Madrid,  regarded  it  as  anything  rather 
than  good  news,  and  the  "  Gazetta  Uni- 
versale" of  Florence  charged  the  Pope 
and  the  Prince  Archbishop  with  tyranny, 
Febronius  himself  with  cowardice  and 
hypocrisy.  Thereupon,  the  archbishop 
pressed  his  auxiliary  to  explain  himself 
further,  and  accordingly  Febronius  did 
before  the  clergy  of  Treves  assert  the 
reality  of  his  conviction  that  he  had 
fallen,  although  unwittingly,  into  error. 
Unfortunately,  the  documents  printed  by 
Wyttenbach  and  Mtiller  in  the  third 
volume  of  their  "  Gesta  Trevirorum 
show  that  Febronius  did  not  really  and 
thoroughly  renounce  his  errors.  In  1781 
he  published  a  commentary  on  his  retrac- 
tation ("Justini  Febronii  Juris-consulti 
Commentarius  in  suam  I?etract;iti(ineni 
Pio  VI.  Pont'.  Max.  Kal.  Nov.  Ann.  1778 
submissam."  Francof.  1781,  4to)  which 
contained  many  propositions  which  must 
have  been  highly  oH'ensive  to  the  ro])e. 
Pius  VI.  liiindeil  it  for  examiiiati'in  to 
Cardinal  (jerdil,  who  replied  to  it  in  his 
treatise  headed,  "In  Oommentarium  a 


878 


FErJA 


FEUDUM  ECCLESIASTICUM 


Justino  Febroiiio  in  suam  Retractationem 
editum  Anliuadversiones,"  and  to  be  found 
in  volume  xiii.  ol'  liis  collected  works. 
But  Feb'onianism  appealed  to  prejudices 
and  interests  against  which  learned 
treatises  could  avail  little.  The  notorious 
Church  reforms  of  Joseph  II.  may  be 
fairly  called  Febronian,  and  the  Ems 
Con^rress  in  1786  acted  on  similar  prin- 
ciples. The  Archbishops  of  Cologne, 
Treves,  and  Mayence — all  of  them  secular 
princes  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  dignitaries 
— and  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg  were 
oifi-nded  at  the  sending  of  a  Papal  nuncio 
to  Munich,  and  the  activity  of  the  nuncio 
Mdusiirnor  Pacca  at  Cologne.  Accord- 
ini;ly,  they  appointed  representatives  who 
met  at  Ems  and  drew  up  a  "Puncta- 
tion  "  in  "2'-'>  articles,  the  object  of  which 
was  to  make  the  archbishops  practically 
independent  of  Rome.  The  Pope's  power 
was  tn  be  reduced  to  that  which  Feb- 
ronians  sujijh  ised  him  to  have  e.xercised  in 
the  iirst  tlirei'  centuries.  Exemptions  of 
relipi"n>  m-ders  were  to  be  annulled;  no 
recmn  se  was  to  be  had  to  Rome  for  dis- 
pensat  ions ;  the  bishops  were  no  longer 
to  take  the  oath  of  obedience  to  the  Holy 
See  :  Papal  bulls  were  to  have  no  autho- 
rity till  approved  and  published  by  the 
bishdps.  Owing  to  the  firmness  of  the 
Pope  and  his  representative,  Pacca,  as 
well  as  to  the  loyalty  of  the  inferior 
bishops  to  Rome,  and  their  dread  of 
archiepiscopal  autocracy,  the  threatened 
schism  came  to  nothing,  and  in  IZfO  the 
three  episcopal  Electors  acknowledged 
the  right  of  the  Holy  See  to  give  dispen- 
sations and  send  nuncios.  Febronius, 
who  was  already  a  very  old  man,  does 
not  appear  to  have  taken  any  active  part 
in  the  contest.  He  died  in  peace  with  the 
Church  on  September  2, 1790.  In  a  short 
time  the  French  Revolution  changed  the 
face  of  Europe,  and  Febronianism,  though 
remnants  of  it  lingered  on  to  our  own 
day,  has  never  since  been  the  occasion  of 
any  serious  danger  in  the  (church. 

FERZA.  A  name  given  in  the  eccle- 
siastical calendar  to  all  days  of  the  week 
except  Sunday  ("  Dies  dominica ")  and 
Saturday  ("Sabbat  urn  ").  It  seems  strange 
that  the  title  of  Feria  or  feast  .should  be 
given  to  days  which  are  not  feasts,  or  at 
least  are  not  considered  as  such,  so  far  as 
they  are  called  Feria?.  The  explanation 
given  in  the  breviary  (Feast  of  St.  Sil- 
vester, lect.  vi.),  that  clerics  are  to  be 
free  from  worldly  cares  and  keeji  a  per- 
petual feast  to  God,  scarcely  suffices,  and 
perhaps  is  not  intended,  to  account  for 


the  actual  origin  of  the  name.  The  true 
explanation  is  probably  this.  The  Jewa 
were  accustomed  to  name  the  days  of  the 
week  from  the  Sabbath,  and  thus  we  find 
in  the  Gospels  such  expressions  as  "  unam 
sabbati,"  ixlav  tcov  auS^dTaiv,^  "  the  first 
day  from  the  Sabbath,"  or,  in  other  words^ 
the  first  day  of  the  week.  The  early 
Christians  reckoned  the  days  in  Easter 
week  in  the  same  fashion:  nnlvas  all  the 
days  in  that  week  were  holy  days,  they 
called  Easter  ^Monday,  not  the  first  day 
after  blaster  Sunday,  but  the  second  feria 
or  feast-day;  and  as  every  Suudaj-  is  a 
lesser  Easter,  the  practice  prevailed  of 
calling  each  Monday  "feria  secunda," 
each  Tuesday  "  feria  tertia,"  and  so  on. 
Ferise  are  divided  into  greater  and  less. 
The  latter  give  place  to  any  feast-day 
within  an  octave  or  vigil,  without  even 
being  commemorated.  The  "  greater 
feiiic  ■'  are  the  week-days  of  Advent  and 
Lent,  the  Ember  Days  and  Monday  (not 
Tuesday)  in  Rogation  Week.  If  a  simple 
feast  falls  on  such  a  feria,  the  ferial  office 
and  ]\Iass  are  said,  the  feast  being  only 
commemorated,^  and  if  a  double,  semi- 
double,  or  day  within  an  octave  coincides 
with  the  feria,  the  festal  office  is,  indeed, 
said,  but  the  feria  is  commemorated.  The 
privilege  granted  by  Apostolic  indult  of 
reciting  a  votive  office  on  certain  days  of 
the  week  or  month  cannot  be  made  use 
of  on  these  greater  ferife. 

Some,  moreover,  of  the  greater  feriae 
are  in-ivileged,  and  this  is  the  case  with, 
the  days  of  Holy,  Easter,  and  Whitsun 
weeks,  as  also  with  Ash  Wednesday. 
They  e.icclude  any  feast  of  however  high 
a  rank,  and  cause  it  to  be  transferred  to 
another  day.  This  must  be  understood 
of  the  celebration  in  choir,  for  the  obliga- 
tion of  resting  from  servile  work  and 
hearing  Mass  on  holidays  of  obligation 
usually  '  remains,  even  if  that  holiday 
falls  on  a  greater  feria.  (Gavantus,  with 
Merati's  Kotes,  P.  II.  sect.  iii.  cap.  o.) 

FBUDVK  ECCXiESZASTXCtrni. 
By  an  ecclesiastical  fief  was  meant, 
strictly  speaking,  a  domain  belonging  to 
the  Church,  which  the  biishop,  abbot,  or 

1  In  Rabbinical  usage,  the  word"  Sabbath" 
became  equivalent  tn  week,  ami  hence  in  Rab- 
binical  lan>;u:ii;e   (adnpted   in   the  Gospel.«) 

if  :\  v'i-il  ocincidc^  with  a  ure.-Ucr  feria, 
tlie  .  tlice  is  of  the  IVi  ia  aleup  ;  the  Mass  is  of 
the  vifril  with  a  conniiciiiiii.itinri  of  tlie  feriii. 

5  Usually;  for  if  llu-  .A  nmuiciation  f«lls  on 
Good  Friday  or  Holy  Sa'urday,  all  obligation, 
(if  (ibservanee  is  transferred. 


fet:illants 


FLAGELLANTS  .379 


other  possessor,  granted  as  a  fief  to  a 
prince,  baron,  knight,  or  other  secular 
person,  in  return  for  protection,  escort, 
and  other  similar  services.  The  bishop, 
&c  ,  retained  the  suzerainty  in  the  name 
of  the  Church,  and  the  infeoft'ed  person 
did  homage  to  him  as  his  vassal.  Tithes 
■were  also  regarded  as  a  feudum  ecclefins,- 
tictim.  By  an  improper  use  of  the  term 
it  was  extended  to  the  secular  estates 
granted  in  fief  to  the  Church.  (Fen-aris, 

FETTZXtl.AN'TS.  [See  Cl.SJBUCIANS.] 

FIX.ZOQUE.  'See  Ceekds.] 
FXNAX.  PERSEVSRASrCX:  is  de- 
fined by  Billuart  (^"De  Gr.it."  diss.  viii. 
a.  5)  as  that  great  and  special  gift  in 
virtue  of  which  a  man  remains  in  a  state 
of  grace  till  the  moment  of  death.  The 
Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  vi.  can.  16  and 
cap.  1:5)  teaches  that  noonewitliout  special 
revelation  can  know  for  certain  that  he 
will  persevere,  and  al.so  that  we  are 
utterly  unable  to  secure  this  gift  by 
merits  of  our  own.  It  comes  from  the 
grace  of  God,  "who  is  able  to  establish 
him  who  stands  so  that  he  may  continue 
to  stand,  and  to  re-establish  him  who 
falls."  The  teaching  of  the  council  is 
confirmed  by  reason  and  Scripture.  To 
merit  a  gift  fmm  God,  it  is  necessary 
that  God  should  promise  to  bestow  the 
gift  in  question,  as  a  reward  for  good 
works.  No  such  promise  has  been  made. 
On  the  contrary,  Scripture  reminds  the 
just  that  they  must  work  out  their  salva- 
tion "with  fear  and  treml)ling,"  and 
warns  him  who  stands  "to  take  heed  lest 
he  fall." 

It  is  possible,  however,  to  obtain  •his 
gift  by  prayer  and  good  works,  which 
appeal,  not  to  the  justice,  but  to  the 
liberality  and  kindness  of  God;  and  some 
theologians  speak  of  tinal  perseverance  as 
obtained  in  such  cases  by  merit  "  de 
congruo."  In  this  sense  St.  Augustine 
("De  Dono  Persever."  cap.  6)  says  we 
can  merit  Knal  perseverance  by  prayer 
("  suppliciter  emereri  "). 

FXN-BXNG  or  CROSS.  [See  Cross.] 
PXRST-FRtrXTS.  By  the  law  of 
Moses  the  first-lruits  of  man,  of  animals, 
and  of  "whatsoever  thou  hast  sown  in 
the  field," '  were  owed  to  the  Lord.  A 
command  was  given  to  Aaron,  as  repre- 
senting the  priestly  caste  —  "For  the 
first-bom  of  man  thou  shalt  take  a  price, 
and  every  beast  that  is  unclean  thou 
ehalt  cause  to  be  redeemed."'^  In  another 


1  Ex.  xxiii.  16. 


nii.  15 


'  place '  the  Levites  are  said  to  be  taken 
I  by  the  Lord  in  commutation  of  this  price 
("  I  have  taken  them  instead  of  the  first- 
born that  open  every  womb  in  Israel"), 
but  it  was  still  required  that  a  first-born 
son  sliould  be  presented  to  the  Lord  in 
the  Temple,  and  redeemed  by  the  jiay- 
ment  of  five  shekels."    Tlie  firstling:-  of 
I  clean  beast.s — cows,  sheeji,  niul  Li^at: — 
I  were  not  to  be  redeemed,  Inn  nfl.  i^-l  in 
sacrifice  ;  and  of  the  meat,  the  c  in>'  i  ratrd 
breast  and  right  shoulder  were  assigned 
to  the  sons  of  Aaron.    Of  this  meat  only 
the  males  in  tlie  priestly  families  were  to 
'  partake:  ^  but  the  first'  tVuit>  of  the  pro- 
duce of  the  land  were  "to  thee, 
and  to  thy  sons,  and  to  tliy  .laiialit>Ts.  by 
'  a  perpetual  law."  The  Levitts  thi-nis-'lves, 
j  though,  being  without  land,  they  couhl 
not  offer  "  first-tVuits  of  the  barn-fioor 
and  the  wine-press."  ■*  yet  were  instnietfTl 
to  ofier  the  first-fruits"  of  the  tith.'s  jiaid 
1  to  them  by  the  children  of  Israel  to  the 
I  Lord — that  is,  "  the  tenth  part  of  the 
tenth." 

I       A  Hebrew  tradition  mentioned  in  the 

I  body  of  the  canon  law  assigns  some  part 
of  the  crop,  not  less  than  a  sixtieth,  and 
not  more  than  a  fortieth,  as  the  propor- 
tion which  ouulit  to  be  L:i  veil  as  first-fruits. 
In  substance,  the  olili^ation  to  ollVr  first- 
fruits,  which  is  equix  iilrnt  to  an  intention 
of  sustaining  the  Church  and  its  ministers 
with  our  tt'Oiporal  poods,  is  still  valid 

\  under  the  new  law  :  l)ut  in  form  it  is  not 
binding,  except  in  cases  where  they  are 
demanded   under   an    ancient  custom. 

j  (Ferraris,  Primitia.) 

1  FXSTVXiA  (also  called  siphon,  cala- 
mus, pui/illnn's).     A  pipe  through  which 

I  the  faithful  used  to  receive  the  blood  of 
Christ  from  the  chalice.  This  manner  of 
communicating  is  mentioned  in  the  most 
ancient  Roman  Ordines  (the  oldest  is 
attributed  by  Mabillon  to  tlie  time  of 
Gregory  the  Great),  and  a  curious  n'lic  of 
this  custom  remains  to  this  day.  At 
Papal  Massi's,  the  deacon  brings  the 
Precious  Blood  to  the  Pope,  who  takes  it 
througli  a  fistula. 

FX.A.cz:x.XAia-TS.  So  called  from 
the  scourges  (Jlai/ilirt)  which  they  carried 
in  their  processions,  and  with  which  they 
la.shed  their  bare  arms  and  shoulders. 
They  first  appeared  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, an  age  when  Christian  architecture 
reached  a  height  of  glory  and  perfection 
never  since  equalled,  and  extraordinary 
sanctity  revealed  marvels  of  grace  and 

'  Num.  viii.  16.  *  Grotius,«f/ /w/c.ii.  23. 
s  Num.  xviii.  10.     *  Num.  xviii.  30. 


880      FLECTAMUS  GENUA 


FLORE>XE,  COUNCIL  OF 


divine  power  before  unsuspected,  but  in 
■which,  also,  the  reign  of  law  being  but 
imperfectly  establii^liod,  the  world  was 
often  startled  from  its  proprietj-  by  the 
apparition  of  monsters  of  cruelty  and  lust, 
like  Eccelin  da  I\i)muno  and  liis  brother, 
whose  touch  was  emitaniinat  inn  and  their 
very  existence  a  curse.  Xu  human  arm 
seemed  able  to  reach  far  eudiigh,  or  strike 
hard  enough,  to  punish  a  twentieth  part 
of  the  crimes  that  were  committed.  God 
appeared  to  be  the  one  refuge  left.  Num- 
bers of  persons — men,  women  and  child- 
ren— collected  together  ;  they  veiled  their 
faces  and  uncovered  their  shoulders ;  in 
each  town  that  they  entered,  forming  a 
melancholy  procession,  they  sought  by 
tears,  groans,  and  voluntary  penance — 
singing  penitential  songs  the  while — to 
appease  the  divine  wrath  ;  the  sound  of 
the  lash  was  continual,  and  blood  flowed 
abundantlj-.  The  first  association  of 
Flagellants  appeared  at  Perugia  in  12G0. 
The  sympathy  and  agitation  which  their 
proceedings  at  first  excited  would  almost 
surpass  belief ;  eveiywhere  they  were 
joined  by  crowds  of  fervent  neophytes. 
The  rule  of  the  association  was  that  every 
])ersou  should  remain  a  member  of  it 
during  thirty-three  days,  in  honour  of  the 
thirty-lliree  years  of  the  life  of  our  Lord. 
A  confeuijHirary  '  writer  says  tliat,  what- 
ever might  be  alleged  against  them, 
"  nevertheless  by  this  means  many  who 
were  at  enmity  were  reconciled,  aiul  many 
good  things  were  done."  The  secular 
governments,  after  a  time,  observing  that 
the  Holy  See  and  the  bishops  in  general 
did  not  encourage  the  movement,  began 
to  prf)hibit  the  Flagellant  processions. 
After  the  blaclv  death  (1.348)  the  Flagel- 
lants again  ai)peai-ed.  They  now  gave 
way  to  m-iny  exti-a\  agances  :  their  leader 
spoke  of  a  my>terioiis  letter  which  had 
fallen  from  heaven  and  been  found  at 
Jeru>alein,  in  which  Jesus  Christ  pro- 
mised to  lie  gracious  to  all  penitents  in 
the  processions  of  Fla;ii'llants,  "  because 
their  lilood  was  mingled  with  His  blood." 
Clement  VI.  rejiressed  them ;  but  they 
appeared  again,  and  for  the  last  time, 
about  the  date  of  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance, among  the  canons  of  which  is  one 
condemning  their  excesses. 

FXiECTAIVIVS  OEVtVA  ("Let  US 
bend  our  knees  ").  AVords  used  by  the 
deacon  before  the  collects  in  the  office  of 
Good  Friday  and  in  certain  .Masses.  The 
Bubdeacon  immediately  afterwards  says 

•  Quoted  by  Milman,  Latin  Chrhtumity, 
book  xl.  chap.  2. 


"  Levate  "  ("  rise,"  literally  "  raise  them 
up,")  and  the  ministers  at  the  altar  do  so, 
having  knelt  on  one  knee  for  a  second. 
In  ancient  times  each  summons  came 
from  the  deacon ;  the  people  knelt,  and  a 
longer  space  was  allowed  for  silent  prayer. 
(Benedict  XIY.  "  De  Miss."  ii.  5.) 

Fi.ORx:2«TC&,  couNcii.  OF.'  Se- 
veral remarkable  attempts  to  heal  the 
schism  of  the  East  and  \\'est  were  made 
during  the  fourteenth  century.  In  1339, 
Andronicus  III.  Palaeologus  sent  the 
Abbot  Barlaam  to  negotiate  with  one  of 
the  Avignon  Popes,  Benedict  XII. ;  but 
the  Pope  would  not  listen  to  Rarlaam's 
proposal — viz.  that  the  churches  should 
be  united,  while  the  dogmatic  differences 
remained  as  they  were.  Xew  attempts 
at  reconciliation  were  made  by  .John  V. 
Palieologus,  who  was  hard  pressed  by 
the  Turks.  The  emperor  himself  became 
a  Catholic  in  13G9,  but  his  example  was 
not  followed  by  the  clergy  or  the  people. 
At  last  John  YI.  Pah'cologus  was  re- 
duced to  straits  which  made  him  see  the 
impossibility  of  saving  the  Byzantine 
empire  without  hel]i  from  the  M'estern 
Christians.  The  Tni-l.-~  had  tnken  Adria- 
nople,  and  his  throne  was  already  totter- 
ing beneath  hiiu.  In  his  extremity  he 
was  willing  to  negotiate  for  peace  with 
the  Catholic  Church.  Nicolas  of  Cusa 
went  to  Constantinople  and  smoothed 
the  way  for  reconciliation.  No  doubt, 
theri'  was  also  a  real  desire  for  unity  and 
doctrinal  agreement  among  many  of  the 
Greeks,  apart  from  the  political  motives 
which  induced  them  to  come  to  terms 
with  the  Latin  Church.  One  of  the 
Gi%ek  ecclesiastics  expressly  said  at  a 
council  held  for  preliminary  consultation 
at  Constantinople  that  a  union  on  merely 
political  grounds  would  not  last.  At 
the  end  of  November  1437,  700  Greeks 
sailed  from  the  Bosporus.  The  emperor, 
the  Patriarch  Joseph  of  Constantinople, 
deputies  from  the  other  Patriarchs,  en- 
trusted by  them  with  complete  power  to 
act  as  their  representatives,  and  Bessa- 
rion,  the  famous  archbishop  of  Nice, 
were  among  their  number.  On  Fehrnarv 
8,  1438,  they  landed  at  Venice.  Early 
in  March  they  reached  Ferrara,  to  which 
the  Council  of  Basle  had  heen  transferred, 
and  were  received  wilh  great  solenniitv 
by  the  Pope,  Eugenins  IV.  (hi  Apri'l 
9th  the  council  was  opened,  and  the  dis- 

'  Tlii^  is  I  hr  ii<ual  name,  because  at  Horence 
the  chii  f  work  of  the  council  was  done  ;  but  in 
realitv  it  mei  first  at  Ferrara  and  ended  at 
TidUie. 


FLUKE^■CE,  CUU.NCIL  Ui- 


FLORKS-CE,  COUNCIL  OF  331 


cue>ion  on  the  addition  of  the  word 
"Filioque"  to  the  Creed  began.  It 
lasted  for  fifteen  sessions,  after  which, 
partly  because  the  plague  had  broken 
out  at  Ferrara,  partly  because  the 
Florentines  wished  to  have  the  council 
in  their  city  and  oflered  to  supjjly  the 
Pope  with  money,  which  he  sorely  needed 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  Greeks,  the 
council  was  transferred  thither.  At 
Florence  the  council  continued  to  sit 
from  1439  to  U4i\ 

First  of  all,  the  great  dogmatic  ques- 
tion on  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
was  decided.  The  Greeks  acce])ted  the 
Latin  terminology — viz.  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Father  and  the 
Sou,  when  its  real  nu  aning  was  explained 
to  them.  The  Latins  fully  admitted  and 
the  coimcil  defined  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
proceeds  from  the  Father  and  the  Son  as 
from  one  principle  and  by  a  single  spira- 
tion.  The  Latins,  moreover,  fully  allowed 
the  orthodoxy  of  the  Greek  terminology 
— viz.  that  the  third  Person  proceeds 
from  the  Father  through  the  Son ;  and 
this  expression  also  was  approved  by  the 
Council.  Other  points  of  difference  were 
next  discussed.  It  was  defined  that  the 
body  of  Christ  is  truly  consecrated  either 
in  leavened  or  unleavened  bread,  Latins 
and  Greeks  being  required  to  follow  in 
this  matter  the  custom  of  their  respective 
churches;  further,  that  such  souls  as 
have  departed  in  God's  grace,  but  with- 
out having  done  penance  enough  for  their 
sins,  are  detained  in  Purgatory,  and, 
while  there,  are  assisted  by  the  sacrifices, 
prayers,  and  good  works  of  Christians  on 
earth ;  that,  on  the  other  hand,  souls 
perfectly  pui-ified  or,  like  infants  just 
baptised,  needing  no  purification,  go 
straight  to  heaven  and  see  God  face  to 
face,  whereas  the  souls  of  those  who  die 
in  mortal  sin  descend  at  once  to  hell. 
The  discussions  on  the  primacy  of  the 
Roman  bishop  were  much  more  long  and 
keen.  John  of  Torquemada  (Turrecre- 
mata),  John  of  Ragusio,  and  .Vmbrose 
Traversari  were  the  great  advocates  of 
the  Papal  prerogatives.  At  last,  how- 
ever, the  council  defined  that  "the  Holy 
Apostolic  See  and  Roman  Pontifl'  hold 
the  primacy  over  all  the  world  ;  that  the 
Roman  Pontitf  is  the  succes.sor  of  Peter, 
prince  of  the  Apostles ;  that  he  is  the 
true  vicar  of  Christ,  the  head  of  the 
whole  Church,  the  father  and  teacher  of 
all  Christians;  and  that  to  him  in  "the 
person  of]  blessed  Peter  full  power  has 
been  committed  by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 


of  feeding,  ruling,  and  governing  the 
universal  Church ;  as  also  {qiteiuadinodian 
etiam,  koB'  oPTpoKov)  '  is  contained  in  the 
acts  of  oecumenical  councils  and  in  the 
holy  canons."  On  Jidy  5,  1439,  all  the 
members,  except  Mark  of  Ephesus  and 
the  bishop  of  Stauropolis,  signed  the 
Decren  of  Union  containing  the  above 
definitions.  On  the  evening  of  the  same 
day  the  Greeks  again  appeared  liefore  the 
Pope,  and  Bessarion  declared  their  belief 
that  the  trausubstantiatioii  of  the  bread 
and  wiue  in  the  Mass  is  effected  by  the 
words  of  consecration,  thus  abandoning 
the  opinion  which  ascribed  the  change  to 
the  (niKKT](Tts  <n-  invocation  of  the  Iloly 
Ghost.  The  Decree  of  Union  was 
solemnly  published  next  day  (Sunday)  in 
the  Cathedral  of  Florence,  being  read 
aloud  by  Cardinal  Julian  in  Latin,  and 
by  Bessarion  in  Greek.  On  August  26, 
14.39,  the  Greek  emperor  left  Florence. 

The  union  effected  was  of  short  dura- 
tion. Joseph,  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, had  died  during  the  council;  his 
successor,  Metrophanes,  who  was  well 
disposed  to  the  union,  died  shortly  after 
it,  in  144.'{.  Mark  of  Ephesus  and  other 
enemies  of  uiiiry  were  active  in  their 
intrigues,  and  it  was  not  till  1452  that 
Cardinal  Isidore,  the  fugitive  metropoli- 
tan of  Kiew  and  h  -ate  of  Pope  Nicolas 
A'.,  succeeded  in  hiiA  ing  the  Florentine 
decrees  aclaiowl.'d^vd  and  promulgated 
in  the  cliurrh  of  St.  Sophia.  But  on 
May  29,  U-Vi  the  Turks  took  Constanti- 
nople, and  the  Sultan  Muhammed  II. 
appointed  the  anti-Roman  Gennadius  to 
the  Patriarchate.  In  1472  the  decrees 
of  Florence  were  formally  repudiated  by 
a  schismatical  council  at  Constantinople. 

Other  Orientals  besides  the  Greek 
schismatics  were  reunited  with  the 
Church  during  the  coui-se  of  the  council. 
In  1439  the  Armenians,  in  1440  a  part 
of  the  Jacobites  or  Monophysite  Chris- 
tians, were  received  into  Catholic  com- 
mimion,  and  Kugeniiis  IV.  issued  special 
instructions  for  them  which  are  still 
extant.  After  Eugenius  had  returned  to 
Rome,  in  144.'i,  the  council  was  still  con- 
tinued and  sessions  held  in  the  Lateran 
church.  At  the  second  session  of  the 
council  after  it  had  been  transferred  to 
Rome,  in  144-5,  Timothy,  the  Chaldaean 

1  Recent  examination  of  the  original  docu- 
ment siprneil  with  the  autograph  of  the  Greek 
em)i(  ror,  and  preserved  at  Florence,  removes  all 
shadow  of  doubt  that  this  is  the  true  reading. 
Four  or  five  original  copies  bear  the  same 
witness. 


382 


FORTITUDE 


FORUM  ECCLESIASTICUM 


or  Nestorian  Metropolitan  of  Tarsus 
living  in  Cyprus,  -witli  his  clergy  and 
people,  made  their  sul>iiii>si(iii  to  tlie 
Pope,  and  about  the  same  time  the 
Mardnites  in  that  island  lu'cauie  Catho- 
lics. 

For  a  time  certain  Gallican  divines 
denied  the  claims  of  Florence  to  rnnlc  as 
a  General  Council,  because  they  held  that 
the  Pope  exceeded  his  power  in  trans- 
ferring the  council  t'roiu  I'asle  to  Ferrai-a. 
Even  at  Trent  thi'  l-'rench  refused  to 
admit  the  Florentine  dehuitiou  on  the 
Papal  authority.  ]?ut  the  learned  Galli- 
can Natalis  Alexander  point.s  out  that 
the  Pope  has  the  right  to  modify  and 
dispense  from  the  canons  of  councils,  if 
public  necessity  or  the  good  of  the 
Church  requires  him  to  do  so.  He  argues 
further  that  the  "sounder  part"  of  the 
Fathers  of  Basle  consented  to  the  re- 
moval of  the  assembly  from  Basle  to 
Ferrara.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  t(i  say 
that  such  doubts  have  long  since  ceased 
to  be  possible  among  Catholics. 

The  Acts  <ifthe  Council  haveperished, 
but  we  ]ios.-es>  (1)  a  minute  history  in 
the  form  of  Acts,  written  in  (iivelv.  aii.l 
evidently  I  v  a  Greek  member  n|  the 
council.  Iletele,  Frummaiui,  and  other 
scholars  attribute  the  hi.story  to  Doro- 
theus  of  Mitylene.  It  will  be  found  in 
the  collections  of  Mansi  en-  llai'donin, 
with  a  Latin  translation  l)y  the  ('rel;tii 
Caryoptilus.  (2)  A  history  a^^reelng  in 
all  the  most  im;-ortant  ]i.iint>  the 
one  just  mentidued  was  ])ubl  ^1.  K  in 
in3,>^,  by  .lustiniani,  Cu>to>  .,f  the  \  ati- 
cati  Lilirary.  Tbi<  li!>tor\  is  drawn  u]), 
partly  from  imte^  maile  by  the  V:\\r,d 
advocate  Andrea.-  de  Sta  Cruce,  who 
was  ])i-esi'nt  at  tlie  coiiiieU,  ])ai'tlv  from 
other  ilocuments  in  the  \'allcaii  archives 
and  in  other  Itomnn  libi-ai-es.  llardouin 
has  jjrinted  Jnstiniani's  liistoi-\'  m  his 
collection.  (3)  A  history  b\-  Syi-opulus, 
a  Greek  priest  and  dignitary  of  Con- 
stantinople, Svro])ulus  was  ]ireseut  at 
the  council  and  seiieil  tin'  Itecree  of 
Union,  but  he  was  iVom  the  first  a  secret, 
and  soon  liecame  an  o])i'n  and  most 
bitter,  enemx  of  tlie  eonucil.  A  very 
inaccurate  Latin  t  ra  n-lat  ion  from  a  Pans 
MS.  was  published  1a  the  An.jlicau 
Robert  Creyghton.at  th.' Hague,  in  lOCO. 
The  best  modern  history  of  the  Council 
is  by  Hefele  (vol.  vii.). 

ipOBTITUDE.  [See  CARDIIf.4L 
ViBTlTES.] 

rORTY  HOURS.     [See  Exi'OSITION 

or  THE  Blessed  Sacramekt.] 


FORTTia  SCCX.ESXASTXCVia. 

The  tribunals  of  the  Church  are  of  two 
kinds,  internal  and  external.  The  in- 
ternal forum  is  the  tribunal  established 
in  the  sacrament  of  penance,  where  the 
coercive  power  is  the  Holy  Ghost  acting 
on  the  conscience,  the  penitent  is  his  own 
accuser,  and  the  confessor,  guided  by 
Moral  Theology,  remits  or  retains  sin, 
exacts  satisfaction,  and  directs  restitu- 
tion, according  to  the  circumstances  of 
each  case.  [Pexaxce.1 

Under  the  name  of  forum  e.rferinun 
is  included  every  exercise  of  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  external  to  the  tribunal  of 
penance.  The  judicial  office  in  the  ex- 
ternal forum  belongs  to  ))ishops  in  their 
resjiective  dioceses,  metropolitans  in  the 
cases  assigned  to  them  by  the  canons, 
and  sujjremely  and  universally  to  the 
Holy  See.  But  a  previous  question 
arises — viz.  Is  the  exercise  of  an  external 
coei'ci\e  jurisdiction  a  right  inherent  in 
the  constitution  of  the  Church?  Is  it 
not  lather  an  encroachment  on  the  rights 
of  the  civil  power?  It  will  be  fmnd  on 
a  closi'  examination  that  this  is  part  of  a 
II'  ■  t  ion — viz,  ^^'hethertheCh^^rch 
iii>t  it  111  eil  by  Jesus  Christ  really  pos- 
sesses a  native  and  supreme  authority, 
])arallel— not  subordinate — to  the  su- 
jireme  authority  of  the  State  If  the 
<  'hurch  is  and  ought  to  be  thus  indepeu- 
ileut,  then  the  right  of  making  laws  for 
thi'  government  of  her  children  not  liable 
to  tlie  revision  of  tlie  civil  ]>ower  cannot 
l.)e  denied  to  her;  and  if  she  has  the  right 
of  legi,-~latio7i,  she  must  also  possess  that 
of  coercive  jurisdiction,  since  in  human 
society  it  is  useless  to  ])a.~.-  law.-  it'  one 
has  not  the  pc^wer  of  ent'oreim,:  them. 
But  if  Christ  never  meant  Hi,-  Church  to 
be  an  indeji-mlent  society,  tlie-e  iliilits 
could  not  be  claimeil  for  her.  Among 
Protestants  it  is  u.'iu'rally  held  that  the 
Church  po,-.-,  ->.  >  no  ])ower  originally 
and  a)isolul-ly  inde|.enilent  of  that  of  the 
State.  'J'he  view  of  I'lilfendorf,  or  some 
moditication  of  it,  is  still  generally  ac- 
cepted, accordim;-  to  which  the  Chri-^tinn 
Church  is  a  kind  of  college  or  society 
withi)!  the  State — in  which  all  the 
members,  qi/ii  ( 'lii  i-t  ia as.  are  equal,  and 
can  meet  to-(  :liera>  m  otliei- colleges  to 
eleet  ollie.  r-,  Iraii-ael  bu-,ne>s,  'adojit 
rule,-  and  li\-la\v-,  .-in.!  -o  ,,n  Imt  which 
has  no  ]h,\x'er  o!'  |,a--inL:  law,-,  administer- 
ing jii.-t^ire.  .■oipleninim;.  or  |juiiislnn_' 

ture  and  tradition,  reji  et-  -o  deiii-adiiio  a 
view  of  the  Church  which  (iod  Incarnate 


FORUM  ECCLESIASTICUM 


FORUM  ECCLESIASTICUM  383 


founded  upon  earth,  and  endowed  with 
superniiturul  power  and  grace.  To  Peter 
and  the  otlier  Apostles  Christ  gave  the 
power  of  Ijinding  and  loosing.  He 
comniiiiuled  them  to  go  and  teach  all 
nations;  He  promised  to  be  with  them 
all  days  even  to  the  consummation  of  the 
world  ;  He  said  that  while  the  things  of 
Caesar  were  to  be  rendered  to  Cssar,  the 
things  of  God  were  to  be  given  to  God; 
finally  he  declared,  "He  that  heureth  you 
heareth  me,  and  he  that  despiseth  you 
despiseth  me." '  He  promised  to  build 
his  Church  on  Peter,  and  that  against 
this  Church,  which  St.  Paul  calls  "  the 
pillar  and  the  ground  of  truth,"'  the 
gates  of  Hell  should  not  prevail.  There 
is  not  the  slightest  hint  anywhere  that 
Christ  intended  that  these  powers  should 
be  exercised  in  subjection  to  the  civil 
power.  "We  find  abundant  evidence  that 
the  Apostles  and  the  early  Church  freely 
exercised  the  powers  thus  committed  to 
them,  not  in  preaching,  converting,  and 
working  miracles  only,  but  also  in  the 
three  specific  modes  with  which  we  are 
concerned  —  viz.  in  making  laws,  in 
judging,  and  in  punishing.  At  a  synod 
publicly  held  in  Jerusalem  to  decide 
whetlier  the  Gentile  Christians  were  to 
be  obliged  to  receive  circumcision,  a 
decision  was  arrived  at  which  was  to  all 
intents  and  puiposes  a  law — which  Wiis 
promulgated  under  the  formula  It  hath 
seemed  good  to  the  Holy  Ghost  and  tii 
us"^ — and  which  St.  Paul  enjoined  his 
converts  to  obey,  as  being  "  precepts 
of  the  apostles  and  ancients."  The  powers 
of  judging  and  punishing  were  exercised 
in  the  cases  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira, 
Elymas  the  sorcerer,  and  notably  in  that 
of  the  incestuous  Corinthian.''  Following 
the  example  of  the  Apostles,  the  bishops 
in  the  first  and  every  succeeding  age  of 
the  Church  have  been  accustomed  to 
meet  in  synod  and  enact  canons— that  is, 
ecclesiastical  laws  concerning  every  reli- 
gious interest  and  duty  of  man  ;  and  they 
never  considered  it  incumbent  on  them  to 
submit  the.se  laws  for  the  approval  of  the 
civil  power.  The  emperors  themselves 
often  endorsed  the  doctrine  of  eccle- 
siastical liberty.  Arcadius  and  Honorius, 
in  one  of  their  Constitutions,^  say, 
"  Whenever  the  cause  is  one  of  religion, 
it  belongs  to  the  bishops  to  judge ;  "  and 
the  Theodosian  Code  contains  an  explicit 
direction  in  the  same  sense.*'  In  the 
1  Luke  X.  16.  2  1  Ti,„  jij  15 

»  Acts  XV.  28.  1  C.)r.  v.  3. 

•*  Soglia,  lib.  iv.  cap.  1.      •  Soglia.  ubi  sup. 


early  ages  of  the  Church  the  judicial 
office  was  largely  exercised  by  episcopal 
synods,  in  which  important  cases  of 
heresy,  immorality,  &c.,  were  tried  and 
decided,  and  the  punishments  of  excom- 
munication, deposition,  suspension,  de- 
gradation, or  imprisonment  wfir  intlictfc'.. 
In  course  of  time  ordinary  ca-rs  came  to 
be  heard  in  the  individual  bishop's  court, 
whilst  caus<p  majuns  —  i.e.  thoMV  of 
bishops — were  reserveil  to  the  Holy  See. 
At  the  same  tini.'  .1  »-ttliMl  mode  of 
procedure  with  n-uliii'  ollicials  becaiv.e 
establislit'd  in  the  opix-upal  courts.  P.y 
the  twfll'th  century  tlii,-  change  had  beeii 
geiuTally  flliTted,  and  still  continues 
sul)>tantially  111  force,  thougli,  in  some 
caM'>,  the  ifLiular  otficials  and  procedure 
are  nee>'»arily  dispensed  with  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree,  according  to  the  position 
of  the  Church  in  ditlerent  countries. 

It  will  be  admitted  that  the  right 
of  legislation  draws  with  it  the  judicial 
power ;  if  the  Church  possesses  one,  she 
possesses  also  the  other.  lJut  it  has  been 
contended  that  the  sanctions  of  her 
judicial  decisions  ought  to  be  of  a  spirittuil 
nature  only,  and  as  such  should  involve 
no  suffering  to  the  criminal  except  either 
within  the  self-accusing  conscience,  or  in 
another  world.  The  Church  may  have 
courts,  it  is  said,  but  she  may  not  enforce 
the  decisions  of  these  courts  by  temi)oral 
penalties;  if  these  are  required,  she  must 
ask  the  civil  power  to  apply  them,  ^lar- 
I  silius  Ficinus  maintained  that  '•  the 
Pope,  or  the  whole  Church  taken  col- 
lectively, cannot  punish  any  man,  how- 
ever wicked  he  may  be,  with  a  coercive 
punishment,  unless  the  Emperor  give 
them  authority  to  do  so."  '  But  this 
was  condemned  as  erroneous  liv  .John 
XXII.,  and  a  !<imilar  opini...!  pn.m'ulgated 
by  the  too-famous  synod  ,\(  I'istoia  was 
censured  by  Pius  VII.  in  the  l)ull 
"  Auctorem  tidei."  To  admit  .-ucli  a 
doctrine  would  be  tantamoiuit  to  con- 
demning the  heroic  bisho])s  of  the  early 
Church,  who  feared  not  to  depose  an 
Arius  or  a  Dioscorus  agiiinst  the  ojipo- 
sition  of  the  civil  power.  For  certainly 
deposition  is  a  "coercive  punishment," 
and  in  numerous  instances,  if  the  leave 
of  the  State  had  been  waited  for  before 
inflicting  it,  it  would  never  have  been 
inflicted,  at  all.  Even  while  all  along 
asserting  her  independence,  we  know 
what  the  Church  has  had  to  suflfer  at  the 
hands  of  heretical  and  despotic  princes  ; 

1  Soglia,  iv.  1,  6. 


FOEUM  ECCLESIASTICUM 


FOPvUM  ECCI.ESTASTICUM 


what,  then,  ^^llLl!^l  liavf  become  of  Cliris- 
tianity  it'  she  had  admitted  that  she  had 
no  right  of  piinishiii^r  except  bv  their 
hands?  "What  happened  some  years  ago 
in  the  Anglican  community  may  lielp  us 
to  answer  the  question.  Dr.  Colenso,  the 
Anglican  bishop  of  Natal  in  South  Africa, 
published  Ijdoks  in  which  he  was  said  to 
have  denied  the  inspiration  of  Scripture. 
A  synod  of  his  brother  bishops  met  at 
Ca])etown  and  deposed  him.  But  the 
Anglican  Church  is  grounded  on  an 
Erastian  principle :  its  supreme  head  on 
earth  is  the  temporal  sovereign ;  hence 
the  deposed  bishop  found  it  an  easy 
matter  to  enlist  the  secular  courts  on 
his  side,  and  to  continue  to  occupy  the 
see  of  Natal  !  Miserable  as  are  the 
present  times,  such  a  scandal  could 
scarcely  now  happen  within  the  Catholic 
Churcl'i. 

The  punishments  inflicted  in  the  forum 
extennnn  are  of  various  kinds:  besides 
those  already  enumerated  (excommuni- 
cation, deposition,  il'c),  they  include,  or 
have  included,  stripes,  fines,  and  rele- 
gation to  a  monastery.  It  is  the  general 
opinion  of  canonists  thai  they  shoidd  be 
such  as  not  to  involve  the  shedding  of 
blood — citra  sangmnis  cjfusionem  ;  and 
this  because  the  Church  can  never,  like 
human  justice,  merge  the  consideration 
of  the  possible  reformation  of  the  offender 
in  that  of  what  is  required  for  the  safety 
of  society,  and  to  deter  others  from  doing 
the  like.  The  Holy  Office,  in  the  day  of 
its  most  unsparing  severities,  did  not 
it.«elf  inflict  the  death-penalty  on  those 
whom  it  sentenced,  but  delivered  them 
over  to  the  secular  arm.  Practically  it 
amounted  to  much  the  same  thing:  V)ut 
the  viMsoii  of  this  was  that  secular 
governments  in  those  days  sincerely 
belieMMi  that  the  heretic  not  only  sinned 
at^ain-t  (to(1,  l)ut  was  also  a  dangerous 
otiender  against  liuman  society.  It  may 
be  rejoined  that  the  ecclesiastical  autho- 
rities not  only  .shared  in  this  opinion  of 
the  ruhrs,  but  by  their  writings  and 
exhortations  jiartly  caused  it.  This 
cannot  be  ilenie<l  ;  but  it  mav  probably 
be  lield  tli:i;  til.  y  .11.1  ,-o  in  "their  civil 
capacity,  as  nieuiln  rs  of  a  community, 
ratherthan  in  their  ecch'siastical  capacity, 
as  churchmen.  With  regai-d  to  stripes, 
the  change  in  manners  scarcly  |)ermits 
of  its  being  included  at  the  jires.  iit  (hiv 
among  ecclesiastical  punishments.  \\'itli 
regard  to  fines,  the  canonists  prescribe 
that  they  should  be  imposed  with  great 
caution,  and  so  that  no  suspicion  can 


arise  that  tlu'  jii.lii'  s  or  officials  deriv© 
any  Iji'm^ht  from  them. 

Lay  encroachment  and  usurpation 
have  labinired  to  destroy  the  network 
of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  which  for- 
merly overspread  Europe.  In  tTie  day 
of  their  power  the  canonists,  speaking 
generally,  comprehended  well  the  limits 
of  the  two  jurisdictions,  and  never  en- 
croached systematically  on  the  temporal 
domiiin  ;  the  lawyers,  on  the  contrary, 
taking  advantage  of  the  decline  of  faith, 
and  the  confusion  caused  by  the  heresies 
of  northern  Etirope,  have  evervwhere 
encroached  on  the  ecclesiastical  domain, 
and  laboured  to  sulistitute  their  various 
systems  of  local  law  for  the  jui'isprudence 
founded  on  divine  revehition,  the  tradi- 
tion of  the  Church,  and  general  reason. 
They  say,  indeed,  that  their  jurisprudence 
is  guided  by  the  principles  of  universal 
morality,  and  ask  wliat  more  is  ne°ded? 
Even  if  this  were  true  to  the  fullest 
extent,  it  would  not  follow  that  the  civil 
courts  ^houhl  assume  jurisdiction  in 
s]jii'itual  causes.  Morality — justice  — 
must  bi'  till'  norm  of  every  endurable 
jurisilicti.m  set  up  amongst  men;  but  it 
will  ii.it  talie  us  far  enough  :  for  man  is 
not  only  cnjni.r  mon(m,  but  also  rnpa.v 
rclif/i<mi><.  .Turisprudence  requires  not 
only  a  rule,  but  an  end.  This  end,  for  the 
Itoman  jurists,  was  found  in  the  arbitrary 
pleasure  of  th.'  prince  (quod  priiicipi 
plaruit,  kc):  for  moil.'rn  jurists  it  is 
found  in  the  arbitrary  pleasure  of  a 
majority.  In  either  case  the  general 
good  of  the  connnunity  is  the  real  end, 
which  is  supjiosed  at  one  period  to  be 
h.'st  attained  through  despotism,  at 
another  through  universal  sutirage.  This, 
which  is  till'  highest  end  of  man  com-.'ived 
as  living  in  time,  is  treat.  .!  li\-  tie'  un- 
believing governments  of  lb.'  .I:iv  a-  if  it 
were  his  sole  .■ml.  llis  relii;i.ius  d.  >tiny 
is  absolutely  igii.ired,  and  the  jurisjiru- 
dencewhicli  i'i'-t>  mi  1  li.'  assumption  that 
he  has  such  a  .1.  -tiny  is  trampled  upon 
and  snpjiressed.  To  lawyers  and  otKcials 
of  this  stamp  it  does  not  appear  unjust 
to  disperse  religious  congregations  and 
confiscate  their  property,  because  they 
do  not  consider  the  temporal  welfare  of 
society  to  be  promoted  by  their  existence, 
and  they  will  not  allow  the  reality  of 
anv  higher  end.  In  the  middle  ages  the 
lawyers  admitted  that  the  jurisprudence 
of  the  Church  was  informed  by  a  loftier 
aim  than  their  own,  and  the  two  systems 
were  administered  side  by  side  with — on 
the   whole — extraordinary  success  and 


FOUNDATION 


FRANCE,  CHURCH  OF  ;]8-> 


advantage.  (Ferraris,  Forum  Ecclesi- 
asticmn.) 

FOVXTSATzoitr.    [See  Benefice, 

EXDO-WAIKNT,  I^STAHLISHMEXT.] 

FRAN-CE,  CHVRCH  OP,     In  the 

articles  Civil  CoxsriTrxiox  of  the 
Clergy  and  CoxcoRrAT,  the  transition 
during  the  French  Revolution,  from  the 
ancient  ecclesiastical  order  in  France  to 
the  present  state  of  things  was  brieHy 
described.  Some  account  of  the  organi- 
sation and  working  of  the  modem  church 
of  France  will  be  attempted  in  the  pre- 
sent article. 

Since  the  commencement  of  the  Second 
Empire  in  1852,  the  dioceses  of  Metz  and 
Strasburg  have  licen  lost  to  France;  on 
the  other  hand,  the  Savoyard  dioceses  of 
Annecy,  St.  Jean  de  Maurienne.  and 
Tarentaise,  with  the  archdiocese  of 
Chamb^ry,  have  been  annexed  to  it,  and 
Algiers,  which  was  then  subject  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Aix,  has  been  erected  into 
an  archiepiscopal  see,  with  the  suffragan 
sees  of  Constantine  and  Oran.  There  are 
now  in  France  and  her  dependencies 
eighteen  archbishoprics,*  and  seventy-two 
bishoprics.  The  number  of  the  parochial 
clergy-  amounts  to  upwards  of  f.  .rty  thou- 
sand. They  are  divided  into  Cur^s  and 
Desservants,  and  the  distinction  between  j 
the  two  classes  is  important.  The  Con- 
cordat between  Napoleon  and  Pius  VII., 
madenomention  of  Desservants;  it  merely 
stipulated  that  the  priests  serving  the 
cures  should  receive  certain  emoluments. 
In  this,  nothing  lint  bare  justice,  or  rather  j 
a  small  instalment  of  justice,  was  asked  ' 
from  the  State  ;  for  the  "  traitement "  or 
annual  grant  was  toreplnce  the  far  larger 
income  from  tithes  andotlier  Church  jiro- 
perty,  which  had  been  confiscated  during 
the  Revolution.  Rut  if  every  parish  priest  j 
should  receive  a  decent  .-t  ipend,  the  govern-  ' 
ment  considered  that  it  would  not  have 
made  a  good  bargain.  It  was  accordingly 
resolved  to  rec(>gnise  as  priests  for  the 
purposes  of  the  above-mentioned  article, 
speaking  generally,  only  the  cures  of  the 
chief  places  in  the  several  cantons*  in 
France.  These  curen  canfonaur,  were  | 
about  S/)00  in  number;  they  were,  and 
still  are,  divided  into  two  classes,  the  i 
stipend  for  the  first  class  being  ],oOi\ that  i 
for  the  second  1,200  francs  per  annum,  i 

'  Viz.  Aix,  Alby,  Alsiers,  Auch,  Avifcnon, 
Bp.'amon,  Bordeaux,  Boiir.  es,  Camlirai,  Cham- 
Mry,  Lyons,  I'ari?.  Kheims,  Uennes,  Rouen, 
Sens,  Toulou>e,  and  Ti  urs. 

-  A  canton  is  a  division  of  an  arronriisse- 
ment.  oontainii  g  usually  from  ten  to  twenty 
comniunea. 


Under  each  curi  cantonal  are  usually 
several  vicaires.  The  priests  sei-ving  all 
the  other  churches  within  the  canton, 
are  called  Dcssci-vants.  They  are  first 
mentioned  in  the  Organic  Articles  [Con- 
cordat^, where  it  is  said  that  they  shall 
be  under  the  surveillance  of  the  cur^s — 
i.e.  the  eiires  cantonatix.  Tluy  were  so 
for  a  time,  but  their  real  canonical 
jiosition  gradually  pre\  ailed,  and  a  des- 
servant  is  now  iiiniKMliutcly  under  his 
bishop,  and  is  commduly  called,  and  is, 
"  ^I.  le  Vm€ "  in  his  own  par'sli,  as 
much  as  the  dignitarv-  in  the  clicf  lieu 
r!p  canton,  to  whom  alone  the  law  allows 
the  title.  Their  position,  liowever.  is  .-o 
far  diflerent  that,  while  the  cure  proper 
can  only  be  appointed,  and  perha]»  re- 
moved, by  the  bishop,  with  the  ajii-rdval 
of  the  government,  the  desservant  is  ap- 
pointed hy  the  bishop  alone,  and  can  be 
removed  by  him,  on  his  own  sole  autho- 
rity. 

The  religious  orders  and  congregations 
which  adorn  the  modern  French  church 
are  veiw  numerous :  it  is  estimated  that 
their  numbers  amount  to  140,000,  of 
whom  about  20,000  are  men  and  the  rest 
women. 

The  total  amount  of  the  annual  grant 
from  public  funds  for  the  support  of 
the  French  clergv  somewhat  exceeds 
i',0(K),()()(i/.  sterliu?.  The  ecclesia.-tical 
buil.lin-  are  in  tlie  hands  of  (  .ui.<.ih  de 


Fabri, 


"Fa  I!  I 


of  a  desservant  is  UdO  hani  >,  or  .■in/.  The 
commune  is  bound  to  provide'  him  w  ith  a 
residence  rent  free;  if  it  is  too  poor  to  do 
this,  the  St!i!.'  will  SMmi-times  give  assist- 
ance; lui'  i  -  -  I-  -  ]u-ivate  subscrip- 
tions have  to  I  iv-irted  to.  Every 
diocese  has  a  yri  at  or  upper  seminary  for 
the  education  of  priests,  and  there  are 
also  about  a  handn^d  and  fifty  little 
seminaries,  which  give  an  education 
corresponding  to  that  t;iven  in  the  State 
lyc<5es,  but  under  ecclesiastical  manage- 
ment, to  boys  destined  either  for  clerical 
or  for  secular  life.  Of  the  orders  and 
congregations,  some — e.g.  the  I^az;irists, 
the  Sulpicians,  the  Sisters  of  Charity, 
&c. — are  recognised  by  the  State,  and 
may  possess  property  and  also  acijuire  it 
by  bequest,  but  under  close  and  constant 
inrjuisitionon  the  part  of  the  Department 
of  Public  Worship.  The  unrecognised 
congregations  also  have  of  late  yeara 
acquired  a  great  amount  of  property;  it 
is  said  that,  taking  the  recognised  and 
unrecognised  congregations  together,  the 
value  of  their  prt)perty  e.xceeds  a  thou- 
0  C 


386  FRANCISCANS 


FRANCISCANS 


sand  million  francs.  With  regard  to 
political  privileges,  the  French  law 
recognises  no  distinction  between  cleric 
and  layman ;  hence  bishops  and  priests 
are  capable  of  being  elected  to  the 
Chambers.  Chapters  of  canons  are  at- 
tached to  the  cathedrals,  but  the  canon- 
ries  are  regarded  chiefly  in  the  light  of 
a  dignified  provision  for  aged  or  distin- 
guished clergymen ;  the  canons  have  no 
share  in  the  government  of  the  diocese. 
The  old  Church  tribunals,  abolished  at 
the  Revolution,  have  not  been  revived; 
the  bishops  act  e.r  informata  conscientia, 
and  there  is  no  appeal  for  the  inferior 
clerg;y'  except  to  Rome.  Of  the  close, 
vexatious,  and  almost  ridiculous  character 
of  the  surveillance  which  the  lay  power 
exercises  over  the  Church,  some  idea  may 
be  formed  from  the  fact  that  the  Depart- 
ment of  Worship  undertakes  the  furnish- 
ing of  a  bisliop's  palace,  and  requires  a 
yearly  inventory,  that  it  may  know  what 
to  expend  in  repairs  and  new  purchases ! 
The  laws  for  the  expulsion  of  religious 
and  the  compulsory  military  service  of 
clerics  show  how  far  the  anti-Catholic 
spirit  prevails.    [Wetzer  and  Welte.] 

FRAIO'CZSCAM'S.  This  order  takes 
its  name  from  its  founder,  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi,  who  died  in  1226.  The  Life  of  St. 
Francis  has  been  so  frequently  written 
that  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  the 
mention  of  those  incidents  in  it  which  are 
connected  with  the  rise  and  growth  of  the 
order.  The  saint  had  entirely  broken  with 
the  world  in  1200,  when,  being  then  in  his 
twenty-fifth  year,  he  had  stripped  himself 
of  the  clothes  which  he  wore  belonging  to 
liis  father,  and  embraced  a  life  of  strict 
p  'verty.  He  lived  for  several  years  in  a 
ei>ttage  near  Assisi,  in  the  practice  of 
almost  continual  prayer  accompanied  by 
severe  bodily  discipline.  In  1209  Bernard 
of  Quintavalle,  a  rich  merchant  of  Assisi, 
and  Peter  of  Catana,  a  canon  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  the  same  city,  who  had  long  wit- 
nessed and  admired  the  heroic  virtue  of 
the  saint,  openly  joined  themselves  to  him ; 
this  is  considered  the  date  of  the  founda- 
tion of  the  order.  Another  disciple  soon 
appeared  in  Giles  of  Assisi,  who  was  after- 
wards beatified.  The  rule  which  the 
saint  at  (irst  prescribed  to  his  followers  is 
not  now  extant :  it  consisted,  says  Alban 
Butler  (October  4),  "  of  the  gospt-l  coun- 
sels of  perfeetion,  to  which  he  luldcd  some 
things  neci'.-sary  for  uiiirnnnity  in  their 
manner  of  lili\  lie  exlmrts  liis  bn'thren 
to  manual  labour,  but  will  have  them  con- 
tent to  receive  for  it  things  necessary  for 


life,  not  money."  In  the  later  editions  of 
the  rule  the  prohibition  against  the  hand- 
ling or  use  of  money,  even  by  the  inter- 
vention of  a  third  person,  was  maintained.' 
"He  bids  them  not  to  be  ashamed  to  beg 
alms,  remembering  the  poverty  of  Christ ; 
and  he  forbids  them  to  preach  in  any  place 
without  the  bishop's  licence."  In  a  larger 
(extant)  version  of  the  rule  he  laid  down 
twenty-seven  precepts,  all  of  which  several 
Pontifl's  have  declared  to  behinding  on  the 
friars  of  the  order  under  pain  of  mortal 
sin.  They  prescribe  the  particular  means 
by  which  the  vow  of  poverty  is  to  be  car- 
ried out,  regulate  the  dress  to  be  worn, 
order  that  the  friars  shall  go  barefoot, 
specify  the  fasts  to  be  observed,  and  enjoin 
a  blind  unlimited  obedience  to  superiors 
for  the  love  of  God.  The  habit  which  he 
gave  them  was  a  grey  gown  of  coarse  cloth 
with  a  pointed  hood  or  capuche  attached 
to  it,  one  under-tunic  and  drawers,  and  a 
cord  round  the  waist.  This  costume 
closely  resembled  that  worn  by  poor  shep- 
herds in  that  part  of  Italy.  After  several 
other  disciples  had  joined  him,  the  cottage 
at  Assisi  was  found  too  small  to  hold 
them,  and  St.  Francis  was  in  doubt 
whether  it  was  not  the  will  of  God — who 
had  already  announced  to  him  in  visions 
that  the  destined  work  for  him  and  hi« 
company  was  to  preach  and  labour  for  the 
conversion  of  souls,  and  bring  sinners  to 
penance — that  he  should  establish  the 
order  elsewhere.  But  about  this  time  the 
Benedictines  of  the  neighbouring  monas- 
tery of  Soubazo  gave  him  a  small  plot  of 
ground  near  Assisi  called  Portiuncula,  on 
which  stood  an  abandoned  church  dedi- 
cated in  honour  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Angels. 
Francis  would  not  accept  the  land  as  an 
absolute  gift,  but  by  the  tenure  of  render- 
ing yearly  to  the  Benedictines  a  basket 
of  little  fish,  called  lasche,  caught  in  the 
stream  that  flowed  hard  by.  From  this 
humble  site,  which  thus  became  the  cradle 
of  the  order,  thousands  of  monasteries 
were  to  be  planted,  missioners  were  to  go 
forth  to  all  parts  of  the  world  to  preach, 
toil,  and  in  many  cases  sufter  martyrdom 
for  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  a  vast 
multitude  of  doctors  and  holy  prelates 
were  to  issue,  by  whom  the  purity  of  the 
faith  should  be  sustained,  and  its  principles 
methodised  and  applied.  In  1210  St. 
Francis  went  to  Rome  to  obtain  the  con- 
firmation of  his  rule.  The  Sovereign  Pon- 
tifl"  at  that  time  was  Innocent  III.  At 

•  A  curious  discussion  on  the  subject  maybe 
read  in  Pecock's  Hepressor  of  over-much  Wyting 
[blaming]  of  the  Cleryy  (_14.56). 


FRAXCISCAXS 


FRANCISCANS  887 


the  first  interview  he  rejected  the  saint's 
petition.  Francis  humbh-  withdrew  ;  but 
the  same  night  the  Pope  dreamt  that  he 
saw  a  palm  spring-  up  from  the  ground 
between  his  feet  and  wax  gradually  till 
it  became  a  great  tree;  at  the  same  time 
an  impression  was  borne  in  upon  his  mind 
that  by  this  palm  tree  was  designated  the 
poor  petitioner  whom  he  had  repelled  the 
day  before.  The  Pope  ordered  that  search 
should  be  made  for  him ;  Francis  was 
found,  and,  being  brought  before  the  Pope 
and  the  Cardinals,  expounded  in  simple 
hut  glowing  language  the  plan  and  aims 
of  his  institute.  The  Pope  was  much 
moved,  but  some  of  the  Cni-dinals  thought 
that  the  poverty  required  surpassed  the 
strength  of  man.  Francis  betook  himself 
to  prayer,  and  at  the  next  interview  Inno- 
cent granted  him  a  verbal  approbation  of 
his  rule.  The  Pope  declared  that  he  had 
seen  in  a  dream  the  Lateran  basilica  tot- 
tering to  its  fall,  but  saved  by  a  poor  de- 
spised man,  who  set  his  back  against  the 
wall  and  propped  it  up.  "Truly,"  said 
he,  "  here  is  that  man  who,  by  his  work 
and  teaching  will  sustain  the  Church  of 
Christ."  The  above  particulars  are  taken 
from  the  Life  of  the  saint  by  St.  Bona- 
venture,  who  heard  them  from  the  Pope's 
nephew.  Some  years  later,  St.  Francis 
drew  up  the  rule  in  a  more  compendious 
form,  and  in  this  shape  it  was  solemnly 
ratified  by  Honorius  III.  in  V223. 

It  is  difficult  to  realise  in  this  nine- 
teenth century  the  extraordinary  attrac- 
tion which  the  example  and  preaching  of 
St.  Francis  exercised  on  his  contempo- 
raries. Long  before  the  final  confirmation 
by  Honorius  III.,  the  Friars  Minor  (such 
was  the  name  which  the  founder  in  his 
humility  chose  for  them)  had  made  their 
way  into  the  principal  countries  of  Eu- 
rope, preaching  penance  and  founding 
convents.  St.  Francis  himself  visited 
Spain  in  1214,  was  well  received  by 
Alfonso  IX.,  the  grandfather  of  St.  Louis 
of  France,  and  founded  houses  of  his 
order  at  Burgos  and  other  places.  In 
1:216  he  sent  Pacifico,  who  had  been  a 
trouvire  and  was  called  the  "  king  of 
verse,"  to  France,  Bernard  of  Quintavalle 
to  Spain,  and  John  of  Penna  to  Germany, 
besides  many  others  whom  he  despatched 
to  various  parts  of  Italy.  The  noble  in- 
structions, full  of  divine  light  and  evan- 
gelical fire,  with  which  he  dismissed  them 
— instructions  on  the  whole  so  faithfully 
observed  by  his  followers— go  far  to  ex- 
plain the  wonderful  success  which  has 
attended  them  in  every  age  in  doing  their 


Master's  work.  Amongst  other  things  he 
said,  "  Let  your  behaviour  in  the  world 
be  such  that  everyone  who  sees  or  hears 
you  may  praise  the  Heavenly  Father. 
Preach  peace  to  all ;  but  have  it  in  your 
hearts  still  more  than  on  your  lips.  Give 
no  occasion  of  anger  or  scandal  to  any, 
but  by  your  gentleness  lead  all  men  to 
goodness,  peace,  and  union.  We  are 
called  to  heal  the  wounded,  and  recall  the 
erring.  For  there  are  many  who  appear 
to  you  limbs  of  the  devil,  who  will  be 
one  day  disciples  of  Jesus  Christ.' 

The  missions  above  mentioned  all 
prospered  greatly, except  thatto  Geriiiiiuy, 
which  failed,  chiefly  because  the  I'riars  did 
not  know  the  language.  England  wel- 
comed the  messengers,  Angelo  of  Pisa  and 
eight  others,  whom  the  saint  sent  to  our 
shores  in  1219:  landing  at  Dover  in  1220, 
they  formed  their  first  convent  at  Canter- 
bury, and  another  soon  afterwards  at 
Northampton.  The  romantic  story  of  two 
friars  finding  their  way  to  Oxford,  and 
beginning  the  great  friary  there  (in  St. 
Ebbe's  parish)  may  be  read  in  the  Monas- 
ticon.-  In  London,  at  Coventry,  and 
other  places,  there  were  famous  Franciscan 
convents  ;  the  list  will  be  given  further 
on.  So  rapidly  did  the  order  increase 
that  at  the  first  general  chapter,  that 
called  of  Mats,  held  at  the  Portiuncula 
in  1219,  upwards  of  five  thousand  friars 
were  present. 

St.  Francis,  after  receiving  the  sacred 
Stigmata Jy.  v.'],  died  in  122G.  The  next 
Minister-General  of  the  entire  order  was 
Elias  of  Cortona,  an  ambitious,  restless 
man,  of  a  tyrannical  spirit.  He  rela.xed 
the  rule  of  poverty,  admitting  rents  and 
foundations ;  he  also  mitigated  the  fasts, 
&c.,  and  oppressed  those  who  desired  to 
keep  up  the  original  strictness  of  the  rule. 
A  long  controversy  arose,  which  ended 
in  the  division  of  the  order  into  two  great 
branches.  Conventuals  and  Observantines 
— the  former  living  in  large  convents  and 
following  a  mitigated  rule ;  the  latter 
living  more  in  the  manner  of  hermits,  in 
low,  mean  dwellings,  and  according  to 
the  original  rigour  of  the  institute.  The 
Recollects,  or  Grey  Friars,  were  a  refor- 
mation first  commenced  by  John  of 
Guadaloupe  in  Spain  in  1500.  The 
Observantines  received  in  France  the 
name  of  Cordeliers.  In  1380  the  number 
of  Franciscan  monasteries  was  estimated 
at   fifteen   himdred,  containing  ninety 

1  Fleury,  Hist,  du  Chrislinnisme,  ch.  7. 

2  Dugd'ale's  Mon.  Angl.  vol.  viii.  p.  1524 
(ed.  of  1846). 

0C2 


S88  FRANCISCANS 


FRANCISCANS 


thousand  friars.  In  tlie  next  hundred 
and  fifty  years  they  must  have  increased 
very  much,  for  H^lyot  states  that  in  his 
time — that  is,  long  after  the  destruction 
of  the  houses  of  the  order  in  England  and 
other  northern  countries,  vrhere  they 
were  once  numerous — there  were,  of  the 
first  and  third  orders,  seven  thousand 
convents,  with  120,000  friars  ;  and  of  the 
second  order  [see  Poor  Claees],  above 
nine  hundred  convents,  with  28,000  nuns. 
The  superior  of  a  Franciscan  monastery 
is  not  called  an  abbot,  but  a  guardian, 
Custos.  The  whole  of  the  first  order, 
comprising  both  observances,  was  in  the 
time  of  H61yot,  divided  into  two  families, 
the  Gismontane  and  the  Ultramontane  ; 
each  family  contained  several  provinces, 
each  province  was  subdivided  into  vicari- 
ates, and  these  into  custodies,  each  of 
which  consisted  of  a  small  group  of  con- 
vents. 

Volumes  might  be  written  on  the 
labours,  sufferings,  and  triumphs  of  the 
Franciscan  missioners;  no  order  in  the 
Church  has  surpassed  them  in  zeal  for 
the  propagation  of  the  gospel.  St.  Francis 
himself  visited  the  Holy  Land,  presented 
himself  before  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  (1220) 
and  endeavoured  to  convert  him  ;  and  sent 
five  friars  to  Morocco,  who  were  all  mar- 
tyred. Franciscans  preached  in  Tartary 
about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  in  China  and  Armenia  before  the  end 
of  it.  By  a  bull  of  Clement  VI.  (1342) 
the  ;;uardianship  of  the  Holy  Places  at 
Jerusalem  was  committed  to  the  order, 
and  they  still  retain  it.  Franciscan  mis- 
sions were  established  in  Bosnia  in  1340, 
in  Bulgaria  about  1366,  and  in  Georgia 
in  1370.  We  find  them  taking  a  large 
share  in  the  conversion  of  the  natives 
of  the  Canary  Isles  in  and  after  1423; 
they  got  into  Abyssinia  in  1480,  and 
established  a  mission  on  the  Congo  (which 
for  a  long  time  bore  gi-eat  fruit)  about 
1490.  The  order  was  instrumental  in  the 
discovery  of  America.  Fr.  John  Perez 
de  Marchena,  guardian  of  a  convent  near 
Seville,  himself  a  learned  cosmographer, 
entered  warmly  into  the  designs  of 
Columbus,  and  used  his  influence  with 
Isabella  the  Catholic,  whose  confessor  he 
had  been,  to  persuade  her  to  fit  out  the 
memorable  expedition  of  1492.  In  the 
following  year  Fr.  John  himself  went  to 
America,  and  opened  the  first  Christian 
church  in  the  New  World,  at  a  small 
settlement  in  the  island  of  Hayti.  Not 
to  speak  of  the  Franciscan  missions  in 
India,  Brazil,  and  Peru — in  all  which 


countries  other  orders  effected  yet  more — 
it  was  Observantine  friars  who  were  wel- 
comed to  Mexico  by  Cortes  in  1523,  and 
who,  under  their  holy  leader,  Martin  de 
Valenza,  planted  Christianity  fii-mly  in 
that  empire,  whence  they  went  forth  to 
preach  the  gospel  in  New  Mexico  (1680), 
in  Texas  (1600),  and,  lastly,  in  California 
(1769).» 

The  order  of  St.  Francis  has  given  five 
Popes,  more  than  fifty  cardinals,  and  an 
immense  number  of  patriarchs  and  bishops 
to  the  Church.  The  great  statesman 
Cardinal  Ximenes  was  a  Franciscan. 
Among  the  schoolmen,  St.  Bonaventure, 
the  Seraphic  Doctor;  Duns  Scotus,  the 
Subtle  Doctor  ;  Alexander  of  Hales,  the 
Irrefragable  Doctor;  and  William  of 
Ockham  (the  last  three  being  natives  of 
the  British  Isles),  were  members  of  this 
order.  Its  history  is  recorded  in  the 
elaborate  "Annals"  of  Fr.  Luke  Wad- 
ding, an  Irish  Franciscan  of  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

At  the  dissolution  there  were  sixty-four 
Franciscan  houses  in  England ;  the  names 
are  given  below.''  The  English  province 
was  restored  by  Fr.  Jennings,  who  founded 
a  convent  at  Douay  about  I6I7 ;  of  the 
friars  who  went  from  it  on  the  English 


'  Henrion,  Hist.  Gen.  di-s  Missions  Cathol. 
*  List  of  Franciscan  Houses  in  England, 
taken  from  Dvgdaie  and  Tanner. 


Aylesbury 

Lewps  (Suss.) 

Babwell  (Suflf.) 

Lichfield 

Bedford 

Berwick 

LI  invaes(Angl8y.) 

Beverley 

LoTiilun 

Bodmin 

Lyun 

Boston 

Maidstone 

BridnDorth 

40  Neuark 

Bridgewater 

Newcastle 

10  Bristol 

Northampton 

Caeniiarthen 

Norwich 

Cambridge 

Nottingham 

Canterbury 

Oxford 

CardiflF 

Ply.nnuth 

Carlisle 

Pi  mte  tract 

Chester 

Pre-ti.n 

Chichester 

Reading 

Colchester 

60  Kichniond  (Sur.) 

Coventry 

Kichmond  (York.) 

20  Doneaster 

Salisbury 

Dorchester 

Scarborough 

Dunwich  (SuflT.) 

Shrewsliury 

Exeter 

Sc)utl\Hmpton 

Gloucester 

Stafford 

Grantham 

Stamford 

Greenwich 

Walsini,'ham(Norf.) 

Grimsbv 

Ware  (Hert.) 

Hartlepool 

60  Winchelsea  (Suss.) 

Hereford 

Winchester 

30  Ipswich 

Worcester 

Lancaster 

Yarmouth 

Leicester 

York 

FIlA>-KFnRT,  COUNCIL  OF 

mission,  four  (Frs.  Bell,  Heath,  Bullak.>r, 
and  Woodcock)  were  put  to  death  for 
their  religion  by  the  Long  Parliament 
between  1642  and  1646.  Excluding 
Capuchins  [see  that  article],  there  appear 
to  be  at  the  present  time  (1891)  eight 
hcuses  of  Minorite  friars  in  England — at 
Stratford,  Forest  Gate,  Bishopston,  Cleve- 
don,  Ascot,  Saltash,  Ewell,  and  West 
Gorton— and  one  in  Scotland,  at  Glasgow. 
In  Ireland  there  are  fifteen  houses  of  the 
^rst  and  twelve  of  the  third  order.'  [For 
Franci.«cnn  nuns  see  Poor  Clares.] 

FRAWKFORT,  COVNCZX.  OF. 
At  this,  the  tirst  national  council  of 
Germany,  convened  by  Charlemagne  in 
794,  three  hundred  bishops  and  abbots' 
-were  present.  Under  the  guidance  of  the 
English  Alcuin,  the  council  confirmed  the 
condemnation  of  the  Adoptionist  heresy 
of  Elipandus  and  Felix,  pronounced  at 
Ratisbontwo  years  before  [Adoptionism], 
and  also  rejected  the  decrees  of  the  Second 
General  Council  of  Nicaea  which  the 
Fathers  of  Frankfort  knew  only  in  a 
grossly  en-oneous  translation.  [See 
Iconoclasts.] 

FRANKS.  [See  Missions  to  the 
Heathex.] 

FRATERNAXi  CORRECTZOIT. 

An  admonition  which  in  certain  circum- 
stances we  are  bound  to  give  our  neigh- 
bour in  order  to  withdraw  him  from  sin. 
The  duty  of  so  admonishing  is  founded 
on  the  natural  law,  which  obliges  us  to 
help  OUT  neighbour  in  the  necessities  of 
his  soul,  and  aUo  on  the  command  of 
■Christ  (Matt,  xviii.  15),  "  If  thy  brother 
shall  ofieud  thee,  go  and  reprove  him 
between  thee  and  him  alone." 

In  order  to  be  under  such  an  obliga- 
tion, we  must  be  certain  that  the  sin  has 
been  committed ;  we  must  have  reason 
to  think  that  it  has  not  been  repented 
of,  and  some  reasonable  hope  that  the 
■correction  will  do  good.  We  must  also 
have  grounds  for  supposing  that  no  one 
else  who  is  equally  fit  with  ourselves  to 

»  Namely,  at — 
Droglu'da  Ennis 
Multviamham  Killarney 
Athlone  Limerick 
Drum8hambo(n)  Waterford 
Dublin  Carrickbeg 
Wexford  CloDmel 
Thurles  Gahvav 
Cork 

an  l  Tertiaries,  at  Clara  ;  an.l  eleven  places  in 
the  dioce-e  of  Tuain. 

2  So  Bnronius,  whom  other  writers  have  fol- 
'lowed  ;  but  this  number,  according  to  Hefele,  is 
•not  to  be  found  iu  the  crigiaal  accounts. 


FRATICELLI  CID 

give  the  correction  is  likely  to  do  so. 
'I'he  admonition  must  of  course  be  given 
with  great  prudence  and  charity.  Bishops, 
parish-priests,  parents,  &c.,  are  more 
strictly  bound  than  others  to  the  duty  of 
fraternal  correction.  Many  causes,  such 
as  inconvenience  and  loss,  or  even  bash- 
fulness,  may  often  excuse  private  persons 
from  administering  it.  (St.  Liguori,  iii. 
3,  2.) 

FRATZCEX.X.Z  (lit.  "little  friars"'). 
An  heretical  sect  which  issued  from  the 
Franciscan  order  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, attracted  many  adherents  ami 
caused  great  confusion,  chiefly  in  Italy 
and  Sicily,  and  disappeared  towards  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  Fran- 
ciscans were  divided,  soon  after  the  death 
of  their  founder,  into  two  great  parties, 
one  of  which — represented  by  Elias,  the 
second  general — was  favourable  to  some 
relaxation  of  the  rule  in  regard  to  poverty, 
while  the  other  vehemently  opposed  the 
least  abatement  of  the  original  rigour. 
The  contention  became  so  warm  that  the 
Popes  were  obliged  to  interfere,  and 
reserved  to  themselves  the  right  of  in- 
terpreting the  FiMuciscan  rule.  Gregory 

]  IX.,  Innocent  IV..  Alexander  IV.,  and 
Nicholas  III.  successively  undertook  this 
task,  and  settled  the  rule  in  such  a 
modified  form  as  to  allow  the  convents 

I  to  possess  the  usufruct  of  landed  estates, 
the  property  of  which  was  vested  iu  the 
Holy  See.  This  did  not  satisfy  the 
rigorists,  some  of  whom  were  so  carried 
away  by  a  false  zeal  as  to  forget  the 
earnest  and  repeated  precept  of  their 
founder,  that  his  friars  should  be  obedient 
to  the  Holy  See,  and  fanatically  to  declare 
that  the  Pope  and  the  Church  were  in 
error.  Among  their  leaders  were  Peter 
John  Oliva,  Raymond,  Peter  of  Macerata, 
Henry  of  Ceva,  &c.  Apostate  Francis- 
cans formed  at  all  times  the  chief  strength 
of  the  sect,  but  they  were  glad  to  accept 
the  co-operation  of  laymen,  and  even  of 
women.  They  wandered  about  Italy, 
Sicily,  Greece,  and  countries  further  east, 
proclaiming  that  the  Popes  liad  ceased 
to  be  the  Vicars  of  Christ,  and  that  the 
Church,  corrupted  by  riches,  had  failed. 
They  pretended  to  consecrate  popes  and 
bishops  from  among  themselves.  In  their 
dress,  and  all  about  them  that  mot  the 
eye,  they  affected  extreme  poverty  and 
simplicity ;  but  a  contemporary  writer 
(Pelagius,  the  penitentiary  of  Pope  John 
XXII.)  reports  that  this  external  austerity 
was  the  cloak  of  abominable  vices.  The 
bull  of  John  XXII.  against  them  (1318) 


390      FREEDOM  OF  WILL 


FREEMASONRY 


attributes  to  tliem  various  errors,  some  j 
of  which  were  revived  by  Wyclif  sixty  , 
years  later,  and  condemned  by  Gregory 
XL  and  the  Council  of  Constance.  For 
instance,  the  bull  of  John  XXII.  gives 
as  one  of  their  tenets  that  "  those  who 
are  regularly  ordained  lose  their  power  [ 
by  their  sins ; "  and  the  council  con- 
demned as  a  Wyclifite  error  the  propo- 
sition that  "The  power  of  a  temporal 
lord,  of  a  prelate,  or  of  a  bishop,  is  null 
while  he  is  in  mortal  sin." '    Martin  V.  : 
(1418)  published  a  bull  and  took  other  j 
active  measures  against  the  sect,  employ-  [ 
ing  for  this  purpose  the  great  preacher 
St.  John  Capistran,  whose  efforts  appear 
to  have  been  crowned  with  signal  sue-  | 
cess. 

FREESOni  OF  WZI.X1,  says  St. 
Thomas  ("  Sum."  i,  qu.  83,  a.  2),  consists  j 
essentially  in  the  power  of  choice.    We  ; 
are  said  to  be  endowed  with  free  will 
because  we  are  able  to  accept  one  object, 
rejecting  another;  which  acceptance  we 
call  "  choice."   A  few  words  will  explain 
the  doctrine  of  the  scholastic  philosophers  • 
on  this  point,  and  serve  as  the  best  intro-  j 
duct  ion  to  the  decisions  of  the  Church.  | 

The  will  is  an  appetite  which  follows  j 
upon  intellectual  cognition,  which  tends, 
in  other  words,  to  the  good  apprehended 
and  proposed  by  the  mind.  It  is  there- 
fore proper  to  intellectual  beings,  and 
wholly  distinct  from  the  animal  appetites, 
which  tend  to  good  apprehended  by  the 
senses.  Now,  if  the  object  apprehended 
by  the  intellect  be  purely  and  simply 
good,  and  seen  only  as  such,  the  will 
tends  to  it  of  necessity,  and  there  can  in  , 
such  a  case  be  no  question  of  choice  or  | 
freedom.  No  man  can  will  to  be  un- 
happy or  can  help  willing  the  objects 
which  he  only  thinks  of  as  necessary  j 
means  of  happiness.  But  a  vast  number 
of  objects  apprehended  by  the  intellect 
are  neither  perfectly  nor  in  all  respects 
bad  or  good.  A  virtuous  act,  for  example, 
may  involve  self-restraint  and  suffering ; 
the  mind,  influenced  by  the  will,  may  tx 
its  attention  chiefly  on  this  element  of 
evil,  and  the  will  in  its  turn  may  reject 
the  good  act  because  of  the  physical 
suffering  or  evil  which  accompanies  it. 
So  again,  stealing  may  relieve  a  man 
from  great  discomfort,  and  here,  again, 
the  lesser  good  may  be  chosen,  accom- 
panied though  it  is  by  a  moral  evil.  To 
the  metaphysical  arguments  other  very 

'  Fifteenth  error :  "  Nullus  estdomintiscivi- 
lis,  nullus  est  prselatus,  nollug  est  episcopus, 
dum  est  in  peccato  mortali." 


obvious  ones  may  be  added  from  psycho- 
logical experience,  e.y.  the  sense  of  sin  if 
we  choose  wrongly,  and  the  general 
feeling  of  all  societies,  in  which  criminals 
have  been  punished  precisely  on  the 
ground  that  they  were  free  and  therefore 
responsible  agents. 

The  Reformers  generally  denied  that 
man,  after  the  fall,  possessed  free  willj 
or,  if  the}'  admitted  it  in  words,  they 
explained  the  freedom  of  the  will  to 
mean,  not  the  power  of  choice,  the  power 
whicli  the  will  has  to  determine  its  own 
acts,  but  a  mere  freedom  from  external 
restraint  {lihcrtns  a  coactione).  The  same 
error  was  revived,  though  more  cautiously 
asserted,  by  Baius  and  the  Jansenists. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  was  defined  under 
anathema  by  the  Trideutiue  Council  (Sess. 
vi.  can.  5),  that  free  will  remaius  really 
and  truly  in  man  after  the  fall :  and  the 
true  sense  of  this  definition  was  frequently 
enforced  and  insisted  on  by  subsequent 
Popes. 

FRSEltXASOirRT.  The  system  of 
the  Freemasons,  a  secret  society,  which 
professes,  by  means  of  a  symbolical  lan- 
guage and  certain  ceremonies  of  initia- 
tion and  promotion,  to  lay  down  a  code 
of  morality  founded  on  the  brotherhood 
of  humanity  only.  Some  writers  apply 
the  term  Freemasonry  not  only  to  the 
Freemasons  proper,  but  also  to  all  secret 
organisations  M'hich  seek  to  undermine 
Christianity  and  the  political  and  social 
institutions  that  have  Christianity  for 
their  basis. 

The  origin  of  Freemasonry  is  disputed. 
The  Freemasons  themselves,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  their  rituals,  assume  the  sect  to 
have  begun  its  existence  at  the  building 
of  Solomon's  Temple,  but  serious  Masonic 
writers,  as  well  as  all  writers  of  repute, 
declare  this  to  be  merely  a  conventional 
fiction.  Nor  is  any  more  value  to  be 
attached  to  the  attempts  that  are  occa- 
sionally made  to  find  a  link  between  the 
pagan  mysteries  and  Freemasonry.  Some 
writers  trace  Freemasonry  to  the  heresies 
of  Eastern  origin  that  prevailed  during 
the  early  and  middle  ages  in  certain  parts 
of  Europe,  such  as  those  of  the  Gnostics, 
Manicheaiis,  and  Albigenses,  some  of 
whose  miscliievous  tenets  are,  no  doubt,, 
apparent  in  the  sect.  The  suppressed 
order  of  the  Knights  Templars,  too,  has 
been  taken  to  have  been  the  source  of  the 
sect ;  and  this  theory  may  have  some 
countenance  in  the  facts  that  a  number 
of  the  Knights  in  Scotland  illicitly  main- 
tained their  organisation  after  the  sup- 


FREEMASONRY 


FREE-MASONRY  391 


pression,  and  that  it  was  from  Scotland 
that  Freemasonry  was  brought  into 
France  at  the  beginning  of  the  last 
centurj-. 

But  it  seems  more  in  consonance  with 
many  known  historical  facts  to  trace  the 
sect  to  the  medireval  guild  of  stonemasons, 
who  were  popularlj-  called  by  the  very 
name  of  Free  Ma?on's.  During  the  middle 
ages  the  various  trades  were  formed,  with 
the  approbation  of  the  Church,  into  guilds 
or  close  protective  societies.  In  general 
no  one  was  permitted  to  follow  a  trade 
for  wages  or  profit,  as  apprentice,  jour- 
neyman, or  master,  until  he  had  been 
made  free  of  the  guild  representing  that 
trade.  Each  guild  had  its  patron  saint, 
and  several  guilds,  it  is  certain,  had  each 
its  peculiar  ritual,  using  its  own  tools 
and  technical  language  in  a  symbolical 
way  in  the  ceremonies  of  initiation  and 
promotion — that  is  to  say,  in  entermg 
an  apprentice,  and  at  the  end  of  his  time 
declaring  him  a  worthy  fellow-jour- 
neyman or  craftsman,  kc.  The  guild 
of  Free  Masons  was  singular  in  this : 
that  it  was  a  migratory  one,  its  members 
travelling  under  their  masters  in  organ- 
ised bodies  through  all  parts  of  Europe, 
wherever  their  services  were  required  in 
building.  "WTien  first  referred  to  they 
are  found  grouped  about  the  monasteries, 
especially  about  those  of  the  Benedic- 
tines. The  earliest  form  of  initiation 
used  by  the  guild  is  said  to  have  been 
suggested  by  the  ritual  for  the  reception 
of  a  Benedictine  novice. 

The  south  of  France,  where  a  large 
Jewish  and  Saracenic  element  remained, 
was  a  hotbed  of  heresies,  and  that  region 
was  also  a  favourite  one  with  the  guild 
of  Masons.  It  is  asserted,  too,  that  as 
far  back  as  the  twelfth  century  the  lodges 
of  the  guild  enjoyed  the  special  protec- 
tion of  the  Knights  Templai-s.  It  is  easy 
in  this  way  to  understand  how  the  sym- 
bolical allusions  to  Solomon  and  "his 
Temple  might  have  passed  from  the 
Knights  into  the  Masonic  formulary.  In 
this  way,  too,  might  be  explained  how, 
after  the  suppression  of  the  order  of  the 
Temple,  some  of  the  recalcitrant  Kniglits, 
maintaining  their  influence  over  the  Free 
Masons,  would  be  able  to  pervert  what 
hitherto  had  been  a  harmless  ceremony 
into  an  elaborate  ritual  that  should  im- 
part some  of  the  errors  of  the  Templars 
to  the  initiated.  A  document  was  long 
ago  published  which  purports  to  be  a 
charter  granted  to  a  lodge  of  Free 
Masons  in  England  in  the  time  of 


Henry  VII.,  and  it  bears  the  marks  in 
its  religious  indifl^erence  of  a  suspicious 
likeness  between  Freemasonry  then  and 
now.  In  Germany  the  guild  was  nume- 
rous, and  was  formally  recognised  by  a 
diploma  granted  in  148U  by  the  Empe- 
ror ^laximilian.  But  this  sanction  was 
finaUy  revoked  by  the  Imperial  Diet  in 
1707. 

So  far,  however,  the  Free  Masons 
were  really  working  stonemasons;  but 
the  so-called  Cologne  Charter — the  genu- 
ineness of  which  seems  certain — drawn 
up  in  153.J  at  a  meeting  of  Free  Masons 
gathered  at  Cologne  to  celebrate  the 
opening  of  the  cathedral  edifice,  is  signed 
by  Melanchthon,  Coligny,  and  other 
similar  ill-omened  names.  Nothing  cer- 
tain is  known  of  the  Free  Masons  — now 
evidently  become  a  sect — during  the 
seventeenth  century,  except  that  in  1646 
Elias  Ashmole,  an  Englishman,  founded 
the  order  of  Rose  Croix,  Rosicrucians,  or 
Hermetic  Freemasons — a  society  which 
mingled  in  a  fantastic  manner  the  jargon 
of  alchemy  and  other  occult  sciences 
with  pantheism.  This  order  soon  be- 
came aftiliated  to  some  of  the  Masonic 
lodges  in  Germany,  where  from  the  time 
of  the  Reformation  there  was  a  constant 
founding  of  societies,  secret  or  open, 
which  undertook  to  formulate  a  philo- 
sophy or  a  religion  of  their  own. 

As  we  know  it  now,  however.  Free- 
masonry first  appeared  in  1725,  when 
Lord  Derwentwater,  a  supporter  of  the 
expelled  Stuart  dynasty,  introduced  the 
order  into  France,  pml'essing  to  have  his 
authority  from  a  lodge  at  Kilwinning, 
Scotland.  This  formed  the  basis  of  that 
variety  of  Freemasonry  called  the  Scotch 
Rite.  Rival  organisations  soon  sprang 
up.  Charters  were  obtained  from  a 
lodge  at  York,  which  was  said  to  have 
been  of  very  ancient  foundation.  In 
1764  Martinez  Pasquales,  a  Portuguese 
Jew,  began  in  some  of  the  French  lodges 
the  new  degree  of  "  cohens,"  or  priests, 
which  was  afterwards  developed  into  a 
system  by  the  notorious  Saint-Martin, 
and  is  usually  referred  to  as  French  II- 
luminism.  But  it  remained  for  Adaui 
Weishaupt,  Professor  of  Canon  Law  at 
the  University  of  Ingolstadt,  in  Bavaria, 
to  give  a  definite  shape  to  the  anti- 
Christian  tendencies  of  Freemasonry. 
In  1776,  two  years  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits  from  the  university,  he 
brought  together  a  number  of  his  pupils 
and  friends,  and  organised  the  order  of 
the  Illuminati,  which  he  established  on. 


S92  FREEMASONRY 


FREEMASONRY 


the  akeady  existing  degrees  of  Free- 
masonry. The  avowed  object  of  the 
Illuminati  was  to  bring  back  mankind — 
beginning  with  the  Illuminated — to  their 
primitive  liberty  by  destroying  religion, 
for  which  this  newest  philosophical  in- 
vention was  to  be  substituted,  and  by 
re-shaping  ideas  of  pro])erty,  society, 
marriage,  &c.  One  of  the  Illuminati,  a 
Sicilian,  Joseph  Balsamo,  otherwise  Ca- 
gliostro,  organised  what  he  called  Cabal- 
istic Freemasonry,  under  the  name  of 
the  Rite  of  Misraim.  He  it  was  who  in 
1783  predicted,  as  the  approaching  work 
of  the  Freemasons,  the  overthrow  of  the 
French  moiiarchy.  Indeed,  Fremasonry 
was  very  active  in  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, and  assisted  in  bringing  about  many 
of  the  calamities  which  accompanied  the 
great  upturning  of  society. 

Freemasonry  in  the  meantime  had 
split  up  into  numerous  sects,  or  "  rites," 
ill  working  to  the  common  eftect  of  de- 
stroying a  belief  in  the  divine  revelation 
of  Christianity.  In  1781  a  great  assembly 
of  all  the  Masonic  rites  was  held  at  Wil- 
helmsbad,  in  Hanover,  under  the  presi- 
dency of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  which 
refused  to  recognise  Weishaupt's  system, 
but  at  the  same  time  permitted  the  most 
mischievous  tenets  of  lUuminism  to  be 
engrafted  on  the  higher  degrees  of  Free- 
masonry, especially  of  the  so-called 
Scotch  Rite.  About  this  time  the  Scotch 
Rite  was  established  at  Charleston, 
S.  C,  by  some  officers  of  the  French 
auxiliary  army.  The  York  Rite  had 
been  introduced  into  the  United  States 
by  English  colonists. 

Freemasonry  in  continental  Europe 
has  been  the  hatching-ground  of  most 
of  the  revolutionary  societies,  many  of 
which  were  affiliated  to  the  higher  Ma- 
sonic degrees.  In  France  the  sect  was 
officially  recognised  by  the  government 
of  Napoleon  III.,  but  advanced  Free- 
masons bore  this  unwillingly,  as  it  in- 
volved restraint.  An  avowed  belief  in 
God  was  required  for  initiation,  but 
this  requirement,  through  the  eii'orts  of 
M.  Mac6,  of  the  University,  was  finally 
abolished  in  the  convention  of  Free- 
masons held  at  Paris,  September  14, 
1877. 

A  recent  French  writer  maintains 
tliat  Freemasoni-y  is — unknown  to  most 
of  the  craft — managed  by  five  or  six 
Jews,  who  bend  its  influence  in  every 
possible  way  to  the  furtherance  of  the 
anti-Christian  movement  that  passes 
under  the  name  of  Liberalism.  Through- 


out continental  Europe,  in  the  Spanish- 
American  States,  and  in  Brazil,  Free- 
masonry has  of  late  years  again  become 
very  active.  The  war  against  the  Catho- 
lic Church  in  Germany  had  no  more 
bitter  supporter  than  Freemasonry.  If 
the  Culturkampf  was  not  directed  from 
the  lodges,  at  least  nearly  all  its  leaders 
were  Freemasons.  During  "the  Com- 
mune "  of  Paris,  in  1871,  Masonic  lodges 
took  part  as  a  body  in  the  insurrection, 
marching  out  to  the  fight  with  their  red 
banners.  In  France  and  Belgium  the 
lodges  have  officially  commanded  their 
members  to  assist  the  Lvjue  de  VEji- 
seiffnement—SL  league  intended  to  bring 
about  the  complete  secularisation  of  the 
primary  public  schools. 

In  the  English-speaking  countries, 
however.  Freemasonry  has  hitherto  pro- 
tested its  respect  for  government  and 
established  society,  and  it  has  not  bad 
any  immediate  action  on  politics,  its 
members  being  usually  found  as  nume- 
rous in  one  political  party  as  another. 
But  it  lias  never  failed  indirectly  to  use 
its  influence  for  the  advancement  of  its 
members  over  others.  English-speaking 
Freemasons  have  usually  been  accus- 
tomed to  regard  the  pantheism  of  their 
rituals  as  an  amusing  mummery  rather 
than  as  a  reality.  These  Freemasons 
usually  disown  for  their  order  any  aims 
but  those  of  a  convivial  and  mutual- 
benefit  society,  but  no  one  can  fail  to  see 
that  indifl'erentism  in  religion  at  least  is 
one  of  the  necessary  results  of  English- 
speaking  Freemasonry  at  its  best.  But 
the  constant  influx  into  the  English- 
speaking  countries  of  Jews  and  Conti- 
nental Freemasons  must  necessarily  im- 
pregnate the  order  with  all  the  poison  of 
the  Continental  sect. 

Freemasonry  is  essentially  opposed 
to  the  belief  in  the  personality  of  God, 
whose  name  in  the  Masonic  rituals  veils 
the  doctrine  of  blind  force  only  govern- 
ing the  universe.  It  is  also  essentially 
subversive  of  legitimate  authority,  for 
by  professing  to  furnish  man  with  an  aU- 
sufKcient  guide  and  help  to  conduct,  it 
makes  him  independent  of  the  Church, 
and  by  its  everywhere  ridiculing  rank 
and  authority  it  tends,  in  spite  of  its  oc- 
casional protests  of  loyalty,  to  bring  all 
governments  into  contempt. 

The  sect  has  been  repeatedly  con- 
demned by  learned  and  respectable  men 
of  all  countries,  Protestant  and  Catholic. 
Six  bulls  have  been  directed  against  it  by 
name — ^viz.  "In  eminenti,"  Clement  XII., 


FRIAR 


GALILEO 


3  738 ;  "  Providas,"  Benedict  XIV.,  1751 ; 
"Ecclesiam  Jesu  Christi,"  Pius  "VTI., 
1821;  "Qui  graviorn,"  Leo  XII.,  1826; 
"Quanta  cum."  Pius  IX.,  1864;  "Hu- 
manum  genus,"  Leo  XIII.,  1884. 

FRZAR.  The  word  is  a  corruption  of 
the  French  frhre,  the  distinguishing  title 
of  the  members  of  the  mendicant  orders. 
The  Franciscans  and  Dominicans, 
proved  by  the  Holy  See  in  1210  and  1216 
respectively,  were  the  first  friars ;  to  these 
Innocent  IV.  in  1245  added  the  Car- 
melites, and  Alexander  IV.  the  Augus- 
tinian  hermits  (1256).  Hence  Chaucer, 
writing  about  1390,  .speaks  of  "  alle  the 
ordres  foure." '  The  Servites  received  in 
the  fifteenth  century  the  same  privileges  ns 
the  four  mendicant  orders  from  Martin  V. 
and  Innocent  VIII. 

FRONTAK  (antipendium,  pallium). 
An  embroidered  cloth  which  often  covers 
the  front  side  of  the  altar.  The  colour, 
according  to  the  rubrics  of  the  missal, 
should  vary  with  the  feast  or  season.  In 
early  times  the  altar  was  open  in  front,  so 
that  there  was  no  need  of  such  a  covering, 
and  even  now  Gavantus  says  it  may  be 
dispensed  with  if  the  altar  is  of  costly 
material  or  fine  workmanship.  (Gavant. 

P.  I.  tit.  XX.) 

FUNERAK  (e.vrquice).  The  follow- 
ing are  the  chief  points  in  the  funeral  rite 
as  prescribed  in  the  Roman  Ritual.  The 
corpse  is  borne  in  procession  with  lights 
to  the  church.  The  parish-priest  assists 
in  surplice  and  black  stole  ;  the  clerks 
carry  the  holy  water  and  cross ;  the  coffin 
is  first  sprinkled  with  holy  water  and  the 
psalm  "De  Profundis"  recited;  then  the 
corpse  is  carried  to  the  church  while  the 
"Miserere"  is  said.  The  coffin  is  then 
placed  in  the  middle  of  the  building,  with 
the  feet  to  the  altar  if  the  dead  person 
was  a  layman,  the  head  if  he  was  a  priest. 
Candles  are  lighted  round  the  coffin,  and 

»  Cant.  Tola,  ProL  210. 


the  office  and  Mass  of  the  dead,  followed 
by  the  absolution,  accompanied  by  asper- 
sion and  incensation  over  the  corpse,  are 
said.  Then  another  procession,  and  the 
corpse  is  carried  to  the  tomb.  At  the 
grave  the  "  Benedictus  "  is  sung,  with  the 
antiphon,  "  I  am  the  resurrection  and 
the  life,"  and  a  prayer  for  the  soul  of  the 
departed.  The  body  is  sprinkled  for  the 
last  time  with  holy  water,  just  before  the 
prayer.  The  funeral  of  infants  is  very 
different.  The  psalms  said  are  of  praise 
and  thanksgiving,  nor  is  there,  of  course, 
any  prayer  for  the  repose  of  the  soul. 
The  vestments  used  by  the  officiating 
clergy  are  white,  a  crown  of  flowers  is 
placed  on  the  coffin,  and  the  church  bells 
are  not  rung,  or  else  rung  with  a  joyful 
tone.  The  Ritual  speaks  of  these  rites  as 
handed  down  by  "  most  ancient  custom  ; " 
and  with  good  right.  The  custom  of 
bearing  the  dead  body  to  the  grave  with 
psalms,  and  the  Mass  for  the  soul  of  the 
departed,  can  be  traced  back  to  very  early 
times;  indeed,  the  funeral  procession  is 
the  oldest  of  all,  being  mentioned  by 
Fathers  such  as  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Je- 
rome and  Chrysostom,  who  wrote  in  the 
age  immediately  following  the  heathen 
persecution  of  tlie  Church.  The  last  of 
these  Fathers  (Horn.  iv.  in  Hebr.)  notes 
the  custom  of  carrying  lighted  torches  at 
these  processions,  and  as  early  at  least  as 
the  sixth  centuiy  (see  Greg.  Turon.  "Vit. 
Patr."  c.  14)  the  cross  was  carried.  The 
practice,  on  the  other  hand,  of  tolling  the 
bell  at  funerals  does  not  date  beyond  the 
eighth  or  ninth  age.  (See  Smith  and 
Cheetham,  Article,  Burials.) 

In  the  Greek  rite,  as  given  by  Goar, 
the  clergy  keep  vigil  and  sing  psalms  by 
the  corpse.  The  kiss  of  peace  is  given 
to  the  corpse  or  at  least  to  the  coffin,  and 
at  the  actual  interment  the  priest  sprinkles 
the  coffin  with  earth  and  then  with  oil 
from  the  lamp,  or  else  ashes  from  the 
censer 


GA&ZKEO.  The  object  of  the  pre- 
sent article  is,  not  to  write  a  Life  of 
Galileo,  but  to  give  an  account,  as  clear 
as  our  limits  will  permit,  of  the  two  con- 
demnations of  the  doctrine  of  the  immo- 
bility of  the  sun  and  the  rotation  of  the 
earth,  pronounced  by  the  Congregations 
of  the  Holy  Office  (Roman  Inquisition) 


and  the  Index,  with  special  reference  to 
the  teaching  and  writing  of  Galileo  in 
1616  and  1633.  After  the  most  material 
facts  have  been  narrated  without  com- 
ment, it  will  be  necessary  to  examine 
three  separate  points  : — 1.  ubat  was  the 
precise  nature  of  the  condemnation  pro- 
nounced P    2,  What  was  the  character 


894 


GALILEO 


GALILEO 


111  iLe  considerations  wliich  appeared  to 
the  Pope  and  the  cardinals  to  justify 
them  in  pronouncing  it  ?  3.  Was  Gali- 
leo, as  some  writers  have  maintained, 
really  put  to  the  torture  ? 

In  1613  the  great  astronomer,  who  had 
long  inclined  to  the  heliocentric '  system  of 
Copernicus,  published  a  letter  addressed 
to  his  friend  the  Padre  Castelli,  in  which 
he  says  that  it  is  not  the  object  of  God  in 
the  Holy  Scriptures  to  teach  us  science 
and  philosophy,  and  that  the  received 
Ptolemaic  system  could  no  more  be  re- 
conciled to  the  text  of  Scripture  than  the 
Copf  ruican.  Some  time  afterwards,  in 
1615,  he  wrote  a  much  longer  and  more 
important  letter  to  the  Grand  Duchess 
Christina  of  Tuscany,  in  which  he  is  said^ 
to  have  endeavoured  to  accommodate  to 
the  Copernican  theory  the  various  pas- 
sages in  Scripture  which  seem  to  be 
inconsistent  with  it.  This  letter  was  not 
published  till  1636,  but  its  tenor  appears 
to  have  become  known  to  many  persons. 
Galileo  visited  Rome  towards  the  end  of 
1615,  and  was  shortly  summoned  before 
the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office.  The 
original  minutes,  showing  exactly  what 
occurred,  have  been  published  by  M.  de 
I'Epinois.s  On  February  25,  1616,  Car- 
dinal Millin  reported  to  the  Congregation 
that  the  Pope  (Paul  V.)  had  ordered  that 
Cardinal  Bellarmine  should  call  Galileo 
before  him,  and  should  "warn  him  to 
abandon  the  said  opinion  [of  the  immo- 
bility of  the  sun,  &c.],  and  if  he  refused 
to  obey,  the  Father  Commissary  .... 
was  to  lay  a  command  upon  him  to  ab- 
stain altogether  from  teaching  or  defend- 
ing a  doctrine  and  opinion  of  this  kind,  or 
from  dealing  with  it  [in  any  way]."  If 
he  was  refractory,  he  was  to  be  impri- 
soned— "  carceretur."  The  minutes  of  the 
following  day  show  how  all  this  was 
done,  and  an  injunction,  as  above,  laid 
upon  Galileo :  "  in  which  command  the 
said  Galileo  acquiesced,  and  promised  to 
obey  it."    The  prohibition  of  the  Pope 

J  The  terms  "  heliocentric  "  and  "  geocen- 
tric," as  denoting  the  systems  which  assume  the 
sun  or  the  earth  resjiectivcly  to  be  the  fixed 
centre  round  which  the  planets  revolve,  are 
borrowed  from  two  articles  in  the  Dublin  Re- 
view (believed  to  be  by  Dr.  Ward),  of  which 
we  bave  made  free  use  in  the  present  paper : 
one  is  headed  "  Copernicanism  and  Pope 
Paul  V."  (April  1871);  the  other,  "Galileo 
and  the  Pontifical  Congregations"  (July 
1871). 

»  Hallam,  Lit.  of  Europe,  iii.413. 
'  Leg  Pieces  du  Proces  de  Galilee,  Rome, 
r.iri:',  1877. 


was  identical  in  intention '  with  that  con- 
tained in  a  decree  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Index  dated  a  week  later,  xMarch  5, 
1616.  This  decree  first  condemns  five 
theologico-political  works,  and  then  goes 
on  to  say  that  it  has  come  to  the  know- 
ledge of  the  Sacred  Congregation  "  that 
the  well-known  doctrine — of  Pythagorean 
origin  and  wholly  repugnant  to  the  sacred 
Scriptures — concerning  the  mobility  of 
the  earth  and  the  immobility  of  the  sun," 
formerly  taught  by  Copernicus  and  Diego 
of  Astorga,  "  was  now  being  spread  abroad 
and  embraced  by  many  ;  .  .  .  .  therefore, 
lest  such  an  opinion  should  insinuate 
itself  any  more,  to  the  destruction  of 
Catholic  truth,  it  gave  sentence  "  that  the 
books  of  Copernicus  and  Diego  "  should 
be  suspended  [from  circulation]  till  they 
were  corrected,"  that  the  work  of  a  certain 
Foscarini  upholding  the  same  opinion 
should  be  altogether  prohibited  and  con- 
demned, "  and  that  all  other  books  teach- 
ing the  same  thing  were  to  be  similarly 
prohibited." 

That  this  decree  was  sanctioned  and 
confirmed  by  the  Pope  it  is  impossible  to 
doubt.  The  writer  of  the  article  Oalileo 
in  the  "EncyclopjediaBritannica"  main- 
tains that  its  responsibility  rests  with  a 
disciplinary  congregation  in  no  sense  re- 
presenting the  Church,  and  that  it  was 
never  confirmed  by  the  Pope.  This  view  is 
untenable  in  view  of  the  fact  that  in  any 
decree  of  one  of  the  Sacred  Congregations 
confirmed  and  ordered  to  be  published  by 
the  Pope,  it  is  the  Pope  himself  who 
speaks — not  the  cardinals  merely — if  not 
always  in  his  capacity  of  Universal  Doctor, 
yet  always  in  that  of  Supreme  Pastor  or 
ruler.  That  the  decree  was  not  confirmed 
by  Paul  V.  there  is  not,  so  far  as  we 
know,  the  smallest  shred  of  evidence  for 
maintaining  ;  and  the  onus  probandi  rests 
on  those  who  make  an  assertion  so  im- 
probable. 

Galileo  was  thus  estopped  by  a  decision 
in  which  he  had  acquiesced,  and  which 
he  had  promised  not  to  infringe,  from  pub- 
lishing anything  more  on  the  Copernican 
theory.  Some  years  passed  ;  Urban  VIII. 
ascended  the  Papal  chair  in  1623 ;  he  was 
an  enlightened  man,  of  considerable  learn- 
ing, and,  as  Cardinal  Barberini,  had  had 
much  friendly  intercourse  with  Galileo. 

'  This  is  certain;  for  Bellarmine,  in  th» 
certificate  which  he  gave  to  Galileo  in  1616— 
of  which  we  shall  again  have  occasion  to  speak 
—says  that  "  the  declaration  made  by  the  Pope, 
and  published  by  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the 
Index  [italics  ours],  was  notified  to  him,"  &c. 


GALILEO 


GALILEO 


395 


The  philosopher  visited  Rome  in  1624, 
and  was  received  with  great  warmth  and 
kindness  by  the  Pope.  Soon  after  this  he 
began  to  return  to  the  forbidden  subject ; 
in  an  essay  on  sun-spots  he  assumed  the 
fact  of  the  sun's  immobility.  In  his 
famous  Dialogo  on  the  "  System  of  the 
"World,"  published  at  Florence  in  February 
1632,  he  spoke  out  still  more  plainly. 
The  dialogue  is  carried  on  between  three 
persons,  Salviati,  Sagredo,  and  Simplicio  ; 
the  last  being  a  well-meaning  ignoramus, 
who  supports  the  Ptolemaic  side  by  argu- 
ments manifestly  futile.  At  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  work  the  question  is  in  words 
left  open ;  but  the  whole  effect  of  the 
treatise  is  said  to  be  that  of  a  powerful 
and  vehement  defence  of  the  Copernican 
theory.  The  book  reached  Rome  at  the 
end  of  February  1682,  and  caused  great 
excitement.  The  Pope  was  very  angry; 
he  said  that  Galileo  had  been  ill  advised  ; 
that  great  mischief  might  be  done  to 
religion  in  this  way,  greater  than  was 
ever  done  before.'  Riccardi,  the  Master 
of  the  Apostolic  Palace,  whose  licence 
Gahleo  had  obtained  for  the  printing  of 
the  book  by  representations  which  do  not 
not  seem  quite  straightforward,  com- 
plained that  arguments  which  Urban 
himself  had  used  to  Galileo  against  the 
Copernican  theory  were  in  the  Dialogo 
placed  in  the  mouth  of  Simplicio,  a 
ridiculous  personage.  The  authority  of 
Aristotle  was  in  that  age  inconceivably 
great,  and  Aristotle  had  believed  the 
earth  to  be  immovable.  The  Peripatetics 
— so  his  followers  were  called — flocked 
round  the  Pope,  urged  against  Galileo 
the  breach  of  his  promise,  and  the  insult- 
ing neglect  of  the  prohibition  of  1616, 
and  pressed  for  the  condemnation  both  of 
the  book  and  its  author.  Urban,  still 
desirous  of  keeping  the  case  out  of  the 
Inquisition,  appointed  a  commission  of 
theologians  to  examine  and  rei)ort  on  the 
book.  Their  report  was  submitted  in 
September  1632  ;  it  was  highly  unfavour- 
able to  Galileo.  The  Pope  then  wrote  to 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  in  whose 
service  Galileo  was  at  the  time,  saying 
that  the  case  must  go  before  the  Inqui- 
sition, and  that  the  accused  must  come 
to  Rome  and  stand  his  trial.  After 
a  considerable  delay,  which  produced  a 
stern  letter  from  Urban  (December  30, 
1632)  to  the  elTect  that  if  Galileo  could 
travel  at  all  he  was  to  be  sent  up  to 
Rome  in  chains,  the  philosopher  departed 

^  L'Epinois,  La  Question  de  Galilee,  p.  114. 


from  Florence  and  arrived  in  Rome  about 
the  middle  of  February  l(i"..i,  takinj^-  up 
his  abode  at  the  Tu-eau  t'lniia.-sy.  Tlie 
trial  came  on  in  April ;  for  ten  day,-  after 
its  commencement  Galilro  was  eoniuiitted 
to  the  house  of  the  ti.M-al  of  th>-  Holy 
Office;  but  on  his  com]ilaiiiii;^  that  from 
his  feeble  state  of  health  he  could  ill  Ij.'ar 
the  confinement,  lie  was  allowed  to  return 
to  the  Tuscan  embassy. 

The  minutes  of  the  Holy  Office  show 
that  Galileo  was  examined  on  April  12 
and  30,  May  10,  and  June  21.  The 
report  of  the  commissioners,  one  of  whom 
was  Melchior  Incliofer,  told  heavily 
ajrainst  him.  Melchior  said  that  the 
author  of  the  Dialogo  did  not  put  the 
case  in  favour  of  the  immobility  of  the 
sun  "  h}-pothetice,"  but  "  theoreiiuitice," 
and  that  his  having  written  in  Italian,  so 
that  "  vulgares  etiam  homines"  might 
read  it,  made  the  matter  worse.  The 
disobedience  to  the  command  issued  by 
the  Holy  Office  in  1C16  was  also  much 
dwelt  upon ;  to  which  Galileo  could  only 
reply  by  putting  in  the  certificate  A\  liich 
he  had  obtained  at  the  time  from  Bellar- 
mine,'  and  pleading  that  as  the  latter 
had  not  in  this  expressly  referred  to  the 
injunction  not  to  write  any  more  on  the 
question,  he  had  forgotten  all  about  it. 
It  is  probable  that  this  was  not  believed, 
and  that  some  intention  other  than  one 
purely  scientific  was  ascribed  to  him,  as 
accounting  for  his  open  disregard  of  the 
prohibition  of  1616  We  read  in  the 
minutes  for  June  16,  1633,  that  the  Pope 
ordered  that  Galileo  should  be  questioned 
"  concerning  his  intention,  a  threat  even 
of  torture  being  used  to  him;  and  that  if 
he  persisted  in  his  statement  (et  si  sitstin- 
uerit),  his  abjuration  having  been  first 
taken,  he  was  to  be  condemned,"  &c. 

On  June  21  he  was  examined  accord- 
ing to  this  instruction.  Being  asked 
wliether  he  had  not  held  the  opinion  [of 
the  immobility  of  the  sun]  siiiee  the 
decree  of  1616,  he  said,  "  I  do  not  hold 
and  have  not  held  this  opinion  of  Coper- 
nicus since  it  was  intimated  to  me  by 

'  The  certificate  ends  thus— after  stating 
that  Galileo  had  made  no  abjuration,  nor  been 
put  to  penance — "  but  onlv  tlio  derlaratinn  maile 
by  tlie  Pope  and  publislie.l  by  th,.  Sa.  ir,!  Con- 
gregation of  the  Index  u  ,is  .siilflnllly  iiolihi'il  to 
\\\\\\,  in  which  it  is  contained  ihiit  tlic  dcicii-ine 
attributed  to  Copcrnii  us  tliat  the  earth  moves 
round  the  sun,  and  that  the  sun  remains  in  the 
centre  of  the  world  without  moving  from  east 
to  west,  is  contrary  to  the  Sacred  Scriptures, 
and  therefore  cannot  be  defended  or  held.  In 
testimony  whereof,"  &c. 


30(5  GALILEO 


GALILEO 


authority  (con  prtcetto)  that  I  must  aban- 
don it ;  for  the  rest,  I  am  here  in  your 
hands  :  you  must  do  what  you  please." 
lie  was  then  warned  to  speak  the  truth, 
otherwise  the  torture  would  be  applied. 
He  answered,  "  I  am  here  to  make  my 
Kubmissiou,  and  I  have  not  held  this 
opinion  since  the  decision  was  given,  as  I 
have  said."  He  was  then  allowed  to 
withdraw.  The  sentence  was  pronounced 
the  ne.xt  day  in  the  convent  of  thf- 
Minerva.  A  full  narrative  of  what  passed 
may  be  read  in  a  letter  addre.ssed  by  the 
Cardinal  di  S.  OiidlVio  on  July  i',  1638, 
to  the  hKiiiisition  of  Venice.'  The  sen- 
tence o]ii'iied  with  the  words,  "  Whereas 
tliim,  (Jalileo,"  kc,  and  after  reciting  the 
jiroceedino-s  of  1615  and  1616,  stated  that 
the  Holy  Oftice  appointed  theologians  on 
t  ha  t  occa  si  on  a  s  qualificators,  who  reported 
to  this  effect : — 

1.  That  the  sun  is  the  centre  of  the 
world  and  immovable  is  a  proposition 
absurd  atid  false  in  philosophy,  and  for- 
mally heretical,  a?  being  expressly  con- 
trary to  Holy  Scrijiture. 

2.  That  the  earth  is  not  the  centre  of 
the  world,  noi  iinmcvable,  but  that  it 
moves  even  with  a  diurnal  motion,  is  in 
like  manner  a  proposition  absurd  and  false 
in  philos"iihy,  and,  considered  in  theology, 
at  least  erroneous  in  faith. 

The  accused  is  reminded  that,  after 
Bellarmine  had  advised  and  admonished 
him,  the  then  commissary  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion told  him  that  he  could  not  defend  or 
teach  that  doctrine  any  more,  either  orally 
or  in  writing.  In  publishing  the  Dialmfo 
he  had  manifestly  disobeyed  the  precept, 
and  in  consequence  of  the  publication, 
the  tribunal  understood,  the  said  opinion 
was  spreading  more  and  more.  He  bad 
acted  disingenuously  in  saying  nothing 
about  the  precept  when  he  applied  for 
the  licence  to  print.  Mistrusting  him, 
the  tribunal  had  thought  it  right  to  pro- 
ceed to  the  rigorous  examen  ("  rigoroso 
esame  ")  in  which  he  had  answered  as  a 
Catholic  should  ("  rispondesti  cattolica- 
mente  ").  "  We  therefore,"  proceeds  the 
tribunal,  "say,  pronounce,  declare,  kc, 
that  you,  Galileo,  have  n  idc  yourself 
vehemently  suspect  of  heresy  lo  iKis  Holy 
Office — i.e.  of  having  believed  and  held  a 
doctrine  false  and  contrary  to  the  sacred 
and  divine  Scriptures."  He  had  therefore 
incurred  all  the  usual  penalties  ;  never- 
theless the  tribunal  would  absolve  him  if 
he  abjured  and  detested  the  said  errors. 

'  Printed  in  Venturi's  Memorie  e  Lettere 
Inedite  (Modena,  1818). 


But,  as  a  warning  to  others,  they  ordered : 

1,  that  his  Dialogo  should  be  prohibited; 

2,  that  he  should  be  "formally"  im- 
prisoned '  during  the  pleasure  of  the 
Holy  Office  ;  3,  that  he  should  say  once 
a  week  for  three  years  to  come,  the  seven 
])euitential  psalms.  Galileo  then  abjured 
the  condemned  opinion,^  and  swore  never 
to  promote  it  in  future,  and  to  denounce 
to  the  Holy  Office  any  whom  he  might 
find  maintaining  it. 

Harsh  as  this  sentence  sounds,  the 
fact  is  that  Galileo  was  treated  with 
little  that  can  be  called  severity  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  He  resided  at  first 
at  Siena,  afterwards  in  his  own  villa  at 
Arcetri,  near  Florence.  He  was  so  far 
under  restraint  that  he  was  not  allowed 
to  go  into  the  city,  nor  to  remove  else- 
where without  permission ;  but  within 
his  own  house  and  grounds  he  seems  to 
have  been  left  entirely  free.  Milton 
visited  him  at  Arcetri  in  1638  or  1639. 
"There  [i.e.  in  Italy]  I  found  and  visited 
the  famous  Galileo,  grown  old,  a  prisoner 
to  the  Inquisition,"'  Perhaps  Milton 
did  not  mean  to  mislead,  but  the  common 
inferi'Hce  drawn  fr.ini  his  words  has  been, 
that  he  found  Galileo  immured  in  the 
duugeiins  of  the  Inq^^i^ition,''  instead  of 
living  as  a  private  gentleman  in  his  own 
country  house.  The  philosopher  died  at 
an  advanced  age  at  Arcetri  in  1642. 

Such,  in  brief  outline,  were  the  facts 
of  this  celebrated  condemnation.  Before 
considering  the  motives  actuating  those 
who  pronounced  it,  let  us  examine  what 
the  si'iitence  itself  amounted  to.  Did 
the  lioinan  Pontiff,  at  any  stage  of  these 
jiroceedings,  pronounce  ex  catlictlra  that 
the  theory  of  Copernicus  was  wi-oiig,  and 
that  the 'earth  was  the  fixed  centre  of 
the  world  ?  The  writer  in  the  "  Dublin 
Review  "  already  referred  to  appears  to 
us  to  make  it  quite  plain  that  the  Roman 
Pontiff  did  nothing  of  the  kind.  Whether 
the  decrees  of  Pontifical  congregations 
on  matters  of  doctrine,  in  which  there  is 
a  clause  expressly  asserting  the  Papal 

•  Under  restraint,  but  not  In  a  material 
prison. 

The  clever  fiction  which  makes  him  say 
at  this  point,  Eiipur  si  munve  (•■  And  yet  it 
[the  eui  th]  docs  move  "),  lirst  appeared,  ac- 
cerdini;  to  the  writer  in  the  Knc.  Brit.,  in  an 
Historical  Dictionary  published  at  Caen  in 

I  17»H. 

^  Areopiiffitica. 

I  '  Thus  l)r.  .Johnson  says,  in  his  Life  of 
Miltiiii,  ••  He  had  perhaps  given  some  offence  by 
visitinf;  Galileo,  then  a  pris  mer  in.  the  Inquifi- 

!  tion  [italics  ours]  for  philosophical  heresy." 


GALILEO 


GALILEO 


397 


sanction,  are  or  are  not  to  be  regarded  as 
c.r  cafhcdra  and  infallible  judgments,  is 
a  point,  according  to  the  reviewer,  on 
wbich  theologians  are  not  entirely 
agreed;  but  no  one,  he  adds,  has  ever 
doubted  that  decrees  not  containing  this 
clause  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  decisions 
ex  calhcdi-a.  Xow,  the  decree  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Index  of  March  5, 
161G,  does  not  contain  the  clause;  it 
cannot,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  defining 
ex  cathedra. 

I.  What,  then,  does  the  decree  decide 
or  do  ?  It  decides  that  the  theory  of  Coper- 
nicus is  "false"  and  "entirely  contrary  to 
Scripture,"  and  that  the  books  which  teach 
it  are  to  be  prohibited.  To  this  must  be 
added  the  language  used  by  the  Holy 
Office  in  the  preamble  of  their  sentence,  as 
given  in  a  previous  paragi-aph.  It  is 
abundantly  clear  that  both  Pontifical  con- 
gregations held  that  the  opinion  about  the 
earth's  motion  now  universally  received 
was  false  and  contrary  to  Scripture,  and 
that  no  Catholic  could  hold  it  without 
falling  into  heresy.  The  reviewer  main- 
tain? that  it  was  natural  and  inevitable 
that  they  should  so  regard  it,  seeing  that 
the  obvious  sense  of  Scripture  is  unques- 
tionably opposed  to  theCopernican  theon-, 
and  only  "some  overwhelming  scientific 
probability"  (p.  loO)  could  render  it  legiti- 
mate to  override  the  obvious  in  favour  of 
an  unobvious  sense.  Later  researches  have 
supplied  this  overwhelming  probability, 
and  consequently  all  Cat  ho]  ics  now  "  admit 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  for  wise  purposes 
.  .  .  permitted  the  sacred  writers  to  ex- 
press themselves  in  language  which  was 
literally  true  as  understood  by  them,  but 
was  figurative  in  the  highest  degree  as 
intended  by  Him  "  {ib). 

The  reviewer  moreover  contends  that, 
although  all  Catholics  were  bound  to  as- 
sent to  the  decrees,  they  were  not  thereby 
obliged  to  hold  the  geocentric  tliuory  as  an 
article  of  divine  faith — j.c.  with  an  assent 
excluding  all  doubt.  To  maintain  the 
contradictory  of  this  proposition  would 
be  absm-d,  since  the  heliocentric  theory 
was  allowed  to  be  proposed  hypotheticalhj, 
but  the  Church  would  never  for  a  moment 
allow  even  the  hj-pntlietical  maintenance ' 
of  an  ojiinion  contrary  to  an  article  nf 
faith.  For  instance,  what  ini]): ili  lity 
is  greater  than  that,  since  l>5i.  the 
Church  should  allow  any  Catholic  theo- 
logian to  maintain,  as  a  hypothesis,  that 
the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
»  Except  for  the  purpose  of  a  reductio  ad  ab 
gurdum,  which  of  course  is  not  here  in  question. 


tion  is  untrue  ?  But  that  the  helio- 
centric theory  might  be  hypothetically 
propounded  after  the  decree  of  1616  is 
indisputable.  For.  first,  Galileo  deposed 
before  the  Holy  Office  in  16.!3i  that  in 
](il6  Cardinal  Bellarmlne  spoke  approv- 
ingly, both  as  to  liim  and  Copernicus, 
of  their  holding  the  opinion  of  the 
movement  of  tlie  earth  "ex  suppasitione 
and  not  absolutely."'  Secondly,  the  same 
Bellarmine  declared  in  1620,  "  that  if  a 
scientific  proof  of  Cnpernicanism  were  dis- 
covered. Scripture  ?hould  then  be  Coper- 
nically  interpreted;"  -  and  the  theologian 
Amort,  wT-iting  in  1734,  expressed  himself 
to  the  same  effect.'  Thirdly,  the  report 
of  Melchior  Inchofer  speaks  of  "  the 
reasons  by  which  Galileo  assertively, 
absolutely,  and  not  hypothetically  .  .  . 
maintains  the  motion  of  the  earth;" 
whence  it  may  be  inferred  that  to  main- 
tain it  hypothetically  would  not  have 
been  censurable.* 

II.  The  meaning  and  effect  of  the 
decrees  being  what  we  have  described, 
the  question  arises.  Was  there  any 
urgent,  and  at  the  same  time  justifiable, 
motive  for  issuing  them  at  all  ?  After 
all,  it  may  be  said,  the  opinion  con- 
demned by  the  decrees  has  come  to  be 
universally  believed ;  was  it  not  there- 
fore a   mistake,  to   say  the   least,  to 

j  attempt  thus  to  suppress  it.^  Has  not 
the  logic  of  events  proved  that  course  to 

I  be  wrong  ?  Such  questions  as  these  will 
be  difl'erently  answered  acccjrding  to  the 
varying  estinnitcs  which  people  may  form 

I  of  the  value  of  a  stable  religious  convic- 
tion. The  Pope  and  the  cardinals  believed 

^  in  1616  that  if  everyone  might  freely 

j  teach,  at  universities  or  by  printed  books, 
that  the  earth  revolved  round  the  smi,  a 
great  weakening  of  relinious  faith  would 
ensue,  owing  to  the  ajqiarent  inconsistency 
of  such  teaching  witli  a  number  of  well- 
known  passages  in  the  Bible.  Tliev  might 
remember  that  Giordano  Bruno,  an  ardent 
Copernican,  had  also  taught  pantheism 
with  equal  ardour.  The  standing  danger 
on  the  side  of  Protestantism  was.  they 
might  think,  suliieientlj-  formidable,  with- 
out the  addition  to  it — while  it  could  still 
be  staved  off — of  a  danger  on  the  side  of 
physical  science.  At  the  present  day  the 
y.iiith  of  Italy  liflen  to  infidel  lectures 
and  read  bad  books  without  restriction ; 
one  single  book  of  this  kind,  Renan's  Vie 

'  L'Epinois,  Les  Pieces,  &c.,  p.  60. 
»  Diih.  Kev.  vol.  Ixix.  p.  164. 
»  lb.  p.  102. 
*  L'Epinois,  p.  76. 


GALILEO 


GALLICANISM 


de  Jisus,  is  said  to  have  caused  loss  of 
faitli  to  innumerable  readers  in  Spain  and 
Italy.  With  loss  of  faith  there  comes 
too  often,  as  v<re  all  know,  a  shipwreck  in 
morals.  Are  the  ymmg  Italians  of  to-day 
whom  no  one  thinks  of  shielding  from 
the  knowledge  of  attacks  on  Christianity, 
morally  purer  and  intellectually  stronger 
than  their  partially  protected  predecessors 
of  the  seventeenth  century  ?  We  are  not 
in  a  position  to  answer  the  question ;  but 
those  who  believe  that  the  case  is  not  so, 
but  much  otherwise,  may  well  approve 
the  solicitude  of  the  rulers  of  the  Church 
at  the  former  period — when  the  repres- 
sion of  bad  books  was  still  possible — to 
protect  the  Christian  faith  of  the  rising 
generation  of  Italians.  Few  Catholics 
would  hesitate  to  say,  even  now,  that 
it  would  have  been  to  the  unspeakable 
advantage  of  European  society  and  indi- 
vidual souls,  if  the  bad  book  by  Renan 
just  adverted  to  had  been  summarily 
suppressed  at  its  birth,  and  the  writer 
imprisoned,  at  least  "  formally."  Far  be 
it  from  us  so  to  disparage  the  honoured 
name  of  Galileo  as  to  suggest  for  a 
moment  that  the  two  cases  are  parallel. 
Galileo  was  a  Christian  all  along,  and 
could  no  more  have  written  the  senti- 
mental impieties  of  the  Vie  de  Jesus  than 
could  Urban  VIII.  himself.  Still  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Pope  and 
cardinals — besides  thinking  his  personal 
behaviour  censurable,  because  he  had 
broki  n  a  distinct  promise  and  disregarded 
a  solemn  warning — believed  that  the  in- 
terests of  religion  required  that  Coper- 
nicanism  should  be  no  otherwise  taught 
than  as  a  scientific  hypothesis.  The 
decrees,  it  is  true,  say  nothing  as  to  a 
hypothetical  propounding:  to  them  the 
Copernican  theory  is  simply  false.  But 
this  is  the  usual  style  of  all  disciplinary 
tribunals.  The  words  of  Bellarmine 
before  quoted  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the 
Church's  mind,  and  an  ini])ortant  step 
towards  their  rm !  ;>,i  t  ion  w:is  taken 
when  in  1767 — th.'  New  t"iii;ui  jihilo- 
sophy  which  involves  the  ceutrality  of 
the  sun  having  been  favourably  received 
at  Rome — Ihmu diet  XIV.  suspended  the 
decree  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Inde.x 
above  described.' 

'  There  need  be  no  question  as  to  tlie  sin- 
cerity of  the  Pope  and  cardinals  in  repudiatin;; 
Copernifaiiism.  So  far  as  was  tlien  known,  tlie 
appearancps  of  nature  niisrht  he  equally  well  ex- 
plained on  either  theory,  and  Scripture  in  its 
obvious  meaning  agreed  with  one  and  not  with 
the  other.  Neither  Bacon,  uor  I  xcho  Bralie, 
nor  Descartes,  aci'epted  the  Copernican  theorj-. 


III.  One  more  question  remains — 
whether  Galileo  was  or  was  not  tortured 
j  in  the  course  of  his  examination.    It  is 
extremely  painful  to  read  of  torture  being 
!  even  threatened  to  a  man  so  warmly 
I  loved  by  a  host  of  friends,  and  to  whom 
science  was  under  such  profound  obli- 
gations.   However,  one  may  feel  reason- 
ably confident  that  it  was  no  more  than 
a  threat.    M.  I'Epinois  {La  Question  de 
Galilee,  p.  104)  enters  fully  into  the 
question,  and  shows  (1)  that  no  one  in 
the  seventeenth  century  ever  said  or 
thought,  so  far  as  appears,  that  Galileo 
j  had  been  actually  tortured ;  (2)  that  a 
]  special  "  interlocutory  sentence  "  of  the 
!  judge  must  have  been  given  before  the 
'  application  of  the  torture,  and  that  of 
such  sentence  there  is  no  trace ;  (3)  that 
even  if  such  sentence  had  been  given, 
I  Galileo    might   have   legally  appealed 
I  against  it  on  the  gi-ound  of  age  and  ill- 
'  health,  and  that  his  appeal  must  have 
been  allowed.    For  these   and  several 
j  other  reasons  which  we  have  not  space 
to  analyse,  L'Epinois  considers  that  it  is 
I  scarcely  possible  to  doubt  that  the  tor- 
I  ture.  though  threatened,  was  not  actually 
administered. 

CAI.I.ZCASI'  XiXTITRGZES.  [See 
LlTrHGIES.] 

CAi.z.xCAM'Zsnx.  The  tendency  to 
'  enlarge  the  prerogatives  of  a  national 
church— in  the  particular  case,  of  the 
church  of  France — and  to  restrict  pro- 
])ortionately  the  authority  of  t'le  Holy 
[  See.  It  was  this  tendency  wliicli  was 
I  exeni])lified  alike  in  the  Harlays  and  Le 
Tellievs  in  France,  and  the  Gardiners, 
Heaths,  and  Bonners  of  our  own  country. 
The  habit  of  thinking  of  Rome  as  a  power 
to  be  kept  in  check  rather  than  loved 
and  obeyed,  prorlnrcs  a  desire  to  restrict 
its  authority  in  all  directions,  in  regard 
to  doctrine  no  less  than  discijiline. 
Hence  a  secondary  phase  nf  Gallicani^m 
was — the  tendency  to  exalt  the  autho- 
rity of  a  general  council,  and  to  depress 
correspondingly  that  of  the  Pope. 

Gallicanisiu  in  the  first  sense  is  the 
natural  growth  nf  a  state  of  things  in 
which  despotic  king?  and  corrupt  mi'tro- 
])olitans  ])lay  into  each  other's  hands,  in 
ord'^r  to  disjioie  of  ( 'hurch  property,  ])at- 
rona^e  and  inlliicnce  a?  th(>v  please  For 
three  hniulrcl  y  ir-  after  the  death  of 
Charlemagne,  such  kings  and  such  metro- 
politans were  but  too  common,  both  in 
France  and  Germany.  The  wealth  of 
Milton,  in  the  Paradise  Lost, -wayers  between 
the  two  systems. 


GALLICANISM 


GALLICANISM  899 


the  metropolitan  sees  being  very  great, 
princes  used  often  to  contrive  that  their 
brothers  or  their  illegitimate  sons  should 
be  appointed  to  them ;  often,  too,  they 
■would  sell  the  nomination  for  a  large  sum ; 
and  in  that  turbulent  age  the  sinKn  i-al  I 
intruder  was  generally  able  for  maiiy 
years,  perhaps  for  a  lifetime,  to  set  the 
canons  at  nought  and  retain  the  benefice. 
The  bishops,  less  exposed  to  corrupting 
influences  than  the  metropolitans,  main- 
tained discipline  as  well  as  they  could  ; 
but  episcopal  decisions  were  often  referred 
by  appeal  to  metropolitans,  and  were  re- 
viewed— when  the^e  had  been  appointed 
in  the  manner  above  described  —in  no 
equitable  or  conscientious  spirit.  A  metro-  j 
politan  decided  a  cause,  perhaps  for  | 
money,  against  a  bishop ;  what  was  the 
bishop  to  do  ?  Appeal  to  Rome,  of 
•course,  wlience  he  might  hope  to  obtain 
a  final  and  overriding  sentence,  quashing 
the  unjust  judgment  of  the  metropolitan. 
Against  such  apj;eals  the  latter,  and  his 
prmce  also,  would  naturally  protest. 
Why  should  not  the  bishop  be  content 
•with  a  decision  given  in  the  highest 
ecclesiastical  court  in  the  country,  and 
approved  by  the  civil  power  ?  Why 
should  he  go  to  Konie  ?  Here  we  have 
Gallicanism  at  its  fountain  head.  The 
opposite  view — that  which  makes  Rome 
the  motlier  and  mistress  of  all  churches, 
and  persists  in  regarding  her  as  qualified 
to  review  all  causes  and  i-edi-oss  all  wrongs 
in  matters  ecclesiastical — though  some-  1 
times  called  Ultramontane,  has  been 
adopted  by  all  the  saints,  and  all  clear- 
sighted Catholics,  in  eveiy  age  of  the 
Church.  It  comes  out  forcibly  [False 
Decketals]  in  the  psoudo-Isidorian  com- 
pilation, a  work  of  the  ninth  century,  and  I 
it  dictated  the  celebrated  Concordat  of  | 
Worms  (1122),  where  the  riglit  of  the  I 
Pope  to  intervene  in  the  appointment  of 
all  bishops  was  distinctly  recognised. 

For  many  generations  those  ecclesias- 
tics in  France  who  desired  to  uphold  the 
royal  power,  and  strengthen  the  preroga- 
tives of  the  national  churcli,  were  content 
to  appeal  to  the  old  canonical  practice 
(itsus  canonum,  ohservnntia  juris  nntiqiii) 
against  what  they  regarded  as  Roman 
encroachments.  Gradually — as  a  conse- 
quence, partlv  of  the  contest  between 
Boniface  VIll.  and  Philip  le  Bel,  partly 
of  the  declarations  made  in  th(!  Councils 
of  Constance  and  Basle — two  ])rinei)ili  s 
began  to  be  enunciated  by  the  national 
party :  one,  that  the  King  of  France  was  ] 
absolutely  independent  of  the  Pope  in  all  | 


temporal  matters ;  the  other,  that  the 
Papal  power  was  not  absolute,  must  be 
exercised  within  the  limits  of  the  canons, 
and  was  inferior  to  that  of  a  general 
council.  By  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of 
1438,  passed  at  Bourges,  the  Galilean 
church,  in  union  with  the  king,  adopted 
the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Basle  abo- 
lishing Papal  reservations  and  expecta- 
tives,  and  restricting  ajjpeals  to  Rome  to 
the  causes  viajorcs.  Many  Popes  pro- 
tested against  the  Pragmatic  Sanction ; 
but  it  was  maintained  tiU  the  date  of  the 
concordat  (151G)  between  Leo  X.  and 
Francis  I.,  and  although  it  was  then 
abolished,  several  of  its  provisions  con- 
tinued to  be  in  force.  On  the  whole, 
there  was  in  the  sixteenth  century  a  large 
body  of  customs  and  privileges,  more  or 
less  ancient,  which  the  courtly  portion  of 
the  clergy  delighted  to  speak  of  as  the 
"  Galilean  liberties."  A  crisis  came  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  Through  the 
arbitrary  extension  by  Louis  XIV.  of  the 
royal  right  called  Hegalia  [see  that 
article],  a  collision  occurred  between  the 
Crown  and  two  bishops,  those  of  Aleth 
and  Pamlers.  The  bishops  excommuni- 
cated the  Crown  nominees  :  the  metro- 
politans of  Toulouse  and  Narbonne,  on 
being  appealed  to,  cancelled  the  sentences 
of  the  bishops  ;  these  last  then  appealed 
to  Rome,  and  Innocent  XL  annulled  the 
decisions  of  the  metropolitans.  In  these 
circumstances  an  assembly  of  the  French 
clergy  was  convened.  Bossuet,  just 
elected  to  the  see  of  Meaux,  was  re- 
quested to  preach  the  opening  sermon  ; 
he  delivered  the  celebrated  discourse 
"  On  the  LTnity  of  the  Church  ;  "  concern- 
ing which  there  Is  nothing  more  remark- 
able than  that  the  man  who  defended  so 
eloquently  the  rights  of  the  chair  of 
Peter  should  a  few  days  afterwards  sign 
the  Galilean  Articles. 

These  articles,  four  in  number,  were 
drawn  up  in  March  1682,  and  are  to  the 
following  eflect  :— 

The  first  denied  that  Peter  and  his 
successors  had  received  any  power  from 
God  extending  to  civil  and  temporal 
affairs,  declared  that  kings  were  suoject 
to  no  ecclesiastical  power  In  temporals, 
and  denied  the  deposing  power  of  the 
Pope.    [Deposikg  Power  ] 

The  second  ratifies  the  third  and  fourth 
sessions  of  the  Council  of  Constance  [see 
that  article]  concerning  the  authority  of 
the  council  relatively  to  tluit  of  tlie  Pope, 
and  denies  that  these  sessions  refer  only 
to  the  time  of  the  schism. 


400  GALLICANISM 


GENERAL 


Tlie  third  asserts  the  force  and  vali- 
dity of  the  laws,  customs,  and  constitu- 
tions of  the  realm  and  of  the  Gallican 
church. 

The  foujth  is  as  follows :  "  The  Pope 
has  the  principal  share  in  questions  of 
faith  ;  his  decrees  regard  all  the  churches 
and  each  church  in  particular ;  neverthe- 
less his  judgment  is  not  irreformable, 
unless  the  consent  of  the  Church  be 
.idded."* 

The  question  of  the  Regalia  fell  into 
the  backgi-ound,  after  the  publication  of 
the  Articles  of  1682 ;  besides,  the  bishops 
would  not  oppose  the  Court,  and  the 
Pope  could  not  successfully  vindicate  the 
rights  of  the  French  church  without 
some  help  from  its  leaders.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  two  tendencies  of  ■ 
Gallicanism — that  which  would  limit 
the  action  of  Rome  in  discipline,  and  that 
which  would  place  its  authority  below 
that  of  a  general  council  in  doctrine — 
were  both  broadly  affirmed  in  these 
articles.  The  Spanish,  Flemish,  and 
Italian  clergy  repudiated  them ;  Alex- 
ander VIII.  (1690)  pronounced  them  null 
and  void  ;  Clement  IX.  (1716),  and  after- 
wards Pius  VI.  renewed  the  condemna- 
tion. Louis  XIV.  withdrew  in  1692  the 
edict  by  which  he  had  approved  the  four 
articles ;  but  he  did  so,  not  on  the  ground 
that  they  were  condemned  by  the  Holy 
See,  and  unsafe  for  Chi-istians  to  hold, 
1)ut  because  the  particular  conjunction  of 
affairs  which  gave  rise  to  them  had 
passed  away. 

Far  from  ushering  in  a  period  of 
greater  freedom  for  the  French  church, 
the  declaration  of  1682  was  merely 
another  link  in  the  chain  which  politi- 
cians and  lawyers  had  long  been  forging, 
for  the  enslavement  of  the  Church  to  the 
laity.  F^nelon  wrote :  "  In  practice  the 
King  of  France  is  more  the  head  of  the 
Church  than  the  Pope.  Liberty  towards 
the  Pope :  servitude  towards  the  king. 
The  king's  power  over  the  Church  has 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  civil  tribu- 
nals. Laymen  lord  it  over  the  bishops. 
Secular  judges  go  so  far  as  to  examine 
even  those  Papal  bulls  which  relate  only 
to  matters  of  faith."  Jansenism,  in  so 
far  as  it  fostered  insubordination  towards 
the  Holy  See,  co-operated  with  Galli- 
canism.    When  the  Revolution  came, 

1  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark,  that  to 
adhere  to  this  last  proposition  of  the  fourth 
article,  since  the  promulgation  of  the  constitu- 
tion Rnmanum  Fimtificem  at  I  lie  Vatican  Coun- 
cil, would  amount  to  formal  heresy. 


and  the  doctrinaires  of  the  Convention 
produced  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the 
Clergy  (see  that  article),  they  were  only 
pushing  the  worst  side  of  Gallicanism  to 
its  logical  outcome.  But  the  great  majo- 
rity of  the  French  clergy  saw  and  recoi  led 
from  the  snare,  and  from  the  day  that 
they  did  so  Gallicanism  was  doomed.  In 
our  own  day,  there  has,  indeed,  been  a 
party  among  the  French  clergy  which 
has  been  less  Ultramontane  than  the 
rest ;  hence  the  "  inopportimist  "  oppo- 
sition at  the  Vatican  Council.  But  the 
definition  of  the  Infallibility  of  the  Pope 
has  made  the  doctrinal  basis  of  Gallican- 
ism formal  heresy ;  and  the  breach  made 
by  the  revolution  in  the  ecclesiastical 
traditions  of  France,  the  suppression  of 
the  old  tribunals,  and  the  generally 
deepened  apprehension  in  Catholic  society 
of  the  rights  and  divinely  founded  autho- 
rity of  the  Papacy,  combine  to  render  it 
unlikely  that  even  the  Gallican  temper, 
in  relation  to  the  supreme  ecclesiastical 
authority  on  the  one  hand  and  the  civil 
power  on  the  other,  will  ever  reappear 
!  on  any  large  scale  in  the  Church. 

GAKTGRA,  COVM-CZI.  OP.  We 
pos^^e^.s  the  twenty-one  canons  of  this 
council,  which  was  held  at  Gangra,  the 
capital  of  Paphlagonia,  but  its  precise 
date  is  unknown.  The  chief  intention 
of  the  canons  is  that  of  condemning  the 
false  asceticism  of  Eustathius  of  Sebaste, 
or  rather  of  his  followers  [see  Eusta- 
THiANs].  Eustathius  no  longer  held  the 
see  of  Sebaste  in  380,  and  some  have 
thought  that  he  was  deposed  by  this 
Council  of  Gangra;  if  that  were  so,  its 
date  would  probably  be  379  or  380 — not 
earlier,  because  St.  Basil,  who  died  in 
379,  ninkes  no  mention  of  it.  It  anathe- 
matises those  who  out  of  spiritual  pride 
and  a  false  conception  of  purity  blamed 
marriage,  and  despised  those  who  were 
married ;  at  the  same  time  it  guards 
itself  from  being  supposed  not  to  honour 
and  admire  viiginity  and  continence 
when  embraced  with  humility  and 
charity.  (Fleuiy,  "Hist,  du  Christ." 
Book  xvii. ;  Smith  and  Wace,  "  Christian 
Biography,"  art.  Eustathius.) 

GAuioETE  SUNDAY.  The  third 
Sunday  of  Advent,  so  called  from  the 
first  word  of  the  Introit,  Gaudete,  "  re- 
joice." On  this  day  cardinals  are  re- 
quired to  wear  pale-rose  dresses. 

GEHETNTNA.    [See  Hell.] 

GEM-ERAX.  (of  an  Order).  From 
the  foundation  of  the  orders  of  friars  it 
became  usual  for  religious  orders  and 


GENERAL 


GENUFLEXION  401 


congregations  of  men  to  be  under  the 
rule  of  a  general  superior,  usually  elected 
in  general  chapter  for  three  years,  or 
some  other  fixed  term.  In  the  Society 
of  Jesus  the  general  is  elected  for  life. 
The  Renedictine  order,  as  such,  is  not 
governed  by  a  general ;  but  a  precedency 
of  rank  is  accorded  to  the  abbot  of  Monte 
Cassino,  who  is  styk^d  "  Abbas  abbatum." 
Most,  if  not  all,  of  the  congregations  that 
have  sprun<r  from  the  Benedictine  order, 
or  grown  up  within  it  {e.g.  the  orders  of 
Cluny  and  Giteaux,  and  the  congregation 
of  St.  Maur),  have  established  geueralates. 
In  such  cases,  the  general  has  been 
usually  the  abljot  of  the  mother  house, 
as  at  Cluny;  hence  the  title  "Abbas 
generalis." 

The  prelates  of  regular  orders  enjoy 
special  powers  and  privileges.  A  general 
has  ordinary  spiritual  jurisdiction  over 
his  subjects  in  utroque  foro.  Generals 
and  provincials  have  the  same  power  of 
absolution  in  reserved  cases,  in  relation 
to  their  subjects,  which  bishops  have  in 
relation  to  their  diocesans.  Generals 
can  reserve  to  themselves  eleven  cases 
(specified  in  the  decree  of  Clement  VIII., 
1593),  but  not  more,  without  the  consent 
of  the  chapter  general.  Although  neither 
abbots  nor  superiors  of  orders  were  sum- 
moned to  the  first  six  general  councils, 
yet  from  the  date  of  the  seventh  onwards, 
exemptions  from  episcopal  control  having 
been  freely  granted  to  religious  orders  by 
the  Holy  See,  the  custom  was  gradually 
established  that,  not  only  abbots  with 
quasi-episfopal  jurisdiction,  but  also  the 
generals  of  orders,  "  should  be  present  at 
a  general  synod  as  judges,  and  subscribe 
its  decrees,  having  a  decisive  vote,  and 
the  right  of  defining."  '  Seven  generals 
of  religious  orders  subscribed  the  decrees 
of  Trent. 

These  powers  and  privileges  of  regu- 
lar prelates  are  shared  in  part  by  the 
Superiors  General  of  regular  and  secular 
clerks,  such  as  the  Theatines,  Rarnabites, 
Redemptorists,  Passionists,  &c.  Several 
modern  congregations  of  women  have 
also  general  superiors,  but  their  canonical 
position  is  of  course  quite  different. 

Generals  are  forbidden  by  the  law  to 
enter  without  necessity  the  convents  of 
nuns  subject  to  them;  their  visitations 
of  such  convents  are,  as  a  rule,  to  be 
made  not  oftener  than  once  a  year.  Nor 
can  they  hear  the  confessions  of  such 
nuns  without  the  approbation  of  the 
bishop.  Nor  can  they,  on  pain  of  excom- 
>  Tamburinus,  i.  368. 


munication,  grant  any  office  or  dignity, 
or  remit  any  punishment,  to  one  of  their 
subjects  at  the  instance  of  any  person 
outside  the  order,  whatever  the  rank  of 
that  person  may  be. 

(Ferraris,  Reyularis  Prcelatug,  Eelig. 
Jieff II  lares ;  Tamburinus,  "  De  Jure  Abba- 
tum," Rome,  1G29.) 

GENTERAX.     CONFESSIOIT.  A 

confession  of  sins  committed  by  the  peni- 
tent since  baptism,  so  far  as  they  can  be 
remembered.  Such  a  confession  is  of 
course  necessary  in  the  case  of  those 
who  have  made  no  previous  confession, 
or  whose  previous  confessions  have  been 
invalid — e.g.  because  they  wilfully  con- 
cealed a  mortal  sin  or  were  wanting  in 
true  and  supeinatural  sorrow.  It  is 
advisable  if  the  validity  of  the  past  con- 
fessions is  very  doubtful.  But  sometimes 
persons  repeat  in  a  general  confesfion 
sins  for  which  they  have  already  received 
absolution,  although  there  is  no  reason 
to  consider  this  absolution  invalid.  Moral 
theologians  and  ascetical  writers  admit 
the  utility  of  this  practice  in  certain 
cases.  Thus  a  person  may  reasonably 
desire  to  make  such  a  confession  in  order 
to  obtain  direction  when  he  proposes  to 
enter  on  a  new  state  of  life ;  or,  again, 
to  acquire  deeper  humility  and  a  better 
knowledge  of  himself.  Hence  it  is  com- 
mon to  make  a  general  confession  before 
first  communion,  ordination,  religious 
profession,  &c.  But  the  practice  of  fre- 
quently making  general  confessions  leads 
to  great  loss  of  time,  occasions  scruples, 
and  is  strongly  discouraged  by  spiritual 
authors  and  prudent  confessors. 

GEM'VFX.EXXOia-  (the  bending  of 
the  knee)  is  a  natural  sign  of  adoration 
or  reverence.  It  is  frequently  used  in 
the  ritual  of  the  Church.  Thus  the 
faithful  genuflect  in  passing  before  the 
tabernacle  where  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
is  reserved ;  the  priest  repeatedly  genu- 
flects at  Mass  in  adoration  of  the  Eucha- 
rist, also  at  the  mention  of  the  Incarna- 
tion in  the  Creed,  &c.  Genuflexion  is 
also  made  as  a  sign  of  profound  respect 
before  a  bishop  on  certain  occasions.  A 
double  genuflexion — i.e.  one  on  both 
knees — is  made  on  entering  or  leaving  a 
church  where  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is 
exposed. 

The  early  Christians  prayed  standing 
on  Sundays,  and  from  Easter  till  Pente- 
cost, and  only  bent  the  knee  in  sign  of 
penance  ;  hence  a  class  of  penitents  were 
known  as  Genuflectentes.  .\  relic  of  this 
penitential  use  of  genuflection  survives, 

D  D 


402 


GHOST 


GILDS,  GUILDS 


according  to  Gavantus  (P.  I.  tit.  16),  in 

the  practice  enjoined  by  the  rubric  of 
genuriecting  at  the  verse  "  Adjuva  nos," 
in  the  Tract  of  31:i->i"s  duriiii;'  Lent. 

GHOST.  Among  the  ancient  Greelc^, 
Romans,  and  Germans,  the  l)elief  in 
apparitions  of  do])artiHl  S]iirits  was  widely 
spread.  In  the  Old  Testament  there  are 
many  allusions  to  necromancers,  who 
professed  to  summon  up  the  spirits  of 
the  drad  ;  and  possibly  in  1  lleg.  xxviii. 
7  we  have  the  account  of  a  real  appari- 
tion. Some  of  the  Fathers  (e._(/.  Justin 
and  Origen)  supjiose  that  Samuel's  ghost 
really  did  appear  to  Saul  when  he  con- 
sulted tlie  witch  of  Endor ;  others  (e.f/. 
Tertullian  and  Jerome)  regard  the  sup- 
posed ap])earance  of  Samuel's  spirit  as  a 
diabolical  imposture.  Many  apparitions 
of  saints  after  death  are  recorded  in  the 
history  of  the  Church. 

The  theological  principles  on  the 
matter  are  stated  by  St.  Thomas, 
"  Summ."  Supp.  qu.  69,  a.  3.  Accord- 
ing to  the  natural  course  of  things,  no 
soul  can  leave  heaven  or  hell,  even  for  a 
time,  or  quit  purgatory  till  its  purifica- 
tion is  completed.  But  God  may  permit 
departed  souls  to  appear  on  earth  for 
many  wise  reasons — e.ff.  that  the  saints 
may  help  men  ;  that  the  sight  of  lost 
souls  may  warn  them  ;  that  the  spirits 
in  purgatory  may  obtain  prayers.  St. 
Thomas  even  thinlis  that  God  has  com- 
municated to  the  saints  a  permanent 
power  of  appearing  on  earth  when  they 
please. 

GHOST,  HOX.T.  [See  Tkinitt  and 
M.\.i:iH,xMNs.^ 

Gxx.BERTZM'ES.   [See  Sempeing- 

HA:*I.  '  ll'.DER  OF.] 

GX1.SS,  GUXX.SS  (A.S.  ffildan,  to 
pay).  The  history  of  the  word  is  obscure  ; 
in  the  Anglo-Saxon  poems  ascribed  to 
Cirdmon — Ocnp.^i.t  and  Daniel — gild  or 
gifi'l used  in  the  sense  of  "sacrifice," 
and  iil<o  (it'  "  id'il  "  Among  the  Teutons 
of  the  n^irlh  its  oi'iginal  meanino-  is  said 
to  have  li'im  "sa(-rifieial  feast/"  Yet 
so  early  as  the  time  of  Ina  it  is  used  in 
one  of  the  three  allied  senses  attached  to 
it  by  Christian  civilisnt  ion  —  namely,  that 
of  a  society  of  contrihuting  members 
associated  for  mutual  lielp  and  assurance. 
By  the  laws  of  Ina,  no  ivcre,  or  compen- 
sation for  blood,  was  due  to  the  guilds- 
men  {ijeyyldari)  of  a  stranger  whom  sonu^ 
one  might  have  slain  in  the  honest  belief 
that  he  was  a  robber.''    At  a  later  period 

•  Brentano ;  see  end  of  art. 

*  Leges  IiiBS,  21. 


we  meet  with  these  Frith-gilds  under  the 
names  of  Frith-horg  and  Fran'k-phdge, 
when  their  relation  to  the  existing  system 
of  public  justice,  and  responsibility  for 
the  good  conduct  of  their  members,  is 
the  single  point  in  their  association  con- 
sidered. The  passages  in  the  Laws  of 
Ina  which  mention  gogyldan,  if  carefully 
weighed,  seem  to  point  to  a  general 
system  of  association,  for  the  exacting 
and  payment  of  were-gilds  due  from  or 
in  respect  of  any  of  the  members,  which 
was  probably  common  to  all  Teutonic 
communities,  and  dated  bade  to  the  times 
of  paganism.  The  conjuratores  of  the 
Salic  and  Ripuariau  laws  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  Frankish  equivalent  to  the 
gegyldan  of  Ina.'  On  this  ancient  foun- 
dation were  grafted  the  religious  rites 
and  kindly  customs,  gradually  developed 
in  a  hundred  beautiful  ways,  of  the 
media3val  gilds,  which  in  no  country  of 
Europe  flourished  so  much  as  in  Eng- 
land. 

The  geldomoe  or  confratncs  of  the 
Carolingian  times  [CoisTfrateenitx]  were 
gilds  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  but  the 
imperial  legislation  discountenanced  them, 
and  their  precise  rules  and  constitution 
are  little  known.  The  first  extant  char- 
ter of  a  gild  is  that  by  which,  in  the 
reign  of  Canute,  Orcy  gives  the  guild-hall 
{geggld-heallf)  at  Abbotsbury  in  Dorset, 
"  for  God's  love  and  St.  Peter's,"  to  the 
gyldscipe  of  the  place.^  Everj-  guildsman 
{gegylda)  was  to  pay  annually,  three  days 
before  St.  Peter's  Mass,  one  penny,  or  a 
pennyworth  of  wax.  On  the  eve  of  the 
feast  every  two  giiild^nien  wiTe  to  bring 
one  large  loaf,  well  .-il'led  inid  rai.-nl.  for 
the  common  alni-;ii\ ing.  Five  \\'ei.'k-^ 
liefori'  the  same  festival  each  nieniberhad 
to  lirlng  a  measure  of  clean  wheat,  and 
within  three  days  afterwards  a  load  of 
wood.  On  the  death  of  any  member, 
each  of  his  fellows  was  to  pay  "  one 
penny  at  the  corpse  for  the  soul."  These 
were  the  "  ]Mass-])once,'' of  which  we  hear 
so  much  in  later  time,-.  Other  rules  pro- 
vided for  an  annual  feast,  for  almsgiving, 
the  nursing  of  sick  members,  the  decent 
burial  of  the  dead,  kc.  The  ends  of  the 
gild  appear  here  to  be  purely  religious 
and  social ;  yet  in  the  somewhat  later 
charter  of  a  Cambridge  gild,  the  old  prin- 
ciple of  mutual  assurance  against  crime 
and  its  penalties  receives  marked  illus- 
tration. Gradually  this  feature  dis- 
appears, and  the  gild  assumes  the  aspect 

'  Giiizot,  Civitisatinn  en  France,  lect.  ix.  x. 
I      2  Kemble,  Cod.  Dipl.  942. 


GIllDLE 


GLOSSA  403 


of  "a  roluntan-  association  of  those 
living  near  together,  who  joined  for  a 
common  purjiose,  paying  contributions, 
worshipping  together,  feasting  together 
periodically,  helping  one  another  in  sick- 
ness and  poverty,  and  frequently  united 
for  the  pursuit  of  a  special  object," ' 
usually  a  religious  one.  These  objects 
the  giids  continued  to  promote  down  to 
the  Reformation,  when  they  were  de- 
stroyed and  plundered.'^ 

The  Frith  Gilds,  as  we  have  seen, 
came  first ;  out  of  them  grew  what  some 
have  called  the  Religious,  some  the 
Social  gilds.  In  Norfolk  alone  there 
were  909  gilds  of  this  class.  Out  of  these 
proceeded  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries,  the  Trade  Gilds,  divided  into 
Gild-merchants  and  Craft-gilds. 

Everj'  gild  had  its  distinct  livery; 
hence  the  name  of  the  "  Livery  Com- 
panies "  of  London  Five  of  the  Canter- 
bury pilgrims,  the  Haberdasher,  Carpen- 
ter, Weaver,  &c.,  are  described  as — 
clothed  in  oo  [one]  lyver^ 

Of  a  solempne  and  gret  fraternite, 

or  religious  gild.  The  Craft  Gilds  of  a 
city  would  often  combine  together,  and 
each  undertake  to  represent  one  scene  in 
a  great  religious  drama  or  miracle-play. 
Hence  came  the  "  Chester  Plays,"  written 
by  Dan  Randal  of  Chester  Abbey,  and 
exhibited  by  twenty-four  trades  or  craft- 
gilds  of  the  city.^  (See  the  interesting 
volume  "  English  Gilds,"  containing  the 
original  ordinances  of  more  than  a  hun- 
dred of  them,  and  edited  by  Mr.  Toulmin 
Smith  for  the  Early  iuiglish  Text  Society 
[1870],  with  a  preface  by  Dr.  Luis  Bren- 
tano.)' 

CXRDKE  (cingulum,  balteujn,  C<^vr}), 
A  cord  with  which  the  priest  or  other 
cleric  binds  his  alb.  It  is  the  symbol  of 
continence  and  self-ivstraint,  as  is  said 
by  Innocent  III.,  and  implied  in  the 
prayer  which  the  priest  about  to  celebrate 
Mass  is  directed  to  use  while  he  ties  the 
girdle  round  his  waist.  The  Congrega- 
tion of  Rites  (January  22,  1701)  lays  it 
down  that  the  girdle  should  be  of  linen 
rather  than  of  silk,  though  it  may  also 
be  (S.R.C.,  December  23,  1862)  of  wool. 

»  £ncy.  Brit.  art.  "  Gilds." 

-  Mr.  Toulmin  Smith,  who  looks  with  in- 
dulf;ence  on  the  di-solution  of  the  monasteries, 
ij  indiiinant  at  the  spoliation  of  the.se  lay  in- 
stitutions;  "A  case  of  pure  wholi-sale  robbery 
and  plunder;  ...  no  page  so  black  in 
English  history,"  &c.  &c. — Kiig.  Gilds,  p.  xlii. 

5  Wrijiht's  Chester  Plays,  edited  for  the 
Shakspere  Society,  184.3. 


Usually  it  is  white,  but  the  use  of 
coloured  girdles,  varying  with  the  colour 
of  the  vestments,  is  permitted  (S.R.O., 
January  8,  1709). 

As  to  the  origin  of  the  girdle,  its  use 
was  common  among  Greeks  and  Romans 
in  their  daily  life,  and  thence  took  its 
place,  as  a  matter  of  course,  among  the 
liturgical  vestments ;  but  it  is  not  till 
the  beginning  of  the  middle  ages  that  we 
meet  with  liturgical  girdles  richly 
adorned.  Anastasius,  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, mentions  miircenults — i.e.  jewelled 
girdles  in  the  shape  of  lampreys  (ir  eel.-. 
We  also  read  of  girdles  varit-gated  with 
gold,  and  of  others  (zona  Uterata')  with 
letters  or  words  woven  in.  The  Greek 
girdle  is  shorter  and  broader  than  ours, 
and  often  richlv  adorned.  (See  Benedict 
XIV.  "  De  Miss. ; "  Le  Brun ;  Hefele, 
"  Beitriige.") 

CXiEBE  {(/leba).  Land  permanently 
devoted  to  the  sustentation  of  the  incum- 
bent of  a  particular  parish.  The  word 
gleha  is  used  for  a  farm  or  estate  in  the 
Theodosian  code.  In  the  body  of  the 
canon  law  it  means  the  land  which, 
along  with  a  house,  constituted  the  eccle- 
siastical mansus  of  right  a])pertaining  to 
j  a  benefice.  Mediaeval  charters  present 
1  many  instances  of  this  use  of  the  word  ; 
thus  Simon  Islip,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, in  a  charter  dated  about  1360,  says, 
"Item  habebit  vicarius  duas  acras  ten-.-e 
arabilis  de  dote  sibi  de  gleba  ipsius  eccle- 
siae  juxta  ipsam  ecclesiam  jacentes  "  (The 
vicar  shall  have  as  liis  endowment  two 
acres  of  arable  land  adjoining  the  church, 
out  of  the  glebe  of  the  church  itself).' 
The  fee-simple  of  a  glebe  was  in  abey- 
ance ;  the  freehold  was  in  the  incumbent. 
A  glebe  could  not  be  alienated  without 
the  bishop's  permission.  The  canon  law 
recognises  only  four  justifying  cuusi's  i'or 
such  alienation — (1)  necessity,  as  uheu 
the  church  is  overburdened  with  debt  ; 
(2)  an  opening  for  an  advantageous  ex- 
change ;  (3)  to  redeem  captives  or  feed 
the  poor  in  time  of  famine;  (4)  incom- 
modity — e.g.  when  the  land  is  so  far  off 
that  its  produce  cannot  be  gathered  with- 
out great  expense.  (Ferraris,  Alienatio.) 
GX.ORZA  zsr  EXCEZ.SZS.  [See 

DoXOT.diiv.^ 

CXiORZil.  FATRX.  i  See  DOXOI.OGY.] 
CX.OSSA  ORI>ZM-ii.RZA  and  XN- 
TERXtZN-EARXS.  Originally  the  word 
"  gloss  "  (-yXoifro-a)  was  used — o.g.  by  Aris- 
totle— to  signify  a  hard  word  in  the  text 
of  an  author,  the  explanation  being  called 
'  T«  vsden,  Decern  Script.,  p.  2090. 


404  GLOSSA 


GLOSSATOR 


glossema  {yKi)a(Tr)^ia).  However,  as  early 
at  least  as  Quintilian,  we  find  the  diffi- 
cult word  called  "glossema,"  and  the 
interpretation  of  it  "  gloss,"  and  the 
latter  use  continued  during  the  middle 
ages,  and  has  passed  into  the  languages 
of  modern  Europe.  A  Glossarium  was 
distinguished  from  an  ordinary  lexicon 
by  the  fact  that  it  contained  only  the 
difficult  words  of  the  language.  Hesy- 
•chius,  an  Alexandrian  gi-ammarian  of  the 
fourth  century,  published  such  a  Glos- 
sarium, though  he  calls  it  a  lexicon  in 
the  prefiice.  The  glosses  which  illustrate 
the  language  of  Scripture  were  collected 
by  Ernesti  from  the  works  of  Hesychius, 
Suidas  (an  author  otherwise  unknown, 
of  the  tenth  century),  Phavorinus  (an 
Italian  Benedictine,  died  1537,  a  pupil  of 
the  Greek  Lascaris),  as  well  as  from  the 
"  Etymologicum  Magnum  "  (a  work  com- 
piled by  an  unknown  author  of  the 
eleventh  century),  and  published  at 
Leipsic  in  1785-6  under  the  title  "  Glossae 
Sacrse  Ilesychii,"  &c. 

There  are  two  celebrated  Glosses  on 
the  Vulgate.  The  former  is  the  "  Glossa 
Ordinaria,"  by  Walafrid  Strabo,  a  Ger- 
man, bom  in  807.  He  had  some  know- 
ledge of  Greek  and  made  use  of  many 
patristic  authors,  especially  of  Origen, 
Augustine,  Jerome,  Ambrose,  Gregory 
the  Great,  Isidore  of  Seville,  Bede, 
Alcuin,  Rabanus  Maurus,  &c.  His 
object  is  to  give  the  literal  meaning, 
tho'igh  he  adds  sometimes  the  mystical, 
and  here  and  there  the  moral,  sense. 
This  Gloss  is  quoted  as  a  high  authority 
by  St.  Thomas  and  other  schoolmen,  and 
it  was  known  as  "  the  Tongue  of  Holy 
Scripture."  Indeed,  from  the  ninth  to 
the  seventeenth  century  it  was  the 
favourite  commentary  on  the  Bible.  The 
"  Postilla  "  of  Nicolas  of  Lyra  (died  1 340) 
and  the  "  Additiones  "  of  Paulus  Burgen- 
sis  were  merely  appended  to  it. 

The  second  Gloss,  the  "  Interlinearis," 
by  Anselm,  Scholasticus  and  dean  of 
Laon  (died  1117),  derived  its  name  from 
being  written  over  the  words  in  the  Vul- 
gate text.  Anselm  had  some  acquaint- 
ance with  Hebrew,  as  well  as  with  Greek, 
and  his  Gloss  also  had  a  great  reputation. 
Very  often  the  "  Glossa  ordinaria  "  was 
inserted  in  the  margin,  at  the  top  and  at 
the  sides  ;  the  Gloss  of  Anselm  was  placed 
between  the  lines  of  the  Vulgate  ;  while 
from  the  fourteenth  century  onwards  the 
"PostiUa"  of  Nicolas  of  Lyra  and  the 
"Additiones  "  of  Paulus  Burgensis  were 
placed  at  the  foot  of  each  page.    A  fine 


edition  of  the  Vulgate,  "cum  glossis, 
interlineari  et  ordinaria,  Nic.  Lyrani  post- 
illis  et  moralitatibus,  Burgensis  additi- 
onibus  et  Thuringi  replicis,"  was  printed 
at  Venice  in  1588.  The  Douay  theolo- 
gians published  an  improved  edition  in 
1617.  The  last  and  best  is  that  edited 
by  the  Benedictine  Leander  a  Sto.  Mar- 
tino,  Antwerp,  1634.  Each  of  these 
three  editions  is  in  six  folio  volumes. 

GLOSSATOR  (a  barbarous  word 
formed  from  the  Greek  yAoxro-a,  tongue). 
The  writer  of  a  "Gloss"  or  explicative 
commentary  on  the  text  of  some  authori- 
tative document,  legal  or  theological.  The 
early  gloss- writers  only  pretended  to  clear 
up  difficulties  connected  with  the  words 
used,  not  those  of  the  subject-matter. 

On  the  writers  of  glosses  on  the  Vul- 
gate see  Glossa  ORDirfARiA.  In  the 
twelfth  century  a  school  of  interpreters 
of  the  Roman  or  civil  law  [Civil  Law] 
arose  at  Bologna.  The  first  of  these, 
Irnerius,  was  a  native  of  that  city ;  be- 
sides lecturing  on  jurisprudence,  about 
1120  he  enriched  tne  law  books  which 
he  used  with  a  gloss,  or  short  running 
interpretation.  Many  other  jurists  took 
up  the  same  business  of  glossing  the 
I  Roman  law,  an  occupation  thoroughly 
■  practical  and  useful  in  an  age  when 
i  politics  and  trade  and  every  sort  of  civic 
activity  flourished  among  the  free  Italian 
commonwealths.  In  the  next  century 
the  celebrated  Accursius,  or  Accorso, 
j  who,  though  a  native  of  Florence,  taught 
in  the  university  of  Bologna,  selecting 
from  among  the  glossers  those  whose 
works  he  thought  most  suitable  for  his 
purpose,  compiled  his  great  "Corpus 
Juris  Glossatum,"  in  which,  with  great 
acuteness  and  extraordinary  acquaintance 
with  the  whole  body  of  Justinian  law, 
be  labours  to  solve  difficulties  and  recon- 
cile apparent  inconsistencies.  Accursius 
died  m  1 260.  "  His  great  compilation," 
says  Hallnm,  "  made  an  epoch  in  the 
annals  of  jurisprudence.  It  put  an  end 
in  grcnt  measure  to  the  oral  explanationr 
of  lecturers,  which  had  prevailed  before. 
It  restrained  at  the  same  time  the  inge- 
nuity of  interpretation.  The  glossers 
became  the  sole  authorities,  so  that  it 
grew  into  a  maxim — No  one  can  go 
wrong  who  follows  a  gloss  ;  and  some 
'  said  a  gloss  was  worth  a  hundred  texts." 

Yet  the  writings  of  Accur^us  and  his 
j  forerunners  are  full  of  ridiculous  philo- 
I  logical  and  historical  blunders  (such  as 
I  deriving  "  Tiber  "  from  "  Tiberius  ;  "  sup- 
I  posing  that  Justinian  lived  before  Christ, 


GLOVES  (CITIROTIIECiE) 

&c.),  -nhich,  though  they  have  little  to  I 
do  with  their  value  as  jurists,  appear  to  [ 
have  been  the  cause  why,  after  the  revi-  | 
val  of  learning,  they  were  so  much  dis- 
credited.    In  the  "fourteenth  century, 
Bartolus  and  Paul  of  Castro  rose  to  emi- 
nence as  leaders  among  the  "  scholastic  i 
jurists ; "  they  were  thinkers  of  great  I 
power,  who  invented  innumerable  dis-  ! 
tinctions,  and  imagined  and  solved  every  j 
sort  of  case  which  the  law-text  suggested.  1 
After  the  publication  of  the  "  Decretum  " 
of  Gratian,  gloss-writers  began  to  deal 
•with  the  canon  law  as  they  had  with  the 
civil,  the  great  object  always  being  to 
make  it  consistent  with  itself,  and  work- 
able in  the  courts.    The  glosser  Pauco- 
pal6a  gave  his  name  to  the  well-known 
gloss  or  commentary  called  Palea.  The 
Decretals  were  glossed,  among  others,  by 
Sinibakli  Fieschi,  afterwards  Innocent 
IV.    Andrea  did  the  same  service  for  the 
Sext,  and  Zabarella  for  the  Clementines. 
Of  all  these  early  jurists  and  their  writ- 
ings, a  connected  account  was  given  by 
Pancirolo  (f  1599)  in  his  "  De  Claris 
Juris  Intei-pretibus."    (Hallam,  "Lit.  of 
Europe,"  Part  I.,  eh.  i. ;  Rosshirt,  in 
"Wetzer  and  Welte.) 

GZ.OVES  (CHXROTHEC2:).  A 
bishops  gloves  are  blessed  and  put  on  his 
hands  at  his  consecration  by  the  consecra- 
tor.  Episcopal  gloves  are  mentioned  by 
Hugo  of  St.  Victor,  Honorius  of  Autuu 
("  Gemma  Animte,"  i.  215),  and  Inno- 
cent III.,  but  not  by  the  older  writers, 
Amalarius,  Rabanus  Waurus,  or  even 
Pseudo-Alcuin,  so  that  they  must  have 
beec  introduced  about  the  eleventh  century 
(Hefele,  "Beitrnge,"ii.  p.  222).  There  is, 
according  to  Mr.  Maskell  ("  Mon.  Kit."  ii. 
p.  286),  no  allusion  to  the  solemn  investing 
of  the  bishop  with  gloves  in  the  most  an- 
cient Ordinals,  or  in  the  Sarum  Poiuitical, 
or  in  Winchester,  Bangor,  and  E.xeter 
MSS.,  and  he  concludes  that  the  rite 
was  of  late  introduction  in  the  English 
Church. 

GiroSTZCzsnx  {yvwais)  is  a  name 
given  to  the  doctrine  held  by  a  large  num- 
ber of  sects  which  flourished  towards  the 
■close  of  the  first  and  during  the  whole  of 
the  second  century  after  Christ.  These 
ixjdies  differed  from  each  other  in  many  im- 
portant respects,  but  the  words  "  Gnostic  " 
and  "  Gnosticism  "  indicate  the  common 
characteristic  which  united  them  in  a  cer- 
tain sense  to  each  other,  and  mark  the 
common  principle  of  their  opposition  to 
the  Catholic  Church.  In  itself,  of  course, 
yritriy,  or  Gnosticism,  means  no  more  than 


GNOSTIClSll 


40.) 


"knowledge;"  but  even  in  the  Epistles 
of  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  xii.  8,  xiv.  6)  it  begins 
to  acquire  a  technical  significance,  ami  im- 
plies a  peculiar  insight  into  the  depth,-  of 
Christian  doctrine.  St.  Clement  of  Rcinie 
(1  Ep.  36  and  40),  the  author  of  tlie 
Epistle  ascribed  to  St.  Baniabas  (c.  2), 
and  St.  Justin  Martyr  ("  Dial.  c.  Tryph." 
c.  112),  use  yvoxris  to  describe  the  gift  of 
understanding  the  Old  Testament  typo- 
logy- ;  and  of  these  the  Epistle  of 
Barnabas  expressly  distinguishes  between 
faith  and  "  knowledge."  It  is  the  object 
of  the  letter  to  assist  Christians  in  add- 
ing to  "  faith  perfect  knowledge  {yvoxriv)." 
Clement  of  Alexandria  gives  the  word 
yvouCTii,  or  knowledge,  and  its  derivative 
yvaxTTiKos,  or  Gnostic,  a  still  more  special 
and  technical  meaning.  The  greatest  of 
his  extant  works  is  meant  to  show  that  a 
Christian  may  do  more  than  believe  and 
keep  the  Commandments.  Beyond  the 
"  ordinary  faith,"  he  says,  we  may  reach 
by  instruction  and  the  perfect  observance 
of  God's  law  a  knowledge '  which  is 
"  the  perfection  of  man  as  man."  The 
"  Gnostic  "  is  his  ideal  Christian.  He  is 
free  from  the  disturbance  of  passion,' 
contemplates  divine  things,*  knows  truth 
with  a  peculiar  accuracy,*  and  can 
"  demonstrate  "  the  things  received  by 
faith.^  He  can  penetrate  the  hidden 
meanings  of  Scripture,'  and  use  all 
sciences  as  a  means  of  raising  his  mind 
to  God.  He  uses  learning  as  a  means  of 
confuting  eiTor,  and  conveying  to  others 
exact  notions  of  the  truth. He  is  the 
champion  of  "  true  and  orthodox  know- 
ledge,"^ to  which  faith  is  as  needful  as 
air  to  natural  life,'"  and  which  is  never 
separate  from  the  practice  of  Christian 
virtue." 

So  far,  it  is  plain,  the  esteem  for 
superior  knowledge  is  consistent  with  a 
loyal  adherence  to  Christianity;  it  was 
the  fruit  of  reason  exercising  itself  on  the 
things  of  faith,  and  it  grew,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  with  the  growth  and  pro-ress 
of  the  Church.  But  this  holds  good  only 
of  the  knowledge  which  starts  with  an 

>  Strom,  v.  1,  p.  644. 
»  JhiH.  vii.  10.  p.  864. 
«  Ibid.  iv.  (i.  p.  .581  ;  vi.  9,  p.  776. 
«  Jbicl.vn.  11,  [1.867. 
»  vii.  16.  p.  891. 

8  Ri'l.  vii.  10.  p.  865. 
T  JIM.  V.  9,  p.  f.-iO. 
8  Ihid.  vi.  10,  pp.  780-1. 
»  lOld.  vi.  1 6.  p.  816  :  lijv  iKtjffrj  Koi  ^kkKti- 
aiaariK^v  yvwaw. 

w  Ibid.  ii.  6,  p.  445. 
»'  Ibid.  ii.  10,  p.  445. 


406  GNOSTICISM 


GNOSTICISM 


acceptance  of  revealed  truth.  The  spirit 
of  speculative  inquiry  may  strike  into 
another  path.  Et  a  son  may  set  itself 
above  faith;  it  may  criticise  and  alter 
the  contents  of  revelation,  till  it  comes 
to  look  on  faith  as  a  gift  for  the  simple, 
with  which  a  man  of  cultivated  mind 
may  dispense.  This  was  the  line  which 
heathen  philosi)])hers  had  taken  with  the 
popular  niythdlogy  :  they  were  far  from 
denying  that  it  contained  some  measure 
of  truth  ;  nay,  they  thought  it  necessary 
for  the  multitude,  who  were  unable  to 
receive  truth  in  its  pure  and  philosophic 
form.  Now,  the  allegorical  method  of 
interpretation  which  was  associated  to 
some  extent  with  this  superior  knowledge 
among  Christians  was  very  apt  to  be 
perverted  till  it  led  to  a  false  and  hereti- 
cal assumption  of  knowledge.  It  was  by 
this  very  method  that  the  philosophers 
had  refined  the  gross  notions  of  popular 
heathenism.  Philo,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era,  had  chosen  the  same 
expedient  for  adapting  Judaism  to  Greek 
philosophy.  Even  in  the  "  Epistle  of 
Barnabas  "  we  may  discover  the  germs 
of  this  dangerous  tendency,  for  the 
author,  not  content  with  giving  a  typical 
sense  to  the  ceremonial  precepts  of  the 
old  law,  denies  that  they  ever  bound  in 
their  literal  meaning  at  all.' 

Only  one  step  was  wanting  to  turn 
this  "  higher  knowledge  "  into  the  formal 
principle  of  heresy.  Let  the  allegorical 
intei-^jretation  be  applied  to  the  New 
Testament,  and  let  its  literal  sense  be 
put  aside  as  false  or  worthless,  and  then, 
under  the  plea  of  higher  knowledge, 
Cliristianlty  might  be  changed  at  will. 
A  man  had  but  to  suppose  himself  pos- 
sessed of  this  higher  gift,  and  then,  on 
l^je  plea  of  alli'unrising,  he  might  explain 
away  every  I'act  and  doctrine  in  the 
traditional  belief.  Nor  need  he  even 
trouble  himself  about  explaining  it  away. 
He  might,  in  the  confidence  of  his  insight 
into  higher  truth,  distinguish  between 
elements  of  truth  and  falsehood  in  the 
received  doctrine ;  he  might  mutilate 
the  text  of  the  Gospels ;  he  might  mix 
tenets  borrowed  from  the  heathen  philo- 
sophy or  religions  with  Christianity :  he 
might  end  by  treating  the  moral  law  as 
he  had  treated  Christian  doctrine,  and 
invent  a  new  code  of  ethics.  All  this  he 
might  do,  and  all  this  the  Gnostics  ac- 
tually did.  In  fact,  when  the  way  was 
once  opened,  the  motives  for  pressing 
into  it  were  strong  enough.  The  age  of 
1  Vid.  e.g.  cc.  4,  9,  10, 


the  Gnostics  was  eagei-  for  novelties  im 
religion,  and  addicted  to  fnutastic  sujier- 
stitious.  It  was  the  fashion  of  the  time 
to  mingle  philosophy,  mythology,  and 
magic.  There  was  the  more  inducement 
to  amend  Christianity  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  foreign  elements,  because,  while 
it  showed  a  life  and  power  to  which 
neither  philosophy  nor  heathenism  could 
pretend,  its  teaching  on  creation  out  of 
nothing,  on  the  resurrection  of  the  body, 
on  salvation  through  the  siiHri'iiigs  aiul 
death  of  Christ  the  Son  of  God,  ran 
counter  to  every  i)rejudice  of  the  heathen 
world.  There  was  not  a  sect  among  all 
the  countless  sects  of  Gnosticism  which 
did  not  deny  each  one  of  these  doctrines. 
Above  all,  the  central  idea  of  Gnosticism 
made  it  welcome  to  many  who  were  half- 
converted  from  heathenism.  It  was  a 
knowledge  superior  to  and  independent 
of  faith.  Faith  was  for  the  multitude, 
knowledge  for  the  few.  The  aristocratic 
instinct  which  was  the  very  soul  of 
Greek  and  Roman  culture  revolted  at 
the  authority  of  a  Church  which  imposed 
the  same  belief  on  all,  and  exacted  the 
same  submission  from  the  philosopher 
and  the  barbarian  slave.  In  a  system  of 
compromise,  like  Gnosticism,  it  escaped 
from  this  ignominy. 

Such,  then,  was  the  nature  of  Gnosti- 
cism. It  was  a  false  knowledge  which 
threw  oft"  the  trammels  of  faith  and  eccle- 
siastical authority.  It  subjected  every- 
thing, as  St.  Irenaeus '  declares,  to  the 
caprice  of  the  individual,  and  made  any 
fixed  rule  of  faith  impossible.  It  "  aban- 
doned the  faith  which  the  Church  pro- 
claimed, and  cavilled  at  the  simplicity  of 
the  holy  presbyters."  -  It  destroyed,  as 
Clement  puts  it,  the  rllicacy  of  baptism  ' 
—that  is,  it  set  at  naught  'faith,  the  gift 
conferred  in  that  sacrament.  The  Gnos- 
tic professed  to  im])art  a  knowledge 
"  greater  and  deeper"''  than  the  ordinary 
doctrine  of  Christians,  a  knowledge  which 
forgot  the  limits  of  reason  and  scorned 
to  believe  what  it  could  not  understand.*^ 
This  knowledge,  to  those  who  were  cap- 
able of  it,  was  the  means  of  redemption ; 
indeed,  in  most  of  the  Gnostic  systems  it 
was  the  one  and  sufficient  passport  to 
perfect  bliss.*    It  is,  however,  important 

1  Adv.  Heer.  ii.  27, 1. 

2  Ireii.  V.  20,  2. 

3  Strom,  ii.  3,  pp.  443-4. 

*  Iren.  i.  31,  3. 

*  Ihid.  ii.  28,  2. 

6  We  liave  explicit  evidence  on  this  point 
with  regard  to  most  of  the  Gnostic  syptems. 
Thus  see,  for  the  Naasseni,  Philnsophumena  (,6d^ 


GNOSTICISM 


GNOSTIt'TSM 


407 


to  observe  that  (Gnosticism  was  not  a 
philosophy.  True,  it  was  as  unfettered 
and  unstable  as  anj-  philosophy  could  be, 
and  it  addressed  itself  to  the'same  kind 
of  questions.  But  it  kept  the  semblance 
of  Christianity,  for  in  nearly  all  the 
Gnostic  systems  Christ  occupied  a  cen- 
tral place,  and,  as  a  rule,  Gnosticism 
answered  the  speculative  questions  which 
it  raised,  not  in  the  abstract  language  of 
metaphysics,  but  hy  the  invention  of  an 
elaborate  mythology.  Without  its  Chris- 
tian elements,  it  could  not  have  entered 
into  such  close  conflict  with  the  Church  ; 
without  its  mythological  garb,  it  would 
have  missed  the  popularity  which  made 
it  dangerous. 

It  was  in  the  East  that  Gnosticism 
began,  and  in  its  rudimentary  form  it 
appears  very  early  in  the  history  of  the 
Church.  The  Fathers  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  second  century  speak  of  Simon 
Mag\is  as  the  first  Gnostic.  Both  Simon 
and  his  successor,  Menander,  were  Sa- 
maritans ;  '  while  Saturninus,  the  disciple 
of  the  latter,  taught  at  Antioch  in  the 
time  of  Hadrian  ^117-138).^  All  three 
taught  that  the  world  was  made  by 
inferior  powers  more  or  less  in  antagonism 
with  the  supreme  God.  Either  the 
highest  God,  or  else  some  feon  (a  name 
the  Gnostics  gave  the  spiritual  beings 
who  play  so  large  a  part  in  their  sys- 
tems), appeared  on  the  earth  in  the  per- 
son of  Christ  and  redeemed  man  by  the 
"  knowledge  "He  gave  from  the  dominion 
of  matter  and  of  the  angels  who  ruled 
the  world.  Menander,  however,  made 
important  contributions  to  the  develop- 
ment of  Gnosticism.  He  was  at  least 
more  emphatic  than  his  predecessors  in 
denying  that  Christ  took  a  real  body  or 
degraded  Himself  by  contact  with  the 
impurity  of  matter.  Further,  he  main- 
tained that  the  angels  had  made  two 
kinds  of  men,  our  Saviour  having  come 
that  He  might  overcome  the  evil  men 
and  the  demons  who  helped  them,  and 
might  save  the  good.' 

There  were  two  other  forms  which 
Gnosticism  assumed  while  still  on  Asiatic 

Dunoker  and  Schneidewin,  v.  8,  p.  162)  ;  for  the 
Peratte,  v.  17,  p.  196  ;  for  the  Setliinns,  v.  21, 
f).  212  ;  for  the  Gnostic  Justinns,  v.  24,  p.  216  ; 
for  th-  Maroosians,  vi.  52,  p.  336  ;  for  the  Ba- 
silidinns,  vii.  27,  pp.  374-G ;  for  the  Valen- 
tiniana.  Iren.  i.  6,  1. 

'  Justin,  1  Apol.  26.  On  the  connection  of 
the  three  hore.si.archs.  see  Iren.  i.  23,  5  seg. 

p;useb.  H.  E.  \\.  7.  Theodoret,  Heer. 
Fall.  1,2. 

»  Iren.  i.  24,  2. 


soil.  Whereas  Simon  Magus  attrilmted 
the  Hebrew  prophecies  to  the  inspiration 
of  the  same  lower  powers  which  had 
made  the  world,  and  Satiiniinns  held 
that  the  Saviour  descended  to  destroy 
the  god  of  the  .Tews;  yet  Ceriiitliiis,  a 
contemporary  of  St.  .John  the  E\  niii;rlist, 
and  the  Gnostics  wlm  aiv  (Icnnmir.  d  in 
the  Ignatiau  Ejiistles,  unite. 1  a  Iranm--  to 
Judaism  with  tlieir  Gnostic  s]ierulatuins. 
With  strange  inconsistency  tliey  advo- 
cated Jewisli  rites  and  denied  the  funda- 
mental doctrine  of  Judaism — viz.  the 
unity  of  God.'  Besides  those  Judaising 
Gnostics,  we  find  a  cluster  of  Oriental 
sects,  known  as  Opliiti's,  or  w(ii-sln]i]H'r,s 
of  the  serpent.  They  het  vay  tlicir  I^ast- 
ern  origin  by  the  use  tliev  nialie  of 
Chaldee  names,  and  it  is  generally  sup- 
posed that  they  represtnit  one  of  the 
oldest  varieties  of  Gnosticism.  To  them 
belonged  the  Naasseni  (from  the  Hebrew 
word  for  serpent),  the  first  of  those 
"wliii  dared  to  Celebrate  with  hymns  the 
serjient  which  was  the  cause  of  trans- 
gression," and  boasted  that  they  "  knew 
the  depth  "  of  truth  :  ^  the  Peratae,  who 
professed  to  impart  the  secret  by  which 
the  initiated  could  "  pass  through  the 
corruption"  of  matter.'  If  we  inquire 
what  was  meant  by  this  mysterious 
knowledge,  we  find  Judaism,  Christi- 
anity, and  heathenism  mixed  together  in 
the  wildest  confusion.  They  held  that 
an  aeon  descended  on  Jesus  and  made 
Him  the  prophet  of  the  truth.  But  they 
also  appealed  to  Moses,  Hercules,  Homer, 
Oi'pheus,  Linus,  to  astrology,  and  to 
heathen  mysteries.'*  Probably  Baur  is 
right  in  regarding  the  Ophitic  doctrine 
as  a  mere  ])hase  of  Oriental  heathenism, 
which  ranks  as  a  hei-esy  only  Ijecause  it 
adoj)ted  some  Christian  terms.' 

In  Origcn's  time  scarcely  thirty  of 
Simcni's  sect  were  left,'  and  we  hear 
little  from  early  writers  about  ^Menander, 
Cerinthus,  or  Saturninus.  Rut  in  Alex- 
andria, the  Gnostic  tendencies  gathered 
life  and  strength.  Their  Gnosticism 
learned  to  clothe  the  ideas  of  Greek 

I  Iren.  loc.  ext.  The  Essenes  (see  Joseph. 
Antiq.  xviii.  1,  ,5)  and  the  Judaisin;;  Chri.stians 
represented  in  the  <7cm.  Horn,  (seeii.  38,60,51, 
52  ;  iii.  It!.  1!>  ;  x\  iii.  20)  made  selections  from 
Jiulai.-iii  ill  tlu-  same  arbitrary  way. 

-  riii/iis,j/,/iiiiii.  V.  6,  seq. 

5  Ilml.  V.  k;. 

4  Jhiil.  V.  26.  V.  7,  V.  8,  V.  13,  v.  26,  ■v\(P.  Some 
of  thfin  canotiiscil  all  who  were  held  up  to. 
special  reprobation  in  the  Old  Testament, 

^  Kirchengescliichte,  p.  195. 

6  C.  Ctls.  i.  57. 


408  GNOSTICISM 


GNOSTICISM 


philosophy  in  a  religious  garb ;  there  it 
formed  its  elaborate  aeon  systems — partly 
•Christian,  partly  Platonic,  partly  mytho- 
logical. Basilides  was  the  first  of  the 
great  Alexandrian  Gnostics.  He  had 
been  a  companion  of  Satuminus  in 
Syria,*  but  it  was  in  Alexandria  that  he 
began  his  public  life,  and  the  Basilidians 
were  largely  indebted  to  the  schools  of 
Greek  philosophy  in  that  city.  By  com- 
paring the  original  teaching  of  Basilides, 
■as  given  by  Irenaeus,  with  the  later  de- 
velopment of  his  doctrine  as  reported  in 
the  "  Philosophumena,"  we  can  note  the 
increasing  influence  which  the  physical 
"theories  of  the  Stoics  exercised  on  the 
Basilidians.'^  The  Alexandrian  Valen- 
tinus  made  a  fusion  of  Christianity  with 
Platonism,  much  as  the  Neo-Platonists 
united  the  latter  with  heathenism. 
Valentinus  went  to  Rome  about  141  and 
stayed  there  till  157.  He  had  numerous 
disciples,  who  formed  two  great  divisions 
■of  Valentinianism,  known  as  the  Eastern 
and  Western.  Many  of  his  followers 
could  boast  of  fame  and  influence :  one 
of  them,  indeed,  Heracleon,  will  be  re- 
membered while  history  lasts,  for  he 
wrote  the  first  commentary  on  St.  John's 
Gospel.  Evidently  St.  Irenaeus  con- 
sidered Valentinianism  the  most  formid- 
able heresy  of  the  day. 

The  Valentinians  set  out  from  the 
Platonic  principle  that  the  ideal  or 
heavenly  world  —the  '  Pleroma,'  as  they 
called  it — alone  possesses  reality.  God 
dwelt  for  countless  ages  alone  with  His 
thought  (Enuoea),  then  after  long  silence 
produced  two  aeons,  who  became  the 
parents  of  others.  Just  as  IMato  pictures 
the  supreme  God  as  dwelling  in  eternity 
w  ith  the  ideas  or  archetypes  of  things 
ever  present  to  Him,  so  the  Valentinians 
peopled  their  celestial  world  with  a  long 
series  of  aeons,  which  are  the  Platonic 
"  ideas  "  translated  into  the  langiuige  of 
mythology.  The  aeons  are  an-anged  on 
the  Pythagorean  and  Platonic  principles 
that  certain  numbers  have  a  mystic 
efficacy.  Some  of  the  names  given  to 
them  were  suggested  by  the  Catholic 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  or  by  the  divine 
attributes ;  others,  such  as  "  man,"  "  the 
church,"  &c.,  point  to  the  theory,  also 
Platonic,  that  things  below  are  shadows 
cast  from  a  higher  world. 

»  Epiphan.  Heer.  xxiii.  7,  xxiv.  1. 

'  Hilgcnfpld  and  Lipsius  rightly  maintain 
against  Baur  and  others  that  the  oldest  form 
of  Basilidian  teaching  is  found  in  Irenaeus. 
See  Hilgenfeld,  Jiidiscli.  Apocali/ptik,  p.  287,  seq. 


So  much  for  the  nature  of  God  and 
the  aeon  world.  But  how  did  the  ma^ 
terial  world  with  its  attendant  evils 
come  to  be  ?  It  could  not,  of  course,  on 
Valentinian  principles,  be  attributed  to 
the  supreme  God.  They  supposed  that 
the  aeons  were  less  perfect  the  further 
they  were  removed  in  the  long  line  of 
generation  from  the  Father  of  all.  The 
lowest  of  them  was  overcome  by  desire 
to  comprehend  God,  and  by  this  fruitless 
desire  gave  birth  to  another  aeon,  Acha- 
moth  (niD^n — i-e.  wisdom),  who  wan- 
dered outside  the  aeon  world  in  hel))less 
misery.  Higher  aeons  freed  her  from 
her  sufferings,  and  these  sufferings  thick- 
ened into  matter,  and  out  of  this  pre- 
existent  matter  men  and  thiuL'-s  were 
moulded  by  the  demiurge,  the  "  God  of 
this  world."  This  demiurge  (here,  again, 
we  have  both  a  notion  and  a  name 
borrowed  from  Plato)  was  the  God  of 
the  Jewish  religion,  a  being  imperfect, 
ignorant,  and,  indeed,  incapable  of  spiri- 
tual ideas.  Of  men  some  were  earthly 
(xoiKoX),  made  from  the  worse  kind  of 
matter,  and  necessitated  to  evil.  Others 
were  "  animal "  (\|/uxtKoi),  capable  of 
receiving  the  ordinary  Jewish  or  Chris- 
tian religion.  They  were  endowed  with 
free  will,  and  would  obtain  a  partial 
happiness  hereafter  if  they  led  virtuou.s 
lives.  But  there  was  a  third  class,  of 
"  spiritual "  men,  in  whom  there  were 
certain  germs  which  had  fallen  from  the 
ason  world.  They  were  destineil,  what- 
ever their  actions  might  be,  to  enter  the 
higher  world,  but  meantime  they  were 
enslaved  by  the  demiurge  and  by  matter. 
An  aeon,  called  Christ,  clothed  Himself 
in  a  body  which  looked  like  ours,  and 
communicated  to  these  aeons  the  "  know- 
ledge "  of  their  higher  destiny,  teaching 
them  to  slight  the  god  of  this  world  and 
his  law.  The  Valentinians  held  that  it 
was  not  deeds,  but  the  possession  of  a 
spiritual  nature,  which  led  to  the  higher 
world,  and  they  made  little  account  of 
Christ's  death.  Some  of  them  held  that 
only  the  body  which  He  had  formed  for 
Himself  could  suffer ;  others,  that  Christ 
had  descended  on  a  man,  Jesus,  and 
abandoned  Him  at  the  crucifixion.' 

Another  Gnostic,  as  great  as  Valen- 
tinus, came  to  Rome  a  little  later  and 
made  great  changes  in  Gnosticism.  He 

I  See  the  account  of  Ptolemy  the  Valen- 
tinian. Iren.  i.  8.  ad  fin.  Cf.  Massuet.  Uist. 
i.  n.  83.  The  differences  among  the  Valen- 
tinians were  not  very  serious. 


GNOSTICISM 


GOD 


409 


Furrendered  tlie  fantastic  seon-systems,' 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  represented 
the  demiur<je  god  of  this  world  as 
actually  cruel  and  wicked.^  He  showed 
the  bitterest  hostility  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  in  the  New  admitted  only  ten 
Epistles  of  Paul  and  the  single  Gospel 
of  Luke,  mutilating  even  these  books 
%nd  interpolating  passages  according  to 
the  requirements  of  his  theory.'  Marcion 
g'ave  greater  prominence  than  the  Valen- 
tinians  to  moral  ideas  and  to  the  death 
of  Christ,''  and  apparently  did  not  make 
salvation  depend  on  an  original  differ- 
ence in  the  natures  of  men. 

In  the  preceding  sketch  an  attempt 
has  been  made  to  note  the  principal 
features  of  Gnosticism  ;  and  though  the 
division  adopted — viz.  into  the  Oriental 
Gnostics,  the  philosophical  Gnostics  of 
Alexandria  and  the  Marcionite  Gnostics 
■with  their  more  practical  and  Christian 
religion,  which  presents  many  points  of 
contact  with  modern  Protestantism' — is 
not  altogether  satisfactory,  it  is  perhaps 
as  simple  as  any  other  which  has  been 
proposed.  Some  of  the  Gnostics  were 
led  by  their  belief  in  the  impurity  of 
matter  to  asceticism,  others  to  unbridled 
licence;  but  we  cannot  classify  the 
Gnostics  on  this  principle,  for  we  find 
the  two  opposite  tendencies  appearing  in 
the  same  sect.  At  least  we  know  that 
while  Basilides  respected  the  moral  law, 
the  Basilidians  set  it  at  nought." 

After  Marcion  the  development  of 
Gnosticism  came  to  an  end,  though  the 
heresy  held  its  ground  more  or  less  for 
centuries,  and  like  tendencies  reappear 
in  the  Manichees  and  in  the  Manicheun 
heretics  of  the  middle  ages.  But  Gnosti- 
cism has  left  an  enduring  mark  on  the 
history  of  the  Church.  It  was  in  oppo- 
sition to  this  heresy  that  Irennens  wrote 
the  earliest  treatise  which  we  possess  on 
Catholic  dogma.  It  was  the  coniiict 
■with  this  heresy  from  which  the  need 
arose  of  formulating  with  greater  pre- 
cision and  stating  with  greater  fulness 

'  Massuet  denies  this  (Diss.  i.  n.  138) ;  but 
his  only  real  authority — Gre^.  Naz.  Orat.  2.; 
and  24— is  a  very  poor  one  in  such  a  matter. 

2  Philnsophum.  vii.  30 ;  Ireii.  i.  27,  2. 

5  Epipbau.  ifer.  xlii.  9. 

'  lb.  xlii.  8 ;  and  the  Armenian  bishop 
Esnif?.  apud  Baur,  Christlidie  Gnosis,  p.  272. 

*  Neander  {Kirckengesrhichte.  'u.\).Wi)  sees 
in  Marcion  "  the  spirit  of  a  gecuine  Protestant- 
ism." He  rei)re-en(s.  s;iys  Lipsius  (Giiosti- 
cisiiiu.1.  p.  16.")).  'the  Protestantism  of  ecclesi- 
astical antiquity." 

«  Clem.  A].' Strom,  iii.  1,  p.  609  seq. 


I  the  Catholic  doctrines  on  the  Incarna- 
!  tion,  on  the  sacraments,  and  above  all 
on  the  authority  of  the  teaching  Church. 
The  Arian  heresy  itself  did  not  produce 
a  greater  crisis  in  the  Church's  history, 
or  contribute  more  to  the  development 
of  Catholic  doctrine. 

This  account  of  Gnosticism  has  been 
made  with  some  care  from  the  sources, 
of  which  IreniBus  and  the  "  Philosophti- 
mena  "  are  the  chief.  But  great  use  has 
also  been  made  of  Massuet's  dissertations 
"  De  Gnosticorum  Rebus ;  "  Neander  in 
the  last  edition  of  his  "Church  His- 
tory ; "  Mohler's  essavs  collected  bv 
Bollinger,  1839;  Baur,  « Christliche 
Gnosis,"  18o5,  and  "  Kirchengeschichte 
der  drei  ersten  Jahrhunderte,"  3rd  ed., 
1863;  Lipsius,  "  Gnosticismus,"  1800. 

COAXTESE  SCHXSBX.  [See  Mis- 
sions TO  THE  Heathen.] 

GOB.  In  the  Apostles'  and  in  the 
Nicene  Creed  we  begin  by  professing 
our  belief  in  one  God,  creator  of  heaven 
and  earth,  and  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  explains  more  fully  what  we 
know  by  reason  and  revelation  of  His 
nature  and  attributes.  The  Vatican 
Council,  although  to  a  gi-eat  extent  it 
merely  reiterates  tlie  Lateran  detinltion, 
adds  at  least  two  important  truths  con- 
cerning God's  relation  to  us  and  ours  to 
Him.  For,  after  stating  that  there  is 
one  true  and  living  God,  creator  and 
Lord  of  heaven  and  earth,  almighty, 
eternal,  immense,  incomprehensible,  in- 
finite in  intellect  and  will  and  in  every 
perfection ;  concerning  whom,  seeing 
that  He  is  one,  singular,  altogether 
simple  and  unchangeable  spiritual  sub- 
stance, we  must  assert  that  He  is  in 
reality  and  essence  distinct  from  the 
world,  most  blessed  in  Himself  and  from 
Himself,  and  infinitely  e.xaltcd  above  all 
that  is  or  can  be  tliought  of  besides 
Himself,  tlie  council  adds  that  God  "  by 
Ills  most  free  counsel,"  constrained  by 
no  necessity  of  any  kind,  created  the 
world,  and  then,  in  the  next  chapter, 
that  we  can,  by  the  natural  light  of 
reason,  and  from  the  consideration  of 
created  things,  attain  a  "  sure  "  know- 
ledge of  God,  who  is  the  beginning  and 
end  of  all.  It  is  the  object  of  this  article 
to  explain  the  Vatican  definition,  and  to 
show  its  perfect  consistency  with  reason 
and  with  the  previous  teaching  of  tifo- 
logians.  It  is  obvious  tliat  we  caiiiiot 
attempt,  in  the  space  at  our  comniand. 
anything  like  a  full  and  philosophical 
treatment  of  the  subject,  or  even  try  to 


410 


GOD 


GOD 


explain  many  of  the  difficulties  which 
are  often  urged.  The  utmost  which  we 
hope  to  do  consists  in  indicating  the 
general  line  which  Catholic  philosophers 
and  theologians  have  taken  in  proving 
the  existence  of  God,  and  treating  of  His 
attributes. 

"We  begin  with  a  definition  sufficient 
to  explain  the  sense  we  give  to  the  word 
"God,"  and  which  would  be  accepted  pro- 
bably both  by  theists  and  atheists,  at 
least  in  civilised  countries.  By  "  God  "  we 
understand  the  one  absolutely  and  in- 
finitely perfect  spirit  who  is  the  creator 
of  all ;  and,  taking  this  definition  for 
i;ranted,  we  proceed  to  state  the  follow- 
ing propositions. 

I.  It  is  certain  from  mere  reason, 
apart  from  revelation,  that  God  exists ; 
and  this  may  be  proved,  according  to  the 
council,  from  a  consideration  of  created 
things.  "  His  invisible  things,"  St.  Paul 
says  (Rom.  i.  20),  "from  the  creation  of  ' 
the  world,  are  clearly  seen,  being  under- 
stood by  the  things  that  are  made.  His 
eternal  power  also  and  divinity  :  so  that  J 
they"  {i.e.  the  heathen,  who  did  not 
believe  in  the  true  God)  "are  inex- 
cusable." Everyone  knows  the  popular 
form  in  which  the  argument  is  put,  and 
has  been  put  from  the  time  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church.  There  are,  it  is 
said,  plain  marks  in  the  mechanism  of 
created  things  which  show  that  they  are 
the  work  of  an  intelligent  being.  The 
laws,  for  example,  which  govern  the 
physical  world  must  come  from  an  in- 
telligence of  some  kind,  for  they  display 
a  high  degree  of  wisdom  united  to  im- 
mense power.  Plainly  this  intelligence 
does  not  reside  in  the  things  themselves. 
The  world,  therefore,  was  created  and  is 
supported  and  governed  by  an  intelligent 
being  whom  we  call  God.  Nor  does 
there  seem  to  be  any  valid  answer  to 
this  argument.  True,  there  are  many 
things  in  the  world  which  are  not,  so 
far  as  we  can  see,  arranged  to  wise  ends, 
and  others  which  even  seem  to  contra- 
dict the  supposition  that  they  come  from 
a  wise  and  benevolent  Creator.  AU  this 
may  be  admitted,  but  it  cannot  do  away 
with  the  fact  that  we  do  on  every  side 
discern  unmistakable  traces  of  intelligent 
design.  When  these  traces  abound,  it 
is  not  only  humility  but  common  sense 
which  prompts  us  to  acknowledge  a  wise 
Creator,  and  to  believe  that  all  is  created 
for  a  good  end,  though  in  many  cases 
our  ignorance  prevents  us  from  discern- 
ing it.   A  man  who  does  not  understand 


the  mechanism  of  an  engine  is  still 
within  his  rights  when  he  concludes 
that  it  is  due  to  an  intelligence  possessed 
of  understanding  which  he  himself  laeks^ 
and  would  most  certainly  transgress  the 
plainest  rules  of  common  sense  if  he 
attributed  all  the  parts  of  the  machinery 
which  he  could  not  understand  to  mere 
chance,  or,  again,  to  a  want  of  knowledge 
or  power  on  the  part  of  the  constructor. 
Accordingly,  we  may  fairly  conclude 
that  the  argument  from  design  will 
always  keep  its  place  among  the  proofs 
of  God's  existence.  It  has  the  great  ad- 
vantage of  being  easily  grasped,  and  no 
valid  objection  can  be  urged  against  it. 

While,  however,  St.  Thomas  gives 
this  argument,  he  places  it  last  among 
the  five  which  he  adduces  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  "  Summa,"  and  though  it  is 
the  most  popular  it  does  not  seem  the 
most  cogent.  His  other  arguments  are 
more  metaphysical  and  subtle,  but  they 
have  the  advantage  of  leading  the  mind 
more  directly  and  more  conclusively  to 
the  belief  in  an  absolutely  perfect  Being. 
His  first  argument  is  from  motion,  and 
it  assumes  no  more  than  the  patent  fact 
that  movement  exists.  Whence  does  it 
come?  Not  simply  from  the  things 
themselves,  for  nothing  can  in  the  same 
respect  be  at  once  the  cause  and  the 
subject  of  motion.  Motion  implies  pas- 
sivity :  in  other  words,  the  thing  moved 
must  be  under  the  influence  of  some- 
thing distinct  from  itself  which  causes 
the  movement  or  change.  Life  oilers  no 
instance  to  the  contrary,  for  though,  no 
doubt,  we  say,  and  rightly,  that  living 
things  have  the  cause  of  motion  in 
themselves,  this  only  means  that  one 
part  in  living  organisms  communicates 
movements  to  other  parts.  The  heart 
sends  the  blood  through  the  frame,  but 
the  heart  itself  receives  the  first  impulse 
from  the  parent  to  whom  life  is  due. 
Nor  are  even  intellectual  beings  the  in- 
dependent cause  of  their  own  move- 
ments. The  will  is  influenced  by  the 
thoughts,  the  mind  cannot  think  unless 
objects  are  proposed  or  have  been  origin- 
ally proposed  to  it  from  without.  Hence, 
even  if  we  assume  an  infinite  series  of 
creatcKl  things,  still,  so  long  as  they  all 
are  subject  to  motion  and  change,  this 
motion  and  change  calls  for  explanation, 
and  we  are  forced  to  the  belief  (a  sublime 
one,  truly)  of  a  first  mover,  Himself  im- 
movable, of  a  Being  who  is  at  once  the 
perfection  of  activity  and  life  and  the 
perfection  of  rest,  the  cause  of  move- 


GOD 


GOD 


411 


tnent  and  change,  while  He  Himself 
changes  not. 

The  second  proof  is  taken  from  tlie 
acti%'ity,  as  tlie  former  from  the  pnssivity, 
of  things.  Certain  caiis,\*  in  the  world 
produce  certain  effects,  and  we  find 
these  causes  existing  in  a  regular  series 
or  order.  Cause?  are  themselves  the 
effects  of  other  causes  ;  the  parent  is  the 
cause  of  his  child's  being,  and  he  himself 
owes  Ills  being  to  his  own  parents. 
Here  again,  if  we  prolong  the  series  to 
infinity,  we  cannot  escape  from  the  con- 
clusion that  there  is  a  God.  Even  in 
such  a  series,  there  is  no  cause  which  is 
not  itself  the  effect  of  another  cause — 
which  does  not  mpiire  a  cause  outside 
of  itself  as  the  origin  of  its  being.  No 
explanation  can  be  devised  except  that 
of  a  first  cause,  who  is  Himself  imcaused. 

The  third  argument  is  drawn  from 
the  contingency  of  things.  Existence 
does  not  belong  to  the  essence  of  things  ; 
they  are  not  in  their  own  nature  de- 
termined to  be,  for  most  of  them  fade 
and  die :  of  all  of  them  it  may  be  said, 
once  they  did  not  exist.  Besides,  then, 
the  series  of  contingent  entities  (and 
here  again  we  may,  without  prejudice  to 
the  argument,  multiply  the  series  to 
infinity)  there  is  a  necessary  and  absolute 
being. 

AVe  cannot  do  justice  in  the  space  at 
our  command  to  the  fourth  argument  of 
St.  Thomas,  taken  "  ex  gradibus  Iwiita- 
tis  " — i.e.  from  the  degrees  of  perfection 
in  things.  It  is  jierliaps  the  most  subtle 
and  difficult  of  all,  and  the  commentators 
are  not  agreed  al)out  its  meaning.  The 
following  account,  however,  may  be 
given  as  the  substance  of  the  reasoning. 
We  find  by  observation  that  creatures 
are  more  or  less  wise,  noble,  good,  and 
the  like.  These  qualities  do  not  belong 
to  their  es.sence,  for  if  so,  there  could  be 
no  question  of  more  or  less.  Socrates 
and  Plato  were  both  men:  humanity 
constituted  their  nature,  and  in  the  strict 
sense  neither  could  be  more  truly  and 
perfectly  a  man  than  the  other,  since  the 
definition  of  man  may  be  predicated  of 
each.  The  very  fact,  then,  that  one 
man  or  angel  is  more  wise,  noble,  power- 
ful than  another  proves  that  wisdom, 
nobility,  power,  do  not  belong  to  the 
human  or  angelic  natures  as  such  or  in 
themselves.  As  they  are  not  wise,  &c., 
in  themselves,  or  in  virtue  of  their  mere 
existence,  their  perfection  must  come  to 
them  from  without,  and  we  end  with 
the  idea  of  a  ]?eing  absolutely  and  per- 


fectly wise,  holy,  strong,  &c.,  because 
wisdom,  holiness  and  strength  are  in 
Him  more  than  mere  attributes — are,  in 
short,  identical  with  His  nature.  Thus 
St,  John  says,  not  merely  that  God  is 
charitable  or  loving,  but  that  He  is 
charity.  Such  a  statement  is  untrue  of 
any  being  except  God. 

St.  Thomas's  fifth  argument,  viz. 
from  design,  has  been  already  stated. 

The  reader  will  find  another  from 
conscience — i.e.  from  the  fact  attested 
by  experience,  that  man  has  by  nature 
a  sense  of  right  and  wrong  altogether 
distinct  from  the  Imowledge  that  certain 
actions  are  hurtful  to  others,  hurtful  to 
or  iniworthy  of  himself,  drawn  out  with 
surpassing  genius  by  Cardinal  Newman, 
in  his  "  Grammar  of  Assent."  Thi.s 
argument  has  the  advantage  of  leading 
us  Tuore  directly  than  any  of  those  given 
from  St.  Thomas  to  a  true  conception 
of  God's  character  as  a  just,  holy,  and 
merciful  God. 

Such  are  the  chief  arguments  by 
which  Catholic  theologians  prove  God's 
existence.  But  are  any  arguments  neces- 
saiy  ?  Have  we  not  an  intuitive  percep- 
tion of  God's  existence  ?  Or  again,  can 
we  not  be  sure  of  His  existence  the 
moment  we  understand  the  meaning 
which  the  word  ''God"  is  intended  to  con- 
vey? The  great  majority  of  theologians 
answer  this  question  in  the  negative. 
St.  Thomas  holds  that  the  mode  of  cog- 
nition coiTesponds  to  the  nature  of  him 
who  knows.  Our  soul,  he  says,  informs 
a  material  body.  By  nature,  therefore, 
it  can  only  know  directly  things  which 
are  themselves,  partlj^  at  least,  material. 
It  recognises  the  existence  of  purely 
spiritual  beings  only  by  a  process  of 
inference.  But  instead  of  explaining  and 
developing  this  Thomist  (or  rather  Ari- 
stotelian principle),  we  will  take  the 
simpler  course  of  pointing  out  the  flaw 
in  the  reasoning  of  those  who  have  advo- 
cated the  theory  that  the  knowledge  of 
God's  existence  is  self-evident.  St. 
Anselm,  who  has  been  followed  in 
modern  times  by  Descartes,  began  with 
the  assumption  that  all  men,  theists  and 
atheists  alike,  understand  the  name  of 
God  to  denote  the  most  perfect  being 
that  can  be  conceived,  and  so  far  we  may 
allow  that  he  was  right.  When,  how- 
over,  he  goes  on  to  argue  that  the  idi^a  of 
the  utmost  perfection  implies  existence, 
he  confuses,  as  St.  Thomas  justly  objects, 
between  tlie  real  and  the  imaginary. 
The  mere  fact  that  we  can  form  a  notion 


412 


GOD 


GOLDEN  ROSE 


of  a  being  the  most  perfect  that  can  be 
conceived  cannot  prove  that  such  a 
being  has  existence  except  in  our  imagi- 
nation. Nor  have  the  attempts  of  onto- 
logists  in  our  own  day  to  show  that  the 
belief  in  God  is  intuitive  been  more 
successful.  We  begin,  they  say,  with 
the  notion  of  being,  and  this  notion  of 
existence,  without  which  we  can  under- 
stand nothing,  is  nothing  else  than  the 
divinity.  The  obvious  answer  is,  that 
although  we  do  begin  with  the  vague 
and  abstract  notion  of  existence,  the 
existence  which  we  predicate  of  the 
things  around  is  wholly  distinct  from 
the  self-existent  and  all-perfect  spirit 
whom  we  call  God.  In  1861  the  Roman 
Inquisition  decided  that  ontologism  as  it 
has  just  been  expounded  could  not  be 
'•  safely  taught  "  ("  tuto  tradi  "). 

II.  The  Mature  of  God.— AM  human 
conceptions  of  God's  nature  are  of  course 
imperfect ;  still,  since  reason  enables  us 
to  ascertain  God's  existence,  it  also  en- 
ables us  to  know  something  of  His 
nature.'  We  learn  what  God  is  partly 
by  removing  from  the  idea  we  form  of 
Him  all  imperfections  which  belong  to 
creatures,  partly  by  attributing  to  Him, 
in  a  more  excellent  form,  all  the  perfec- 
tion we  find  in  them.  The  schoolmen 
set  out  with  the  notion  of  God  as  "  pure 
actuality,"  which  notion  is  immediately 
derived  from  the  proof  given  for  the 
divine  existence.  Creatures  have  poten- 
tiality, or  the  power  of  becoming  what 
they  are  not,  in  different  modes  and 
degrees.  There  was  a  time  when  they 
were  not,  and  merely  had  the  capacity  of 
existence:  once  existing,  they  are  cap- 
able of  further  perfections,  which  deter- 
mine their  nature ;  and  again,  they  are 
subject  to  the  possibility  of  falling  away 
from  the  perfection  of  their  nature,  or  of 
ceasing  to  exist  altogether.  All  these 
capacities  are  expressed  by  the  Aristote- 
lian word  "  potentia,"  which  is  opposed 
to  "  actus,"  or  actuality.  Now,  because 
capacity  can  be  reduced  to  act  only  by 
something  which  is  already  in  act,  God 
as  the  ftrst  cause,  as  the  mover  of  all, 
Himself  immovable  and  changeless,  as 
the  necessary  and  self-existent  being, 
must  be  pure  actuality.  He  is  infinite 
in  all  perfection,  for  otherwise  He  would 
be  subject  to  the  capacity  of  change  and 
improvement.    His  essence,  as  we  have 

I  Here  is  the  radical  difference  between 
the  view  of  Catholic  theologians  and  that  pro- 
pounded with  great  abilitj-  by  the  late  Dean 
Mansell  in  his  famous  Bampto'n  Lectures. 


already  seen,  is  one  with  His  existence. 
His  attributes  also,  such  as  goodness, 
justice,  and  the  like,  are  identical  with 
His  nature.  Goodness,  justice,  &c.,  per- 
fect an  intellectual  or  rational  creature, 
but  nothing  can  perfect  the  infinite  and 
perfect  nature  of  God.  His  justice  is 
really  one  with  His  mercy  and  love  ;  and 
although  we  rightly  distinguish  the  one 
from  the  other,  this  is  only  because  He, 
notwithstanding  the  absolute  simplicity 
of  His  nature,  produces  in  His  government 
of  the  world  a  variety  of  effects  equiva- 
lent to  those  which  would  be  produced 
by  distinct  attributes  in  creatures.  All 
the  pure  perfections  of  creatures  are 
found  in  Him,  and  though  certain  quali- 
ties of  creatures,  such  as  bodily  form,  are 
wanting  in  God,  who  is  a  pure  spirit, 
this  is  because  these  qualities  involve 
imperfection,  because,  e.g.,  a  corporeal 
being  cannot,  from  the  nature  of  the  case, 
be  infinite  or  perfectly  simple.  Lastly, 
all  these  perfections  belong  to  the  one 
true  God.  If  there  were  more  gods  than 
one,  there  must  be  something  to  consti- 
tute the  individuality,  to  distinguish  the 
one  deity  from  the  other.  Either,  then, 
the  distinguishing  attribute  must  be  a 
defect,  or  else  a  perfection  proper  to  the 
one  deity  and  absent  in  the  other.  Each 
alternative  is  inconsistent  with  infinite 
perfection. 

ni.  An  important  conclusion  results 
from  the  principle  that  God  by  natural 
reason  can  be  known  as  the  author  of 
the  world.  Men  may  be  excused  on  the 
plea  of  invincible  ignorance,  if  they  in 
good  faith  reject  certain  truths  of  faith. 
But  all  men  who  have  come  to  the  use 
of  reason  are  bound  to  know,  love,  and 
obey  God. 

(An  admirable  exposition  of  St. 
Thomas's  arguments  for  the  existence  of 
God  will  he  found  in  the  last  part  of 
Kleutgen's  "  Theologie  der  Vorzeit.") 

GOD-FATHER.  COB-MOTHER. 

[See  Sponsors.] 

COX.BEM'  HrVMBER.  [See  OXCLB.] 
coXiOEir  ROSE.  An  ornament 
blessed  by  the  Pope  every  year  on  Lsetare 
Sunday  (fourth  Sunday  in  Lent),  and 
sent  occasionally  to  Catholic  sovereigns, 
male  or  female,  to  noted  churches  and 
sanctuaries,  to  great  generals,  and  to 
illustrious  Cathohc  cities  or  republics. 
Originally,  it  was  a  single  flower  of 
wrought  gold,  coloured  red ;  afterwards 
the  golden  petals  were  decked  with 
rubies  and  other  gems  ;  finally,  the  form 
adopted  was  that  of  a  thomy  branch, 


GOOD  FElDAi' 


GOSPEL  (LITURGICAL  USE  OF)  413. 


'vitb  several  flowers  and  leaves,  and  one 
principal  flower  at  the  top,  all  of  pure 
gold.  The  practin^  appcivs  to  have 
arisen  in  the  thiiLnif  h  ecutury,  but  by 
what  Pope  it  was  in-tu  utcd  mils  present 
form  is  uncertain.  That  Popes  used  to 
send  presents  in  very  early  times  to 
princes  who  had  deserved  well  of  the 
Church,  is  well  known:  Gregory  the 
Great  was  accustomed  to  send  with  this 
intention  golden  Ijeys  containing  filings 
of  St.  Peter's  chains,  and  Boniface  "V. 
sent  to  Edwin,  king  of  Northumbria,  in 
6i!G,  a  camisia,  or  shirt  with  a  gold  orna- 
ment, and  to  Ethelberga  his  queen,  a 

S"lded  ivory  comb  and  a  silver  mirror.^ 
rban  V.  sent  a  golden  rose  in  1366  to 
Joanna  of  Naples.  Among  the  recipients 
of  the  rose  have  been  Gonsalvo  di  Cor- 
dova, Napoleon  III.,  and  Isabella  II.  of 
Spain.  Morone  records  a  large  number 
of  instances  in  which  this  favour  has 
been  conferred :  a  few  of  the  most  note- 
worthy are  the  following.  Henry  VIII. 
received  the  rose  from  three  Popes,  the 
last  time  from  Clement  VII.  in  1524. 
It  was  sent  to  his  daughter,  Queen  Mary, 
by  Julius  III.,  in  1555.  The  republic  of 
tucca  was  thus  honoured  by  Pius  IV., 
in  1564;  the  Lateran  Basihca  by  Pius 
V.  three  years  later ;  and  the  sanctuary 
of  Loretto,  by  Gregory  XIII.,  in  1584. 
The  Queen  of  France,  Maria  Tlieresa,  re- 
ceived it  from  Clement  IX.,  in  1668  :  and 
the  Queen  of  Poland,  Mary  Casimir,  from 
Innocent  XL,  in  16.'.^4,  in  recognition  of 
the  recent  deliverance  of  Vienna  by  her 
valiant  husband,  John  Sobieski.  Bene- 
dict XIII.  (1726)  granted  the  Golden 
Rose  to  the  cathedral  of  Capua ;  and  in 
1833,  it  was  sent  by  Gregory  XVI.  to 
the  Basilica  of  St.  Mark's,  A^enice. 
(Morone,  "  Dizionario  Ecclosiastico.") 
GOOD  PRXD AY.  [See  HoLT  Week.I 
COOX>  WORKS.  [See  Merit.] 
GOSPEX.  (XiXTirRCXCAX.  TTSE 
or).  The  practice  of  reading  the  gospels 
in  the  Christian  assemblies  is  mentioned 
by  Justin  Martyr,  and  prescribed  in  all 
tile  liturgies.  "  The  First  Council  of 
Orange,  in  441,  and  that  of  Valentia  in 
Spain,  order  the  Gospel  to  be  read  after 
the  Epistle  and  before  the  offertory,  in 
order  that  the  catechumens  might  listen 
to  the  words  of  Christ  and  hear  them 
explained  by  the  bishop.  We  give  here, 
first  of  all,  the  ceremonies  with  which  the 
Gospel  is  sung  at  High  Mass  according 
to  the  Latin  rite,  adding  illustrations 
from  history  and  the  other  liturgies. 
I  Bed.  Hist.  Eccl.  ii.  10,  11. 


We  conclude  with  an  account  of  the  way 
the  Gospel  is  read  at  Low  Mass. 

I.  The  Oo.'ijid  at  High  Mas^s.—The 
deacon  places  the  book  of  the  Gospels  on 
the  altar,  kneels  and  prays  that  God  may 
purify  his  lips,  as  He  purified  those  of 
Isaias,  takes  the  book  of  the  Gospels,  asks 
the  priest's  blessing,  and  then  goes  to  a 
place  in  the  sanctuary  on  the  right  hand  ' 
of  the  altar,  where  the  Gospel  is  to  be 
sung.  The  deacon  is  accompanied  by 
acolytes  bearing  lights;  he  announces 
the  title  of  the  Gospel,  the  choir  singing 
"  Glory  to  Thee,  0  Lord ;  "  he  makes  the 
sign  of  the  cross  on  the  book,  then  on 
his  forehead,  lips,  and  breast;  he  in- 
censes the  book,  the  incense  having  been 
previously  blessed,  and  sings  the  Gospel, 
which  the  priest  has  previously  read  in  a 
low  voice  on  the  right  side  of  the  altar. 
Finally,  he  incenses  the  priest,  to  whom 
the  book  is  presented  open,  and  who 
kisses  it  saying,  "  By  the  words  of  the 
Gospel  may  our  sins  be  blotted  out." 

The  singing  of  the  Gospel  was  not 
always  reserved  to  the  deacon,  as  has  been 
shown  in  the  article  under  that  word, 
and,  according  to  Benedict  XIV.,  the 
lector  still  recites  the  Gospel  in  the  Greek 
Mass.  In  ancient  times  the  book  of  the 
Gospels  was  carried  in  procession  to  the 
altar  at  the  beginning  of  Mass,  a  custom 
noted  in  the  liturgies  of  St.  Basil  and 
St.  Chrysostom,  and  observed  for  a  long 
time  in  the  West.  This  procession  fell 
into  disuse  when  Missals  containing  all 
that  is  said  or  sung  at  Mass  replaced  the 
old  Gospel-book,  sacramentaries,  lection- 
aries,  and  antiphonaries,  which  contained 
diflferent  parts  of  the  Mass,  each  in  a 
separate  form.  All  the  ancient  liturgies 
recognise  the  use  of  incense  at  the  Gospel. 
It  signifies  the  "  good  odour  of  Christ." 
The  lights  at  the  Gospel  were  familiar  to 
St.  Jerome,  and  St.  Isidore,  who  says 
they  were  carried  in  sign  of  joy,  and  to 
signify  that  Christ  is  the  light  of  souls. 
In  the  old  churches,  which  were  usually 
turned  to  the  east,  the  south  side  was 
occupied  by  the  men,  and  down  to  the 
middle  of  the  ninth  century  the  deacon 
turned  towards  them  when  he  reached 
the  "  ambo  "  or  place  where  the  Gospel 
was  sung.  On  the  other  hand,  Remi 
of  Auxerre,  who  wrote  about  882,  assumes 
that  the  Gospel  is  read  towards  the  north, 
the  region  of  darkness,  in  order  to  signify 
the  power  Christ's  words  have  to  annul 
evil  influences.    Le  Brun  thinks  that  this 

I  I.e.,  tho  rifrht  hiind  of  the  crucifix  or  of  one 
who  stands  with  his  back  to  the  altar. 


414      GOTHIC  LITURGIES 


GRACE 


mysticnl  reason  was  comm'^nly  adopted; 
that  then  a  similar  evil  signification  was 
attributed  to  the  left  side  of  the  priest 
(i.e.  his  left  when  he  faces  the  altar), 
and  that  hence  it  became  usual  to  move 
the  Missal  which  the  priest  uses  to  his 
left,  before  he  reads  the  Gospel.  In  the 
older  Ordines,  the  Missal  is  not  changed 
to  tlie  left  till  the  oti'ertory,'  when  con- 
venience obviously  requires  the  moving;  of 
the  book.  The  people  stand  at  the  sing-- 
ing  or  reading  of  the  Go.spel,  to  indicate 
their  alacrity  in  ol)eying  Christ's  words  ; 
and  for  a  like  reason  members  of  military 
orders  stand  with  drawn  swords.  In  the 
earliest  of  the  Roman  Ordines,  all  the 
clergy  Iriss  the  book  of  the  Gospels,  and 
Jonas,  bishop  of  Orleans  in  the  ninth 
century,  speaks  of  this  rite  as  an  ancient 
one  even  in  his  day.  It  appears  from 
Remi  of  Auxerre  that  the  people  made 
the  sign  of  the  cross  at  the  end  as  well  as 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Gospel. 

II.  At  Low  Mass.>'i  till'  h  .ok  is  moved 
to  the  Gospel  side  a  1  tlimid  ot'tlicGradual, 
the  priest  says  the  ])rnyi'r  "  .M  inula,"  \-c.  in 
the  middle  of  the  altar,  and  begs  a  blessing 
from  God,  saying  "  Jube,  Domine,  bone- 
dicere,"  "  Pray,  Lord,  a  blessing,"  whereas 
the  deacon  uses  the  form,  "  Jube,  domne," 
&c.,  "  Pray,  Sir,  a  blessing."  He  then 
signs  the  book,  &c.,  as  has  been  described 
above,  the  server  saying,  "  Gloria  tibi, 
Ilomine."  At  the  end  the  server  says, 
"  Praise  be  to  thee,  0  Christ,"  and  the 
priest  liis^i's  tlu'  IhihI:.  with  the  prayer 
"  Hy  the  wni-.ls  o\'  tlir  ( in-,,,. I,''  ,^cc.  the 
old  ciislom  was  to  -^ii  v  Aincn  "  at  the  end 
of  th.>  (iospi'l,  as  is  still  (lone  ui  the  3Ioz- 
arabic  Muss.  Alexander  of  Hales  tells  us 
that  some  in  his  time  said  "  .S.inen," 
others  "  Deo  gratias,"  but  his  words  inqily 
that  "Laus  tibi,  Christe  "  had  alivady 
become  the  prevalent  form.  (See  Le 
Brun,  and  Benedict  XIV.  "  Ue  .Miss,") 

GOTHIC  XXTVRGIES.  [See  LITUR- 
GIES.] 

COTHS.     [See  Missions  to  the 

HE.iTHEN.] 

COTTESCAXCVS,     or  GOTTS- 

CKAI.K.    [See  Predestination.] 

GRACE.  I.  D(Jiiution  a)id  Divisions 
of  Grace. — All  that  we  receive  from 
God— our  existence,  our  natural  powers, 
the  good  things  of  this  life — are  God's  free 
gift  and  may  therefore  be  rightly  called 
graces  or  favours  received  from  Him. 
But  God  has  been  pleased  to  call  man  to 
a  supernatural  end — i.e.  to  a  destiny  out 
1  So  even  nn  Ordo  of  Moiite  Casoiiio,  written 
about  1100. 


of  all  proportion  to  the  exigencies  of  his 
nature,  and  which  cannot  be  attained  by 
the  use  of  his  natural  powers.  Man  has 
been  created  that  he  may  see  God  face  to 
face  in  His  glory,  and  God,  who  calls 
him  to  eternal  life,  also  furnishes  the 
means  by  which  it  may  be  secured. 
Hence  the  Scriptural  writers  and  the 
theologians  of  the  Church  distinguish 
grace  from  nature ;  and  gi-ace  iu  this 
stricter  and  narrower  sense  may  be  de- 
fined as  a  supernatural  gift  freely  be- 
stowed by  God  on  rational  or  intellectual 
creatures  in  order  that  they  may  attain 
eternal  life.  We  say  that  it  is  freely 
given,  apart,  at  least  in  the  first  instance, 
from  all  merit  or  claim  of  ours ;  otherwise, 
as  the  Apostle  argues,  it  would  not  de- 
serve the  name  of  grace.  We  call  it 
supernatural  in  order  to  distinguish  it 
from  gifts  which  come  to  us  in  the  natu- 
ral order,  although  the  definition  is  not 
meant  to  exclude  those  special  provi- 
dences which  dispose  even  natural  events 
for  the  f  jr*herance  of  our  salvation.  We 
speak  of  as  bestowed  on  intellectual 
and  rational  creatures,  for  angels  and 
men  are  the  only  creatures  capable  of 
knowing  and  loving  (xod,  and  conse- 
quently the  only  recipieuls  of  grace.  All 
grace  since  the  Fall  lias  b.  ^n  ;:  iventoman 
on  account  of  Christ's  meiirs.  Whether 
the  gi-ace  of  the  angels  or  of  Adam  in  his 
innocence  was  due  to  the  same  cause,  is  a 

I  question  freely  discussed  in  the  theological 

I  schools, 

I  Grace  thus  understood  is  divided  ip- 
to  external  and  internal  grace.  The 
former  term  iuclndi-s  such  external  gifts 
as  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  the  ex- 
aiti])li's  of  Christ  aiul  the  Saints,  occasions 
o!'  pood  actions,  the  removal  of  exterior 
ton;]. I  III  ions — in  a  word,  all  the  effects  of 
supmiiit  iiral  providence  by  which  the 
cause  of  our  salvation  is  ])romoted.  In- 
ternal grace  directly  afl'ects  the  under- 
standing and  the  will,  either  inhering  in 
the  soul  as  ajiennanent  r|uality,  or  merely 
moving  and  aiding  the  soul  at  the  time 
to  acts  of  supernatural  virtue.  Internal 
graces  may  be  conferred  for  two  great 
emls.  They  may  be  given  in  order  that 
the  recipient  may  ])romote  the  spiritual 
good  of  others  among  whom  he  labours, 
and  in  this  case  the  schoolmen  speak  of 
graces  as  "  gratis  datse,"  and  infer  from 
I  Cor.  xii.  8  that  they  are  nine  in  number 
— viz.  the  word  of  wisdom,  the  grace  of 
healing,  &c.  Or,  on  the  other  hand, 
graces  may  be  given  with  the  direct  object 

j  of  bringing  the  subject  of  the  grace  nearer 


GRACE 


GRACE 


415 


to  God,  and  sucli  graces  are  called  "gra- 
tum  facientes" — graces,  \rliich  make  man 
pleasing  to  his  Creator.  We  have  already 
explained  that  internal  graces  may  be 
actual  (i.e.  pa.-sing  movements  of  the  soul 
by  God),  or  habitual  {i.e.  penuanent 
qualities  residing  in  the  soul  or  its  facul- 
ties).   Habitual  grace  may  inhere  in  the 
substance  of  the  soul,  which  it  sancti- 
fies and  renews  by  the  very  fact  of  its 
presence  there.    It  is  then  called  sancti- 
fying grace,  and  is,  says  the  Council  of 
Trent(Sess.  vi.  can.  11),  shed  abroad  in  our  | 
hearts  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  is  given  j 
to  us.    This  sanctifying  gi-ace  makes  us  i 
the  friends  of  God  and  partakers  of  the  | 
divine  nature  (2  Pet.  i.  4),  it  creates  ' 
■within  us  new  hearts  and  spirits  (Ezech.  i 
xxxvi.  26\  and  its  e.xistence  in  the  soul  I 
is  incompatible  with  mortal  sin  (1  John 
iii.  9).    The  infused  virtues  are  another  ' 
form  of  habitual  grace.    They  inhere  in 
the  faculties  of  the  soul;  they  do  not 
directly  sanctify,  but  they  complete  and 
perfect  sanctification  and  make  the  soul 
capable   of  supernatural  acts.  Actual 
grace  also  is  subdivided  into  grace  of 
operation  {gintia  opei-atis),  and  of  co- 
operation— the  former  exciting  the  mind 
to  action,  the  latter  working  with  it  and 
a.«sisting  it  in  operation  already  begun — 
into  prevenient  and  subsequent,  into  suf- 
ficient and  efficacious  grace,  &c.  This 
last  subdivision  will  be  explained  in  the 
account  which  we  have  to  give  of  the 
doctrinal  systems  of  grace  maintained  in 
the  Church. 

II.  Catholic  Doctrine  on  Grace. — The  i 
Church  teaches,  in  opposition  to  the  Pela-  ! 
gians,  not  only  that  the  grace  of  Christ  | 
is  absolutely  necessaiy  for  ju.stification  j 
before  God,  but  also  that  without  the 
prevenient  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Ghost  { 
and  His  assistance  a  man  "  can  neither 
believe,  hope,  love,  or  repent,  as  it  is 
necessary  he  should  do,  in  order  that  the  | 
grace  of  justification  may  be  conferred 
upon  him "  (Concil.  Trid.  Sess.  vi.  De  I 
Justif.  can.  3).  In  no  case  can  a  man  | 
merit  the  first  grace  by  natural  good 
■works.  "No  man,"  says  our  Blessed 
Saviour,  "  can  come  to  Me  except  the  ! 
Father  who  hath  sent  Me  draw  him  "  j 
(John  vi.  44) ;  and  the  Apostle,  "  It  is 
God  who  worketh  in  us  to  will  and  to 
do"  (Philipp.  ii.  13).  The  very  wish  to 
believe  or  to  rise  from  sin  conies,  accord- 
ing to  the  definition  of  the  Council  of 
Orange  (can.  3,  4>  o),  from  the  •jrace  of 
God.  Moreover,  although  we  can  by  our 
own  strength  do  good  actions  in  the 


natural  order,  and  although  our  nature  is 
not  wholly  depraved  and  corrupt,  even 
after  the  Fall  and  before  it  is  healed  by 
the  grace  of  Christ,  stUl  so  great  is  the 
■weakness  left  by  original  sin,  and  by  the 
disorder  consequent  on  the  very  fact  that 
a  man  destitute  of  gi-ace  is  necessarily 
turned  away  from  his  last  end — viz.  God 
apprehended  by  supernatural  means — that 
we  need  grace  in  order  to  resist  grievous 
temptations  against  natural  virtue,  nor 
can  we  fulfil  the  whole  natural  law  of 
God  without  its  help.  Hence  Scripture 
constantly  attributes  triumph  over  temp- 
tation to  the  grace  of  God,  who  with 
temptation  makes  a  way  of  escape  tliat 
we  may  be  able  to  bear  it  (1  Cor.  x.  13).' 
Finally,  even  a  person  who  is  in  a  state 
of  grace  and  friendship  with  God  needs 
a  new  impulse  of  actual  grace  before  he 
can  think  a  good  thought  or  perform  a 
good  deed  ;  while  a  special  grace,  which 
cannot  be  merited,  is  required  in  order 
that  he  may  persevere  to  the  end.  "  In 
the  case  of  those  who  are  regenerate  and 
holy  there  is  always  need  to  implore  God's 
help  that  they  may  come  to  a  good  end  or 
persist  in  a  good  work "  (Concil.  Araus. 
ii.  can.  10).  In  short,  the  world  of  grace 
is  like  the  world  of  nature,  which  is  not 
only  created  but  also  sustained  at  each 
instant  by  the  hand  of  God. 

As  the  Pelagians  and  Semipelagians 
erred  in  the  estimate  they  formed  of 
man's  natural  powers,  so  the  Calvinists 
fell  into  another  and  much  more  perni- 
cious error  by  denying  the  freedom  of 
the  will  altogether  and  makino:  grace 
irresistible  ;  and  the  Jansenist  doctrine 
on  these  points  is  substantially  identical 
with  that  of  the  Calvinists.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  (Sess.  vi.  De  Justif.)  con- 
demns under  anathema  those  who  main- 
tain that  the  will  of  man  is  merely  passive 
under  the  action  of  grace,  and  lias  not 
the  power  of  resisting  it.  It  also  defines 
that  a  state  of  grace  is  not,  as  the  Cal- 
vinists supposed,  the  mere  external 
favour  of  God,  but  that  it  is  a  gift  in- 
herent in  the  soul,  in  virtue  of  which  the 
sinner  is  not  only  accounted  just,  but 
really  becomes  so,  and  that  the  gift  of 
sanctifying  grace  is  forfeited  b}-  any 
single  mortal  sin.  We  di.'-cuss  these 
points  more  fully  under  the  articles 
CiLvixisM,  Final  Perseverance,  Jtjs- 

»  On  this  part  of  the  subject,  see  the  Second 
Council  of  Orange,  anno  529,  confirmed  by  Pope 
Boniface  II. 

-  I.e.,  of  course,  a  thought  or  deed  profitable 
to  eternal  salvation. 


416 


GRACE 


GRACE 


TiFiCATiON,  Merit,  only  remarking  here 
that  the  very  essence,  not  only  of  Chris- 
tianity, but  of  natural  religion,  is  at  issue 
in  the  dispute  between  Catholics  and 
Calvinists.  That  God  will  accept  no 
man  as  just  except  he  really  be  so;  that 
nothing  else,  neither  ritual  uor  sacrifice, 
nor  imputed  merit  can  be  taken  as  a 
substitute  for  personal  hohness — that  is 
the  central  truth  of  all  religion ;  it  is  the 
very  truth  which  the  prophets  of  God 
maintained  against  the  priests  of  Baal  or 
Moloch.  We  are  of  course  well  aware 
that  there  are  many  excellent  Christians 
who  profess  Calvinism,  and  do  not  dream 
of  holding  the  consequences  which  may 
fairly  be  deduced  from  their  tenets.  But 
this  should  not  blind  us  to  the  fact  that 
the  Calvinistic  theories  on  imputation, 
irresistible  grace,  the  impossibility  of  fall- 
ing from  a  state  of  grace,  &c.  are  in  them- 
selves not  only  irreligious  but  immoral. 

III.  Theological  Systems  on  Grace. — 
All  Catholics,  as  we  have  seen,  believe 
in  the  necessity  of  grace  for  all  super- 
natural acts,  and  therefore  also,  since 
God  desires  the  salvation  of  all,  they 
hold  that  He  offers  to  all  grace,  really 
and  abundantly  sufficient  for  their  salva- 
tion. They  further  maintain  that  the  will 
always  remains  free  to  reject  grace  or  to 
correspond  with  it.  But  when  we  in- 
quire into  the  nature  of  the  distinction 
between  efficacious  and  sufficient  grace, 
Catholic  theologians  give  different  an- 
swers. We  begin  with  a  general  defini- 
tion which  may  suffice  for  the  under- 
standing of  the  question  in  dispute.  A 
sufficient  grace  is  one  which  merely 
enables  the  soul  to  perform  a  super- 
natural act;  an  efficacious  grace  is  one 
which  does  really  effect  the  purposes  for 
which  it  is  given.  Thus  Judas  received 
sufficient,  Peter  efficacious,  grace  for  con- 
version :  in  other  words,  grace  was  given 
capable  of  converting  Judas,  but  to  Peter 
grace  which  actually  did  convert  him. 
The  question  is,  whence  does  the  effica- 
city  of  grace  proceed  ? 

'The  Dominican  theologians  defend 
what  is  usually  called  the  Thomist  system 
of  grace,  because  those  wlio  hold  it  allege 
that  it  is  in  substance  to  be  found  in  the 
writings  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.'  This 
theory  may  be  stated  in  the  following 
propositions : — 

(1)  Second  causes  act  only  so  far  as 
they  are  determined  to  act  by  the  first 
cause — i.e.  God.    Hence  it  is  not  enough 

>  An  allegiitioii,  however,  by  no  means  ad- 
mitted by  their  antagonists. 


to  say  that  the  power  to  work  out  our 
salvation  comes  from  God.  He  also 
moves  to  the  good  action  itself,  and  the 
existence  of  two  kinds  of  grace  must  be 
admitted — viz.  sufficient,  which  merely 
enables  the  recipient  to  act ;  and  efficient, 
which  is  always  followed  by,  and,  indeed, 
produces  the  action  ("  dat  non  solum 
posse  sed  agere  "). 

(2)  God  sincerely  wishes  all  men  to 
be  saved,  and  oflers  to  all  the  means  of 
salvation.  But  He  wishes  some  to  be 
saved  absolutely,  and  considering  all  the 
circumstances;  others,  only  on  certain 
conditions  which  are  not  realised.  To 
the  latter  He  gives  sufficient,  to  the 
former  efficacious,  grace. 

(3)  In  either  case  grace  is  given  with- 
out any  claim  or  merit  on  man's  part. 

(4)  There  is  an  intrinsic  difference 
between  sufficient  and  efficacious  ^^race — 
i.e.  between  the  graces  in  themselves — so 
that  it  is  always  true  to  say  that  a  man 
consented  to  grace  given  because  it  was 
efficacious  :  never  true  that  the  grace  was 
efficacious  because  the  man  consented. 

(5)  Man  always  remains  free  and 
capable  of  merit  under  efficacious  grace : 
free  and  responsible  for  his  demerit  with 
merely  sufficient  grace.  For  God  as  the 
first  cause  in  no  way  interferes  with  the 
agency  of  second  causes,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, moves  each  second  cause  according 
to  its  nature,  so  that  beings  with  free 
will  do  not  cease  to  be  free  because 
efficaciously  moved  by  God.  Sufficient 
grace  gives  full  power  to  act,  so  that  a 
man  is  perfectly  responsible  if  he  does 
not  exert  the  power;  while  efficacious 

,  grace  leaves  perfect  power  of  resistance. 
The  reader  will  perceive  the  extreme 
difficulty,  or,  as  the  adversaries  of 
Thomism  would  say,  the  impossibility  of 
reconciling  this  last  with  the  foregoing 
propositions :  but  the  fact  that  the 
Thomists  do  honestly  bold  this  last 
proposition  places  a  wide  gulf  between 
Thomism  on  the  one  hand,  and  Calvinism 
and  .Tansenism  on  the  other. 

The  first  three  of  the  Thomist  pro- 
positions are  admitted '  by  that  large 
number  of  Jesuit  theologians  known  as 
Congruists,  but  they  make  the  efficacity 
of  grace  depend,  not  on  anything  in  the 
grace  itself,  but  on  the  fact  that  it  is 
given  under  circumstances  which,  as  God 
foresees,  are  suitable  to  the  dispositions- 

1  So  at  least  BiUuart  puts  the  case  in  his 
treatise  De  (iratia,  but  probably  the  Jesuit 
theulopans  would  demur  to  the  form  at  least  of 
the  first  proposition. 


GRACE 


GRACE 


of  the  recipient.  He  foreknows  what  all 
creatures  would  do  in  all  possible  circum- 
stances— in  what  combination  of  circum- 
stances they  would  accept  or  reject  grace. 
If  He  decrees  their  predestination  abso- 
lutely He  gives  them  grace  in  circum- 
stances under  which  they  will  certainly 
correspond  to  it ;  otherwise  He  confers 
grace  which  is  in  itself  perfectly  suttl- 
cient,  but  which  they  will  certainly 
reject.  Congruism  has  the  advantage  of 
admitting  the  full  force  of  scriptural 
texts  which  attribute  the  whole  differ- 
ence between  sinner  and  saint  to  the 
grace  of  God,  while  at  the  same  time 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  reconciling  it 
with  belief  in  the  freedom  of  the  will. 

The  Molinists  (so  called  from  Louis 
Molina,  a  celebrated  Jesuit)  hold  that  the 
efficacy  of  grace  depends  simply  on  the 
will  which  freely  accepts  it.  The  differ- 
ence is  not  in  the  graces  in  themselves, 
nor  even  in  the  circumstances  under 
which  they  are  given.  A  powerful  grace 
given  at  the  most  favourable  juncture 
may  be  rejected,  and  so  remain  merely 
sufficient ;  a  much  less  powerful  grace 
may  be  given  with  much  less  favourable 
circumstances,  and  the  consent  of  the 
will  may  make  it  efficacious.  God  pre- 
destines those  who,  as  He  foresees,  will 
correspond  to  that  grace  which  He  offers 
to  all. 

The  Augustinians  advocate  a  third 
system.  Like  the  Thomists,  they  admit 
an  intrinsic  difference  between  efficacious 
and  sufficient  grace,  but  they  maintain 
this  position  on  purely  theological,  not 
on  philosophical  grounds  :  on  the  weak- 
ness of  man's  Avill  since  the  Fall,  not  on 
the  general  principle  that  all  second 
causes  must  he  moved  to  action  by  the 
first  cause.  Ilnicr  they  propound  a 
Molinist  tliedrv  for  the  jieriod  before,  a 
Thomist  theory  for  that  after,  the  Fall. 

A  singular  theory,  adopted,  however, 
by  St.  Liguori  in  his  treatise  on  prayer, 
was  devised  by  Tournely,  a  doctor  of  the 
Sorbonne,  and  author  of  a  "  Dogmatic 
Theology"  justly  held  in  high  esteem. 
Tournely  supposed  that  God  gave  men 
first  of  all  sufficient  grace,  in  the  Molinist 
sense,  for  certain  initial  works,  especially 
prayer,  which  grace,  if  rightly  used,  was 
followed  by  grace  efficacious  in  the 
Thomist  sense.  The  obvious  objection  is 
that  prayer,  if  it  fulfils  the  conditions 
necessary  for  obtaining  the  requests  made, 
is  one  of  the  most  excellent  and  difficult 
of  all  good  works,  so  that  either  there  is 
no  need  at  all  of  grace  efficacious  in  its 


own  nature,  or  else  such  grace  would  be 
imperatively  demanded  for  prayer. 

The  controversy  on  grace  and  pre- 
destination between  the  Dominicans  and 
Jesuits  began  in  Spain  about  the  year 
1580.  Bannez,  a  Dominican  professor 
at  Salamanca,  maintained  the  intrinsic 
efficacity  of  grace  as  e-xplained  above. 
Setting  out  from  the  notion  of  God  as 
the  first  cause  and  the  first  mover,  he 
represented  efficacious  gi-ace  as  deter- 
mining the  free  consent  of  the  will  by 
"physical  premotion,"  and  this  premo- 
tion  which  was  infallibly  followed  by  the 
consent  of  the  will  came,  as  he  alleged, 
from  God's  absolute  decree  that  the 
person  so  moved  by  grace  should  corre- 
spond to  it.  The  Jesuit  college  at  the 
same  university  met  this  doctrine  of 
intrinsic  efficacity  of  grace  and  physical 
premotion  on  the  part  of  God  with 
vigorous  opposition.  As  early  as  1581, 
a  Jesuit,  Prudentius  de  Monte-Mayor, 
defended  in  public  disputation  a  doctrine 
which  had  already  been  propounded  by 
another  member  of  his  ord(n-,  Fouseca,  in 
1566 — viz.  that  God  knew,  apart  from 
any  decree  except  the  general  one  of 
concurring  with  free  agents  in  this  deter- 
mination, where  and  when  the  will  would 
correspond  to  or  reject  grace,  and  that 
efficacious  grace  was  simply  that  which, 
as  God  foresaw,  would  be  accepted. 
This  doctrine  was  eagerly  defended  in 
the  Society  of  Jesus.  Suarez  maintained 
it  at  Coimbra,  Vasquez  at  Alcala,  Gre- 
gory of  Valentia  at  Ingnlstadt,  Lessius 
in  "the  Netherlands.  Tnletus  at  Rome. 
But  it  was  Molina,  professor  at  Evora, 
in  Portugal,  and  a  disciple  (if  Fonseca, 
who  carried  out  the  piiiicijiles  of  his 
master  to  their  utmost  consequences. 
His  famous  book,  "Liberi  Arbitrii  cum 
gratire  donis,  diviua  pnescientia,  provi- 
dentia,  pv.-edestinatione  et  rej)robatione 
Concordia,"  was  published  at  Lisbon  in 
1588.  It  made  an  epoch  in  theology,  and 
roused  the  keenest  controversy  amongst 
Catholics  for  more  than  a  century.  The 
controversy  turned  on  predestination  as 
well  as  grace,  for  Molinists'  held  (1) 
that  sufficient  grace  became  efficacious 
simply  by  the  free  consent  of  the  will 

1  We  say  Molinists  in  deference  to  usage, 
though  the  name  is  renlly  inaccurate.  Lessius 
held  proposition  (2).  Molina,  on  the  contrary, 
I  "doctrinani  irratiie  confjru.T  una  cum  pra'(iesti- 
,  nati.'MP  ante  praevisa  nierita  et  honoruni  oprnim 
1  riuiletinitioneni  adunibravit."  Sclineciiiann, 
Conlrovtrsiarum  de  dicinee  gratiae  lUieriqiie  arbi- 
trii Concordia  initio  et  progressus,  p.  2.S7. 

E  E 


418 


GRACE 


GRACE 


which  corresponded  to  it ;  (2)  that  God 
predestined  those  who  He  foresaw  would 
consent  to  grace,  so  that  predestination 
was  an  effect  of  God's  prevision  that  His 
creatures  would  consent,  not  vice  versa} 
In  1594  Clement  VIII.  intimated 
that  he  reserved  the  decision  of  the  con- 
troversy to  himself,  and  in  November 
1597  the  famous  Congregations  de 
Auxiliis — i.e.  concerning  the  helps  or 
assistance  of  gi'ace— were  instituted  for 
the  examination  of  the  question.  The 
congrt'grtt  ion  consisted  of  eight  consultors 
(of  these  eight  two  were  absent,  and 
were  replaced  by  three  new  members), 
of  whom  all  except  two  condemned 
Molina's  book  after  considering  it  for 
little  more  than  two  months.  They  re- 
peated this  adverse  sentence  after  a 
second  consultation.  Molina  begged  to 
be  heard  in  his  own  defence,  and  ac- 
cordingly the  Pope  ordered  that  col- 
loquies should  be  held,  in  which  the 
generals  of  both  orders  and  the  great 
Cardinal  Bellarmin  took  part.  The  limits 
of  the  question  were  seriously  narrowed 
in  these  colloquies,  for  the  Jesuits  re- 
fused to  commit  themselves  to  the 
opinions  of  Molina  and  Lessius  on  pre- 
destination, and  the  dispute  was  confined 
to  the  eflicacity  of  grace.  In  1600  Car- 
dinal Madrucci,  who  presided  at  the  con- 
ferences, died,  and  the  conferences  them- 
selves ended  without  definite  result. 
Once  more  ^lolina's  book  was  submitted 
to  a  congregation  on  which  two  Jesuits 
and  two  Dominicans  sat,  and  twenty 
propositions  contained  in  it  were  cen- 
sured by  a  majority  of  the  members. 
From  1002  to  1606  congregations  were 
held  in  the  Vatican  before  Clement  VIII. 
and  Paul  V.  The  Dominicans  were  re- 
presented by  Didacus  Alvarez  and 
Thomas  of  Lemos,  the  Jesuits  during  the 
first  nine  sessions  by  the  learned  and 
pious  Gregory  of  Valentia,  and  later  by 
Arrubal,  liastida,  and  De  Salas.  The 
Spanish  Court  pressed  for  the  condem- 
nation of  the  Jesuits,  who  had  offended 
Spanish  prejudices  and  selfishness  by  es- 
pousing the  cause  of  Henri  IV.  in  France. 
It  has  been  alleged  that  Clement  VIII., 
shortly  before  his  death  in  1605,  had 
prepared  a  bull  condemning  Molina,  but 
this  supposed  fact  has  never  been  proved. 
In  any  case  the  bull  was  not  promulgated, 

1  On  the  Congruist  and  Thomist  theories, 
God,  apart  from  all  prevision  of  merit  or  de- 
merit, determines  who  are  to  be  saved,  and  then 
gives  to  the  elect  efficacious  grace  by  which  they 
freely  merit  their  salvation. 


and  the  congregations,  which  met  sixty- 
eight  times  under  Clement,  held  twelve 
more  sessions  under  Paul  V.  On  August 
28,  1607,  the  latter  Pope  convoked  the 
College  of  Cardinals  (excluding,  however, 
those  who  had  been  consultors  or  secre- 
taries of  the  congregMtion),  and  handed 
an  encyclical  to  the  generals  of  the  Do- 
minicans and  Jesuits,  which  they  in  turn 
were  to  communicate  to  the  provincials. 
The  theologians  of  each  party  were  al- 
lowed to  hold  and  teach  their  respective 
opinions,  provided  they  did  not  stigmatise 
their  opponents  with  theological  censures 
Urban  VIII.  and  Clement  XII.  declared 
themselves  in  the  same  sense. 
,  In  1613  Aquaviva,  general  of  the 
Jesuits,  required  the  members  of  his 
order  to  teach  the  doctrine  on  grace 
known  as  Congruism,  and  defended  by 
Bellarmin,  Suarez,  and  others  as  distinct 
from  the  doctrine  of  Molina,  Lessius, 
Becanus,  &c.,  known  as  Molinism  (but 
see  Schneemann,  p.  302  seq.).  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  the  vio- 
linist and  Congruist  theories  are  held  by 
many  theologians  who  are  not  Jesuits, 
just  as  the  so-called  Thomist  doctrine  is 
accepted  by  many  besides  the  Domini- 
cans. 

All  the  large  courses  of  dogmatic 
theology  published  during  the  seven- 
teenth and  earlier  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  enter  fully  into  the  controversies 
on  grace.  Santamour  and  other  writers 
inclined  to  Jansenism  published  acts  of 
the  CongTegations  de  Auxiliis,  attributing 
them  to  Pegna,  Coronell,  and  De  Lemos, 
along  with  a  constitution  said  to  have 
been  drawn  up,  but  never  promulgated, 
by  Paul  v.,  in  condemnation  of  Molin- 
ism. The  Pope  is  said  to  have  abstained 
irom  promulgating  this  constitution  be- 
cause the  Jesuits  at  the  time  were  sufter- 
ing  for  their  obedience  to  the  interdict 
issued  by  Paul  V.  against  Venice.  But 
in  1654  Innocent  X.  declared  that  no 
faith  Avas  to  be  given  to  these  documents. 
In  spite  of  this,  the  Dominican  Hyacinth 
Serry  compiled  a  history  of  the  con- 
trover.sy,  drawn  in  great  measure  from 
the  spurious  Acts  and  full  of  bitter 
attacks  on  the  Jesuits.  It  was  published 
at  Louvain  early  in  the  last  century. 
In  reply,  the  Jesuit  Livinus  Meyer,  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Theodore  Eleutherius, 
wrote  his  '  Historia  Controversiarum  de 
div.  gratiae  auxilio  sub  S.  P.  Sixto  V., 
Clemente  VIII.,  el;  Paulo  V."  (Antwerp, 
1705).  A  Bavarian  Carmelite,  Alex- 
ander a  Sto.  Johanne,in  his  continuatiou 


GRACE  AT  MEALS 


GRADUAL  rSAL:NLS 


of  Fleury,  repeated  the  charges  of  Seriy, 
and  was  answered  in  the  Latin  treatise 
of  the  ex-Jesuit  Mangold,  "Reflexions 
on  Fr.  Alexander's  Continuation  of 
Fleury."  See  also  Mannhart,  "  De  in- 
genua  indole  gratia^  efficacis,"  in  Zac- 
caria's  "  Thesaurus,"  torn,  v.,  and  Schnee- 
mann's  treatise  quoted  above. 

GRACE  AT  MEAI.S.  In  this  ex- 
pression "  grace "  represents  the  Latin 
grati<e,  thanks  (see  Matt.  xv.  36 ;  Mark 
viii.  6:  John  vi.  11);  but  it  also  covers 
the  notion  of  benedictio,  blessing  (Matt, 
xir.  19;  Mark  vi.  41;  Luke  ix.  16); 
hence  the  Italian  equivalent  to  "saying 
gi'ace,"  is  "  benedire  la  tavola."  In  the 
passages  above  cited,  and  also  in  other 
places,  our  Lord  sets  us  the  example  of 
praying  for  the  blessing  of  God  on  the 
daily  bread  which  He  gives  us,  and  giving 
Him  thanks  for  what  He  thus  provides, 
both  before  and  after  partaking  of  it. 
Christians  have  from  the  first  complied 
with  this  teaching.  "  Whether  you  eat 
or  drink,"  says  St.  Paul  (1  Uor.  x.  31), 
"  or  whatsoever  else  you  do,  do  all  to  tlie 
glory  of  God '' ;  and  this  precept  is 
further  developed  in  Col.  iii.  17 : 
"  Whatsoever  you  do  in  word  or  in  work, 
all  things  do  ye  in  the  name  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  gieing  thanks  to  God  and 
the  Father  by  Him."  Compare  also  1 
Thess.  V.  18,  and  I  Tim.  iv.  3.  Many  of 
the  Fathers — e.;/.  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
TertuUian,  St.  Cyprian,  St.  John  Chry- 
sostom,  and  St.  Basil — enjoin  the  punc- 
tual performance  of  this  duty.  St.  Basil 
says,'  "  Let  prayers  be  said  before  taking 
food,  in  meet  acknowledgment  of  the 
gifts  of  God,  both  of  those  which  He  is 
now  giving,  and  of  those  which  He  has 
put  in  store  for  the  future.  Let  prayers 
be  said  after  food,  containing  a  return  of 
thanks  for  the  things  given,  and  request 
for  those  promised."  A  variety  of  speci- 
mens of  early  graces  are  given  in  the 
Gelasian  Sacrameutarj-,  which  dates 
from  the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  In 
the  Apostolical  Constitutions  as  given  in 
Bunsen's  "Hippolytus"  (§  21),  meals  in 
the  church  are  spoken  of,  of  which  the 
bishop  is  always  to  be  ready  to  partake 
along  with  the  faithful,  and  at  which  he 
is  to  distribute  a  portion  of  the  bread 
among  those  present,  "for  a  blessing," 
before  they  begin  to  eat.  This  custom 
still  prevails  in  the  East,  and  a  relic  of 
it  survives  in  the  eulogies  or  pain  bimt 
of  certain  French  churches.    The  Con- 

1  Kp.  ii.  ad.  Greg.  Naz.  (quoted  in  Mr.  Scu 
damore's  art.  Diet,  of  Christ.  Antiq.) 


stitutions  also  say,  "Everything  which 
they  shall  eat  they  shall  g'ive  thanks  to 
God  for." '  (Smith  and  Cheetham,  art. 
by  Scudamore.) 

GRASITA^.  An  antiphon  sung 
after  the  Epistle,  and  so  called  either 
because  it  used  to  be  sung  on  the  altar 
steps,  or  because  it  was  sung  while  the 
deacon  ascended  the  steps  of  the  ambo  to 
sing  the  Gospel.  It  is  also  called  "  re- 
sponsory,"  because  it  answers  to  the 
Epistle,  or  because  sung  antiphonally. 
The  "  Liber  Pontificalis,"  in  the  Life  of 
Celestine  I.,  attributes  its  origin  to  that 
Pope;  others  refer  its  introduction  to 
Gregory  the  Great.  It  is  omitted  in 
Lent.  (From  Benedict  XIV.  "  De 
Missa.") 

CRADVAX.  PSAX.KS.  A  title 
given  to  Psalms  cxx.-cxxxiv.  in  the 
Hebrew — cxix.-cxxxiii.  in  the  Vulgate 
numeration.''  All  these  Psalms  have 
much  in  common.  All  except  Ps.  cxxxii. 
are  short ;  the  same  tone  of  joyful  trust 
in  God's  protection  runs  through  them 
all;  and  although  some  of  them  (viz. 
Ps.  cxxii.,  cxxiv.,  cxxxi.,  cxxxiii.)  are 
ascribed  to  Dand,  cxxvii.  to  Solomon,  it 
is  pretty  plain  that  they  all  belong  to 
the  early  period  of  the  return  from  the 
exile. 

The  Latin  "  canticum  graduum"  is 
a  translation  of  the  Hebrew  nibysri  TJi' 
(in  cxxi.  m*?!;^^),  which  occurs  in  the 
inscriptions.  The  LXX  have  wbi)  wajiaB- 
nS)v.  But  it  is  impossible  to  say  for 
certain  what  the  title  means.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  chief  attempts  at  solving 
the  problem. 

(1)  The  oldest  explanation  given  by 
Jewish  and  Christian  scholars,  and  im- 
plied perhaps  in  the  LXX  translation,  is 
that  the  psalms  were  so  called  because 
sung  on  the  fifteen  steps  which  led  from 
the  court  of  the  men  to  that  of  the 
women.  According  to  the  Talmud,  two 
priests  were  stationed  on  the  evening  of 
the  first  day  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles 
at  the  top  of  the  steps  with  trumpets, 
while  the  Levites  sang  the  psalms  on  the 
steps  (according  to  a  later  tradition  one 
psalm  on  each  step).  We  have  no  histo- 
rical evidence  apart  from  the  Talmud  for 
such  a  custom  ;  the  steps  most  likely  did 
not  exist  till  Herod's  time  ;  and  there  is 
strong  reason  to  suspect  that  the  custom 

'  Apnst.  Constit.,  from  the  Coptic,  Tattnni, 
1848 ;  p.  74. 

I  *  The  Hebrew  nunieratioo  is  followed  in  the 
^  rest  of  this  article. 

SB2 


420       GRADUAL  PSALMS 


GRADUAL  PSALMS 


was  imagined  to  account  for  the  title  of 
the  psalms. 

(2)  Others  have  suggested  that  the 
psalms  were  sung  by  the  exiles  in  re- 
turning or  "  going  up  "  from  Babylon,  so 
that  the  word  translated  "graduum" 
would  answer  to  the  Greek  dvd^aa-is. 
This  explanation  was  adopted,  partially 
at  least,  by  the  Syriac  translator,  and 
seems  to  have  been  in  the  mind  of  Aquila, 
Symmachus,  and  Theodotion  when  they 
used  dvaSdartis  to  render  ni7y.l3.  This 
view  was  advocated  by  Chrysostom  and 
Theodoret  among  the  Fathers,  as  well 
as  by  modern  scholars  of  name.  No 
doubt  the  words  ^23??  nVy.D  do  occur  in 
Esdras  vii.  9,  in  the  sense  of  return,  or 
dvdlSaais,  from  Babel.  But  the  plural 
number  in  ni'pUD  retained  in  the  Vulgate 
"  giaduum  "  is  against  this  interpreta- 
tion ;  and,  besides,  Ps.  cxxii.  implies  that 
the  exile  was  over  some  considerable 
time,  and  the  Temple  and  city  rebuilt. 

(3)  Closely  allied  with  the  foregoing 
is  another  explanation  adopted  by  njany 
great  scholars — e.g.  by  Eichhorn,  Maurer, 
Hengstenberg,  Keil,  Hupfeld,  Kuenen, 
&c. — and  which  has  very  much  to  re- 
commend it.  They  sup]inse  that  these 
psalms  were  sung  durinn;  the  "goings 
up  "  or  pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem  for  the 
great  annual  feasts.  This  account  satis- 
fies the  laws  of  grammatical  usage  [e.g. 
it  accounts  for  the  use  of  the  plural),  and 
is  perfectly  consistent  with  the  contents 
of  the  psalms  in  question.  We  may  rea- 
sonably conjecture  that  some  of  the 
psalms  were  actually  written  for  the  ])il- 
grims,  while  others  were  placed  in  this 
collection  because  they  dealt  with  sub- 
jects or  exprcsM'd  feelings  which  had  a 
powerful  att:-action  for  the  pious  Israelite 
in  general,  and  so  for  the  pilgrim  in  par- 
ticular. "Thus  Ps.  cxx.-cxxii.,  Ps. 
cxxxiii.,  cxxxiv.  (i.e.  the  first  and  the 
last  songs  in  the  collection)  point  directly 
to  the  pilgrimapes:  Ps.  cxxiv.,  cxxvi., 
cxxviii.,  cxxix.,  cxxxli.,  treat  of  subjects 
more  or  less  connected  therewith ;  lastly, 
Ps.  cxxiii.,  cxxv.,  cxxvii.,  cxxx.,  cxxxi., 
are  more  general,  but  at  the  same  time 
contain  nothing  which  makes  their  in- 
corporation in  a  'petit  psautier  des 
pelerins  du  second  temple '  inexplicable 
or  even  strange." 

We  add,  for  the  sake  of  completeness, 
two  other  explanations.  Gesenius,  fol- 
lowed by  De  Wette,  Winer,  Delitzsch, 
&c.,  suggested  that  the  name  described 
the  ascending  rhythm  of  the  psalms,  for 


the  sense  goes  on  progressively,  and  the 
first  or  last  words  of  a  preceding  are 
often  repeated  at  the  beginning  of  a  sub- 
sequent sentence.  It  is  scarcely  fair  to 
urge  against  this  view  that  the  same 
rhythm  is  found  in  the  song  of  Deborah, 
and  in  Isa.  xxvi.  5,  6.  It  is,  however,  a 
strong  objection  that  this  ascending 
rhythm  is  not  found  at  all  in  Ps.  cxxvii. - 
cxxxiv.;  and  is,  to  say  the  least,  not 
strongly  marked  in  Ps.  cxxv.  Besides, 
this  explanation  will  not  suit  the  inscrip- 
tion of  Ps.  cxxi. — viz.  a  song  "  for  as- 
cents "  not  "  of  ascents : "  "  gradibus,"  not 

"  graduum  "(ni'Pi;??^). 

Fiirst's  theory,  given  in  his  Concor- 
dance and  in  his  Lexicon  (sub  voc.  nS^^O), 
may  be  dismissed  in  a  single  sentence. 
He  translates  the  titles  "  songs  of  excel- 
lence," a  meaning  which  is  not  justified 
by  usage,  which  is  unlikely  on  the  face 
of  it,  and  which  leaves  the  plural  number 
unexplained.  (Chiefly  from  the  essay  in 
Hupfeld's  "  Commentary  on  the  Psalms," 
vol.  iv.  p.  274  seg.,  and  from  Kuenen, 
"  Ilistorisch-kritisch  Onderzoek  naar  het 
Onstaan  en  de  Verzameling  van  de 
Bneken  des  Ouden  Verbonds,"  vol.  iii.,  p. 
218  srg. :  the  words  in  inverted  commas 
are  from  the  latter  author.) 

We  may  now  pass  on  to  the  use  of 
the  Gradual  Psalms  in  the  Christian 
Church.  The  Fathers,  as  well  as  later 
Catholic  writers,  found  various  mystical 
meanings  in  the  number  fifteen,  and  re- 
garded these  Psalms  as  marking  the  steps 
by  which  the  soul  ascends  to  God.  The 
Breviary  divides  the  Gradual  Psalms 
into  three  sets  of  five  each,  the  first  five 
ending  with  the  common  conclusion 
"  Requiem  aeternam  dona  eis,  Domine," 
and  with  a  prayer  for  the  dead,  while 
each  of  the  remaining  psalms  ends  with 
the  "  Gloria  Patri,"  and  each  of  the  re- 
maining sets  with  a  collect.  This 
arrangement  and  the  practice  of  reciting 
these  psalms  before  matins  are  mentioned 
by  Radulphus,  a  contemporary  of  Inno- 
cent in.  At  one  time  the  Gradual 
Psalms  were  said  before  matins  every 
day  in  Lent,  but  Pius  V.  limited  the 
recitation  to  all  Wednesdays  in  that 
season,  excepting  Wednesday  in  Holy 
Week,  and  days  on  which  an  office  of 
nine  lessons  occurs.  Moreover,  Pins  V. 
made  the  private  recitation  a  matter  of 
devotion,  not  of  precept.  He  attached 
an  indulgence  of  fifty  days  to  the  devout 
repetition.  When,  however,  office  is  said 
in  choir,  the  obligation  of  reciting  the 


QRATLi:  EXPECTATIV^ 


GREEK  CITTT.CH 


421 


"Gradual  Psalms  still  continues,  as  appears 
from  the  Constitution  of  Pius  V.  on  the 
Breviary  as  interpreted  by  various  deci- 
sions of  the  Congregation  of  Rites. 
(From  Gavantus,  sect.  0,  cap.  2.) 

GRATIS  EXPECTATZVJB.  [See 
ElPEC  I  ATIVl'S  ^ 

GREATER  TITHES.    [See  TiTHES.] 

creek[schisivsatic]cburch. 

Under  this  title  we  include  all  those 
Christians  who,  being  separated  from  the 
communion  of  the  Pope,  acknowledge 
the  primacy  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople. The  Russian  Church,  however, 
which  is  really  Greek  in  the  sense  of  the 
above  definition,  we  put  aside  for  the 
present,  reserving  our  account  of  it  for 
another  article.  At  one  time,  as  ever\-- 
body  knows,  the  Greek  Churches  were  in 
full  communion  with  the  Holy  See.  T\'e 
begin,  therefore,  with  the  history  of  the 
schism  and  of  the  origin  of  the  Greek 
Church  as  au  independent  body. 

Ignatiue,  a  member  of  the  imperial 
family  and  a  monk,  was  made  Patriarch 
•of  Constantinople  in  846  or  S47,  during 
the  reign  of  Theodora.  "When  Theodora's 
son  Michael  III.,  known  as  Michael  the 
Drunken,  began  to  reign,  he  fell  entirely 
under  the  influence  of  his  uncle  Bardus, 
A  profligate  of  the  most  abandoned  cha- 
racter, who  lived  in  sin  with  his  own 
stepdaughter.  On  the  feast  of  the  Epi- 
phany 857  Ignatius  refused  to  give  Bar- 
dus  communion,  and  further  offended 
him  by  declining  to  clothe  Theodora  and 
her  daughters  against  their  will  with  the 
religious  habit.  Accordingly  Ignatius 
was  banished,  and  in  8.18  Photius  was 
consecrated  Patriarch  in  his  place.  Pho- 
tius was  the  most  learned  man  of  his 
time,  among  the  most  learned  of  any 
time — as  his  Bibliotheoa  [or  ^vf}iolSi,3'\iov, 
as  he  entitled  it,  con.sisting  of  extracts 
from  280  books  which  he  had  read)  still 
remains  to  testify.  But  he  was  ambitious 
and  imscrupulous.  His  con,secration  was 
utterly  uncanonical.  For,  first,  Ignatius,  , 
a  pious  and  virtuous  man,  was  the  lawful  1 
patriarch  ;  ne.xt,  Photius,  who  was  a  lay- 
man at  the  time  of  his  election,  was  pro- 
moted to  the  episcopate  within  six  days  ;  I 
:ind,  lastly,  he  was  consecrated  by  a 
bisho])  who  was  himself  under  sentence 
I )f  deposition.  ! 

This  violent  change  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Church  caused  discontent 
among  the  clergi,-  and  people,  and  in 
order  to  quiet  them,  the  Eiuiieror  Michael 
sent  ambassadors  with  costly  presents  to 
Pope  Nicholas  I.,  in  order  to  secure  his 


approbation.  In  spite  of  false  statements 
made  by  the  ambassadors,  the  Pope  re- 
fused to  decide  till  he  had  investigated 
the  matter,  and  for  this  purpose  des- 
patched two  legates  to  Constantinople. 
Those  legates,  yielding  to  bribery  or  to 
threats,  confirmed  the  deposition  of 
Ignatius  on  the  ground  that  he  had  been 
elected  through  the  undue  influence  or' 
Theodora,  and  acknowledged  the  juris- 
diction of  Photius.  This  took  place  in  a 
sjTiod  at  Constantinnple,  held  in  8(i:^.  but 
the  Pope  remained  inflexible.  He  >ent 
word  to  the  Ea>t.Tii  bishops  that  he 
condemned  both  the  deposition  of  Igna- 
tius and  the  usurpation  of  Photius,  and 
in  tli''  same  year,  S63,  he  deposed  the 
latter  from  the  office  into  which  he  had 
intruded. 

Three  years  later  Bardus  was  mur- 
dered by  the  army,  but  the  schism  which 
he  had  originated  still  continued ;  nay, 
fresh  causes  of  quarrel  arose.  The  Bul- 
garians, a  Slav  people,  had  been  con- 
verted in  the  niidille  of  the  ninth  century 
by  the  Greek  teachers.  St.  Cyril  and  St. 
Methodius.  Some  time  later,  when  Cvril 
and  Methodius  had  gone  to  the  Mora- 
vians and  Bohemians,  the  Bulgarian  king, 
3Iichael,  sent  envoys  to  Pope  Nicholas 
desiring  information  on  various  points. 
Nicholas  sent  Latin  missionaries  to  the 
country,  and  the  Roman  missionary 
bishops  re-confirnii'd  all  those  \\ho  had 
received  Confirmation  iVnm  (4reil  jiriests, 
denying  that  Photius.  who  was  liim-elf 
without  real  jurisdiction,  conlil  empower 
his  priests  to  confirm.  In  M'>7  Photius, 
now  more  eniliittered  than  ever,  convoked 
a  council  in  the  imperial  city,  and  de- 
livered sentence  of  de])Ofition  and  excom- 
munication against  the  Pope.  Further, 
he  accused  the  Latin  Church  of  heresy 
for  adding  the  words  "Filioque''  to  tlie 
Nicene  Creed,  andattacke<l  the  disrijiline 
and  usages  of  the  Latins,  part  iculnrly 
their  practice  of  fasting  on  Saturday, 
their  use  of  milk  and  cheese  on  fasting 
days,  and  the  enforced  celibacy  of  their 
clergy. 

Scarcely  had  Photius  issued  his  pre- 
tended deposition  of  the  Pope,  when  he 
himself  was  removed  from  office  by  the 
new  emperor,  Basil,  who  had  murdered 
Michael;  and  Ignatius  was  reinstated. 
The  new  pope,  Hadrian  II.,  worked 
zealously  for  the  restoration  of  ])eace; 
the  Eighth  General  Council  met  at  Con- 
stantinople in  869,  and  then  the  excom- 
munication of  Photius  was  recognised, 
though  his  followers  were  admitted  to 


422         GREEK  CHURCH 


GREEK  CHURCH 


the  communion  of  the  Chureh  if  they  con-  j 
sented  to  express  their  sorrow  for  the 
past.  Thus  Greeks  and  Latins  were 
again  united ;  but  Bulgaria  was  still  the 
cause  of  strife,  and  in  872  Pope  John 
YIII.  threatened  Ignatius  with  excom- 
munication if  he  insisted  on  regarding 
it  as  subject  to  his  see.  Peace  was  not 
actually  broken  till  878,  when,  after  the 
death  of  Ignatius,  Photius  again  ascended 
the  patriarchal  throne  of  Constantinople. 
John  VIII.  would  not  acknowledge  him, 
except  on  condition  that  he  begg:ed  pardon 
for  his  offences  and  renounced  his  claim  to 
jurisdiction  in  Bulgaria.  Once  more  Pho- 
tius circumvented  legates  sent  from  Rome. 
At  a  Council  of  Constantinople  in  879  he 
contrived  to  evade  the  Pope's  demand  for 
apology,  and  those  who  made  any  addi- 
tion to  the  Nicene  Creed  were  anathe- 
matised. The  Pope,  however,  was  not  to 
be  deceived.  He  despatched  the  Roman 
deacon  Marinus  (afterwards  Pope)  to 
Constantinople,  and  he  annulled  the  acts 
of  the  late  synod.  The  excommunication 
of  Photius  was  reiterated  by  Marinus, 
John's  successor,  as  well  as  by  Pope 
Hadrian  III.  Things  took  a  new  turn 
under  Pope  Stephen  V.  (885-891);  The 
Emperor  Basil  died  in  88G,  and  his  suc- 
cessor, Leo  VI.,  "  the  Philosopher," 
•  banished  Photius,  who  died  in  891.  The 
schism  was  healed  after  a  fashion,  but 
the  ashes  of  the  old  dissension  were  still 
smouldering,  and  it  only  needed  a  new 
Photius  to  kindle  them  into  flame.  ! 

This  new  Photius  was  found  in 
Michael  Cerularius,  also  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, who  in  1053,  under  Pope 
Leo  IX.,  wrote  to  the  bishop  of  Trani,  in 
Apulia,  reproaching  the  Latins  with  their 
use  of  unleavened  bread  in  the  Mass,  their 
habit  of  eating  flesh  with  the  blood 
{nviKTov ;  see  Acts  xv.  2.3),  their  cus- 
tom of  omitting  the  Alleluia  during  Lent, 
&c.  The  Pope  wrote  a  reply  which  made 
a  good  impression  on  the  Emperor  Con- 
stantine  Monomachus,  and  in  1054  the 
Papal  legates  went  to  Constantinople.  The 
Patriarch,  however,  would  not  hear  of 
peace,  and  the  legates  left  the  document 
containing  his  excommunication  on  the 
altar  of  St.  Sophia.  Michael  succeeded 
in  withdrawing  the  Oriental  bishops  from 
communion  with  the  West —  a  task  which 
he  did  not  find  difficult,  for  the  Greeks 
generally  were  averse  to  the  additionof  the 
"Filioque,"  and  to  the  use  of  unleavened 
bread  in  the  Eucharist.  Since  then  the 
Greeks  have  as  a  body  been  severed  from 
Catholic  communion,  although  the  separa- 


tion of  the  Russo-Greek  Church  from 
Rome  was  not  effected  till  the  twelfth 
century. 

Many  attempts  were  made  to  repair 
the  breach,  but  without  lasting  results. 
In  1098  Urban  II.  convoked  a  synod  at 
Bari,  in  wliich  St.  Anselm  of  Canterbury 
defended  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Ghost's 
procession  from  the  Son.  Negotiations 
were  carried  on  between  Alexander  HI. 
and  the  Emperor  Manuel  Comnenus,  and 
the  latter  assembled  a  council  at  Constan- 
tinople in  1168  to  promote  the  reunion 
of  the  Greeks,  but  the  resistance  of  the 
Greek  Patriarch  defeated  the  Emperor's 
intentions.  The  presence  of  the  Crusaders 
in  the  East  only  served  to  aggravate  the 
schism.  Latin  patriarchates  were  esta- 
blished in  Antioch  and  Jerusalem.  On 
the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Latins,  a  Latin  empire  and  patriarchate 
were  set  up  there  (in  1204) ;  the  Greek 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria  returned  to 
Catholic  communion ;  and  learned  Greeks, 
such  as  Nicholas,  archbishop  of  Thessa- 
lonica,  the  mordi  Nicephorus  Blemmidas, 
and  John  Beccus,  archivist  of  the  church 
at  Constantinople,  were  courageous  advo- 
cates of  the  union ;  but  the  cause  which 
they  had  at  heart  was  ruined  by  the 
selfishness  of  the  Emperor,  the  fanaticism 
of  the  Greek  monks,  the  cruelty  and 
avarice  of  the  Crusaders.  The  Greek 
Patriarchs  of  Constantinople  settled  at 
Nicfea,  where  Theodore  Lascaris  had 
founded  a  kingdom  on  the  ruins  of  the 
Byzantiue  empire.  In  1262  the  Latin 
empi  re  fell,  the  G  reeks  recovered  possession 
of  Constantino])]e,  and  the  schism  con- 
tinued in  full  force.  The  union  effected 
at  Lyons  (1274),  when  the  Greeks  ac- 
knowledged the  ])rimacy  of  the  Pope  and 
the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the 
Son,  did  not  last  six  years,  and  the  Decree 
of  union  at  Florence  (1439)  was  repu- 
diated in  1443  by  the  Patriarchs  of 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem.  In 
Constantinople  it  was  only  the  Patriarcli 
and  the  prelates  of  the  Court  who  ad- 
hered to  the  union  ;  and  when  (in  1453) 
this  city  fell  before  the  Turks,  its  Patriarch 
fled  to  Italy,  and  Gregory  Scholarius,  a 
schismatic,  was  chosen  in  his  place  by 
command  of  the  Sultan  Mahomet  II. 
Peace  was  at  an  end  between  Rome  and 
Constantinople.  In  the  Russian  empire 
proper,  the  decree  of  Florence  had  never 
been  accepted.  The  Greek  exarchs,  how- 
ever, subject  to  the  Metropolitan  of  Kiew 
among  the  Lithuanians  and  Poles,  and  the 
Greek  Churches  in  Italy,  Illyria,  Hungary, 


GREEK  CHrECH 


GREEK  CHT^RCH 


423 


Slavonia,  &c.,  were  faithful  to  the  union 
effected  at  Florence.  They  are  known 
as  "  United  Greeks,"  or  Catholics  of  the 
Greek  rite. 

II.  The  Present  State  of  the  Greek 
Schismatic  Church.— The  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  is  superior  in  rank  to  the 
three  other  Patriarchs — viz.  of  Alexan- 
dria, Antioch,  and  Jerusalem.  His  direct  j 
spiritual  jurisdiction  extends  over  all  the 
Greeks  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  and  over  all 
the  Greeks  of  turkey  in  Asia  who  are  j 
not  subject  to  the  other  Patriarchs.  His  j 
power  has  been  greatly  lessened  within 
the  last  three  centuries.  The  Russian 
Church  was  emancipated  in  a  consider- 
able degree  by  the  erection  of  a  patri- 
archate at  Moscowinl589,  and  completely 
by  the  institution  of  the  Holy  Governing 
Synod  in  1721.  The  bishops  in  the  king- 
dom of  Greece  asserted  their  independence 
in  1833,  and  it  was  acknowledged  in 
868  by  the  Patriarchs  themselves.  Quite 
recently,  the  Bulgarian  Church  has  placed 
itself  under  an  exarch  or  primate  who  is  [ 
independent  of  Constantinople.  Still  the  ' 
Patriarch  retains  imder  his  rule  a  large 
population,  for  the  schismatic  Greeks  in 
Turkey  number  between  eleven  and 
twelve  millions.'  He  inflicts  spiritual 
penalties,  including  excommunication,  } 
on  any  of  the  clerg}-  or  people  in  his 
patriarchate.  He  nominates  and  de- 
poses archbishops  and  bishops.  He  has 
also  ample  civil  jurisdiction,  for  he  can 
summon  criminals  before  his  court  and 
inflict  punishment ;  he  has  his  own  police 
and  his  prison,  and  he  is  the  supreme 
arbiter  in  all  civil  disputes  between  Greeks 
and  Greeks.  The  council  of  the  Patri- 
arch is  the  Holy  Synod — a  body  which 
consists  of  twelve  metropolitans,  though 
the  Patriarch  may  reduce  the  number  to 
ten  The  metropolitans  of  Heraclea,  Cy- 
zicus,  Nicomedia,  and  Chalcedon  are  e.v 
officio  members;  the  rest  are  nominated 
by  the  Patriarch,  but  all  bishops  who 
happen  to  be  in  Constantinople  at  the 
time  are  entitled  to  take  part  in  the  de- 
liberations and  decisions  of  the  synod,  if 
matters  of  great  import  are  at  issue.  The 
Patriarch  needs  the  synod's  consent  for 
matters  which  concern  the  general  good 
of  the  Church,  whether  these  affairs 
are  spiritual  or  temporal,  and  for  the 
nomination  of  bishops.  When  the  patri- 
archate is  vacant,  the  synod  chooses  three 
candidates,  who,  according  to  the  present 

>  This  calculation,  however,  includes  Bul- 
garians. 


rule,  must  all  be  metropolitnns.  The 
names  are  announced  to  the  "com- 
munity," composed  of  dignitaries,  lay  and 
cleric,  belonging  to  the  patriarchal  palace, 
of  notables  from  the  merchants,  and 
of  heads  of  corporations.  The  "com- 
munity "  then  elect  one  of  them  by 
acclamation,  and  the  Porte  grants  the 
Berat.  or  diploma  of  investiture.  The 
day  after,  the  (irand  Vizier  presents  the 
new  Patriarch  with  a  pastoral  staff',  a 
white  horse,  and  rich  ornaments.  The 
Pati-iarch  may  be  tried  by  the  synod,  and 
if  he  is  found  guilty  the  Porte  is  requested 
to  depose  him.  The  Patriarch  is  assisted 
by  the  officials  of  his  household.  Of  these 
the  principal  are — the  (IJconome  (jxe'yar 
oiKovoy^os),  who  manages  the  revenues 
and  presents  candidates  for  ordination; 
"  Visitors "  (o-aKfXXapiot),  who  inspect 
the  monasteries  and  convents ;  the  Chart o- 
phylax,  who  superintends  ecclesiastical 
causes  ;  the  Protonotary,  who  has  charge 
of  wills,  contracts,  and  the  patriarchal 
correspondence ;  the  Great  Logothete 
{^liyai  XoyoBiTTji),  a  layman  who  repre- 
sents the  Patriarch  at  the  Porte;  the  Prot- 
ecdicos  (TrpajrexSiKor),  who,  with  twelve 
assistant  judges,  forms  a  court  of  minor 
instance. 

The  other  patriarchates  are  mere 
shadows  of  former  greatness.  That  of 
Alexandria  comprises  Eg^-pt,  Lybia, 
Nubia,  and  Arabia,  but  contains  only 
about  -OjOOO  members  of  the  Greek 
Church.  Next  comes  the  Patriarch  of 
Antioch,  ruling  over  about  28,000 
Greeks  in  Syria,  Cilicia,  Mesopotamia, 
Isauria,  &c.  There  are  some  15,000 
Greeks  in  the  Holy  Places  stibject  to  the 
Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  who  lives  at  Con- 
stantinople. These  patriarchs  have  their 
synods,  otficials.  \-c.  The  Berat  of  their 
investiture  is  obtained  from  the  Porte  by 
the  mediation  of  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople. 

There  are  few  ecclesiastical  provinces 
in  Turkey,  and  the  title  of  archbishop  is 
merely  honorary.  As  bishops  are  neces- 
sarily celibate,  they  are  selected  by  the 
Patriarch  and  Holy  Synod  from  the 
monks,  a  Berat  being  required  to  conlirra 
the  appointment.  The  bishops  appoint 
the  parish  priests,  and  no  monastery  can 
be  erected  in  their  dioceses  without'their 
leave.  Collections  are  made  for  them  in 
the  parishes  ;  they  receive  dues  from  their 
priests,  besides  honoraria  for  dispensations, 
marriages,  burials,  Masses,  &c.,  so  that 
their  revenues  are  sometimes  large.  They 
also  wield  considerable  political  influence. 


424        GREEK  CHT^RCH 

They,  like  the  Patriarchs,  have  their 
officials,  such  as  the  Protosyncellus,  an- 
swering to  the  Latin  Vicar-Greneral ;  the 
Proto-Presby  ter,  who  visits  the  churches, 
instals  the  new  parish  prie^its,  and  exe- 
cutes episcopal  sentences;  the  Oharto- 
phylax  or  chancellor.  There  is,  moreover, 
in  every  diocese  a  commission  consisting 
of  three  members :  one  of  them  examines 
candidates  for  orders ;  another  watches 
over  the  administration  of  the  sacraments 
and  the  publication  of  books,  to  which  he 
gives  his  imprimatMr  in  case  of  approval ; 
a  third  superintends  the  schools. 

In  large  parishes  there  is  a  Proestos, 
who  baptises,  marries,  and  buries;  a 
Pneumaticos,  who  is  approved  by  the 
bishop  to  hear  confessions  ;  and  an  Ephe- 
merios,  who  says  Mass  and  recites  the 
canonical  hours  ;  but  poor  parishes  have 
only  one  priest,  with  a  deacon  or  lector  to 
assist  him.  The  clergj'  are  usually  ill- 
paid.    As  a  rule  they  are  married. 

The  religious  men  and  women  gener- 
ally follow  the  rule  of  St.  P>asil,  for 
houses  of  St.  Antony's  order  are  only 
found  on  Sinai  and  Lebanon,  and  by  the 
shores  of  the  Red  Sea.  Most  of  the 
monies  are  laymen  ;  if  priests,  they  are 
called  Upoixovuxoi.  The  monks  never 
taste  flesh,  and  are  bound  to  the  recita- 
tion of  the  hours.  The  superior  of  a 
monastery  is  called  ITegoumenos,  or,  in 
the  case  of  the  great  nionastei'ies,  Archi- 
mandrite. The  name  for  the  superioress 
of  nuns  is  Hegoumenissa.  The  monks 
wear  a  long  robe  of  coarse  cloth,  a  belt, 
clonk,  scapular,  and  a  hood  with  five 
crosses.  Some  of  tlie  religious  houses  are 
subject  to  the  bi^hdp,  others  are  placed 
innnediately  under  the  Patriarchs.  On 
Mount  Athos  there  are  still  anchorites,  or 
solitaries,  and  the  Greeks  have  preserved 
the  old  custom  according  to  which  pious 
virgins  and  widows  lead  an  ascetic  and 
quasi-religious  life  in  the  bosom  of  their 
families. 

The  Greeks  reject  the  words  "Filio- 
que  "  in  the  Creed,  and  they  do  not  use 
the  word"Purgatory,"  but  they  teach  that 
there  are  two  hells,  from  one  of  which 
there  is  no  redemption  ;  and  they  pray  for 
the  dead.  "  In  all  other  points  of  doc- 
trine," says  Hefele,  "  they  are  in  full  agi-ee- 
ment  with  the  Latin  Church,"  though  we 
ought  to  add  that  they  consider  the 
marriage  tie  to  be  dissolved  by  adultery. 
In  1576  the  Patriarch  Jeremias  of  Con- 
stantinople sent  a  document  to  the  Pro- 
testant theologians  of  Tubingen,  in  which 
be  asserted  the  belief  of  his  Church  in  the 


GREEK  CHURCH 

saving  efficacy  of  good  works,  the  seven 
sacraments,  the  change  of  the  bread  and 
wine  into  Christ's  body  and  blood,  the 
necessity  of  detailed  confession  to  a 
priest,  the  veneration  due  to  the  saints, 
the  utility  of  prayers  for  the  dead,  and 
the  sanctity  of  the  monastic  life.  The 
Greeks  offered  a  stubborn  resistance  to 
Cyril  Lucar,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  and 
afterwards  of  Constantinople,  who  en- 
deavoured to  introduce  among  his  own 
people  the  doctrines  which  he  had  learnt 
in  Geneva.  He  was  driven  repeatedly 
from  his  see,  and  finally  murdered  by  the 
Janissaries  in  1638.  During  the  contro- 
versy of  Arnauld  and  Nicole  with  the 
Calvinist  Claude  on  transubstantiation, 
the  most  distinguished  Greek  theologians 
were  asked  for  their  opinion,  and  gave  it 
in  the  most  decided  way  for  the  Catholic 
doctrine. 

There  are,  however,  great  differences 
on  points  of  ritual  and  discipline  between 
Latins  and  Greeks,  whether  united  or 
schismatic.  The  Greek  Church  retains 
its  ancient  and  beautiful  rites.  Mass  is 
celebrated  throughout  Turkey  in  Greek, 
except  where  the  "  orthodox  community 
is  Slav  or  Roumanian.  The  liturgy  of 
St.  Chrysostom  is  used  all  the  year  round, 
that  of  St.  Basil  only  on  certain  fixed 
days.  Leavened  bread  is  consecrated  at 
Mass.  During  Lent,  except  on  Saturdays 
and  Sundays,  there  is  no  Mass  in  tiie 
proper  sense,  but  only  a  "  Mass  of  the  Pre- 
sanctified,"  coiTesponding  to  our  office  on 
Good  Friday.  The  liturgies  for  Mass, 
and  the  forms  for  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments,  are  contained  in  the 
"  Euchologion,"  of  which  an  excellent 
edition  by  the  Dominican  Goar  was  pulj- 
lished  at  Paris  in  1647.  The  canonical 
hours  are  given  in  the  "  Horologion,"  the 
office  for  Lent  in  the  "Triodion,"  that 
from  Easter  Sunday  to  the  octave  of 
Pentecost  in  the  "  Pentecostarion."  The 
"  Heortologion  "  is  a  calendar  of  the  feasts, 
fasts,  and  ferias  ;  the  "  Typicon,"  an  Ordo 
which  marks  the  order  of  prayers  in 
the  office,  while  the  "  Mensea  "  contains 
lives  of  the  saints  honoured  in  the  East. 
The  greater  feasts  of  our  Lord  and  the 
Blessed  Virgin  are  nearly  the  same  as 
with  us,  except  that  their  Epiphany  or 
Theophany  on  January  6  merely  com- 
memorates the  baptism  of  Christ,  and 
that  the  greater  solemnities  are  preceded 
by  a  Proeortia  or  Ante-feast.  Sunday  is 
sanctified  by  hearing  Mass  and  resting 
from  servile  work,  and  holidays  of  obliga- 
tion are  observed  in  the  same  manner,  the 


GREGORIAN  MUSIC 


GYRO  VAGI  42o 


number  of  these  holidays  being  different 
in  different  nations. 

Every  Wednesday  and  Fridaj^,  and  the 
Ti<rilsof  the  great  feasts,  are  fasting-days. 
In  addition  to  Lent,  the  Greeks  keej)  the 
fast  of  "  the  Mother  of  God,"  from 
August  1  to  August  15 ;  the  fast  of 
Christmas,  from  November  15  to  Decem- 
ber 24  ;  the  fast  of  the  Apostles  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul,  from  the  first  Sunday  after 
Pentecost  to  June  '28.  On  Wednesdays 
and  Fridays,  and  during  Lent,  the  use,  not 
only  of  meat,  but  of  tish,  eggs,  milk,  cheese, 
•wine,  beer,  and  oil,  is  strictly  forbidden. 

The  Greek  canon  law  is  based  on 
the  Apostolic  canons  and  constitutions, 
the  canons  of  the  Councils  of  Nicaea, 
Constantinople,  Ephesus,  Chalcedon,  in 
TruUo  ;  on  the  canons  of  the  particular 
councils  held  at  Gangra,  Laodicea,  and 
Antioch  ;  on  the  canonical  letters  of  the 
bishops ;  on  the  council  of  Photius,  and 
the  synodal  decrees  of  the  schismatic 
Patriarchs.  Mgr.  Pap-Szilagyi  has  made 
a  methodical  compendium  of  these  docu- 
ments in  his  "  Enchiridion  Juris  Eccle- 
siae  Orientalis." 

(The  substance  of  this  article  is  chiefly 
taken  from  an  elaborate  essay  on  the 
Greek  Church  by  Hefele  in  his  "  Beitrage." 
But  in  the  description  of  the  present 
Greek  Church  great  use  has  also  been 
made  of  an  article  by  Professor  Lamy  in 
the  "Dublin  Review"  for  July  1880. 
Professor  Lamy  refers  to  Selbernagel, 
"  Verfassung  und  gegenwartiger  Bestand 
sammtlicher  Kirchen  des  Orients,"  Lands- 
hut,  1865.) 

CREGORZAsr  Mvszc.  [See  Plain 
Ch.\nt.] 

CREGORZAir  SACRAMBir- 
TARY.     [See  LiTUEGIES.T 

GRz:iazAl.E.  A  piece  of  cloth  often 
adorned  with  gold  or  silver  lace,  which 
is  placed  on  the  bishop's  lap  when  he 
sits  in  celebrating  Mass  or  conferring 
orders.  Probably  its  original  purpose 
was  to  keep  his  vestments  from  being 
soiled.  It  must  be  distinguished  from  a 
similar  vestment,  the  "  subcinctorium," 
which  is  only  used  by  the  Pope.  (Merati 
on  Gavantus,  Tom.  I.  p.  ii.  tit.  1.) 


CRET  FRZARS.  [See  FRANCIS- 
CANS.] 

GVARSZAir.  I.  A  person  respon- 
sible in  the  eye  of  the  law  for  the  proper 
bringing  up  of  children  whose  father  is 
dead  or  incapable.  Under  the  ancient 
discipline,  a  cleric  might  not  act  as 
guardian,  lest  he  should  be  too  much 
entangled  in  worldly  business ;  and  e  con- 
vei-so,  a  Council  of  Carthage  decreed  that 
a  guardian  should  not  be  ordained  to  any 
ecclesiastical  function  till  the  period  of 
his  responsibility  had  come  to  an  end. 
(Smith  and  Cheetham). 

II.  The  superior  of  a  Franciscan  con- 
vent. He  is  elected  for  three  years,  and 
cannot  hold  the  guardianship  of  the 
same  convent  twice,  though  he  may  be 
chosen  head  of  another  convent.  [Abbot, 
Fkanciscans.] 

GITM-PO-WDER  PIiOT.  [See  ENG- 
LISH Chfech,  persecution  period.] 

GYROVAGX  (lit.  " circuit-wan- 
derers  ").  There  was  a  class  of  spurious 
monks  in  the  early  Christian  centuries — 
nor  were  they  unknown  even  to  the 
middle  ages — who  were  without  real  piety, 
and,  hke  the  tramps  of  modem  time^, 
preferred  a  lazy  rambling  life  to  one  of 
steady  regular  activity.  St.  Benedict 
mentions  them  by  this  name  in  his  Rule, 
and  describes  them  as  the  fourth,  last, 
and  worst  Itind  of  monks — men  who 
"spend  their  life  in  travelling  up  and 
down  the  different  provinces,  lodging  in 
each  cell  T  =  monastery]  some  three  or 
four  days;  always  wandering,  never 
stable ;  enslaved  to  their  own  pleasures 
and  to  gluttony  ;  and  worse  in  all  respects 
than  the  Sarabaitse  "  (the  third  class  of 
monks).  More  than  a  hundred  years 
later,  the  .Synod  in  TruUo  ((iOl),  when 
regulating  monastic  discipline,  orders  that 
a  man  who  wishes  to  be  recog-nised  as  a 
true  monk  shall  pass  three  years  at  least 
in  the  same  monastery,  and  that  "  the 
vagabonds  calling  themselves  hermits, 
clad  in  black,  and  with  long  hair,"  be 
driven  away  from  the  cities  into  the 
desert.  This  is  evidently  the  same  class 
of  persons  as  those  whom  St.  Benedict 
I  calls  "  Gyrovagi." 


HALO 


HEART  OF  JESUS 


RAX.O.    [Soe  ArREOLB.] 

HEART  OF  TESVS  (SACKED 
HEART).  The  special  and  formal  devo- 
tion to  the  Heart  of  Jesus,  -which  is  now 
so  popular  in  the  Church,  owes  its  origin 
to  a  French  Visitation  nun,  the  Blessed 
Margaret  Mary  Alacoque,  who  lived  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Her  biographers  relate  that  our  Lord 
Himself  appeared  to  her  and  declared 
that  this  worship  was  most  acceptable 
to  Him ;  and  her  director,  the  famous 
Jesuit,  Father  de  la  Colombiere,  preached 
the  devotion  at  the  Court  of  St.  James's, 
and  zealously  propagated  it  elsewhere. 
The  most  popular  book  in  defence  of  the 
new  devotion  was  that  of  Father  Gal- 
lifet,  S. J.,  "  De  Cultu  SS.  Cordis  Jesu  in 
variis  Christiani  orbis  partibus  jam  pro- 
pagato."  It  was  pubUshed  with  a  dedi- 
cation to  Benedict  XHI.  and  with  the 
approval  of  Lambertini  (afterwards  Bene- 
dict XIV.);  the  French  translation  ap- 
peared in  1745,  at  Lyons.  On  February  6, 
1765,'  Clement  XIII.  permitted  several 
churches  to  celebrate  the  feast  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  which  was  extended  in 
1856  to  the  whole  Church.  It  is  gene- 
rally kept  on  the  Friday  (in  England  on 
the  Sunday)  after  the  Octave  of  Corpus 
Christi.  In  England,  Italy,  France, 
Netherlands,  Germany,  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal, indeed  throughout  the  Catholic 
world,  the  devotion  and  the  feast  found 
a  ready  and  enthusiastic  acceptance. 
However,  the  worship  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  encountered  keen  opposition,  par- 
ticularly from  the  Jansenists.  They  who 
practised  it  were  nicknamed  "Cardio- 
latros"  or  "  Cordicolse,"  and  charged 
with  Nestorianism,  as  if  they  worshipped 
a  divided  Christ,  and  gave  to  the  created 
humanity  of  Christ  worship  which  be- 
longed to  God  alone.  The  Jansenist 
objections  were  censured  as  injurious  to 
the  Apostolic  See — which  had  approved 
the  devotion,  and  bestowed  numerous 
indulgences  in  its  favour — by  Pius  VI. 
in  his  condemnation  of  the  Jansenist 
synod  of  Pistoia.  This  condemnation 
was  issued  in  the  bull  "  Auctorem  fidei," 
bearing  date  August  28,  1794.  A  further 
approval  of  the  devotion  was  implied  in 

1  The  Congregation  of  Rites  had  refused  to 
sanction  the  feast  in  1697  and  1729. 


the  beatification  of  Margaret  Mary  Aie- 
coque  in  1864. 

The  bull  "Auctorem  fidei"  contains 
the  following  explanation  of  the  prin- 
ciple on  which  the  devotion  rests— an 
explanation  which  is  at  once  authorita- 
tive and  clear.  The  faithful  worship  with 
supreme  adoration  the  physical  Heart  of 
Christ,  considered  "  not  as  mere  flesh,  but 
as  united  to  the  Divinity."  They  adore 
it  as  "the  Heart  of  the  Person  of  the 
Word  to  which  it  is  inseparably  united." 
It  is  of  course  absurd  to  speak  of  this 
principle  as  novel;  it  is  as  old  as  the 
belief  in  the  hypostatic  union,  and  it  was 
solemnly  defined  in  431  at  the  Council  of 
Ephesus.  All  the  members  of  Christ 
united  to  the  rest  of  His  sacred  humanity 
and  to  the  Eternal  Word  are  the  object 
of  divine  worship.  If  it  be  asked  further 
why  the  heart  is  selected  as  the  object  of 
special  adoration,  the  answer  is,  that  the 
real  and  physical  heart  is  a  natural  sym- 
bol of  Christ's  exceeding  charity,  and  of 
His  interior  life.  Just  as  the  Church  in 
the  middle  ages  turned  with  singular  de- 
votion to  the  Five  Wounds  as  the  symbol 
of  Christ's  Passion,  so  in  these  later  days 
she  bids  us  have  recourse  to  His  Sacred 
Heart,  mindful  of  the  love  wherewith  He 
loved  us  "even  to  the  end."  Nothing 
could  be  made  of  the  fact,  if  it  were  a 
fact,  that  the  devotion  actually  began 
with  Blessed  Margaret  Marj-,  for  though 
the  doctrine  of  the  Church  cannot  change, 
she  may,  and  does  from  time  to  time,  in- 
troduce new  forms  of  devotion.  But  the 
special  devotion  to  the  Heart  of  our 
Saviour  is  as  old  at  least  as  the  twelfth 
century,  while  early  in  the  sixteenth  the 
Carthusian  Lansperg  recommended  pious 
Christians  to  assist  their  devotion  by 
using  a  figure  of  the  Sacred  Heart.' 

(An  account  of  the  theology  of  the 
devotion  will  be  found  in  Card.  Franzelin, 
"  De  Incarnatione,"  and  of  the  propagation 
of  the  devotion  in  the  admirable  Life  of 
Blessed  Margaret  Mary,  by  F.  Tickell, 
S.J.  Both  the  doctrine  and  the  history 
are  exhaustively  treated  by  Nilles,  "De 

1  See  F.  Ryder's  quotations  (Cathnlic  Con- 
troversy, pp.  148-9)  from  the  Vitis  Mystica,  a 
series  of  meditations  printed  among  the  works 
of  St.  Bernard,  c.  iii.  8,  and  from  Lanspergius, 
Divini  Amnris  Pharetra,  ed.  1572,  p.  78. 


HEART  OF  MAEY 


HEAVEN 


427 


Rationibus  Festorum  Sacratissimi  Cordis 
Jesu  et  Purissimi  Cordis  Marise,"  1873.1 

HEART  OF  MART  ZKIWACV- 
XATE).  The  principles  on  which  the 
devotion  rests  are  the  same  {mutntis  mu- 
tandis) as  those  which  are  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Catholic  devotion  to  the 
Sacred  Heart.  Just  as  Catholics  worship 
the  Sacred  Heart  because  it  is  united  to 
the  Person  of  the  Word,  so  thev  venerate 
{with  hyperdiilia)  the  heart  of  Mary  be- 
cause united  to  the  person  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  In  each  case  the  physical  heart 
is  taken  as  a  natural  symbol  of  charity 
and  of  the  inner  life,  though  of  course  the 
charity  and  virtues  of  Mary  are  infinitely 
inferior  to  those  of  her  Divine  Son. 

The  devotion  to  the  Immaculate  Heart 
was  first  propagated  by  John  Eudes, 
founder  of  a  congregation  of  priests  called 
after  him  Eiidists.  [See  that  art.]  Eudes 
died  in  16-^0.  The  Congregation  of  Rites 
in  160!),  and  again  in  172(),  declined  to 
sanction  the  devotion.  However,  a  local 
celebration  of  the  feast  was  permitted  (but 
without  proper  Mass  and  office)  bv  Piiis 
VI.  in  17!)9;  and  in  1855  Pius  IX.  ex- 
tended the  feast — which  is  kept  with  a 
special  Mass  and  office,  either  on  the  Sun- 
day after  the  Octave  of  the  Assumption 
or  on  the  third  Sunday  after  Pentecost— 
to  the  whole  Church.  The  Arch-confrater- 
nity of  the  Immaculate  Heart  established 
some  twenty  years  earlier  at  the  church 
of  Notre  Dame  des  Victoires,  in  Paris, 
did  much  to  spread  the  devotion  and  make 
it  popular. 

(Nilles,  "  De  Rationibus  Festorum  SS. 
Cordis  Jesu  et  Purissimi  Cordis  Marire.") 

HEAVExr.  A  full  account  of  the 
joy  which  constitutes  the  essential  hap- 
piness of  heaven  has  been  given  in  the 
articles  on  the  PiEatific  Vision  and  on 
Beatititde.  In  these  articles,  particularly 
in  the  former,  it  has  been  shown  that  all 
the  blessed  see  God  face  to  face,  some, 
however,  more  perfectly  than  others,  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  of  their  merit,  and 
that  the  soul's  entrance  into  perfect  bliss 
is  not  deferred  till  sentence  has  been 
passed  at  tlie  day  of  judgment.  Here, 
however,  it  is  as  well  to  point  out  that 
heaven  is  not  only  a  state  but  a  place  of 
beatitude.  It  is  the  place  where  God 
manifests  His  glory  to  the  blessed,  and 
clearly  shows  Himself  to  them.  This 
appears  from  the  fact  that  Christ  has 
ascended  to  heaven  in  that  body  which 
He  took  from  Mary,  and  that  the  body 
of  Mary  herself  is,  according  to  the  belief 
of  the  Church,  already  reunited  to  her 


soul,  so  that  she  is,  body  and  soul,  with 
her  Divine  Son.  Since,  then,  the  sacred 
humanity  is  not  omnipresent,  heaven  is  a 
definite  place  in  which  Christ  and  the 
Blessed  Virgin  exist,  and  in  which  the 
angels  and  blessed  souls  are  gathered 
together.  After  the  general  resurrection 
heaven  will  also  be  the  home  in  which 
the  bodies  of  the  just  will  live  for  ever. 
Where  the  place  is  we  do  not  know,  but 
Scripture  clearly  indicates  that  it  is  beyond 
this  earth.  (See  Jungmann,  "  De  Novis- 
simis,"  a.  viii.) 

We  may  here  add  a  few  words  "  on  the 
third  heaven  "  of  which  St.  Paul  speaks, 
2  Cor.  xii.  2-4.  Catholic  commentators 
are  not  agreed  about  the  meaning  of  the 
words  "caught  up,"  and  it  is  of  course 
lawful  to  hold,  as  St.  Thomas  appears  to 
do  ("  Summa,"  i.  6S,  4),  that  St.  Paul  was 
simply  raised  to  the  highest  kind  of  super- 
natural vision.  But  in  any  case  the 
metaphor  implies  belief  in  a  corresponding 
reality,  and  hence  St.  Thomas  maintains 
{he.  cif.)  that  there  are  three  heavens,  viz. 
the  sidereal,  the  crystalline,  and  the  em- 
pyrean, the  last  of  which  is  heaven  in  the 
proper  sense.  Further,  it  is  generally 
taken  for  granted  that  St.  Paul  identities 
this  third  heaven  with  paradise.  There 
is  a  difficulty,  however,  in  supposing  that 
the  Apostle  alludes  to  this  triple  division, 
for  the  statement  of  Grntius,  that  the 
Rabbins  recognised  three  heavens,  is  un- 
supported by  good  evidence.  Tht^re  is 
some  Rabbinical  authority  for  the  belief 
in  two  heavens,  but  the  Jewish  doctors 
almost  unanimously  taught  that  there 
were  seven,  and  we  find  this  belief  re- 
cognised in  a  Christian  document  of  the 
second  century — viz.  the  "  Testament  of 
the  Twelve  Patriarchs,"  iii.  §  The  pro- 
bability, therefore,  is  that  St.  Paul  alludes 
to  this  belief  without  necessarily  assert- 
ing its  truth.  We  may,  then,  reasonably 
distinguish  "the  third  heaven"  from 
paradise.  The  former  was  a  resting-point 
on  the  journey  upwards,  whether  that 
journey  was  local  or  merely  spiritual: 
the  latter  marks  the  end  of  the  journey, 
the  "Paradise  of  God,"  or  heaven  in  the 
usual  acceptation  of  the  word.  This  dis- 
tinction between  "the  third  heaven  "  and 
paradise  is  in  keeping  with  St.  Paul's 
own  language.  "I  know  a  man  .... 
caught  up  ...  .  even  to  the  third  heaven 
....  and  I  know  of  sxich  a  man  .... 
that  he  was  caught  up  into  paradise." 
This  distinction  is  made  by  several  Fathers 
as  well  as  by  Estius  and  others  among 
modem  commentators. 


42S 


HELL 


HELL 


HEXiXi  may  be  defined  as  the  place 
and  state  in  which  the  devils  and  such 
human  beings  as  die  in  enmity  with  God 
sailer  eternal  torment.  In  this  article 
we  have  to  consider  the  proofs  for  the 
existence  of  hell,  the  nature  of  the  punish- 
ment there  inflicted,  and  the  eternity  of 
these  torments.  This  triple  division  of 
the  subject  arranges  the  difficulties  at- 
tached to  it  in  an  ascending  scale.  No 
one  who  accepts  the  Christian  revelation 
at  all,  no  one  perhaps  who  believes  in  a 
God  at  all,  is  likely  to  find  much  difficulty 
in  believing  that  obstinate  and  unrepented 
sin  will  be  punished  in  the  next  world. 
It  is  much  harder  to  ascertain  the  nature 
of  the  torments  which  God  reserves  for 
those  who  die  in  rebellion  against  Him  ; 
while  the  dogma  of  eternal  punishment 
is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  awful 
and  mysterious  truths  taught  by  Scripture 
and  the  Church. 

1.  The  Existence  of  Hell— The.  Hebrew 
Bible  contains  few  direct  and  clear  an- 
nouncements of  a  life  beyond  the  grave, 
so  that  it  is  not  the  place  to  which  we 
should  naturally  turn  for  the  proofs  that 
hell  exists.  Three  passages  are  most 
commonly  quoted  as  decisive  on  the  point 
— viz.  Isa.  xxxiii.  14;  Isa.lxvi.  24;  Dan. 
xii.  2.  The  first  of  these  must,  we  think, 
be  put  aside,  for  it  has  no  real  connection 
with  the  matter  before  us.  Isaias,  writing 
})!i)balily  at  the  close  of  his  life,  foretells 
the  judgments  of  God  which  are  to  fall 
bi  ith  on  the  Assyrians  and  on  the  immoral 
and  irreligious  part  of  the  Jewish  nation. 
This  judgment,  by  a  metaphor  familiar 
in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  he  describes  as 
fire  which  is,  like  God  Himself,  eternal. 
"  Sinners  shudder  in  Sion :  trembling 
seizes  unholy  men.  O  who  will  dwell  in 
devouring  fire  ?  O  who  will  dwell  in 
eternal  burnings  ?  A  man  who  walketh 
in  justice,  and  speaketh  upright  things, 
who  rejecteth  the  gain  of  oppression,  who 
shaketh  his  hands,  so  that  they  lay  not 
hold  of  a  bribe,  who  stoppeth  his  ears 
so  that  they  hear  no  deeds  of  blood,  and 
closeth  his  eyes  so  as  not  to  look  on  evil 
• — he  shall  dwell  on  heights ;  fastnesses  of 
rocks  are  his  fortress ;  his  bread  has  been 
given  to  him,  his  waters  are  sure.  The 
king  in  his  beauty  shall  thine  eyes  behold  ; 
they  shall  see  a  land  that  stretches  far." 
In  other  words,  the  fire  which  consumes 
the  wicked  will  leave  the  just  man  un- 
harmed :  he  will  be  secure  from  the  sword 
and  the  famine.  Then  when  the  Assyrian 
IB  destroyed,  he  will  see  the  King  of 
Judah  in  the  fulness  of  his  royal  splen- 


dour, the  city  no  longer  beleaguered,  the 
land  no  longer  held  by  the  foe,  but  peace- 
fully inhabited  by  its  rightful  owners  and 
stretching  to  its  ancient  limits. 

The  second  passage  (Isa.  Ixvi.  24) 
comes  near  the  point,  if  it  does  not  actu- 
ally touch  it.  It  clearly  refers  to  the 
Messianic  age.  "  All  flesh "  is  to  come 
and  worship  at  Jerusalem,  "from  new 
moon  to  new  moon,  from  sabbath  to  sab- 
bath." "  And  they  shall  go  out  and  look 
on  the  corpses  of  the  men  who  rebelled 
against  me,  for  their  worm  shall  not  die, 
and  their  fire  shall  not  be  quenched,  and 
they  shall  be  an  abomination  to  all  flesh." 
Immediately,  of  course,  the  prophet  only 
mentions  the  dead  bodies  of  the  wicked, 
but  we  may  reasonably  suppose  that  the 
prophet  is  depicting  punishment  in  the 
future  world  in  imagery  borrowed  from 
that  in  which  he  lived.  For  it  is  impos- 
sible to  take  his  words  literally.  "AU 
flesh"  could  not  gather  in  Jerusalem; 
worms  cannot  live  in  fire,  or  dead 
bodies  continue  to  bum  for  ever.  The 
heavenly  Jerusalem  and  the  eternal  suf- 
ferings of  the  lost  are  the  real  object  of 
his  prophecy.  Such  is  the  interpretation 
found  in  the  Targum,  and  so,  as  we  shall 
presently  see,  the  words  of  Isaias  are 
applied  in  the  deutero-canonical  books, 
and  by  our  Lord  Himself.  We  say  ap- 
plied, for  neither  the  deutero-canonical 
books  nor  our  Lord  give  an  authorita- 
tive explanation  of  the  prophet's  actual 
meaning. 

The  words  of  Daniel  xii.  1,  2,  are 
more  definite.  A  time  of  trouble  such 
as  has  never  been  known  is  to  come. 
Michael,  however,  is  to  stand  up  for 
the  people  of  God,  and  everj'one  whose 
name  is  written  in  the  book  is  to  be 
delivered.  "And  manj'  of  them  that 
sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth  "  (literally, 
"  earth  of  the  dust,"  i.e.  grave)  shall 
awake,  some  to  eternal  life,  and  some  to 
shame  and  to  everlasting  contempt." 
Here  we  have  an  explicit  statement  that 
some  will  meet  with  eternal  punishment. 
We  must  beware,  however,  of  pressing 
the  words  further.  Even  if  the  word 
D*3T  which  in  all  other  places  means 
"  many,"  could  be  regarded  here  (cf. 
Romans  v.  15,  oi  n-oXXoi  dnedavov  with 
Romans  v.  12,  els  ttuvtus  d.v6pa>TTovs  6 
Odvaros  8irjX6(v)  as  equivalent  to  "all," 
this  sense  is  absolutely  excluded  in  the 
passage  before  us  by  the  construction  (i.e 
by  the  partitive  ]Q  which  follows).  To 
say  that  "  many  from  or  out  of  those  who 
sleep  in  the  dust "  means  "  all  who  sleep," 


HELL 


HELL 


429 


&c.,  is  not  to  interpret  language,  but  to 
abuse  it. 

There  are  two  piissii<.'es  in  the  deutero- 
canonical  books,  in  which  the  hmmiiiofeor 
Isa.  Ixvi.  24  is  evidently  borrowed,  but 
at  the  same  tinu-  applied  more  deiiniteh' 
to  the  future  snilerings  of  the  wicked. 
"Humble  thy  (ioul  exceedingly,"  says  the 
book  of  Ecclesiasticus  vii.  17;  "remember 
that  wrath  will  not  tarry,  and  that  fire 
and  worm  take  vengeance  on  the  im- 
pious." And  in  Judith  xvi.  17  we  read, 
"  Woe  to  the  nations  that  rise  uj)  against 
my  people:  the  Almighty  Lord  will  take 
vengeance  on  them  in  the  day  of  judg- 
ment, aiipointing  fire  and  worms  for  their 
flesh,  and  feeling  it  they  will  weep  for 
ever."  The  last  passage  is  very  import- 
ant from  an  historical  point  of  view.  It 
is  well  known  that  the  Talmudical  doc- 
tors disputed  whether  immortahty  and 
resurrection  were  common  to  the  bad  and 
the  good,  or  reserved  for  the  latter;  and, 
again,  whether  any  but  IsraeUtes  partook 
in  the  future  life!  The  book  of  Judith 
speaks  clearly  on  this  question. 

No  one  (ionl)ts  that  the  New  Testa- 
ment ti  Mi  1m  >  I  he  existence  of  hell;  and 
here  it  i.~  eiiniii:li  to  refer  to  such  passages 
as  Matt,  xviii.  8,  XXV.  41  seq.;  Mark  ix. 
48,  &c.  The  New  Testament  has  a 
special  name  for  hell,  viz.  Gehenna (yftvi'a, 
which  occurs  repeatedly  in  St.  Matthew 
(v.  22,  29,  30,  X.  28,  xviii.  9,  xxiii.  15, 
;?8) ;  three  times  in  St.  Mark  (ix.  4.3,  45, 
47);  once  in  St.  Lulie  (xii.  5);  and  once 
in  St.  James  (iii.  Qi).  The  name,  wliich 
is  taken  from  the  Hebrew  Bible  (Din  'J 
Jos.  xv.  8,  or  more  fully  "  n  "  n"|3  'J), 
simply  means  "the  valley  of  [a  man 
called]  Hinnom."  It  was  a  deep  and 
narrow  glen  to  tlie  south  of  Jerusalem,  in 
which  from  the  time  of  Acha/,  Jews 
ullered  their  children  to  Moloch.  Josias 
in  consequence  of  these  abominations  pol- 
luted the  valley  (4  Reg.  xxiii.  10),  and 
into  it  the  dead  bodies  of  criminals  and 
every  kind  of  tilth  were  cast,  and,  if  we 
I'oUow  l:.te  and  soniewliat  ijiiestionable 
authorities,  were  burned.  Thus  it  became 
the  image  of,  and  gave  a  name  to,  the 
place  of  punishment  for  the  wicked  after 
death — a  usage  which  is  (■(nnnion  to  tlie 
Targums  and  to  Rabbin ic.i I  lit.'riitiut> 
generally.'  It  would  be  nsd.  >>  in  this 
place  to  produce  evidence  I  n  mi  C  hristian 
traditions  and  from  the  definitions  of  the 
Church,  since  we  shall  have  to  discuss 

'  It  becomes  one  word  Q 3 ;  see  Buxtorf, 
$ub  vnc. 


them  in  considering  the  eternity  of  pun- 
ishment. 

2.  77(6  Nature  of  the  Punishment. — 
Theologians  divide  the  punishments  of  the 
damned  into  that  of  loss  and  that  of  sense. 
Tlie  former  of  these  ("poena  damni")  is 
indicated  in  our  Lord's  words,  "Depart 
fro7H  me,  ye  cursed,"  and  consists  in  the 
deprivation  of  the  vision  of  God,  which 
each  human  soul  was  intended  to  enjoy. 
It  is  from  the  knowledge  of  the  bliss 
which  they  have  forfeited  that  the  chief 
suH^'ering  of  the  lost  arises.  It  is  the  loss 
of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  as  St.  Chryso- 
stom  explains  at  length  ("Ad  Theodor. 
laps."  i.  n.  10,  12),  w  hich  is  the  most  bitter 
torment  of  all.  "  So  great  a  punishment," 
says  St.  Augustine'  ("  Enchirid."  c.  112), 
"  that  no  torments  known  to  us  can  be 
compared  to  it." 

The  "  punishment  of  the  sense  "  ("  poena 
sensus")  comprehends  all  the  suffering  and 
torment  inflicted  in  hell,  except  that 
which  springs  from  the  loss  of  the  sove- 
reign good.  The  origin  of  this  term  is 
uncertain  Suarez  ("  De  Angel."  lib.  viii. 
c.  12,  quoted  by  Jungmann)  supposes  that 
this  class  of  torture  is  so  called  because 
it  arises  chiefly  from  a  sensible  substance, 
viz.  fire.  This  explanation  is  not  accepted 
by  all,  but  of  course  the  term  cannot 
mean  punishment  inflicted  on  the  senses, 
for  separated  souls  who  have  no  senses 
are  still  undoubtedly  subjected  to  the 
"  poena  sensus." 

However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain 
that  the  devils  and  disembodied  spirits  of 
the  damned  suffer  from  material  fire. 
True,  Origen  ("  De  Princip."  ii.  4  seg.) 
distinctly  teaches  tliat  tlie  fire  o''  hell  is 
merely  figurative,  while  St.  Ambrose  (in 
Luc.  xiv.)  and  Theophylact  (in  Marc,  ix.) 
express  the  same  oji'iiion.  Petavius,  how- 
ever ("De  Angel."  111.  5),  has  shown  that 
the  preponderating  weight  of  tradition  is 
on  the  other  side,  and  sums  up  this  pari 
of  the  question  in  the  following  words : 
"At  present,  all  theologians — nay,  all 
Christians— are  agreed  that  the  fire  of  hell 
is  corporeal  and  mat.-:MMal,  though  as  Vas- 
quez  righth'  observes,  the  matter  has  not 
been  settled  as  yet  by  any  decree  of 
the  Churcli."  To  those  who  ask  how  ma- 
terial fire  can  ail'ect  spirits  no  certain  an- 
swei-  can  he  gi\  I'li.  St.  Thomas  ("  Siippl." 
qii.  70,  a.  a)  thinks  that  God  gives  to  the 
fire  as  the  instrument  of  His  justice  a 
preternatural  power  of  cnn^trainiiig  the 
spirit  and  impeding  its  acliou.  so  as  to 
j  cause  intense  siiflering.  Other  theories 
I  have  been  propounded — e.r;.  by  Suarez, 


430 


HELL 


HELL 


who  argues  that  just  as  God  elevates  and 
ennobles  the  soul  by  grace,  so  He  may  use 
the  fire  of  hell  to  deform  and  disfigure  it. 
But  it  is  really  impossible  to  understand 
much  about  a  question  which  is  above  our 
reason  and  on  which  revelation  is  silent. 

Though  the  fire  of  hell  is  the  chief,  it 
is  by  no  means  the  only  cause  of  the 
positive  punishment.  The  lost  are  af- 
flicted by  "the  worm  which  never  dies" 
— i.e.  by  the  anguish  of  remorse.  They 
are  doomed  to  endure  the  society  of  others 
reprobate  like  themselves,  and  they  know 
that  all  hope  is  over.  Their  will  is  en- 
tirely depraved  because  entirely  averted 
from  God,  the  end  to  which  each  thought 
and  action  should  be  directed.  After  the 
resurrection  the  body  also  is  subjected  to 
torment. 

Further,  it  is  certain  from  Scripture 
and  tradition  that  the  torments  of  hell 
are  inflicted  in  a  definite  place.  But  it  is 
uncertain  where  the  place  is.  According 
to  the  common  opinion  of  Fathers  and 
theologians,  it  is  in  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  but  many  other  theories  have  been 
propounded,  and  St.  Thomas  ("Suppl." 
qu.  97,  a.  7),  quoting  St.  Augustine  ("  De 
Civ.  Dei,"  xv.  cap.  16)  and  St.  Gregory 
the  Great  ("Dial."  iv.  cap.  42),  admits 
that  no  one  can  know  where  hell  is  un- 
less he  has  had  a  special  revelation  on 
the  point.  St.  Thomas  himself  thinks  it 
"  more  probable  "  that  hell  is  under  the 
earth. 

.S.  The  Etervity  of  Punishment  in 
Hell. — Here,  as  we  have  already  said,  we 
reach  the  most  awful  and  mysterious  part 
of  the  subject,  and  one  which,  at  a  time 
when  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  eternal 
punishment  is  rejected  and  attaclfed  by 
so  many  and  with  such  vehemence,  it  is 
necessary  to  treat  carefully  and  in  detail. 
We  begin  with  the  teaching  of  Scripture. 

(a)  Our  Lord's  words  are  plain 
enough  to  make  reasonable  doubt  impos- 
sible. He  speaks  of  "  the  eternal  fire," 
Matt,  xviii.  8  ;  of  "  hell,  where  their 
worm  dieth  not  and  their  fire  is  not 
quenched,"  Mark  ix.  48.  He  tells  us 
that  He  will  say  to  the  wicked  at  the 
last  day,  "Depart  from  me,  ye  cursed, 
into  the  eternal  fire,  pi-epared  for  the 
devil  and  his  angels."  Daniel,  long  be- 
fore Christ,  had  held  similar  language 
(see  xii.  2,  quoted  above),  and  so  do  the 
Apostles  after  Christ  (2  Thess.  i.  9 ;  Jude 
13 ;  Apoc.  xiv.  11). 

Now,  it  may  be  admitted  that  the 
word  translated  "  eternal "  (ni&ji'ioy)  is 
not  in  itself  decisive.    Thus  in  Titus  i.  2 


St.  Paul  mentions  the  hope  which  God, 
who  cannot  lie,  promised  "before  eternal 
times,"  where  the  Greek  npo  XP""'^" 
ala>viu)v  is  very  happily  rendered  by  the 
Vulgate  "  ante  tempora  sajcularia."  The 
promise  of  salvation  had  not,  of  course, 
been  made  from  all  eternity ;  it  had  been 
made  long  ages  before  by  the  prn])hets 
who  are  said  in  Luke  i.  70  to  have  been 
an  alavos  (Vul.  "  a  saiculo  ") — i.e.  from  of 
old  or  since  the  age  of  the  prophets  first 
began.  Again,  the  word  alaivws  in  the 
LXX  and  the  Hebrew  noun  to  which  it 
corresponds  (oViy)  are  still  more  loosely 
used :  e.ff.  (to  quote  the  strongest  instance 
which  occurs  to  us),  Isa.  Iviii.  12  predicts 
that  the  children  of  Israel  "  will  build  up 
the  eternal  ruins  "  (dViV  n'mn,  al  i'prifioi 
aiQ)vtoi),  though  the  ruins  present  to  his 
mind  had  only  been  ruins  for  some  fifty 
years.  So  much  may  be  freely  granted. 
But  the  fact  that  Christ  sets  eternal  fire 
in  sharp  antithesis  to  eternal  life  assures 
us  that  He  did  mean  to  warn  men  that 
there  was  no  hope  iu  hell  and  no  escape 
from  it.  Moreover,  He  speaks  of  tire 
which  will  never  be  quenched  ;  of  an  un- 
dying worm  ;  He  declares  it  would  have 
been  better  for  Judas  not  to  have  been 
born  ;  and  He  does  not  breathe  a  syllable 
which  can  be  urged  on  the  other  side  or 
,'i])])lipd  to  qualify  His  language  about 
I'tcrnal  fire.  Tlie  celebrated  Protestant 
commentator  il ever  fully  admits  that  the 
words  "eternal  fire"  must  be  taken  in 
their  strict  and  absolute  sense.  Nobody 
will  accuse  Meyer  of  ignorance  on  the 
one  hand,  or  on  the  other  of  ])rejudice  in 
favour  of  the  dogma.  Nobody,  we  may 
111'  sure,  would  douljt  Christ's  meanin"; 
wild  considered  it  with  a  really  unl)iasseil 
mind.  The  fact  is,  men  persuade  them- 
selves that  the  doctrine  is  initrue  and  in- 
human, and  therefore  that  Christ,  being 
the  eternal  truth,  coidd  not  have  taught 
it.  Their  exegesis  will  scarcely  find  ac- 
ce])tance  either  with  Christians  ]ire]iared 
to  acce])t  the  doctrine  or  witli  non- 
Christians  who  come  with  purely  historical 
interest  to  the  study  of  the  (lospels. 

Here  we  turn  for  a  moment  to  two 
passages  alleged  against  the  doctrine 
which  we  are  maintaining  from  the  dicta 
of  the  Apostles.  One  is  from  1  Cor.  xv. 
24  seq.  "Then  is  the  end  when  He 
[Christ]  shall  give  uj)  the  kingdom  to 
the  God  and  Father,  when  He  shall 
bring  to  nought  every  princedom  and 
authority  and  power  ;  for  He  must  needs 
reign,  until  He  has  put  all  His  enemies 


HELL 


HELL 


431 


under  His  feet.  The  last  enemy  that 
^hall  be  brought  to  nought  is  death  .  .  .  . 
and  -when  all  things  have  been  subjected 
to  Him,  then  even  the  Son  Himself  will 
be  subjected  to  Him  [GodJ  who  subjected 
all  things  to  Him  [Christ],  that  God  may 
be  all  in  all."  There  are  dogmatic  and 
exegetical  difficulties  in  this  text  which 
do  not  concern  us  here,  but  the  last 
clause,  "that  God  may  be  all  in  all," 
presents  no  difficulty  to  believers  in 
eternal  punishment.  All  are  to  be  sub- 
ject to  Christ.  Christ  as  man  is  and  will 
be  recognised  as  subject  to  God,  and 
"  God  will  be  all  in  all " — i.e.  will  be  seen 
to  be  the  one  source  of  every  blessing  in 
all  the  subjects  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 
The  context  clearly  limits  the  meaning 
of  the  word  "  all."  God  is  not  to  be  "  all 
in  aU  "  to  Christ's  enemies.  On  the  con- 
trary, Christ  is  to  put  them  under  His 
feet. 

The  second  pas.*age  is  Acts  iii.  20,21, 
when  St.  Peter  tells  the  Jews  that  the 
heavens  must  receive  Christ  "  until  the 
times  of  restoration  of  all  things."  The 
Apostle  seems  to  mean  that  Christ  will 
remain  in  heaven  till  the  people  of  God 
are  converted  and  renewed  and  their  due 
and  original  relation  to  God  restored ; 
and  this  is  the  motive  for  penance  which 
St.  Peter  urges.  Our  Lord's  words,  Matt, 
xvii.  11,  "Elias  indeed  cometh  and  will 
restore  all  things,"  and  the  prophecv  of 
Malachy  iv.  fi  (Heb.  iii.  i\3),  "  Behold  I 
send  to  you  Elias  the  prophet  before  the 
day  of  the  Lord  comes,  the  great  and 
terrible  [day].  And  he  will  turn  the 
heart  of  fathers  to  sons,  and  the  heart  of 
sons  to  their  fathers,  lest  I  come  and 
smite  the  earth  with  a  curse,"  probably 
supply  the  key  to  the  sense.  Anyhow, 
St.  Peter  has  in  mind  a  renewal  and 
restoration  which  is  to  take  place  on  earth 
and  not  in  hell:  before  the  judgment,  not 
after  it. 

O)  Tradition. — The  historical  objec- 
tions to  the  doctrine  of  eternal  punish- 
ment may  really  be  reduced  to  one  head 
— viz.  the  views  of  Origen.  In  his  "  De 
Principiis,"  i.  G  this  great  man  gives  it 
as  his  opinion  that  even  the  devils  will 
undergo  a  long  course  of  purification  and 
be  saved  at  last ;  and  in  Ids  commentary 
on  Josue  (Horn,  viii.)  he  asserts  the  same 
thing  of  men  who  have  been  condemned 
at  the  day  of  judgment.  In  "  Princip." 
iii.  6  he  puts  forward  tlie  interpretation 
of  St.  Paul's  words,  "  God  will  be  all  in 
all,"  which  we  combated  a  little  further 
l>ack.    Origen's  piety,  genius,  and  learn- 


ing, and  his  reputation  as  a  commentator 
on  the  Bible  gained  for  him  a  wide  and 
an  enduring  influence  in  the  Church,  so 
that  we  cannot  be  surprised  to  find  that 
other  Fathers  followed  him  in  his  hopes 
of  a  universal  restoration.  Petavius 
("De  Aiigelis,"  iii.  7)  shows  tliat  St. 
Gre^orj-  Nyssen  did  so,  that  St.  Grfyory 
Nazianzen  entertained  the  hope  that  the 
puni.shment  of  sinners  in  the  next  world 
would  not  last  for  ever — a  hope  which 
St.  Jerome  limits  to  such  sinners  as  had 
died  in  the  Catholic  faith.  St.  Ambrose, 
as  quoted  by  Petavius,  says  that  men 
may,  though  angels  will  not,  be  purified 
and  restored,  even  after  an  adverse  sen- 
tence has  been  passed  upon  them  at  the 
judgment.  Carefully  to  be  distinguished 
from  this  error  is  the  opinion  of  Augustine 
and  other  Fathers,  viz.  that  the  suHerings 
of  lost  souls  may  be  mitigated  by  the 
prayers  and  good  works  of  the  faithful. 
"Concerning  this  amelioration  of  the 
condition  of  lost  men  at  least "  (so  Peta- 
vius writes  in  words  which  Cardinal 
Xewman  has  made  familiar  to  all)  "  the 
Church  as  yet  has  laid  down  nothing  as 
I  certain,  so  that  for  this  reason  this  opinion 
held  by  Fathers  of  high  sanctity  is  not 
to  be  dismissed  ofiTiand  as  absurd,  though 
it  differs  from  the  common  feeling  of 
modern  Catholics." ' 

"\Ve  have  tried  to  give  as  fairly  as 
possible  the  patristic  evidence  for  the 
view  that  the  torments  of  hell  will  come 
to  an  end.  But  the  whole  stream  of 
tradition  runs  in  the  contrary  direction. 
There  is  no  real  trace  of  such  a  view 
witliin  the  Church  before  Origen's  time. 
Theophilus  of  .\ntioch  (•'  Apol."  1,  ad Jin.) 
contrasts  the  eternal  joys  of  heaven  with 
the  eternal  woes  of  hell.  Sr.  Ir'n;i?us 
(iv.  28,  2)  and  St.  Cyprian  i  -  A.l  D-me- 
trium,"  cc.  24,  25)  expres-  i  le  ni-.  h  ,  ~  iu 
a  way  which  puts  their  meaning  beyond  all 
possibility  of  misapprehension.  "  Those," 
says  the  former,  "to  whom  Christ  ad- 
dresses the  words  '  Depart  into  everlasting 
fire'  {pei-petumn,  not  ati-rnnm)  will  be 
always  condemned,  and  those  to  whom 
he  says,  '  Come,  ye  blessed,'  &c.,  always 
obtain  the  kingdom."  "  Hell  ever  burn- 
ing," says  St.  Cj-prian,  "will  consume 
those  who  are  given  over  to  it,  nor  will 

1  Zacearia  inhis  noteson  Petavius  has  shown 
that  both  in  the  East  ami  West  prayers  were 
said  in  Mass  for  the  damned.  He  cites,  e.g..  au 
ancient  Latin  Missal  which  contains  a  touchinjc 
prayer  for  a  person  taken  away  without  time 
ibr  penance,  beseeching  God.  if  "the  dead  man's 
crimes  make  it  imp  ssible  for  him  to  rise  to 
glory,"  at  least  to  make  his  torments  endurable. 


432 


HELL 


HELL 


there  be  any  means  by  which  their  tor- 
ments can  ever  rest  or  cease." 

Petavius  has  collected  a  catena  of 
passages  from  later  Fathers,  some  of  them 
expressly  reprobatin<;-  the  error  of  Origen. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  or  not  his  error 
was  condemned  at  the  Fifth  General 
Council.  Certainly  his  name  stands  in 
the  present  text  of  the  eleventh  anathema, 
which  is  levelled  at  "  Arius,  Eunomius, 
Apollinarius  [sic],  Nestorius,  Eutyches, 
and  Origen,  together  with  their  impious 
writings,"  and  Hefele  ("  Concil."  ii.  898) 
defends  the  authenticity  of  the  text  as 
we  have  it  against  Gamier  and  many 
other  critics.  But  no  particular  doctrine 
of  Origen  is  mentioned  in  the  anathema. 
Cardinal  Noris  and  the  Ballerini  in  their 
edition  of  his  works  tried  to  show  that 
part  of  the  Acts  of  the  council  have 
perished,  and  that  a  special  investigation 
and  specific  condemnation  of  Origen's 
errors  took  place.  There  are  plausible 
gi-ounds  for  this  opinion,  which  is,  how- 
ever, rejected  by  Hefele  {loc.  cit.  p.  858) 
after  an  elaborate  discussion.  He  thinks 
that  the  Church  historian  Evagrius,  one 
of  the  chief  witnesses  cited  by  Cardinal 
Jvoris,  confused  the  general  council  of 
5.53  with  another  held  ten  years  earlier 
at  the  same  place.  But  whether  or  no 
Origen  was  expressly  condemned  by  a 
general  council,  it  is  a  plain  matter  of 
i'act  that  a  council  has  defined  that  the 
punishment  of  hell  lasts  for  ever.  The 
Fourth  Council  of  Lateran  (anno  1215) 
spi'uks  of  the  "  everlasting  punishment " 
{jiwriavi  perpeUtam)  which  awaits  the 
reprobate,  and  the  force  of  the  word 
"  perpetuam  "  cannot  be  evaded  even  by 
those  who  explain  away  the  word  "eter- 
nal.'' And,  apart  even  from  this  defi- 
nition, the  question  is  closed  by  the  con- 
stant teaching  of  the  Church  through 
her  pastors. 

(y)  If  we  turn  from  the  history  of 
the  doctrine  to  the  doctrine  itself,  and 
a.sk  "Is  it  reasonable  or  credible?"  the 
difficulties  are  unquestionably  great  and 
terrible  enough,  and  never  have  they 
been  felt  more  keenly  than  in  the  present 
age.  We  must  of  course  put  aside 
eiToneous  or  even  unwarranted  presen- 
tation of  the  Church's  belief.  God  con- 
demns no  single  soul  unless  He  has  first 
bestowed  upon  it  full  opportunity  of 
securing  a  life  of  eternal  happiness  with 
Himself.  Mdi  cover,  He  desires  the  sal- 
vation of  all,  whether  Catholics  or  Pro- 
testants, Christians  or  heathen,  and  will 
judge  all  according  to  the  advantages  or 


disadvantages  they  have  had.  "Thoa 
sparest  all,  because  they  are  Thine,  O 
Lord,  Thou  lover  of  souls."  Again,  He 
remembers  the  frailty  of  our  nature  and 
condemns  to  eternal  banishment  from 
His  presence  those  only  who  die  separated 
utterly  from  Him  by  mortal — i.e.  by 
deliberate  and  grievous — sin.  Nor  can 
we  say  who  these  persons  are,  or  guess 
with  any  degi-ee  of  probability  what  pro- 
portion they  bear  to  the  whole  race  of 
man.  Sins  which  seem  grievous  to  us 
may  be  excused  by  ignorance  or  want  of 
deliberation,  and  even  men  who  appear 
to  end  evil  lives  with  evil  deaths  may 
nevertheless  be  enlightened  by  God's 
mercy  at  the  last — perhaps  just  as  their 
souls  are  passing  out  of  their  bodies — 
and  so  die  in  peace  with  Him.  Even 
after  these  and  other  abatements  have 
been  made,  the  awful  and  mysterious 
character  of  the  doctrine  remains.  Why 
does  not  God,  who  holds  all  hearts  in 
His  hand,  turn  the  hearts  of  sinners  to 
Himself?  It  is  no  answer  to  say  that 
He  chooses  to  confer  the  gift  of  free  will 
on  men  with  its  attendant  responsi- 
bilities, for  it  is  the  common  doctrine  of 
theologians  that  God  could  soften  the 
heart  of  each  and  every  sinner,  and  yet 
leave  the  freedom  of  the  will  in  its  in- 
tegrity ;  and  one  who  seriously  reflects 
on  the  meaning  of  omnipotence  as  a 
divine  attribute  will  scarcely  venture  to 
contradict  the  proposition.  The  only 
safe  reply  is  that  God  so  acts  for  reasons 
inscrutable  to  us,  and  that  if  reason  can- 
not penetrate  God's  designs,  it  is  at  the- 
same  time  unable  to  show  that  the  con- 
duct which  the  Scripture  attributes  to 
God  is  unjust.  "Retributive  justice," 
Cardinal  Newman  writes  ("  Grammar  of 
Assent,"  p.  415),  "  is  the  very  attribute 
under  which  God  is  primarily  brought 
before  us  in  the  teachings  of  our  natural 
conscience."  If,  then,  God  will  by  na 
means  clear  the  guilty,  it  is  not  at  any 
rate  inconceivable  that  He  should  punish 
a  man  who  ends  the  period  of  trial  in 
utter  rebellion  against  Him  who  is  at 
once  his  sovereign  and  his  loving  bene- 
factor, by  the  most  extreme  punishment 
which  can  be  conceived.  "The  great 
mystery,"  to  continue  our  quotation 
from  Cardinal  Newman — "the  great 
mystery  is,  not  that  evil  should  have  no 
end,  but  that  it  had  a  beginning."  From 
this  latter  mystery  there  is  no  escape  to 
those  who  believe  in  a  God  at  all. 

Some  other  arguments  have  been  ad- 
duced for  the  Catholic  doctrine,  but  w» 


flENOTICON 


HERMESIAN'ISM  433 


have  preferred  to  rest  our  belief  on  the  i 
words  of  merciful  warning  spoken  by 
Christ  Himself.  For  it  is  not  surely  j 
without  significance  that  it  is  from  Christ 
Himself  rather  than  from  the  Apostles 
that  we  have  the  plainest  statements  of 
the  doctrine. 

Christ  on  Himself,  considerate  Master,  took 
The  utterance  of  that  dni  trine's  fearful  sound; 
'I'he  fount  of  love  His  servants  aends  to  tell 
Love's  deeds  ;  Himself  proclaims  the  sinner's 
hell. 

HENOTZCOir  {ivartKov).  [See  Mo- 
NOPHYSIIES.] 

HERESY  {aipfcrts,  from  alptla-Oai,  to 
choose)  is  used  in  a  later  Greek  (e.ff.  by 
Sextus  Empiricus)  to  denote  a  philo- 
sophical sect  or  party.  In  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  {e.ff.  v.  17,  xv.  5)  it  is 
applied  to  the  parties  of  Sadducees  and 
I'harisees,  who  were  divided  from  each 
other  in  religious  and  political  views. 
But  in  the  New  Testament  we  also  find 
the  word  employed  in  a  distinctly  bad 
sense.  In  1  Cor.  xi.  18,  it  indicates  an 
aggravated  form  of  division  (bixoa-Tao-ia) 
among  Christians — i.e.  of  division  grown 
into  distinct  and  organised  party.  We 
find  St.  Paul  (Gal.  v.  19)  placing 
"  heresies  "  on  the  same  level  with  the 
most  heinous  sins,  and  St.  Peter  (2  Ep. 
ii.  1)  speaks  of  false  teachers  among 
Christians,  who  will  bring  in  "  heresies 
[or  sects]  of  perdition."  St.  Ignatius  in 
his  epistles  also  uses  tlie  word  as  a  term 
of  bitter  reproach,  and  TertuUian  ("  Prffi- 
script."  5  and  (5)  accurately  draws  out  the 
meaning  of  the  term.  The  name,  he 
savs,  is  given  to  those  who  of  their  own 
will  choose  false  doctrine,  either  institut- 
ing sects  themselves,  or  receiving  the 
false  doctrine  of  sects  already  founded. 
He  adds  that  a  heretic  is  condemned  by 
the  very  fact  of  his  choosing  for  himself, 
since  a  Christian  has  no  such  liberty  of 
choice,  but  is  bound  to  receive  the  doctrine 
which  the  Apostles  received  from  Christ. 

The  nature  of  heresy  is  further  ex- 
]ilMined  by  St.  Thomas  in  the  "Summa" 
(■2  2nd:e,  qu.  11).  Heresy,  according  to  St. 
Thomas,  implies  a  profession  of  Christian 
belief,  so  that  persons  who  have  never 
been  Christians,  or  who  have  utterly 
renounced  Christianity,  are  infidels  and 
apostates,  but  not  heretics.  The  heretic, 
he  says,  is  right  in  the  end  which  he  pro- 
poses or  professes  to  propose  to  himself— 
viz.  the  profession  ot  Christian  truth — 
but  he  errs  in  his  choice  of  the  means  he 
takes  to  secure  this  end,  for  he  refuses  to 
believe  one  or  more  of  the  articles  of 


I  faith,  "determined  by  the  authority  of 
the  universal  Church."  St.  Thomas  adds 
I  that  this  rejection  of  Catholic  dogma 
must  be  deliberate  and  pertinacious,  so 
that  his  teaching,  which  is  that  of  all 
theologians,  may  be  summed  up  in  the 
following  definition.  Heresy  is  error 
pertinaciously  held  and  manifestly  re- 
pugnant to  the  faith,  on  the  part  of  one 
who  professes  the  faith  of  Christ.  It  is 
clear  from  this  that  such  Protestants  as 
are  in  good  faith  and  sincerely  desirous  of 
knowing  the  truth  are  not  heretics  in  the 
formal  sense,  inasmuch  as  they  do  not 
pertinaciously  rqect  the  Church's  teach- 
ing. Their  heresy  is  material  only — i.e. 
their  tenets  are  in  themselves  heretical, 
but  they  are  not  formal  heretics  :  i.e.  they 
do  not  incur  the  guilt  of  heresy,  and  may 
belong  to  the  soul  of  the  Church. 

Formal  heresy  is  a  most  grievous  sin, 
for  it  involves  rebellion  against  God,  who 
requires  us  to  submit  our  understandings 
to  the  doctrine  of  His  Church.  This  guilt, 
if  externally  manifested,  is  visited  by  the 
Church  with  the  greater  excommunica- 
tion, absohition  from  which,  except  in  the 
article  of  death,  can  only  be  given  by  the 
Pope,  although  the  power  of  imparting  it 
is  communicated  to  bishops,  under  certain 
restrictions,  in  their  quinquennial  facul- 
ties, and  to  priests,  in  missionary  countries, 
such  as  England.  Ecclesiastics  who  fall 
into  heresj-  are  hable  to  irregularity, 
perjietual  deprivation  of  their  offices  and 
benefices,  and  to  deposition  and  degra- 
dation. The  sons  of  an  heretical  mother, 
the  sons  and  grandsons  of  an  heretical 
father,  are  incapable  of  entering  the 
clerical  state." 

HERMESXAIO-ZSM.  The  name  is 
given  to  principles  on  the  relation  of 
reason  to  faith  which  were  propounded 
by  George  Hermes,  a  German  priest  and 
professor.  These  principles  were  acce])ted 
with  enthusiasm  by  many  German  Catho- 
lics, were  vehemently  attacked  by  others, 
and  were  finally  condemned  by  the  Holy 
See. 

Hermes  was  born  at  Dreyerwalde,  in 
Westphalia,  in  1775.  He  was  ordained 
priest  in  1799,  studied  and  to  a  great 
extent  adopted  the  philosophy  of  Kaiit, 
published  a  little  treatise  on  "The  Inner 
Truth  of  Christianity  "  in  1805,  and  in 
lb07  was  appointed  to  a  chair  of  theology 
at  Miinster.  In  1819  he  became  theo- 
logical professor  at  Bonn,  and  was  nomi- 

1  Provided  the  heresy  was  notorious,  and 
that  the  parents  died  in  it.  St.  Lig.  T/ieol. 
Moral,  lib.  vii.  §  363. 

F  F 


134 


HERJIITS 


HESYCIIASTS 


Dated  to  a  canonry  by  his  diocesan,  the 
Arclibishop  of  Cologne,  in  1825.  In  1831 
he  died,  revered  for  the  purity  of  his  life, 
and  beloved  by  his  pupils.  Although  his 
writings  and  lectures  excited  great  oppo- 
sition, particularly  during  the  last  six 
years  of  his  life,  no  authoritative  condem- 
nation of  them  appeared  till  1835,  when 
Gregory  XVI.  censured  his  "  Introduc- 
tion to  Theology,"  parts  1  and  2  (Miin- 
ster,  1819  and  1829),  and  the  first  part 
of  his  Dogmatic  Theology  (published 
after  the  death  of  Hermes;  Miinster, 
1834).  The  same  Pope,  by  a  decree  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Index,  declared 
that  the  second  and  third  parts  of  the 
Dogmatic  Theology  were  included  in  the 
previous  condemnation.  The  chief  error 
of  Hermes  lay  in  his  theory  that  Chris- 
tians ought  to  begin  by  doubtiiig  every- 
thing which  was  not  self-evident,  and 
hold  themselves  loose  in  theory  from  the 
faith  they  had  been  taught,  till  it  had 
Ijeen  demonstrated  to  their  satisfaction 
by  reason.  Some  of  his  disciples  held 
obstinately  to  their  master's  doctrine, 
and  the  former  condemnations  were 
repeated  by  Pius  IX.  in  1847.  Herme- 
sianism  is  now  extinct. 

HERMZTS.  Eremita  (from  the  Gr. 
(prifins,  desert),  a  dweller  in  the  desert. 
Anchorite  {dvaxcopijT^s,  one  who  has  re- 
tired from  the  world)  has  the  same  mean- 
ing. On  the  life  of  St.  Paul  the  first 
hermit,  who  was  bom  in  the  Thebaid 
about  230,  and  died  in  342,  after  ninety 
years  spent  in  solitude,  see  Alban  Butler 
for  Jan.  15,  and  the  "  Acta  Sanctorum." 
Though  the  lives  of  the  hermits  are  not 
propo.sed  by  the  Church  for  the  imitation 
of  ordinary  Christians,  she  holds  them 
up  for  our  admiration,  as  men  who,  com- 
mitting them.-^elves  to  the  might  of 
divine  love,  buoyed  up  by  continual 
prayer,  and  chastened  by  life-long  pen- 
ance, have  vanquished  the  weakness  and 
the  yearning  of  nature,  and  found  it 
possible  to  live  for  God  alone.  "They 
appear  to  some,"  says  St.  Augustine,' 
"  to  have  abandoned  human  things  more 
than  is  right,  but  such  do  not  understaTid 
bow  greatly  their  souls  profit  us  in  the 
way  of  prayer,  and  their  lives  in  the  way 
of  example,  though  we  are  not  allowed 
to  see  their  faces  in  the  fiesh."  St.  Paul 
fled  to  the  di'si>rt  during  the  persecution 
of  Decius,  when  he  was  twenty-two  years 
old,  and  never  afterwards  left  it.  He 
was  visited  in  his  cell  by  St.  Anthony 

1  De  Mor.  Eccl.  Cath.  i.  31,  quoted  by 
Thomassin. 


shortly  before  he  died  (see  his  Life  by  St. 
Jerome).  Experience  soon  proved  that  it 
was  seldom  safe  for  a  man  to  essay  the 
life  of  a  solitary  at  the  beginning  of  his 
religious  career.  The  prudent  plan  was 
found  to  be,  to  spend  some  j^ears  in  a 
monastery,  in  rigorous  conformity  to  all 
the  ascetical  rules  of  the  coenobitic  life, 
and  then,  the  spiritual  strength  being 
tested  and  the  passions  subdued,  to  pass 
on  to  the  hermit's  cell.  Thus  we  read 
i  in  Surius  ("  Vita  Euthymii  abbatis  ")  of 
I  an  abbot  Gerasimns,  who  presided  over  a 
great  monastery  near  the  Jordan,  round 
which  there  was  a  Laura  consisting  of 
'  seventy  separate  cells.  Gerasimus  kept 
everyone  who  came  to  him  for  some  years 
in  the  monastery ;  then,  if  he  thought 
him  fit  for  solitary  life,  and  the  disciple 
himself  aspired  to  it,  he  allowed  him  to 
t  occupy  one  of  the  cells,  where  he  lived 
j  during  five  days  in  the  week  on  bread  and 
water,  in  perfect  solitude,  but  on  Satur- 
day and  Sunday  rejoined  his  brethren 
in  the  monastery  and  fared  as  they  did. 

On  the  Hermits  of  St.  Austin,  and 
those  instituted  by  St.  Romuald,  see 
AtTGUSTixiAN  HsKMiTS  and  Camaldoli. 
Among  the  more  famous  English  hermits 
were  Bartholomew  of  Fame,  St.  Godric 
of  Finchale,  and  St.  Wulfric  of  Hasle- 
bury ;  all  these  flourished  in  the  twelfth 
century.  St.  Cuthbert  lived  an  eremiti- 
cal life  on  Fame  Island  for  nine  years, 
from  676  to  685.  H^lyot,  in  his  history 
of  the  monastic  orders,  mentions  a  Spanish 
order  of  Hermits  of  St.  John  of  Penance, 
and  two  Italian  orders,  one  called 
Coloriti,  the  other,  of  Monte  Senario. 

HESYCHASTS  (Gr.  i)uvxoi,  quiet). 
So-called  because  they  held  the  opinion, 
shared  by  the  Quietists  of  later  times 
[Qxtietism],  that  the  absolute  repose  of 
all  the  faculties  both  of  mind  and  body 
was  the  best  prepai-ation  by  which  the 
soul  was  made  fit  to  receive  divine  com- 
munications. The  monks  of  Athos  in 
the  fourteenth  century  endeavoured  to 
reduce  this  quietism  to  a  system,  adopt- 
ing the  principles  of  a  certain  abbot 
Simeon ;  who  in  a  work  written  about 
three  centuries  before  had  taught  that  if 
the  body  was  kept  motionless  day  and 
night,  the  mind  raised  above  transitory 
things,  the  eyes  steadily  fixed  on  the 
contemplative's  own  navel,  and  the 
thought  searching  for  the  place  of  the 
heart  within  the  frame,  the  result  would 
be,  if  the  monk  persevered  long  enough, 
that  he  would  find  himself  enveloped  in 
a  wonderful  light  and  full  of  discernment. 


HIERARCHY 


HOLIXESS 


Barlaam,  a  Calabrian  abbot,  retiiniing 
from  Italy  about  1340,  where  he  had 
been  negotiating  for  the  termination  of 
the  Greek  schism,  met  some  of  these 
monks  at  Thessalonica  and  fell  into  con- 
troTersy  with  them.  He  called  them 
"  omphalopsychi  "  on  account  of  the  sin- 
gular tenet  above  mentioned.  They 
maintained  that  the  light  which  Simeon 
spoke  of  was  none  other  than  the  un- 
created light  which  the  disciples  saw  on 
Mount  Tabor,  during  the  Transfiguration 
of  Christ.  Barlaam  took  up  the  ex- 
pression "  uncreated  hght,"  and  charged 
them  with  believing  in  two  Gods,  one 
visible,  the  other  invisible.  A  synod 
held  at  Constantinople  in  1340  condemned 
Barlaam,  who  was  supported,  however, 
in  his  dispute  with  the  Hesychasts  by 
the  monk  Gregory  Akindynos,  and  Niee- 
phorus  Gregoras,  the  Byzantine  historian. 
(Fleury,  xcv.  9;  Mohler,  "Kirchenge- 
schichte.") 

BZERARCKT  (tepdpxis,  a  president 
of  sacred  rites,  a  hierarch  :  whence  up- 
apxM,  the  power  or  office  of  a  hierarch). 
The  word  first  occurs  in  the  work  of  the 
pseudo-Dionysius  (a  Greek  writer  of  the 
fifth  century)  on  the  Celestial  and  Eccle- 
siastical Hierarchies.  This  author  appears 
to  mean  by  it  "  administration  of  sacred 
things,"  nearly  in  accordance  with  its 
etymology.  The  signification  was  gra- 
dually modified  until  it  came  to  be  what 
it  is  at  present :  a  hierarchy  now  signifies 
a  body  of  officials  disposed  organically  in 
ranks  and  orders,  each  subordinate  to  the 
one  above  it.  Thus  we  speak  of  the 
"judicial  hierarchy"  and  the  "adminis- 
trative hierarchy."  However,  when  t/ie 
hierarchy  is  spoken  of,  what  is  meant  is 
the  organisation  of  ranks  and  orders  in 
the  Christian  Church.  In  a  wide  and 
loose  sense,  when  the  whole  Catholic 
Church  is  considered  as  existing  in  the 
midst  of  heretics,  .schismatics,  and  the 
heathen,  even  the  laity  may  be  considered 
as  forming  a  portion  of  the  hierarchy. 
"With  this  agrees  the  expression  of  St. 
Peter,  calling  the  general  body  of  Chris- 
tians in  the  countries  to  which  he  is 
sending  his  epistle  "a  kingly  priest- 
hood" and  "  a  holy  nation"  (1  Pet.  ii.  9). 
St.  Ignatius,  writing  to  the  Smyrnoeans,' 
salutes  "  the  bishop  worthy  of  God,  and 
the  most  religious  presbyter}*,  my  fellow- 
servants  the  deacons,  and  all  of  you  indi- 
vidually and  in  common."  So  at  the 
Mass,  the  priest,  turning  to  the  people, 
bids  them  pray  that  "  his  and  their  sacri- 
'  Ad  Smtfrn.  xii.  | 


fice  "  may  be  acceptable  to  God  ;  and  at 
the  incensing  before  the  Sanctu«,  the 
acolyte,  after  the  rite  has  been  ptrformed 
to  ail  the  orders  of  the  clergy  within  the 
sanctuary,  turns  towards  and  bows  to  the 
laity,  and  incenses  them  also.  But  ac- 
cording to  its  ordinary  signification,  the 
word  "hierarchy"  only  applies  to  the 
clergy — with  varieties  of  meaning  which 
must  be  clearly  distinguished.  I.  There 
is  a  hierarchy  of  divine  right,  consisting, 
under  the  primacy  of  St.  Peter  and  his 
successors,  of  bishops,  priests,  and  dea- 
cons, or,  in  the  language  of  the  Triden- 
tine  canon,  "ministers."  "If  any  one 
shall  say,"  defines  the  council,'  "  that 
there  is  not  in  the  Catholic  Church  a 
hierarchy  established  by  the  divine  ordi- 
nation, consisting  of  l.ii<hops,  presbyters, 
and  ministers,  let  him  be  anathema." 
The  term  "  ministers  "  comprehends  those 
minor  orders  of  ecclesiastical  institution 
which,  as  occasion  arose,  were,  so  to 
speak,  carved  out  of  the  diaconate.  II. 
There  is  also  a  hierarchy  by  ecclesiastical 
right,  or,  a  hierarchy  of  order.  This  con- 
sists— besides  the  Roman  Pontifi'and  the 
three  original  orders  of  bisli'ips.  priests, 
and  deacons — of  the  five  minor  orders 
(two  in  the  East)  of  subdeacons,  acolytes, 
exorcists,  lectors,  and  porters  (oi^finrii), 
which,  as  was  said  above,  were  in  the 
course  of  time  severed  from  the  diaconate. 
III.  There  is  also  the  hierarchy  of  juris- 
diction. This  is  of  ecclesiastical  institu- 
tion, and  consists  of  the  administrative 
and  judicial  authorities,  ordinary  and 
delegated,  which,  under  the  supreme 
pastorate  of  the  Holy  See,  are  charged 
with  the  maintenance  of  the  purity  of 
the  faith  and  of  union  among  Christians, 
with  the  conservation  of  discipline,  &c. 
These  authorities  exercise  powers  con- 
ferred on  them  by  delegation,  expressed 
or  implied,  from  the  order  above  them  : 
thus  the  powers  of  cardinals,  patriarchs, 
exarchs,  metropolitans,  and  archbishops, 
proceed  from  the  Pope,  either  e-xpressly 
or  by  implication ;  again,  the  powers  of 
archpriests,  archdeacons,  rural  deans, 
vicars-general,  foran,  &c.,  are  derived  to 
them  from  bishops.  (Thomassin,-  I.  iii. 
23;  art.  by  Phillips  inWetzer  and  Welte.) 

HOX.ZDAYS,  or  BOX.T  SAYS. 
[See  Fe.vsts." 

HOXiXM-ESS,  as  a  title  of  the  Pope. 
[See  Pope.] 

*  Ses3.  xxiii.  can.  6. 

^  Thom.assin's  Vetus  et  Nova  Reel.  Disciplina 
is  quoted  by  the  part,  book,  chapter,  and  para- 
graph. 

FF2 


436  HOLT  FAMILY 


HOLY  GHOST 


HOZ.-r  FAnxziiV.  Our  Lord,  His 
Mother,  and  His  foster-father  St. 
Joseph,  together  formed  one  family 
which  should  be  the  model  and  venera- 
tion of  all  Christian  households.  An 
archconfraternity  under  the  invocation  of 
the  Holy  Family  has  this  devotion  for 
its  special  object.  It  was  founded  at 
Li^ge  in  1844  by  Henry  Belletable,  a 
non-commissioned  officer  of  engineers. 
He  used  to  assemble  a  number  of  work- 
men on  one  night  in  each  week  for  the 
sake  of  joining  in  prayer  and  pious 
reading,  and  encouraging  each  other  in 
the  practice  of  Christian  virtues.  The 
good  work  was  taken  up  by  the  Redemp- 
torists  and  approved  by  the  Bishop.  In 
1847  Pius  IX.  enriched  it  with  many 
indulgences  and  raised  it  to  the  dignity 
of  an  archconfraternity  with  the  power  of 
affiliating  to  itself  other  confraternities 
with  the  same  name  and  object.  Women 
now  benefited  by  this  approval.  Their 
numbers  soon  began  to  rival  those  of  the 
men.  At  prcspiit  the  confraternity  has 
brandies  in  almost  every  country  in  the 
world.  We  cannot  here  give  a  full 
account  of  the  constitution  and  rules. 
The  following  e.xtracts  must  suffice. 

The  end  of  the  archconfraternity  is  to 
honour  the  Holy  Family,  and  to  give  to 
the  faithful  of  every  age,  sex,  and  rank, 
powerful  means  of  advancing  in  the  way 
of  salvation.  The  means  to  attain  this 
end  are,  principally,  prayer,  sermons,  and 
the  sacraments.  Each  association  is 
governed  by  a  priest  called  the  Director, 
and  is  divided  into  sections  composed  of 
a  certain  number  of  members.  Each 
section  is  placed  under  the  protection  of 
a  patron  saint  and  has  at  its  head  a 
prefect  appointed  by  the  director.  The 
exercises  of  piety  which  must  never  be 
omitted  at  the  weekly  meetings  are : 
the  prayer  "  Remember,  0  most  pious 
Virgin  Mary,"  the  Litany  of  the  Holy 
Family,  a  part  of  the  Rosary,  the  exami- 
nation of  conscience,  and  the  invocation 
of  the  patron  saints  of  the  year.  The 
meeting  always  closes  with  Benediction 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  or  of  the  cruci- 
fi:x.  The  obligations  entered  into  by  the 
members  are  altogether  duties  of  love. 
In  general  they  must  live  as  good 
Christians,  each  one  according  to  his 
state  of  life  ;  they  must  avoid  bad  com- 
pany, dangerous  places  of  amusement, 
and  all  that  may  lead  them  into  sin. 
Every  morning  they  should  make  an 
offering  of  the  actions  of  the  day  to 
Jesus,  Mary  and  Joseph,  and  renew  the 


offering  from  time  to  time  during  the 
day  ;  every  evening  they  should  make  an 
examination  of  conscience,  followed  by 
a  spiritual  communion.  (For  further 
information  see  the  "  Directory  of  the 
Archconfraternity  of  the  Holy  Family.") 

HOX.T  GHOST.    [See  Trinity.] 

HOX.Y  GHOST,  COM'GREGA.TXON 
OF  THE,  ASTD  OF  THE  Z,  H.  OF 
iMii.xt'r.  This  congregation,  as  its  name 
might  suggest,  arose  out  of  the  fusion  into 
one,  in  1848,  of  two  pre-existing  institutes 
— the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  the  Missioners  of  the  Immaculate 
Heart  of  Mary.  The  former  was  founded 
at  Paris  in  170y  by  a  poor  Breton  student, 
Claude  Desplaces;  the  latter  by  Francis 
M.  P.  Libermann  about  1841.  In  1848, 
it  having  been  long  observed  that  the  aims 
of  the  two  societies  were  to  a  great  extent 
similar,  a  fusion  was  effected  between  the 
congregation  of  Libermann  and  that  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  whose  superior, 
Father  Monet,  had  seen  the  missioners  of 
the  other  society  at  work  in  l^ouibon. 
The  rule  of  the  Conirregaf  ion  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  (which  had  been  lately  approved  at 
Rome^  was  to  be  retained,  and  the  con- 
stitutions of  the  missionaries  (which 
Libermann,  after  many  vain  attempts  to 
frame  them,  is  said  to  have  drawn  up  with 
ease  after  lie  had  consecrated  his  work  to 
the  Immaculate  Heart)  were  for  the  most 
part  incorporated  in  it. 

The  Pere  Libermann,  the  first  superior 
of  the  united  congregation,  died  in  18-52. 
A  process  has  been  commenced  for  his 
canoni.?ation,  and  he  was  declared  "Vene- 
rable" in  1875,  no  other  Jewish  convert 
having  ever  been  so  distinguished. 

Under  the  three  successors  of  the  Ven. 
Libermann,  FF.  Schwindenliammer,  Le 
Vavas.seur,  and  Emonet,  the  work  has 
been  carried  actively  on,  and  is  "  visibly 
blest  by  heaven." '  In  1884  it  had  about 
eighty  houses,  of  which  fifteen  were  in 
Europe,  fourteen  in  America  and  tlie  West 
Indies,  and  more  than  forty  in  Africa  and 
the  islands  adjacent,  with  about  thirteen 
hundred  members.  The  con.stitutioiis,  as 
finally  settled  at  a  general  chapter  held  in 
1876,  have  been  approved  at  Rome  without 
change  or  addition.  "  The  society  ...  is 
governed  by  a  superior-general  elected 
for  life.  Its  missions  are  directed  by 
bishops  or  vicars-apostolic  chosen  from 
its  own  body.  All  the  members — fathers 
and  brothers — consecrate  themselves  to 
God  by  the  three  simple  vows  of  religion, 
at  first  temporary,  afterwards  perpetual; 
1  F.  MS. 


HOLY  PLACES 


HOLY  PLACES 


437 


and  they  bind  themselves  to  the  congrega- 
tion by  their  act  of  profession,  which  con- 
tains an  engagement  of  perseverance. 
Besides  the  professed  members  there  are 
the  oblates,  who,  from  the  age  of  fourteen, 
after  a  trial  of  at  least  six  mouths,  are 
received  into  the  congregation  as  its  chil- 
dren, are  clothed  with  its  habit,  and  take 
the  engagement  to  persevere  till  their 

f)rofession."  The  novitiate  is  ordinarily 
or  two  years.  "The  congregation  always 
pursues  as  its  main  and  direct  object, 
after  the  perfection  of  its  members,  the 
evangelisation  of  the  blacks,  especially  of 
the  blacks  in  Africa  itself."  * 

Indirectly  the  congregatii  n  pursues  the 
same  end  by  founding  institutions  prima- 
rily devoted  to  different  objects.  A  house 
at  Rome  being  found  to  be  necessary,  they 
established  there  a  French  seminary, 
canonically  erected  in  185.3,  which  has 
been  treated  with  remarkable  favour  both 
by  Pius  IX.  and  by  the  reigning  Pontiff". 
Again,  it  was  thought  desirable  to  en- 
courage vocations  in  Ireland,  and  as  a 
means  to  this  end  two  colleges  for  second- 
ary education  have  been  established  by  the 
congregation,  at  Blackrock  and  Rockwell 
(near  Cashel),  and  have  achieved  in  a  few 
years,  owing  to  the  skill  and  ability  with 
which  they  have  been  conducted,  an  extra- 
ordinary success.  The  Iri.sh  houses  were 
founded  by  F.  Leman,  whose  name  is 
loved  and  honoured  wherever  an  alumnus 
(and  they  now  amount  to  thousands)  of 
one  of  the  "  French  colleges  "  is  found  in 
anv  part  of  the  world. ^ 

"  HOX.V  PLACES,  THE.     The  SpotS 

rendered  sacred  to  Christians  by  the 
birth,  death,  resurrection,  and  ascension 
of  our  Saviour,  as  well  as  by  events  in 
the  life  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  have  been 
visited  by  pilgrims  and  travellers  at 
least  since  the  third  century,  when  we 
hear  of  Alexander,  the  friend  of  Origen, 
and  Origen  himself  as  going  to  Palestine 
to  explore  them.  Constantine,  early  in 
the  fourth  century,  after  the  removal  of 
the  earth  and  rubbish  which  had  long 
encumbered  the  site  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre, caused  a  magnificent  church  to  be 
built  over  it.  His  mother,  St.  Helena, 
erected  and  richly  adorned  a  basilica  over 
the  grotto  of  Christ's  nativity  at  Beth- 
lehem,* and  a  portion  of  her  work  is  be- 
lieved to  be  still  preserved  in  the  exist- 

»  F.  Reffe's  MS. 
Much  of  the  information  for  this  article 
■was  kindly  furnished  by  F.  Reff^,  of  the  Black- 
rock  College. 

s  Eusebius,  Viia  Constant,  iii.  43. 


ing  structure.  She  also  built  a  churcli 
on  the  top  of  Mount  Olivet,  over  the 
cave  which  was  traditionally  believed  to 
mark  the  scene  of  the  Ascension.  Arcul- 
fus,  a  French  bishop,  visiting  the  Holy 
Land  about  the  end  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury A..D.,  saw  a  church  built  over  the  rock 
of  Golgotha,  the  place  of  the  Crucifixion. 

To  the  consideration  of  the  sites  here 
named  the  present  article  will  be  con- 
fined. The  Abb6  Michon,  in  his  work 
on  the  Holy  Places,  gives  a  list  of 
twelve  localities  more  or  less  identified  by 
tradition  with  religious  events:  among 
these  are  Cana,  Tiberias,  Nablous,  &c. 
To  examine  the  value  of  the  tradition  in 
each  of  these  cases  would  be  a  task  much 
exceeding  our  limits.  Narrowing  the 
problem  to  the  necessary  degree,  we  ask 
this  question.  Is  the  traditional  belief 
which  has  connected  for  many  centurie>, 
and  does  still  connect,  certain  sites  in 
Palestine  with  the  conception,  nativity, 
crucifixion,  resurrection,  and  ascension 
of  our  Lord  reasonably  trustworthy,  or 
is  it  not  ? 

Holy  places,  considered  as  supports 
and  encouragements  to  faith  and  virtue, 
are  in  the  same  category  with  miracles 
and  relics.  "  Movemur  nescio  quo  pacto 
locis  ipsis,  in  quibus  eorum  quos  dilici- 
mus  et  admiramur  adsunt  vestigia." 
As  miracles  reassure  and  quicken  faith, 
so  the  touch  of  relics,  and  visits  to  holy 
places,  seeming  to  bring  us  palpably 
nearer  to  those  to  whom  God  was  very 
near,  or  even  to  the  very  Author  and 
Founder  of  our  religion,  tend  to  the  con- 
solation and  softening  of  the  hearts  ot 
men,  and  to  the  revival  of  their  courage 
under  the  trials  of  life.  Not  sharing 
the  faith,  and  regarding  the  consolation 
as  illusory,  Protestants  and  agnostics  are 
disposed  by  a  natural  instinct  to  reject 
miracles,  scoff  at  relics,  and  deny  the 
authenticity  of  holy  places.  All  such 
supports  to  a  faith  and  a  morality  which 
they  accept  only  in  part,  find  with  them 
no  easy  credence.  In  the  case  of  holy 
places,  the  multiplication  of  traditions 
— some  spurious,  others  doubtful,  many 
ridiculous — aft"ords  a  plausible  ground 
for  incredulity.  The  objector  urges  that 
tradition  supplies  no  valid  c^vidi  nce.  But 
there  are  traditions  and  traditions.  A 
perfect  or  adequate  tradition  as  to  a  holy 
place  is  one  which  identifies  by  the 
unvarying  testimony  of  many  generations 
of  Christians  living  on  the  spot — who 
therefore  could  not  have  been  deceived — 
I  a  place  which,  as  connected  with  some 


4?.^  HOI.Y  ri.ACES 


HOLY  PLACES 


event  of  high  religions  importance,  must 
have  been  interesting  to  them  from  the 
■very  time  of  its  occurrence.  Imperfect 
or  inadequate  traditions  are  those  in  which 
these  conditions  are  not  fullilled;  and 
they  are  imperfect  in  the  ratio  of  their 
non-fulfilment.  The  tradition  as  to  the 
site  of  the  Resurrection  is  one  of  the 
first  kind ;  that  as  to  the  "  prison  of 
Christ "  of  the  second.  To  stand  at  the 
spot  where  death,  the  common  enemy, 
was  eftectually  vanquished,  could  not  but 
be  profoundly  interesting  to  everyone 
bearing  the  name  of  Christian.  The 
Apostles  and  the  women  from  Galilee 
"saw  where  he  was  laid,''  and  certainly 


and  the  garden-tomb  from  which  Christ 
rose  to  die  no  more.  Under  the  prfssure 
of  motives  such  as  have  been  described 
above,  many  non-Catholic  writers  have 
formed  conclusions  adverse  to  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  entire  site.  Prominent 
among  these  are  the  American  Dr. 
Edward  Robinson,'  the  German  Tobler, 
and  the  Englishmen  Clarke,  Fergusson, 
and  Conder.  A  much  larger  number  of 
names  may  be  appealed  to  in  support  of 
the  authenticity  of  the  site.  Among 
these  the  most  prominent  are — Chateau- 
briand, Schulz  (the  Prussian  consul  at 
Jerusalem,  1845),  Williams,^  Tischen- 
dorff,  Finlay,  De  Vogii(5,  and  Clermont 


1.  First  wall. 

2.  Second  wall  (Warren). 

3.  Second  wall  (Conder). 

4.  Clmrch  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

5.  Pool  of  Hezekiah. 

6.  The  tower  Hippicus. 


made  true  report  of  what  they  saw. 
But  no  such  eager  memory  or  universal 
interest  attached  itself  to  the  place 
where  Christ  wn.s  confined  while  waiting 
for  His  trial ;  and  the  identification  of  the 
spot,  since  it  may  have  arisen  out  of  the 
desire  to  carry  out  with  a  dramatic  com- 
pleteness the  localisation  of  the  entire 
story  of  the  Passion,  may  well  be  classed 
among  imperfect  traditions. 

1.  We  may  now  proceed  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem,  under  the  roof 
of  which,  it  is  alleged,  may  be  seen  the 
two  most  holy  places  in  the  world — 
Golgotha,  or  the  scene  of  the  Crucifixion, 


Ganneau,  the  discoverer  of  the  Moabite 
stone. 

The  slight  diagram  given  above  will 
help  to  explain,  so  far  as  that  can  be 
done  in  a  brief  popular  essay,  the  main 
difficulties  of  the  question 

The  theory  of  Fergusson '  may  be  at 
once  disposed  of  He  identifies  the  sepul- 
chre of  Christ  with  the  "  dome  of  the 
rock,"  commonly  called  the  Mosque  of 

'  Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine  (1841)  ; 
Later  Researches  (1856). 

2  See  his  Holj/  City  (1849),  a  work  of 
immense  research. 

*  Kssay  on  the  Ancient  Topography  of 
Jerusalem,  1847. 


HOLY  PLACES 


HOLY  PLACES 


439 


Omar,  in  the  middle  of  the  Temple  area,  j 
This  extravngant  notion  has  found  few- 
supporters,  and  the  latest  researches  have 
entirely  exploded  it.  Lieut.  Warren  (now 
Sir  Charles  Warren),  who  laboured  three 
years  in  Jerusalem  (1867-1870)  for  the 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  after  passing 
under  review  all  the  known  facts,  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  Jewish  temple 
stood  in  the  middle  of  the  Temple  area ; 
"where,  in  fact,  Jewish,  Christian,  and 
Mohammedan  tradition  all  unite  in  placing 
it."'  '  Capt.  Conder,  n  well-known  worker 
in  the  same  field,  came  to  the  same  con- 
clusion. But  if  the  site  of  the  Temple  be 
identified  with  that  of  the  Mosque  of 
Omar,  it  is  obvious  that  the  sites  of 
Golgotha  and  the  Holy  Sepulchre  — 
which  Scripture  tells  us  (John  xix.  41) 
were  close  together — must  be  looked  for 
elsewhere.  Kor  does  the  theory  of  Conder 
require  much  consideration.  That  inde- 
fatigable explorer,  after  plunging  into  a 
maze  of  difficulties  connected  with  frag- 
ments of  old  walls,  and  subterranean 
drains,  and  the  ancient  lie  of  the  ground, 
thought  that  he  had  found  a  way  out  of 
them  by  placing  the  Holy  Sepulchre  far 
away  to  the  north,  outside  the  present  city 
wall.  If  he  had  had  a  little  more  respect 
for  local  tradition,  he  would  hardly  have 
been  so  adventurous.  Scarcely  anyone 
doubts  that  the  present  site  is  that  which 
Oonstantine  and  the  bishop  of  Jerusalem 
in  his  day  believed  to  be  the  true  one. 
If  the  true  site  was  away  where  Capt. 
Conder  puts  it,  Constantine  and  Macarius 
must  have  known  the  fact,  and  what 
motive  could  they  have  in  pitching  upon 
a  false  site  in  preference  to  the  true  one  ? 
Even  had  they  wished  to  do  so,  could  they 
have  outraged  the  devout  associations  of 
the  Christian  community  of  Jerusalem, 
who  must  have  known  the  true  site  as 
well  as  their  bishop? 

The  objections  of  Robinson,  tending  to 
throw  doubt  on  the  traditional  site  rather 
than  to  suggest  any  other,  are  more  serious. 
His  contention  is  that  whereas  it  is  certain 
from  the  language  of  Scripture  (Matt, 
xxvii.  32,  Mark  xv.  20,  John  xix.  17,  20, 
Hebr.  xiii.  12)  that  the  place  where  Jesus 
was  crucified  was  outside  the  city,  this 
cannot  have  been  true  of  the  place  where 
now  rises  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre. The  present  aspect  of  Jerusalem, 
showing  that  church  surrounded  by  build- 
ings, and  far  within  the  modern  city  wall, 
lends  a  certain  plausibility  to  the  objection. 

1  Twenty-one  Years'  Work  in  the  Holy  Land 
(Pal.  Exploration  Fund),  1886. 


This  consideration,  however,  is  of  no  real 
force,  for  no  one  supposes  that  the  present 
distribution  of  the  buildings  of  the  city  is 
not  very  different  from  that  which  j)re- 
vailedat  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  and  the 
modern  wall  was  erected  many  centuries 
later.  But  Dr.  Robinson  argues  that  the 
language  of  Josephus  is  almost  incom- 
patible with  the  assumption  that  the  tra- 
ditional site  was  outside  the  wall  as  it 
stood  at  the  date  of  the  Crucifixion.  At 
the  time  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus 
three  walls  protected  the  city  on  tho  north 
side.  About  the  course  of  tlie  first  there 
is  little  difference  of  opinion ;  it  ran 
from  the  tower  of  Hippicus  on  the  west 
nearly  in  a  straight  line  across  to  the 
Temple  enclosure  on  the  east.  It  is 
about  the  course  of  the  second  wall  tliat 
the  main  controversy  is  waged.  Josephus 
says  that  it  left  the  first  wall  at  the  gate 
called  Gennath,  and,  "  encircling  the 
northern  quarter"  of  the  city,  reached 
as  far  as  tlie  tower  Antonia.^  The  posi- 
tion of  Gennath  is  uncertain,  but  it  is 
generally  believed  to  have  been  near 
Hippicus,  and  not  far  from  the  Jafi'a  gate. 
If  it  ran  nearly  straight  thence  to  the 
tower  of  Antonia,  at  the  nortli-west 
corner  of  the  Temple  area,  the  second 
wall  would  have  excluded  the  received 
site  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  were  much  curved,  it  must 
have  included  it.  Robinson  and  Conder 
maintain  that  it  must  have  been  con- 
siderably curved,  so  as  to  include  the 
large  suburb  which  had  gradually  sprung 
up  to  the  north  of  the  first  wall.  It 
would  in  that  case  have  included  within 
its  sweep  the  ground  on  which  stands 
the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  wliieh 
cannot,  therefore,  be  the  true  extra-urban 
site  required  by  the  words  of  Scripture. 
But  Sir  Charles  Warren  and  Mr. 
Williams  maintain  that  the  second  wall 
(see  diagram)  ran  in  such  a  manner  as 
clearly  to  leave  the  traditional  site  out- 
side  of  it.  According  to  the  first  view, 
Constantine  and  Bishop  Macarius  were 
either  mistaken  or  deceivers;  according 
to  the  second  view,  they  were  right  in 
what  they  thought  and  did,  and  have 
been  trustworthy  guides  to  posterity. 
That  this  last  is  the  more  reasonable 
opinion  is  now  believed  by  the  majority 
of  inquirers,  and  probably  in  course  of 
time  it  will  cease  to  be  much  disputed.* 

I  Jo8.  IFarsofthe  Jews,  v.  4. 

'  The  testimony  of  a  scholar  so  eminent  a» 
Tischendorff  is  worth  citing.  He  wrote  to  Mr. 
Williams  {Holy  City,  i.  p.  x):  "I  think  it 


440        .  HOLY  PLACES 


TTOLT  PLACES 


The  third  wall   of  Josephus '  was  ' 
built  about  eleven  years  after  the  Cruci- 
fixion, by  Herod  Agrippa ;  no  one  doubts 
that  it  included  the  traditional  site  with-  I 
in  it.  I 

Assuming  now  that  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre  may  correspond  with 
the  true  sites  of  the  Passion  and  Resur- 
rection of  Christ,  we  have  still  to  trace 
its  history,  so  as  to  ascertain  the  degree 
of  firmness  with  which  one  may  hold  the 
belief  that  it  is  the  true  site,  and  then  to 
give  a  brief  description  of  what  the  church 
contains.  1 

That  from  the  very  first  the  places 
(vhere  Jesus  was  crucified  and  rose  again  I 
were  visited  and  reverenced  by  many,  if 
not   the  majority,  of  the  Christians  of 
Jerusalem    it   is  impossible   to   doubt.  '< 
There  may  have  been  some  among  them  ' 
who,  like  the  Puritans  and  Quakers  of  ' 
later  times,  found  or  fancied  their  faith  | 
so  firm  as  to  be  independent  of  external  ' 
aids.    But  to  the  majority  the  tomb,  the 
pillar,  the  inscription,  the   fixed  feast, 
the  annual  rite,  were  powerful  helps  to  \ 
that  devotion  which  aimed  at  bringing 
the  facts  of  the  Passion  and  the  lives  of 
the   martyrs   more   vividly  before  the 
mind,  and  arousing  for  these  last  an  imi- 
tative enthusiasm.     "  His  sepulchre  is 
with  us  to  this  present  day."  *  This 
meant  much  to  the  Jews,  whom  St.  Peter 
reminded  of  it,  and  considerations  of  the 
like  order,  in  spite  of  Puritanism,  mean  | 
much  to  us  to-day.     Some  forty  years 
after  the  Crucifixion  occurred  the  siege 
and  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  During 
the  siege  the  Christians  in  the  city  with- 
drew to  Pella,  on  the  other  side  of  the  j 
Jordan ;    but  the   time  was   not   long  i 
enough  to  cause  a  break  in  their  re-  i 
collections.     Moreover,  in  spite  of  the 
hideous    devastation    and  destruction 
which  followed  the  coll!q>se  of  the  Jewish 
resistance,  we  must  remember  that  no 
rapine  or  violence  could  injure  the  rock 
of  Golgotha,  nor  the  tombs  in  the  neigh- 
bouring garden.  The  Jewish  revolt  under 
Barcochebas,  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor 
Hadrian,  was  the  occasion,  when  sup- 
pressed, of  an  order  prohibiting  all  Jews 
from  entering  the  city  ;  but  this  did  not 
extend  to  the  Christians,  whom,  up  to  a 
certain  point,  Hadrian  was  disposed  to 
favour.    He  was  resolved,  however,  to 

will  be  in  futiu'e  difficult  to  dispute  that 
authenticity  [viz.  of  the  traditional  site  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre]  upon  reasonable  grounds." 
1  Loc.  cit. 
Acts  IL  2». 


make  Jerusalem  a  completely  Roman 
city ;  he  renamed  it  .^lia  Capitolina,  after 
himself  and  the  Capitoline  Jupiter ;  and 
we  may  reasonably  accept  the  testimony  of 
Sulpicius  Severus — writing  towards  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century — to  the  efiect 
that  Hadrian  profaned  by  pagan  statues 
both  the  site  of  the  Temple  and  the 
sacred  localities  of  (/hrist's  Passion.'  It 
is  therefore  to  the  reign  of  Hadrian  that 
the  origin  may  probably  be  referred  of 
the  state  of  things  described  by  Eusebius. 
The  Bishop  of  Caesarea,  in  his  "  Life  of 
Constantine,"  tells  us  that  when  the  first 
Christian  emperor  resolved  to  build  a 
church  at  Jerusalem  on  or  near  the  site 
of  the  Passion,  that  site  was  found  to  be 
covered  over  by  a  huge  mound  of  earth, 
which  "  impious  and  godless  men,"  de- 
siring to  efl'ace  the  memory  of  all  that  is 
most  precious  to  Christians,  had  heaped 
up  over  it,  crowning  this  mound  with  a 
statue  of  Venus.  Constantine  caused  the 
earth  to  be  removed ;  the  rock  tomb  from 
which  Jesus  had  risen  was  found  un- 
injured beneath  it;  architects  were  en- 
gaged ;  and  by  the  year  a.d.  335  "  the 
entire  site"  —  including  the  place  where 
Helena  found  the  cross,  the  Golgotha, 
and  the  cave  of  the  Sepulchre,  with  the 
intervening  ground — "  was  occupied  by 
a  symmetrical  mass  of  building."  But 
the  place  of  the  Resurrection,  surrounded 
on  three  sides  by  porticos,  and  having 
the  Basilica  of  the  Saviour  on  the  east 
side,  was  left  open  to  the  air.  In  614 
Jerusalem  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Persians,  who  set  the  basilica  on  fire, 
and  committed  every  sort  of  devastation. 
"When  they  had  retired,  the  Bishop 
Modestus  at  once  undertook  the  task  of 
rebuilding ;  but  now,  instead  of  the  vast 
pile  of  Constantine,  three  edifices  arose, 
which  the  description  of  Arculfus,  a 
French  bishop  who  was  at  Jerusalem 
towards  the  end  of  the  seventh  century, 
and  was  questioned  on  the  subject  by  the 
Irish  Adamnan,  brings  very  clearly  be- 
fore us. 


1.  Tlie  Church  of  Constant  uie,  or  Martyrinm. 

2.  The  (Jhureh  of  Uulgotha. 

3.  The  Cliurch  of  tlie  Resurrei-tion. 


I  Sulp.  Sev..  quoted  in  Merivale's  History 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  viii.  178. 

»  Willis,  in  Williams'  Holy  City,  ii.  257. 


HOLY  PLACES 


HOLT  PLACES  441 


Nearly  in  this  condition  the  three 
churches  remained  till  the  era  of  the 
Crusades.  After  Jerusalem  was  taken 
by  Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  great  building 
works  were  undertaken,  and  the  result, 
speaking  generally,  is  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre  as  we  now  see  it ; 
the  three  churches  mentioned  by  Arcul- 
fus  being  no« ,  so  to  speak,  fused  into  one 
spacious  basilica,  containing  both  Gol- 
gotha and  the  Holy  Sepulchre  beneath 
its  roof.  A  fire  in  1808  did  much  damage 
to  the  edifice,  but  it  was  repaired  within 
two  years. 

Aided  by  the  diagram  here  given, 
the  reader  may  easily  understand  the 


I  Golgotha.  In  one  of  these  chapels  is 
shown  a  hole  in  the  rock,  in  which  the 
cross  which  bore  our  Saviour  is  said  to 
have  been  fixed. 

Towards  the  eastern  end  of  the 
church,  which  is  called  the  Rotunda, 
from  the  semicircular  row  of  columns 
round  it — placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
pavement — is  the  small  Chapel  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre.  It  is  about  twenty-six 
feet  long  by  eighteen  broad,  and  con- 
tains two  small  chambers,  to  which  the 
only  approach  is  by  a  door  on  the  ea<t 
side.  The  outer  chamber  is  called  the 
"Chapel  of  the  Ansjel,"  the  inner  one  is 
the   Sepulchre.     The  "Chapel  of  the 


L  Holv  Sepnlehre, 

f.  Pillar  of  Flagellation. 

».  Chapel  of  Helena. 

4.  riace  where  the  Cross  was  1 

5.  Altar  of  the  Franks. 


6.  Place  of  the  Cross. 

7.  Stairs  to  Golgotha. 

8.  Place  where  Christ  appeared  1 

Magdalene. 


I  Mary 


mutual  topographical  relations  of  the  i 
chief  sites.  The  general  slope  of  the  I 
ground  is  from  west  to  east ;  twenty-  j 
nine  steps  lead  down  from  the  Greek 
church  into  the  Chapel  of  Helena,  at 
the  south-eastern  end  of  which  twelve 
more  steps  descend  to  the  place  where  | 
Helena  found  the  cross.  The  rock,  or  1 
"  monticulus  "  of  Golgotha,  now  encased  I 
in  masonry,  rises  considerably  above  ' 
the  floor  of  the  Greek  church  ;  it  there- 
fore has  to  be  separately  shown  on  the 
diagram.  Eighteen  steps,  beginning  at 
the  point  marked  (7),  lead  up  from  the 
floor  of  the   basilica  to  the  chapels  of 


Angel "  is  regarded  as  the  place  where 
the  angel  appeared  to  the  wdmen  who 
were  coming  to  the  sepulchre  on  the 
morning  of  Easter-day.  All  that  it 
contains  is  a  portion  of  a  marble  slab, 
said  to  be  the  very  stone  which  closed 
the  sepulchre,  and  on  which,  after  he 
had  rolled  it  away  (Matt,  xxviii.  2), 
the  angel  sat.  A  narrow  low  door 
leads  out  of  the  chapel  into  a  sort  of 
grotto,  only  seven  feet  by  six,  and  eight 
or  nine  feet  high.  More  tlian  half  of 
this  confined  space  is  occupied  by  '■  a 
kind  of  altar  or  pedestal,"  not  quite  three 
feet  high,  "  which  covers  and  protects 


442  HOLY  PLACES 


HOLY  PLACES 


the  real  sepulchral  couch  where  the 
body  of  our  Lord  was  laid."'  The 
whole  of  this  inmost  chamber,  this 
penetrale  of  the  Christian  religion,  is 
now  cased  with  marble ;  but  there  can 
be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the  marble 
slabs  veil  and  screen  the  actual  natural 
rock  of  the  "new  tomb"  in  which 
Jesus,  after  the  deposition  from  the 
Cross,  was  laid.^ 

2.  Nazareth  lies  in  a  basin  of  gently 
rounded  hills,  near  the  northern  edge  of 
the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon,  about  half- 
way between  the  lake  of  Gennesareth 
and  the  sea.  "  It  is  a  rich  and  beautiful 
field  in  the  midst  of  these  green  hills — 
abounding  in  gay  flowers,  in  fig  trees, 
small  gardens,  hedges  of  the  prickly  pear ; 
and  the  dense  rich  grass  aifords  an  abun- 
dant pasture"  (Stanley's  "  Palestine,"  357). 

It  was  at  Nazareth  that  the  annun- 
ciation of  tlie  future  birth  of  her  Divine 
Son  was  made  to  our  Lady  by  the  angel 
Gabriel  (Luke  i.  28-38).  but  the  exact 
place  is  disputed  between  the  Greeks 
and  Latins.  The  former  maintain  that 
it  was  near  the  well  at  the  eastern  end 
of  the  village,  whence  the  women  of 
Nazareth  draw  water  to  this  day.  They 
support  their  opinion  by  reference  to  the 
apocryphal  gospel  of  St.  James  ("  Prot- 
evang.  Jacobi,"  cap.  ii.),  where  it  is  said 
that  the  angel  saluted  Mary  as  she  was 
drawing  water  from  the  spring  near  the 
town.  But  the  belief  of  the  Latins  in 
the  genuineness  of  their  site  rests  upon  a 
stronger  and  fuller  tradition.  Whether 
the  statement  of  Nicephorus  (a  Byzan- 
tine writer  of  the  fourteenth  century  ') 
be  correct  or  not,  that  Helena  built  a 
stately  church  at  Nazareth  over  the  house 
of  Mary,  it  is  certain  that  pilgrimage  was 
made  to  the  spot  from  an  early  period. 
The  same  Arculfus  whose  report  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  given  to  Adamnan  we 
have  quoted  above  says  that  he  found 
two  churches  at  Nazareth,  and  that 
one  of  them  was  "at  the  place  where 
the  house  had  been  built  in  which  the 
archangel  Gabriel,  finding  her  alone,"  had 
addressed  the  Blessed  Virgin.  After  the 
first  crusade,  the  brave  Tancred,  to  whom 
the  government  of  Galilee  had  been  com- 
mitted, is  said  to  have  enriched  the 
church  at  Nazareth  with  many  donations 

>  Williams'  Holy  City,  ii.  160. 

2  Full  details  may  be  found  in  Williams' 
Holy  City,  Murray's  Handbook  for  Syria  and 
Palestine,  and  many  other  works. 

s  Quoted  in  Archbishop  Kenrick's  worli  on 
Loreto  ;  see  that  article. 


(Kenrick,  p.  20).  What  Phocas  saw  here 
in  1185  is  related  under  the  article 
LoEETO ;  where  also  is  given  the  later 
history  of  the  church,  down  to  the  removal 
of  the  Santa  Casa  in  121)1. 

A  grotto  within  the  church  of  the 
Franciscan  convent  at  Nazareth  is 
believed  by  the  Latins  to  have  been  the 
scene  of  the  Annunciation  This  convent, 
"  the  most  prominent  building  "  in  Naza^ 
reth,  "  stands  on  a  spur  of  the  hill  which 
projects  some  little  distance  into  the  green 
plain"  (Murray).  Through  the  great  gate 
the  stranger  is  admitted  into  a  square 
court,  on  the  opposite  side  of  which  is 
the  church.  The  interior  of  the  church 
forms  nearly  a  square  of  seventy  feet. 
From  the  pavement  a  broad  marble  stair- 
case of  fifteen  steps  leads  down  to  the 
grotto.  First  there  is  a  vestibule, 
twenty-five  feet  by  ten,  where,  it  is 
believed,  the  house  of  Mary  formerly 
stood,  and  whence  it  was  removed  in  1 291 
[LoKExo].  From  the  vestibule  "  a  low 
arched  opening,  opposite  the  stairs,  admits 
to  the  sanctum,  about  the  same  dimensions 
as  the  vestibule  "  (Murray).  Here  is  an 
altar  of  white  marble,  with  a  fine  picture 
of  the  Annunciation  over  it ;  below  it 
is  a  marble  slab,  on  which  are  carved 
a  large  cross,  and  the  words  "  Verbum 
caro  hie  factum  est."  Not  far  ofi"  is  a 
large  pillar,  said  to  mark  the  spot  where 
the  angel  stood  during  the  Annunciation ; 
and  another  pillar,  broken  in  the  middle, 
where  Mary  is  said  to  have  stood  at  the 
same  time.  Many  other  interesting  locali- 
ties are  pointed  out  by  the  Franciscan 
fathers,  respecting  which  we  must  refer 
to  the  work  of  Father  Geramb  ■ ;  the 
chief  facts  are  also  given  in  Murray's 
"  Handbook  for  Syria  and  Palestine." 

3.  The  place  of  the  Nativity  of  Jesus 
Christ  was  already  reported  by  Justin 
Martyr,^  in  the  middle  of  the  second 
century,  to  have  been  "  a  cave  near 
Bethlehem."  The  apocryphal  gospels 
uniformly  adhere  to  the  tradition  of  a 
cave ;  and  it  is  further  confirmed  by  the 
reference  of  Eusebius  ("  Vit.  Const."  iii. 
43)  to  the  "places  renowned  by  two 
mystical  caves,"  the  sites  of  the  Nativity 
and  the  Ascension,  which  Constantino 
and  his  mother  took  especial  care  to 
adorn  with  all  the  splendour  that  the 
resources  of  architectiu-e  could  supply. 
Bethlehem  is  on  high  ground,  about  seven 
miles  south  of  Jerusalem.  "The  Con- 
vent of  the  Nativity  is  an  enormous  pile  of 

•  Pelerinage  d  Jerusalem,  1853. 

»  Trypho,  78. 


HOLY  PLACES 


HOLT  PLACES  443 


buildings,  extending  along  the  ridge  of  the 
hill  from  west  to  east,  and  consisting  of  the 
Church  of  the  Nativity,  with  the  three  con- 
vents (Latin,  Greek,  and  Armenian)  abut- 
ting respectively  on  its  north-east,  south- 
«ast,  and soutli-western extremities." '  The 
nave  of  the  church,  which  is  the  common 
property  of  all  the  sects,  still  remains  to 
•a  great  extent  as  Helena's  architect  left 
it.  But  the  impression  of  the  noble 
building,  with  its  marble  columns  and 
mosaics,  is  marred,  says  Schulz,^  by  a 
whitewashed  wall,  by  which  the  Greeks 
in  1842  cut  off  the"  transept  and  apse 
■(which  belong  to  them  exclusively)  from 
the  rest  of  the  church.  There  are  five 
aisles,  of  which  the  chief  and  central 
one  leads  up  to  the  apse  ;  the  others  end 
At  the  wall  above  mentioned.  "  Under 
the  high  altar  before  the  apse  belonging 
to  the  Greeks  ....  is  the  sanctuary 
proper,  the  place  of  the  Nativity,  to 
which  two  marble  staircases,  north  and 
south,  lead  down  from  the  choir.  It  is 
a  cave  under  the  transept,  about  three 
metres  high,  twelve  long,  and  three  and 
A  half  broad,  lighted  with  thirty-two 
lamps ;  its  pavement  and  walls  are  covered 
with  white,  black,  and  red-veined  marble 
slabs.  At  the  eastern  end  is  a  recess, 
and  under  the  altar  thereof  there  sparkles 
in  the  light  of  fifteen  lamps  a  star,  set 
close  to  the  ground,  with  fourteen  rays, 
and  several  inlaid  glittering  stones.  It 
bears  the  inscription,  'Hie  de  Virgine 
Maria  Jesus  Christus  natus  est '  "  Near 
the  foot  of  the  southern  staircase  "one 
descends  by  three  steps  into  the  Chapel 
of  the  Manger  (prresepe).  The  manger 
is  now  of  marble  ;  the  earlier  [or  original] 
wooden  one  was  taken  by  Sixtus  IV.  to 
Rome  in  1486,"  and  may  now  be  seen 
in  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore. 
^'  In  the  same  chapel  is  also  the  altar  of 
the  'Adoration  of  the  Magi,'  and  from 
the  west  end  of  the  principal  cave  a 
narrow  passage  leads  "  to  the  place  where 
St.  Joseph  is  said  to  have  received  the 
-command  to  flee  into  Egypt,  to  the 
Chapel  of  the  Innocents,  the  tombs  of 
Paula  and  Eustochium,  and  the  cell 
where  St.  Jerome  laboured  at  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible.  Some  way  off  is 
the  "  Grotto  of  the  Shepherds,"  said  to 
mark  the  place  where  the  shepherds  on 
Christmas  night  saw  the  great  light  and 
the  angelic  company. 

4.  The  traditional  site  of  the  Ascen- 
fiion  of  Christ  into  heaven  is  now  marked 

>  Stanley's  Palestine,  432. 

*  Quoted  in  Herzog,  art.  "  Bethlehem." 


by  the  Chapel  of  the  Ascension  on  the 
top  of  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Re.-jpecting 
this  site  objections  have  been  raised. 
"It  is  clear,"  writes  Dean  Stanley,' 
"from  the  language  of  Eusebius,  that 
the  traditional  site  which  Helena  meant 
to  honour  was  not  the  scene  of  the 
Ascension  its'elf,  but  the  scene  of  tlie  con- 
versations [between  Christ  and  the 
apostles]  before  the  Ascension."  But  the 
words  of  Eusebius  warrant  no  such  con- 
clusion. Constantine,  he  says  ("  Vit. 
Const."  iii. 41, 4.3), adorned  "other places" 
(besides  the  scene  of  the  Resurrection), 
paying  reverence  to  the  cave  of  the 
Nativity,  "  and  for  the  cave  of  the  as- 
sumption (ai'aXi}\|/'f&)f)  into  heaven  digni- 
fying  the  memory  on  the  hill-top."  Again 
(c.  43),  "  The  Emperor's  mother  ennobled 
with  lofty  buildings  the  memory  of  the 
passing  into  heaven  of  the  Saviour  of  the 
world  upon  the  Mount  of  Olives,  raising 
the  sacred  edifice  of  a  church  above,  along 
the  summit  of  the  whole  mountain  ;  and 
there  a  true  tradition  holds,  that  in  that 
very  cave  the  Saviour  of  thp  world  ini- 
tiated His  disciples  in  the  inefl'able  rites." 
It  is  plain  from  these  words  that  Eusebius 
conceived  the  cave  on  the  top  of  Olivet 
to  have  been  the  scene  both  of  the 
Ascension  and  of  the  previous  conver- 
sations. 

Another  objection,  raised  by  Dr. 
Robinson  ("Bibl.  Researches,"  ii.  77),  is 
founded  on  the  language  of  Scripture. 
He  thinks  that  the  Christian  tradition 
which  places  the  scene  of  the  Ascension 
on  the  top  of  the  Mount  of  Olives  is 
certainly  wrong,  because  inconsistent  with 
Luke  xxiv.  50,  "  He  led  them  out  as  far  as 
Bethania."  The  village  of  Bethany  is 
about  one  mile  farther  from  Jerusalem 
than  the  top  of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  to 
the  eastward  :  and  in  its  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood Robinson,  Stanley,  and  others 
would  look  for  the  scene  of  the  Ascension. 
But  there  is  another  important  passage, 
viz.  Acts  i.  12,  which  tells  us  that,  imme- 
diately after  witnessing  the  Ascension,  the 
disciples  "returned  to  Jerusalem  from 
the  mount  called  Olivet,  which  is  nigh 
Jerusalem,  within  a  Sabbath  day's  jour- 
ney." What  other  conclusion  can  be 
drawn  from  these  words  but  that  the 
Ascension  took  place  on  Mount  Olivet  ? 
What  would  have  been  the  sense  of 
specifying  the  distance  of  Olivet  from 
Jerusalem,  if  in  fact  the  Ascension  had 
not  happened  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  at 
all,  but  somewhere  "among  the  retired 
»  Syria  and  Palestine,  448. 


444  HOLY  WATER 


HOLY  WEEK 


uplands  immediately  overhanging  the 
village  "  1  of  Bethany  P  Everything  being 
taken  into  consideration,  the  probability 
in  favour  of  the  traditional  site  being  the 
true  and  Scriptural  one,  as  well  as  the  one 
accepted  by  Helena,  appears  to  be  over- 
whelming. In  the  passage  from  Luke 
xxiv.  "Bethany,"  as  Lightfoot  long  ago 
suggested,  must  be  understood  to  mean 
"  the  district  of  Bethany,"  which  might 
very  well  have  commenced  on  the  summit 
of  Mount  Olivet. 

The  Chapel  of  the  Ascension,  a  pro- 
minent object  on  the  ridge  of  the  Mount 
of  Olives,  which  rises  175  Paris  feet  above 
the  city,  is  now  in  Mussulman  hands.  At 
the  present  day  no  trace  remains  of  the 
cave  mentioned  by  Eusebius.  The  church 
built  by  Helena  has  long  since  disap- 
peared, though  it  seems  to  have  been 
still  standing  in  the  time  of  Maundeville. 
The  present  chapel  is  a  small  octagonal 
structure  within  a  paved  court.  In  the 
chapel  is  shown  the  rock  said  to  be  im- 
printed with  the  footsteps  of  Christ — 
His  last  on  earth.  There  is  now,  it  is 
said,  no  resemblance  to  a  foot ;  what  is 
seen  is  merely  a  rudely  oblong  cavity. 
Arculfus  speaks  of  two  footmarks ;  at  pre- 
sent only  one  is  shown.'^ 

HO£Y  WATER  (aqua  benedicta). 
Washing  with  water  is  a  natural  symbol 
of  spiritual  purification.  "  I  will  pour  out 
upon  you,"  says  God  by  the  prophet 
Ezechiel,  xxvi.  25,  "  clean  water,  and  you 
shall  be  clean."  In  the  tabernacle  a  laver 
was  placed  in  the  court  between  the  altar 
and  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  for  the 
priests  to  wash  their  hands  and  feet  before 
offering  sacrifice ;  and  the  later  Jews,  as 
may  be  inferred  from  Mark  vii.  3,  deve- 
loped the  frequent  washing  of  the  hands 
into  a  matter  of  ritual  observance.  If  we 
look  into  a  modern  Jewish  prayer-book, 
we  find  the  same  importance  attached  to 
ritual  ablutions,  and  in  particular  washing 
of  the  hands  is  prescribed  before  prayer. 
The  use  of  the  "  aqua  lustralis  "  with  which 
the  Romans  sprinkled  themselves  or  were 
sprinkled  by  the  priestshows  thatthesame 
symbolism  existed  among  the  heathen. 

A  like  custom,  beautiful  and  natural 
in  itself,  though  of  course  it  may  degene- 
rate and  often  has  degenerated  into  super- 
stition, has  been  adopted  by  the  Church. 
Water  and  salt  are  exorcised  by  the  priest 
and  so  withdrawn  from  the  power  of 

1  Murray's  Palestine,  187. 

2  This  descri|ition  of  the  Chapel  of  the 
Ascension  ia  abridged  from  that  in  Mun-aj-, 
p.  178. 


Satan,  who,  since  the  fall,  has  corrupted 
and  abused  even  inanimate  things  ;  prayers 
are  said  that  the  water  and  salt  may 
promote  the  spiritual  and  temporal  health 
of  those  to  whom  they  are  applied,  and 
may  drive  away  the  devil  with  his  rebel 
angels  ;  and  finally  the  water  and  salt  are 
mingled  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity.  The 
water  thus  blessed  becomes  a  nieans  of 
grace.  Even  common  water,  if  devoutly 
used  as  a  memento  of  the  purity  of  heart 
which  God  requires,  might  well  prove 
useful  for  the  health  of  the  soul.  But  as 
the  Church  has  blessed  holy  water  with 
solemn  prayers,  we  may  be  sure  that  God, 
who  answers  the  petitions  of  His  Church, 
will  not  fail  to  increase  the  charity,  con- 
trition, &c.,  of  those  who  use  it,  and  to 
assist  them  in  their  contests  with  the 
po^'ers  of  evU.  The  reader  will  observe 
that  we  do  not  attribute  to  holy  water 
any  virtue  of  its  own.  It  is  efficacious 
simply  because  the  Church's  prayers  take 
efl'ect  at  the  time  it  is  used. 

Holy  water  is  placed  at  the  door  of 
the  church  in  order  that  the  faithful  may 
sprinkle  themselves  with  it  as  they  enter, 
accompanying  the  outward  rite  with  in- 
ternal acts  of  sorrow  and  love.  Before 
the  High  Mass  on  Sundays  the  celebrant 
sprinkles  the  people  with  holy  water  ;  and 
holy  water  is  employed  in  nearly  every 
blessing  which  the  Church  gives.  And  at 
all  times,  on  rising  and  going  to  bed,  leav- 
ing the  house  or  returning  home,  in  temp- 
tation and  in  sickness,  pious  Catholics 
use  holy  water. 

The  use  of  holy  water  among  Chris- 
tians must  be  very  ancient,  for  the 
Apostolical  Constitutions  (viii.  28,  ed. 
Lagarde)  contain  a  formula  for  blessing 
water  that  it  may  have  power  "  to  give 
health,  drive  away  diseases,  put  the 
demons  to  flight,"  &c.  But  there  does 
not  seem  to  be  any  evidence  that  it  was 
customary  for  the  priest  to  sprinkle  the 
people  with  holy  water  before  the  ninth 
century. 

HOI.Y  WEEK.  The  week  in  which 
the  Cliurch  commemorates  Christ's  death 
and  burial,  and  which  is  spoken  of  by 
ancient  writers  as  the  Great,  the  Holy 
Week,  the  Week  of  the  Holy  Passion 

(tcoi/  ayltov  nadaiv,  tov  aaiTrjpinv  ira&ovs, 
Trd  T^a  oravpoxTi/ioi/),  the  Penal  Week,  the 
Week  of  Forgiveness  (hebdomas  indul- 
gent.iee).  The  observance  of  Holy  Week 
is  mentioned  by  Irenaeus  (apud  Euseb. 
"  H.  E."  V.  24),  towards  the  end  of  the 
second  century;  while  Eusebius  (ii.  17) 
evidently  believed  that  the  custom  of 


HOLT  WEEK 

keeping  Holy  Week  dated  from  Apostolic 
times.  In  the  East,  Holy  Week  was  dis- 
tinguished from  the  rest  of  Lent  by  the 
extreme  strictness  of  the  fast.  Thus 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  in  his  Epistle  to 
Basilides,  tells  us  that  some  Chi'istiaTis 
kept  an  absolute  fast  the  whole  week, 
others  did  so  for  one,  two,  three  or  four 
days.'  Epiphanius,  in  his  exposition  of  the 
orthodox  faith,  says  much  the  same.  In 
the  Latin  Church  (according  to  Tliomiis- 
sin,  "  Traits  des  Jeunes,"  p.  50),  it  is 
difficult  to  discern  any  proof  that  the  fast 
of  Holy  Week  exceeded  the  strictness  of 
the  ordinary  Lenten  fast. 

We  have  said  that  in  Holy  Week  the 
Church  commemorates  Christ's  Passion, 
and  it  may  be  objected  that  the  definition 
is  incomplete,  since  on  Palm  Sunday,  the 
first  day  of  Holy  Week,  it  is  Christ's 
triumphant  entry  into  Jerusalem  which  is 
chiefly  contemplated.  But,  in  fact,  Holy 
Week  begins  with  the  Monday,  not  with 
the  Sunday.  At  least  this  is  the  reckon- 
ing of  St.  Cyril,  Theophilus  and  St. 
Epiphanius,  quoted  by  Routh  in  his 
"  Reliqulfe  Sacrae  "  (torn.  ii.  p.  62).  We 
therefore  reserve  our  account  of  Palm 
Sunday  for  a  special  article,  and  confine 
otirselves  here  to  the  ceremonies  of  Holy 
Week. 

The  Tenehrce. — Tliis  is  the  name  given 
to  the  matins  and  lauds  of  the  following 
day,  which  are  usually  sung  on  the  after- 
noon or  evening  of  Wednesday,  Thursday, 
and  Friday  in  Holy  Week.  The  "  Gloria 
Patri "  at  the  end  of  the  Psalms  and  in 
the  responsories,  the  hymns,  antiphons 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  &c.,  are  omitted  in 
sign  of  sorrow.  The  lessons  of  the  first 
nocturn  are  taken  from  the  Lamentations 
of  Jeremias,  the  Hebrew  letter  which 
begins  each  verse  in  these  acrostic  ^  poems 
being  retained  in  L.itin.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  office  fifteen  lighted  candles 
are  placed  on  a  triangular  candelabrum, 
and  at  the  end  of  each  psalm  one  is  put 
out,  till  only  a  single  candle  is  left  lighted 
at  the  top  of  the  triangle.  During  the 
singing  of  the  Benedictus  the  candles  on 
the  high  altar  are  extinguished,  while  at 
the  antiphon  after  the  Benedictus  the 
single  candle  left  alight  is  hidden  at  the 
Epistle  comer  of  the  altar,  to  be  brought 

'  This  strictest  form  of  fasting,  which  im- 
plied a  total  abstinence  from  food  till  the 
(biwn  of  the  next  day,  was  called  uirepfletrij  or 
tuperpositia. 

-  I.e.  acrostic  in  the  original  Hebrew.  Xo 
•ittempt  is  made  to  preserve  the  acrostic  in  the 
Vxdgate. 


HOLY  WEEK  446 

oat  again  at  the  end  of  the  office.  This 
extinction  of  lights  (whence  probably  the 
name  tenebrfe  or  darkness)  is  best  ex- 
plained by  Amalarius  Fortunatus,  who 
wrote  in  820.  It  figures,  he  says,  the 
growing  darkness  of  the  time  when  Christ 
the  Light  of  the  world  was  taken.  The 
last  caudle,  according  to  Benedict  XIV., 
is  hidden,  not  extingiii>hed,  to  signify  that 
death  could  not  really  obtain  dominion 
over  Christ,  though  it  apjieared  to  do. 
The  clapping  madr  at  the  end  of  the 
office  is  said  to  syniliolise  the  confusion 
consequent  on  Christ's  deatli. 

Holy  Thttrsdaij. — On  this  day  one 
Ma?s  only  can  be  said  in  the  same  church, 
and  that  Mass  must  be  a  public  one. 
The  Mass  is  celebrated  in  white  vest- 
ments, because  the  institution  of  the 
Eucharist  is  joyfully  commemorated,  but 
at  the  same  time  there  are  certain  signs 
of  the  mourning  proper  to  Holy  Week. 
The  bells,  which  ring  at  the  Gloria,  do 
not  soimd  again  till  the  Gloria  in  the 
Mass  of  Holy  Saturday,  and  the  Church 
returns  to  her  ancient  use  of  sumuioning 
the  faithful  or  arousing  their  attention  by 
a  wooden  clapper,  ^sor  is  the  embrace 
of  peace  given.  The  celebrant  consecrates 
an  additional  Host,  which  is  placed  in  a 
chalice  and  borne  in  procession  after  the 
Mass  to  a  place  prepared  for  it.  In 
ancient  times  this  procession  occurred 
daily,  for  there  was  no  tabernacle  over  the 
altar  for  reserving  the  particles  which  re- 
mained over  after  the  communion  of  the 
faithful.  Medifeval  writers  connect  the 
procession  with  the  Blessed  Sacrament  on 
Holy  Thursday  with  our  Lord's  journey 
to  the  Mount  of  Olive*  after  the  Last 
Supper.  The  "  Pange  lingua  "  is  sung 
during  the  procession,  and  the  place  to 
which  the  P)U'<#ed  Sari':miPnt  is  removed 
— often  called  the  SepiiK'ln-e,  but  properly 
the  altar  of  rejiose — is  decked  with  flowers 
and  lights.  Afterwards  the  altars  are 
stripped.  This  used  to  be  done,  accord- 
ing to  Vert  in  his  explanation  of  the 
ceremonies  of  the  Mass,  every  day  after 
the  celebration  of  the  sacrifice,  and  is 
retained  on  Holy  Thursday  to  remind  the 
Christians  of  the  way  in  which  their 
Master  was  stripped  of  His  garments.  In 
St.  Peter's  the  chief  altar  is  washed  with 
wine,  and  a  similar  custom  prevails 
among  the  Dominicans  and  Carmelites, 
and  in  some  churches  of  France  and  Ger- 
many.* 

The  stripping  of  the  altars  is  followed 
1  So  says  Benedict  XIV.,  speaking  of  his 
own '  ime. 


446  HOLY  WEEK 


HOLY  VTEEK 


by  the  washing  of  the  feet,  called  "  Manda- 
tum  "  from  the  words  of  the  first  antiphon 
Bung  during  the  ceremony — "  Mandatiim 
novum,"  &c.,  "  A  new  commandment  I 
give  unto  you,  that  you  love  one  another; " 
whence  our  English  word  Maundy  Thurs- 
day. The  principal  priest  or  prelate  of 
the  church,  assisted  by  deacon  and  sub- 
deacon,  washes  the  feet  of  twelve  poor 
men.  The  Pope  washes  the  feet  of  thir- 
teen poor  persons,  all  of  whom  are  priests ; 
and  some  churches  follow  the  Papal 
custom.  The  observance  of  the  Mandatum 
is  mentioned  as  a  recognised  custom,  and 
is  enforced  under  penalties,  by  the 
Twenty-second  Council  of  Toledo  in  694. 

Since  the  seventh  century  the  holy 
oils,  formerly  consecrated  at  any  time, 
have  been  blessed  by  the  bishop  in  the 
Mass  of  this  day.  Twelve  priests  and 
seven  deacons  assist  as  witnesses  of  the 
ceremony.  The  bishop  and  priests  breathe 
three  times  upon  the  oil  of  the  cate- 
chumens and  the  chrism,  meaning  by  this 
action  that  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
is  about  to  descend  on  the  oils  ;  and  after 
the  consecration  is  complete  they  salute 
the  oils  with  the  words,  "Hail,  holy  oil ; 
hail,  holy  chrism."  Another  rite  proper 
to  Holy  Thursday,  now  passed  into  dis- 
use, was  the  reconciliation  of  penitents. 
This  reconciliation  on  Holy  Thursday  is 
mentioned  by  Pope  Innocent  I.  and  St. 
Jerome.  The  ^lass  now  celebrated  is  one 
out  of  three  which  used  to  be  said,  the 
other  two  being  for  the  consecration  of 
the  chrism  and  the  reconciliation  of  peni- 
tents. 

Good  Fnday  {ndcrxa  arnvpaxrifiov, 
paraxci've,  or  nnpaa-Kfvr) — i.e.  the  day  of 
preparal  ion  for  the  Jewisli  Sabbath — ro?na 
piira,  dies  ahsolutionis,  dii;'>  Kalufarix). 
On  this  day  the  Church  commemorates 
the  Passion  of  Christ,  so  that  it  is  the 
most  sad  and  solemn  of  all  the  days  in 
Holy  Week.  The  officiating  clergy  appear 
in  black  vestments,  and  prostrate  them- 
selves bi^fore  the  all  ar,  which  still  remains 
stripped.  Nor  arc  the  candles  lighted. 
After  a  sliort  ]);iiisc,  tlii>  altar  is  covered 
with  wliite  clnlli>,  nnd  passages  of  the 
Old  Testament,  iollowed  liy  the  history 
of  tlie  Passion  from  St.  .Tolm,  are  read. 
Next  the  Church  prays  solemnly  for  all 
conditions  of  men,  for  all  the  members 
of  tlie  hierarchy,  for  the  ])ros])erity  of 
Christian  people,  for  eateeliuiiii'iis,  liere- 
tics,  Jews,  and  Pag;ni>.  r..  |'<iie  eacli 
prayer  the  sacred  miinsli  rs  t;vn;illiTt, 
except  before  that  for  the  .Jews,  when 
the  genuflection  is  omitted  in  detestation 


of  the  feigned  obeisance  with  which  the 
Jews  mocked  Christ.  When  the  prayers 
are  ended,  the  cro.«s,  which  has  been  up 
to  this  time  covered  with  black,  is  exi)o>ed 
to  view,  "  adored  "  [see  the  article  Cross] 
and  kissed  by  clergj'  and  people.  During 
the  adoration  the  "  Improperia  "  are  sung, 
each  improperium  being  followed  by  the 
Trisagion  in  Greek  and  Latin.  Impro- 
perium is  a  barbarous  word  used  by  Latin 
writers  of  a  late  age  meaning  "reproach," 
and  these  "  reproaches  "  are  addressed  in 
dramatic  form  by  Christ  to  the  Jewish 
people.  They  begin  with  the  touching 
words,  "  My  people,  what  have  I  done  to 
thee,  wherein  have  I  vexed  thee? 
.Answer  Me."  The  Trisagion  is  so  called 
because  the  word  "  holy "  occurs  three 
times  in  it :  "  Holy  God,  holy  [and] 
strong,  holy  [and]  immortal,  have  pity 
on  us."  It  was  first  introduced  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  it  is  probably  because  of 
its  Greek  origin  that  it  is  recited  in  the 
Good  Friday  office  in  Greek  as  well  as  in 
Latin. 

We  have  now  to  speak  of  the  most 
striking  and  singular  feature  in  the  Good 
Friday  ritual.  From  very  ancient  times, 
as  appears  from  the  Council  of  Laodicea, 
canon  49,  and  the  Synod  in  Trullo, 
canon  52,  the  Greek  Church  abstained 
from  the  celebration  of  Mass  in  the  ])rnper 
sense  of  the  word  during  Lent,  except  on 
Saturdays  and  Sundays,  and  substituted 
for  it  the  Mass  of  the  Presanctified,  in 
which  the  priest  received  as  communion 
a  Host  previously  consecrated.  The 
Greeks  still  observe  this  ancient  use,  but 
the  Latin  Church  contents  herself  with 
abstaining  from  the  celebration  of  Mass 
on  Good  Friday,  the  day  on  which  Christ 
was  ofti^red  as  a  bleeding  victim  for  our 
sins.  Tliis  Mass  of  the  Presanctified  on 
Good  Friday  is  mentioned  by  Pope  Inno- 
cent 1.  in  his  letter  to  Decentius.  The 
Blessed  Sacrament  is  borne  in  procession 
from  the  chapel  where  it  was  placed  the 
day  before,  while  the  choir  sing  the  hvmn 
"  Vexilla  Regis."  The  priest  places  the 
Host  on  the  altar,  the  candles  of  which 
are  now  lighted.  The  Blessed  Sacrament 
is  elevated  and  adored  while  the  wooden 
cliip])er  is  sounded;  it  is  divided  into 
tliree  parts,  one  of  which  is  put  into  a 
chalice  containing  wine  and  water. 
Finally  the  priest  n  ceives  the  jiortions  of 
tli(>  Host  which  remain  on  the  paten, and 
thcii  takes  the  wine  with  the  third  portion 
of  the  Host.  According  to  a  Roman 
Ordo  written  about  the  year  800  and 
quoted    by    Thomassin    ("  Trait(5  des 


HOLY  WEEK 


HOLY  WEEK  447 


Festes"),  the  ceremony  ended  with  the 
silent  communion  of  the  faithful;  but 
the  present  discipline  of  the  Church  for- 
bids communion  to  be  given  on  Good 
Friday  except  in  the  case  of  sickness. 

Holy  Saturday. — Before  entering  on 
the  history  of  the  ceremonies  for  this  the 
last  day  of  Holy  Week  it  is  necessary  to 
say  something  about  the  time  at  which 
they  are  performed.  We  learn  from  the 
Epistle  of  Pope  Innocent  already  quoted 
that  in  his  time  no  Mass  was  said  during 
the  day  hours  of  Holy  Saturday.  The 
office  began  at  the  ninth  hour,  i.e.  at 
three  o'clock  p.m.  ;  the  faithful  kept  vigil 
in  the  church,  and  the  Mass  celebrated 
at  midnight  belonged  rather  to  the  morn- 
ing of  Easter  Sunday  than  to  Holy  Satur- 
day. This  state  of  things  lasted  till  late 
in  the  middle  ages.  Hugo  of  St.  Victor 
(died  1140)  mentions  the  custom  then 
creeping  in  of  anticipating  the  vigil  office ; 
but  the  old  mode  of  observance  is  spoken 
of  as  still  subsisting  in  some  churches  by 
Durandus  (lived  about  1280)  and  Thomas 
Waldensis  (after  1400).  Though  the 
time  is  changed,  the  words  of  the  office 
remain  as  they  were.  This  explains  the 
joyous  character  of  the  Mass,  the  fact 
that  the  history  of  the  resurrection  is 
sung  in  the  Gospel,  and  the  allusion  to 
the  night  time  in  the  Preface,  the  "  Com- 
municantes,"  and  the  majestic  language 
of  the  Collect,  "  O  God,  who  didst  illu- 
mine this  most  holy  night  with  the  glory 
of  the  Lord's  resurrection." 

At  present  the  ceremonies  begin  early 
in  the  morning  with  the  blessing  of  the 
new  fire  struck  from  the  flint.  This 
blessing  was  unknown  at  Rome  in  the 
time  of  Pope  Zacharias  ('anno  751 ),  though 
it  is  recognised  about  a  century  later  by 
Leo  IV.  Apparently  it  was  the  custom 
in  some  churches  daily  to  bless  the  fire 
.struck  for  the  kindling  of  the  lamps,  and 
about  the  year  1100  this  benr-diction  was 
reserved  exclusively  for  Holy  Saturday, 
when  the  fire  is  an  appropriate  image  of 
the  Light  of  light  rising  again  like  "  the 
sun  in  his  strength."  From  this  fire  a 
candle  with  three  stems,  and  placed  on  a 
reed,  is  lighted  and  carried  up  the  church 
by  a  deacon,  who  three  times  chants  the 
words  "Lumen  Christi."  The  same 
symbolism  reappears  in  the  paschal 
candle,  which  is  blessed  by  the  deacon, 
who  fixes  in  it  five  grains  of  blessed  in- 
cense in  memory  of  the  wounds  of  Christ 
and  the  precious  spices  with  which  He 
was  anointed  in  the  tomb,  and  afterwards 
lights  it  from  the  candle  on  the  reed. 


The  use  of  the  paschal  candle  goes  back 
very  far — as  far  at  least  as  the  time  of 
Zosimus,  who  was  made  Pope  in  417 — 
and  the  sublime  words  of  the  "  Exultet," 
a  triumphant  hymn  of  praise  which  the 
deacon  sings  in  the  act  of  blessing  the 
(;andle  can  scarcely  be  less  ancient.  The 
great  critic  Martene  attributes  it  to'St. 
Augustine. 

The  blessing  of  the  candle  is  followed 
by  the  twelve  prophecies,  and  after  they 
have  been  read,  the  priest  goes  in  proces- 
sion to  bless  the  font.  This  last  blessing 
carries  us  back  to  the  days  of  the  ancient 
Church  in  which  the  catechumens  were 
presented  to  the  bishop  for  baptism  on 
Holy  Saturday  and  the  vigil  of  Pentecost. 
The  water  in  the  font  is  scattered  towards 
the  four  quarters  of  the  world,  to  indicate 
the  catholicity  of  the  Church  and  the 
world-wide  efficacy  of  her  sacraments : 
the  priest  breathes  on  the  water  in  the 
form  of  a  cross  and  plunges  the  paschal 
candle  three  times  into  the  water,  for  the 
Spirit  of  God  is  to  hallow  it,  and  the 
power  of  Christ  is  to  descend  upon  it; 
and  lastly  a  few  drops  of  the  oil  of  cate- 
chumens and  of  the  chrism  are  poured, 
in  order,  says  Gavantus,  to  signify  the 
union  of  Christ  our  anointed  king  with 
His  people.  On  the  way  back  from  the 
font  the  Litanies  of  the  Saints  are  begun, 
they  are  continued  while  the  sacred 
ministers  lie  prostrate  before  the  altar, 
and,  as  they  end,  the  altar  is  decked  with 
flowers  and  the  IMass  is  begun  in  white 
vestments.  At  the  Gloria  the  organ 
sounds  and  bells  are  rung,  and  the  joyful 
strains  of  the  Alleluia  peal  forth  after 
the  Epistle.  The  vespers  of  the  day  are  in- 
serted in  the  Mass  after  the  Communion. 

The  reason  for  the  jubilant  character 
of  the  Mass  has  been  given  above,  but 
there  are  some  other  peculiarities  which 
need  explanation.  The  kiss  of  peace  is 
omitted,  because  in  the  ancient  rite  the 
faithful  kissed  each  other  in  the  church 
as  day  was  breaking,  with  the  words, 
"  The  Lord  is  risen ;  "  there  was  therefore 
a  natural  objection  to  anticipating  the 
ceremony  in  the  Mass  at  midnight.  The 
Agnus  Dei,  which  was  introduced  by  Pope 
Sergius  towards  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century,  was  never  added  to  this  Mass. 
The  Communion  and  Postcommunion  are 
simply  replaced  by  vespers.  But  why  is 
there  no  Oft'ertory?  Liturgical  writers 
give  many  diflerent  answers,  none  of 
which  are  satisfactory.  Gavantus  alleges 
that  the  celebrant  alone  communicated, 
and  that  hence  there  was  no  oblation  of 


448  HOMICIDE 


HOMILY 


bread  and  -n  ine  on  the  part  of  the  faith- 
ful. But,  though  now  custom  and  a  de- 
cree of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  forbid 
communion,  it  is  certain,  as  Meratus  points 
out,  from  the  Gelasian  Sai-ramentary, 
that  the  faithful  in  former  times  did 
communicate  and  did  make  the  usual 
oblations  on  this  day.  Meratus  himself 
has  no  better  explanation  to  give  than 
the  desire  to  shorten  the  Mass  as  much 
as  possible  on  account  of  the  long  offices 
which  preceded  it.  (Chiefly  fi-om  Ga- 
vantus,  Meratus,  Thomassin,  "  Sur  les 
Festes,"  and  Benedict  XIV.  "  De  Festis.") 
HonxiCZDE.  The  -violent  slaying  of 
one  human  being  by  another.  The  modes 
are  various — e.r/.  shooting,  stabbing, 
.strangling,  causing  abortion,  drowning, 
throwing  from  a  height,  the  denial  of  food, 
&c.  Homicide  may  be  either  intentional 
or  accidental.  If  intentional,  it  may  be  so 
either  directly  or  indirectly :  directly,  as 
when  one  man  kills  another  with  the  full 
intention  of  killing  him  ;  indirectly,  as 
when  a  man,  without  actual  intention  to 
kill,  does  that  which  he  knows  is  danger- 
ous tolife — e  ^z.  kicks  a  fallen  man  violently 
about  the  head.  Intentional  homicide 
may  be  either  just  or  unjust.  The  cases 
when  it  may  be  justly  done  are  these 
four:  the  command  of  God;  the  execu- 
tion of  public  justice ;  a  just  war ;  and 
necessary  defence  either  of  oneself  or 
others.  For  the  first  case  the  canonists 
cite  the  command  of  God  to  Abraham  to 
slay  his  son,  and  the  putting  to  death  by 
the  Israelites  of  the  women  and  children 
whom  they  found  in  Jericho.  The  second 
case  is  that  of  judges,  civil  or  military, 
who  justly  condemn  men  to  death,'  and 
of  execulioners  or  soldiers  putting  their 
mandates  in  force.  For  the  third  case, 
see  the  article  on  Wae.  The  case  of  life 
justly  taken  in  necessary  defence  is  one 
that  requires  a  careful  examination  of  the 
surrounding  circumstances.  Homicide  is 
only  lawful  in  this  case  if  it  be  done 
"  cum  moderamine  inculpatfe  tutelre," 
"under  the  limitation  of  an  unblamable 
defensiveness."  A  defence  of  oneself  which 
t'Xceeds  the  measure  of  the  assault  made 
upon  one  (as,  if  a  man  were  to  kill  an  un- 
armed footpad,  or  an  assailant  whom  it 
was  in  his  power  to  disarm  or  get  rid  of  in 
some  other  way)  does  not  comply  with  the 
condition  just  mentioned.  Nor  is  that 
defence  of  oneself  "  unblamable,"  and 
therefore  justifiable,  which  would  make  a 
criminal  who  was  being  led  to  execution 
rise  up  against  the  officers  of  the  law  and 
'  Rom.  xiii.  4. 


kill  them  in  order  to  effect  his  own  escape ; 
for  in  such  a  case  there  would  be  no  jmta 
causa  for  defending  his  life,  and  so  it  would 
be  blamable.  Nor,  thirdly,  is  that  a  law- 
ful self-defending  homicide  which  takes 
away  the  life  of  the  aggressor,  not  at  the 
moment  of  the  assault,  but  after  some  time 
has  elapsed,  and  by  way  of  revenge.  But 
if  tbe  condition  "  cum  moderamine  incul- 
patae  tutelse  "  be  duly  observed,  a  man  may 
lawfully  kill  an  unjust  aggressor,  not  only 
in  defence  of  his  own  life,  but  in  defence 
of  the  life  of  a  parent  or  a  wife  or  any  of 
his  kindred,  or  even  of  an  innocent 
stranger.  It  is  lawful  also  to  kill  an  un- 
just aggi'essor  in  defence  of  temporal  pos- 
sessions, if  they  are  of  great  value  to  their 
possessor,  and  cannot  otherwise  be  pro- 
tected or  recovered  But  it  is  not  lavd'ul, 
even  in  defence  of  honour  and  reputation, 
to  kill  a  man  in  a  combat  offered  or  ac- 
cepted on  private  authority.  [See  Duel.] 
Several  other  forms  of  unlawful  homicide 
are  enumerated  among  the  Condemned 
Propositions. 

In  unjust  intentional  homicide  a  man 
may  be  either  a  principal,  an  accomplice, 
or  an  accessory.  If  a  principal,  it  is 
by  one  of  the  various  ways  of  killing 
specified  at  the  beginning  of  the  article. 
If  an  accomplice,  he  is  so  either  by 
counsel  (inflaming  the  wrath  of  another, 
exaggerating  his  wrongs,  &c.),  or  by  co- 
operation (supplying  the  principal  with 
weapons,  hindering  the  person  assailed 
from  defending  himself,  &c.).  If  an  acces- 
sory, it  is  in  one  of  three  ways — by  pre- 
cept, by  protection,  by  permission.  An 
unjust  judge  knowingly  condemi  i  ig  in- 
nocent persons  to  death  is  an  accessorial 
homicide  by  precept;  the  executioner  in 
such  a  case  would  incur  no  blame.  A 
master  ordering  his  servants  to  kill  his 
private  enemy  falls  under  the  same  cate- 
gory; the  servants  are  also  guilty,  because 
they  should  not  have  obeyed  an  unlawful 
command :  Botliwell's  ordering  some  of 
his  retainers  to  murder  the  Lord  Darnley 
is  a  case  in  point.  Persons  who  shelter, 
maintain,  and  favour  homicides  are  acces- 
sory to  homicide  by  protection.  Lastly, 
miigistratos  who  neglect  to  enforce  the 
law  ngninst  murderers  and  highwaymen, 
and  so  allow  them  to  practise  upon  other 
men's  lives  with  ini])unity,  are  acces.sory 
to  homicide  by  permission.  (Ferraris, 
Homicifln,  Ilomicidium.) 

BOniZXiY  (from  o^iCKia,  intercourse) 
is  used  by  ecclesiastical  writers  to  signify 
a  famihar  discourse  on  Holy  Scripture. 
The  homily  differs  from  the  Xdyoy,  or  dls- 


IIUMOOUSION 


HOXORIUS  449 


course,  because  the  liomilj'  does  not,  like 
the  oration  or  discourse,  set  forth  and 
illustrate  a  single  theme.  It  sacrifices 
artistic  unity  and  simply  follows  the  order 
of  subjects  in  the  passage  of  Scripture  to 
be  explained.  On  the  otlier  hand,  a  homily 
is  distinct  from  mere  exegesis  or  exposi- 
tion, because  the  latter  is  addres.sed  to  the 
uuderstiiiuliiig,  wliile  th(>  homily  is  meant 
to  affect  the  Ih-art  iilso  and  to  persuade 
those  who  liea  r  I  n  a]  41I y  the  lessons  of  Scrip- 
ture  for  til.'  r.f,.nii,,(  ioTi  of  their  lives.  The 
word  "  homily  "  in  the  si'iise  of  discourse 
first  occurs  in  the  I'ljiistle  of  St.  Ignatius 
to  Polycarp,  c.  6.  The  earliest  homilies 
on  Scripture  which  we  possess  are  those 
of  Origen,  though  for  the  most  part  they 
only  survive  in  a  Latin  version.  Jerome 
calls  the  homilies  of  Origen  "  tractatus," 
so  that  this  word  may  be  fairly  regarded 
as  the  equivalent  of  the  Greek  o/jiXta. 
Homilies  were  wTitten  in  abundance  by 
later  Fathers,  and  early  in  the  middle 
ages  Homiliaria  or  collections  of  homilies 
■were  compiled.  The  famous  Homiliarium 
of  Paul  Warnefried  was  made  at  the 
command  of  Charlemagne  and  contains 
homilies  for  the  Sundays  and  festivals  of 
the  year.  Wherever  the  lesson  in  the 
matin  office  of  the  Breviary  is  taken  from 
the  Gospels,  a  homily  by  one  of  the 
Fathers  is  appended  to  explain  and  apply 
the  words  of  the  sacred  text.  (See  Probst, 
"  Lehre  und  Gebet  in  den  ersten  drei 
Jahrhunderten,"  p.  203.) 

HOKOOTrszoir  (of  one  essence  or,  as 
it  is  usually  translated,  of  one  substance), 
a  word  used  by  the  Fathers  of  Nicaea,  to 
express  the  truth  that  the  Son  is  one  God 
with  the  Father.  The  heretical  party, 
starting  with  the  notion  common  to  their 
heresy  in  all  its  varying  shapes  that  the 
Father  and  Son  were  of  distinct  essence, 
confessed  at  most  that  the  Son  was  of  like 
essence  with  (the  o^iowvaiov)  or  even  only 
"  like  "  (o^oiot)  the  Father.  "Here, then," 
says  Cardinal  Newman,  "the  word  'one 
in  substance '  did  iust  enable  the  Catholics 
to  join  is.sue  with  them,  as  exactly  ex- 
pressing what  the  Catholics  wished  to 
express,  viz.  that  there  was  no  such  dis- 
tinction between  them  as  made  the  tei  m 
'  like '  necessary,  but  that  their  relation  to 
each  other  was  malwjous  to  that  of  a 
material  offspring  to  a  material  parent,  or 
that  as  material  parent  and  offspring  are 
individuals  under  one  common  species,  so 
the  Father  and  Son  are  persons  under  one 
common  individual  siihstance."^   The  his- 

'  Xewmnii,  Treatises  of  St.  Atkajiasius. 
Edition  of  1842,  144. 


tory  of  the  words  "homoousion"  and 
"  homoeousion  "  will  be  found  in  the  article 
Akianisji. 

HONORART  CAtlotts.  Besides 
the  residentiary  Canons  there  are,  in  con- 
nection with  all  the  cathedral  chapters  of 
France,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  a  certain 
number  of  honorary  canons,  who  are  not 
bound  to  residence.  These  are  nominated 
by  the  bishops,  and  selected  from  among 
tlie  higher  clergy — deans,  cur&s  cantonaux, 
and  priests  who  have  rendered  eminent 
services  to  the  Church — and  many  of 
them  become  in  time  titular  canons,  with 
all  the  privileges  attaching  to  that  posi- 
tion ;  but  they  cannot  claim  this  succession 
as  a  matter  "of  right.  They  usually  re- 
ceive a  small  emolument.  (Wetzer  and 
Welte.) 

HODTORXirs.  The  condemnation  of 
Pope  Ilonorius  by  the  Sixth  General 
Council  is  a  fact  so  remarkable  in  itself, 
and  possesses  so  much  additional  interest 
from  the  discussion  which  it  has  occa- 
sioned in  modern  times,  that  it  seems 
best  to  give  some  account  of  the  facts 
and  the  inferences  to  be  drawn  from  them 
in  a  separate  article.  There  is  a  vast 
literature  on  the  question,  for  it  was  for 
a  long  time  a  matter  of  contention  be- 
tween Galileans  and  Ultramontanes,  while 
the  definition  of  Papal  infallibility  in  our 
own  day  has  served  to  bring  Honorius 
once  more  before  the  bar  of  history,  and 
to  reopen  the  controversy  on  the  sense  of 
his  fiimous  letters,  and  tlie  precise  mean- 
ing of  the  anathema  which  the  council 
hurled  at  his  head.  We  cannot,  there- 
fore, pretend  to  state,  and  much  less  to 
examine,  all  the  views  which  have  been 
advanced,  or  to  give  anything  like  a 
detailed  history  of  the  controversy.  We 
shall  content  ourselves  with  mentioning 
the  most  prominent  facts,  and  adding 
what  we  believe  to  be  a  fair  and  impartial 
estimate  of  their  bearing  on  the  Papal 
claims. 

We  will  first  of  all  remind  the  reader 
of  the  points  at  issue  in  the  Monothelite 
controversy  to  which  the  letters  of  Hono- 
rius relate.  The  Monothelites,  who  were 
really  Eutychians  or  Monophysites  in  dis- 
guise, held  that  there  was  in  Christ  only 
one  will  (viz.  the  Divine  Will)  and  one 
operation.  The  Catholic  doctrine,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  that,  as  Christ  had  two 
natures,  there  were  in  Him  two  operations, 
or  modes  of  acting,  viz.  the  Divine  and 
human,  for  each  nature,  from  the  very 
fact  that  it  is  a  living  nature,  must  needs 
act,  must  needs  have  an  energy  proper  to 
6  G 


450 


HONOEIUS 


IIOXOPJUS 


itself ;  and  again,  since  Christ  is  man,  He 
must  have  a  human  will,  for  human 
nature  without  a  human  will  is  not  human 
nature  at  all. 

Ilonorius  became  Pope  in  625,  and  in 
633  or  634  Sergius  wrote  asking  his  help 
in  the  following  difficulty.  Cyrus,  Patri- 
arch of  Alexandria,  had  succeeded  in 
bringing  certain  Monophysites  (viz.  the 
Theodosian?)  to  the  Church  by  admitting 
tliat,  as  in  Christ  there  was  but  one  per- 
son, so  tliere  was  but  one  operation  proper 
to  the  God-man  Christ  (/ii'a  ^eai/Sptx?)  eV- 
fpyeia).  Sophronius,  monk  in  Palestine, 
and  about  634  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, justly  objected  to  this  term  of 
union  as  a  betrayal  of  the  faith  defined  at 
Chalcedon.  The  doctrine  of  St.  Leo  and 
the  Church  is,  two  natures,  therefore  two 
operations.  The  doctrine  of  Cyrus  was 
one  person  of  the  Word,  therefore  one 
operation ;  so  that  in  reality  he  was  join- 
ing the  Monophysites,  not  the  Monophys- 
ites the  Church.  The  compromise,  how- 
ever, was  warmly  espoused  by  Sergius, 
and  he  was  naturally  anxious  to  prevent 
the  Pope  from  interfering  on  the  side  of 
Sophronius,  and  so  undoing  the  work  of 
reunion  already  effected.  But  let  the 
reader  observe  that  Sergius  did  not  put 
liis  doctrine  honestly  and  fairly  before  the 
Pope.'  He  did  not  ask  him  to  accept  the 
doctrine  of  a  single  operation,  but  he  ex- 
pressed his  desire  that  peace  should  be 
secured  and  scandal  saved  by  avoiding 
either  expression,  one  operation  or  two 
operations.  The  former,  he  said,  though 
found  in  the  Fathers,  might  cause  surprise 
to  the  sim])le ;  the  latter  had  no  support 
in  tradition,  and  might  lead  to  the  lalse 
doctrine  that  in  Christ  there  were  two 
coiitriirv  wills  (fivo  6€'\r]ixnTa  euavrlaii 
TTpus  <'iAX?/Xa  i'xovTa).  Accordingly  Hono- 
rius  addressed  two  letters  to  Sergius;  the 
earlier  of  the  two  exists  entire  in  a  Greek 
translation,  but  this  version  may  be  ac- 
cepted as  an  accurate  one,  for  it  was  com- 
pared with  the  Latin  original  in  the 
archives  of  Constantinople  by  .John  de 
Prato,  Papal  deputy  at  the  Sixth  Council. 
Of  the  second  letter  we  have  fragments 
only,  which  are  preserved  in  the  Acts  of 
the  Sixth  Council,  Session  xiii. 

In  his  former  letter  the  Pope  praises 
Sergius  for  his  moderation  and  prudence. 
He  teaches  that  Christ  wrought  both  as 
man  and  God,  which  is  equivalent  to  a 
confession  of  the  two  operations,  but  he 
expresses  his  strong  wish  that  neither 
•  He  had,  however,  already  modified  his 
language  before  he  wrote  to  Honorius. 


formula,  "  one  operation  "  or  "  two  opera- 
tions," should  be  used,  and  adds  contemp- 
tuously that  such  formulae  shoidd  be  left 
to  the  vain  disputes  of  cavilling  gram- 
marians. Moreover,  after  s])eaking  about 
the  union  of  the  natures  in  a  single  per- 
son, he  proceeds  to  say,  "  Whence  also  ice 
confess  one  will  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  " 
{odev  Koi  fv  6fkr)fxa  6fio\nyovfiev  rnv  Kvptov 
'I^fTov  Xpt(TTov),  "since  plainly  our  na- 
ture was  taken  by  the  Godliead,  and  that 
nature  sinless,  as  it  was  before  the  fall." 

In  his  second  letter,  so  far  as  we  can 
judge  from  the  fragments  of  it  which 
remain,  Honorius  does  not  reassert  his 
belief  that  Christ  had  but  one  will,  and 
on  the  other  hand  he  puts  forward  still 
more  strongly  the  doctrine  of  two  opera- 
tions. For  he  confesses  two  natures  in 
Christ, "  unmixed,  undivided,  unchanged," 
operating  what  is  characteristic  [of  each] 
(Jvepynvrra^  tci  iSki),  though  he  again  re- 
pudiates, as  inexpedient,  the  formula 
"  two  operations." 

It  is  certain  that  Honorius  found 
orthodox  advocates,  who  maintained  that 
he  had  written  with  good  intentions,  and 
tliat  his  words  had  been  misconstrued. 
Thus  Pope  John  IV.  in  a  letter  to  the 
Emperor  Constantine,  dated  641,  defended 
Honorius  on  the  ground  that  when  he 
said  "we  confess  one  will  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,"  he  meant  one  human  will, 
and  the  Roman  abbot,  John  Symponus, 
whose  services  Honorius  had  used  in 
writing  to  Sergius,  takes  the  same  line 
of  defence.  But  in  the  Sixth  Council 
Honorius  met  with  harder  measure.  In 
Session  xiii.,  held  March  28,  681,  the 
fathers  declare  that  after  reading  the 
letter  of  Honorius  to  Sergius,  they  fouud 
that  it  was  "altogether  alien  from  the 
Apostolic  dogmas,  and  followed  the  false 
doctrine  of  the  heretics."  They  anathe- 
matised the  Monothelite  leaders,  and 
with  them  Honorius,  who  "  in  all  things 
followed  his  mind  [i.e.  the  mind  of 
Sergius]  and  confirmed  his  impious  doc- 
trines "  (Kara  rravra  rrj  exfiVou  yvu)p.r) 
i^aKo\ov6rj(TavTa  Koi  to  avTov  dcrf$^  (cv- 
paxravra  hoyp-ara). 

In  the  acclamations  of  Session  xvi., 
the  bishops  shouted  "  Anathema  to  Hono- 
rius the  heretic  1 "  and  in  the  decree  of 
faith,  Session  xviii.,  Honorius  is  spoken 
of  as  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  devil. 
This  decree  was  signed  by  the  whole 
council,  including  the  Papal  legates,  and 
by  the  Emperor.  In  a  letter  to  the 
Emperor  confirming  the  conciliar  defini- 
tion. Pope  Leo  II.,  after  anathematising 


HOXORIUS 


HOXORIUS 


451 


CjTus,  Sergius,  &c.,  "  the  discoTerers  of  [ 
new  error,"  continues  tlms :  "  Also 
Honorius,  who  did  not  endeavour  to 
sanctify  this  Apostolic  church  by  teaching 
of  Apostolic  tradition,  but  permitted  the 
spotless  one  to  be  d-filed  by  unholy  be-  ■ 
trayal." '  The  anathema  of  the  Sixth  was 
repeated  in  the  Eighth  General  Council, 
its  justice  was  recognised  by  Pope  Ha- 
drian II.,  and  for  a  time  each  Pope  at  his 
election  swore  that  he  acknowledged  the 
Sixth  Council,  which  pronounced  eternal 
anathema  against  Sergius,  Pyrrhus,  &c., 
and  also  against  Honorius,  "  becau.se  he 
fostered  the  perverse  statements  of  the 
heretics  "  ("  quia  pravis  hereticorum  as-  ' 
sertionibus  fomentum  impendit ").  ' 

The  reader  is  now  in  possession  of  the 
chief  facts,  and  the  following  questions 
naturally  rise  out  of  them — viz.  (1)  "SMiat 
is  the  independent  judgment  which 
would  be  fairly  passed  on 'the  letters  of 
Honorius,  apart  altogether  from  the  fact 
of  their  condemnation  by  Pope  and 
council.^  (2)  What  is  the  judgment  of 
the  Church  on  the  matter?  (3)  "Were 
the  letters  of  Honorius  ea-  cathedrn? 
Cathoiic  writers  of  great  name  have  given 
very  different  answers  to  each  of  these 
questions.  Pighius,  Baronius,  and  in 
modem  times  Bamberger,  have  main- 
tained that  the  documents  and  particu- 
larly the  Acts  of  the  Sixth  Council  have 
been  falsified.  This  view  is  not  likely  to 
find  a  respectable  defender  in  the  future, 
and  may  be  here  summarily  dismissed. 
But  admitting  that  the  documents  al- 
leged are  genuine,  some  writers,  like 
Dupin  and  IJossuet  in  his  defence  of  the 
Oallican  declaration,  have  a.sserted  that 
the  letters  of  Honorius  were  heretical, 
and  as  such  condemned.  Others — e.g. 
Gamier,  Ballerini,  and  a  miUtitude  be- 
sides— strenuously  maintain  the  ortho- 
doxy of  Honorius.  Finally,  though  most 
Ultramontane  authors  deny  that  his 
letters  were  ex  cathedra,  some  (and  not- 
ably a  recent  Italian  author,  Pennachi) 
admit  it.  In  developing  our  own  view, 
we  shall  briefly  note  how  far  we  are  sup- 
ported by  the  judgment  of  Catholic  critics. 

(1)  'The  '  Orthodo.vy  or  Heresy  of 
Honoring. — At  first  sight,  no  doubt  it 
seems  difficult  to  excuse  from  heresy 
letters  which  repudiate  the  Catholic  for- 
mula, "two  operations,"  and  infer  the 
unity  of  Christ's  will  from  the  unity  of 

1  And  so  in  Leo's  letter  to  the  Spanish 
bishops,  "  flamraam  haeretici  dogmatis,  non.  ut 
decuit  apostolicam  auctoritatem,  incipientem 
extinxit,  sed  negUgendo  confovit." 


His  person.  But,  we  think,  only  at  first 
sight.  We  have  seen  that  the  Pope  dis- 
tinctly admits  that  each  nature  in  Christ 
was  operative,  which  implies  two  opera- 
tions. Further,  the  Pope  evidently  did 
not  understand  the  precise  sense  in  which 
Sergius  used  the  word  "operation,"  for 
he  (the  Pope)  asserts  that  Christ's  opera- 
tion was  manifold  (TroXirrpoTrtoy  fVepyfl).* 

As  for  the  "  unity  of  will,"  we  must  re- 
member that  Sergius  drew  the  false  con- 
sequence, "  if  two  wills  in  Christ,  then 
there  are  two  contrary  wills,"  so  that  the 
words  of  Honorius  on  the  unity  of  the 
will  admit  of  an  interpretation  which 
makes  them  perfectly  orthodox.  He 
argues  thus.  Because  Christ's  humanity 
was  united  to,  and  perfectly  controlled 
by,  the  Word,  and  because  He  assiuned  a 
sinless  humanity,  therefore  "  we  confess 
one  will" — i.e.  his  will,  though  not  physi- 
cally, is  still  morally  one ;  there  can  be 
no  opposition  of  human  and  divine  will  in 
Him.  But  while  Honorius  was  free  from 
heretical  error,  and  did  not  teach  heresy, 
he  neglected  the  only  means  by  which  tlie 
new  heresy  could  be  met.  He  prohibited 
and  contemptuously  dismissed  the  for- 
mula "  two  operations,"  which  exactly 
summed  up  the  orthodox  faith,"  and 
though  he  meant  only  to  assert  a  moral 
unity  in  the  two  wills  of  Christ,  he  did 
so  in  language  which  lent  itself  easily  to 
abuse  on  the  part  of  the  Monothehtes, 
and  he  abstained  from  stating  the  exist- 
ence of  two  wills  in  Christ,  just  when  the 
occasion  imperatively  demanded  this  state- 
ment. Thus  he  fomented  the  heresy 
which  it  was  his  duty  to  check,  and  his 
exalted  position  made  his  conduct  doubly 
mischievous,  and  therefore  doubly  repre- 
hensible. For  all  that,  his  position  is 
separated  by  a  very  wide  gulf  from  that 
of  the  heresiarchs  Sergius  and  Cyrus. 
This  first  part  of  our  thesis  may  claim 
the  support  of  many  Catliolic  critics,  and 
among  them  of  the  learned  Jesuits,  Gar- 
nier  and  (in  recent  times)  Schneemann, 
of  Ballerini,  and  of  Hefele. 

(2)  The  Judgment  of  the  Church.— 
Ballerini,  in  his  famous  treatise  "  De 
Primatu,"  and  many  others,  holds  that  it 
was  only  in  the  sense  given  above  that 
the  council  condemned  Honorius.  It  was, 

1  I.e.  the  Pope  takes  "  energy  "  for  a  single 
act,  not  for  the  whole  class  of  operations  proper 
to  one  nature. 

-  Observe,  however,  that,  as  has  been  al- 
ready said,  Honorius  did  not  clearly  apprehend 
the  mt-aning  of  the  word  "energy"  as  the 
heretics  employed  it. 

6  0  2 


452 


HONORrUS 


HOPE 


they  say,  for  negligence,  not  for  heresy, 
that  the  Pope  was  axiathematised.  We 
confess  that  we  cannot  see  how  the  words 
of  the  council,  taken  by  themselves,  are 
capable  of  this  sense ;  *  and  here  again  we 
have  great  authorities  on  our  side,  and 
these  far  from  Galhcan.  Pennachi  allows 
that  Honorius  was  condemned  as  a  formal 
heretic,  and  Hefele's  view  in  his  second 
edition  is  substantially  the  same.  But 
how,  it  may  be  asked,  can  we  defend  the 
orthodoxy  of  letters  which  the  Church 
has  branded  as  heretical  ?  We  answer 
that  it  was  the  council,  not  the  Church, 
which  did  so,  for  the  Church  consists  of 
head  as  well  as  members.  The  decisions 
of  tlie  council,  on  Catholic  principles,  are 
binding  only  so  far  as  confirmed  by  the 
Pope,  and  Leo  II.  approved  the  Pope's 
anathema  on  Honorius  so  far  as  it  im- 
plied the  assistance  which  his  neglect 
had  given  to  heresy,  not  so  far  as  it  im- 
plied the  formal  heresy  of  Honorius  him- 
self. Wliether  we  say  with  Schneemann 
tluit  the  Pope  confirmed  the  decrees  of 
the  council  under  this  reserve,  or,  with 
Hefele,  that  he  determined  the  precise 
sense  which  the  words  of  the  council 
were  to  bear  ("  Sie  [i.e.  die  Briefe  Leo's] 
pracisiren  nur  die  Schuld  des  Honorius 
genauor  und  exi)liciren  dadurch  den  Sinn 
in  welehem  die  Conciliensentenz  zu  fassen 
sei"),  does  not  appear  to  make  any  essen- 
tial difference. 

(.'{)  Were  the  Letters  of  Honorius  ex 
Cat/icdraf— Hefele,  even  in  his  second 
edition,  answers  this  question  in  the 
artirniative,  and  we  follow  him  in  believ- 
ing that  Honorius  exercised  his  apostolic 
authority,  and  did  implicitly  address  the 
whole  Church.  He  addresses  Sergius, 
but  he  lays  down  rules  to  be  observed 
everywhere.  Nor  is  there,  so  far  as  we 
can  see,  any  reasonable  doubt  that 
Honorius  issued  a  doctrinal  pronounce- 
ment. True,  he  will  not  define  that  the 
words  "  one  operation  "  or  "  two  opera- 
tions "  express  the  truth,  and  it  is  plau- 
sibly argued  that  his  refusal  to  define 
was  the  very  head  and  front  of  his 
ofl^ending.  But  though  he  does  not  de- 
fine the  Monothelite  doctrine,  he  most 
distinctly  teaches  that  it  is  vain  and 
foolish  to  talk  of  "  one  operation  "  or  of 
"  two  operations,"  and  that  such  subtle- 

1  No  doubt  the  council  made  an  emphatic 
distinction  between  Honorius  and  the  heresi- 
archs.  Cyrus,  Sergius,  &c.,  but  only,  if  we  under- 
.stand  it  rightly,  because  it  looked  on  Cyrus, 
Sergius,  &c.,  as  the  inventors  of  the  heresy,  on 
Honorius  as  their  dupe. 


j  ties  of  language  should  be  left  to  the 
grammarians.  If  Honorius  had  imposed 
his  own  belief  with  regard  to  this  point 
on  the  Church,  and  threatened  to  sever 
from  his  communion  all  who  did  not 
j  believe  that  the  phrase"  two  operations  " 
I  was  frivolous,  we  do  not  see  how  such  a 
:  fact  could  be  easily  reconciled  with  the 
'  Vatican  definition.  Such  a  proposition 
would  be  so  closely  connected  with  faith 
as  to  amount  to  nothing  less  than  an 
error  in  dogmatic  fact.  But  this  imposi- 
tion of  his  own  belief  on  others  is  just 
what  Honorius  abstained  from.  He 
wished  to  impose  the  disciplinary  law, 
that  the  form  "  two  operations "  ■was  to 
be  avoided,  but  he  stops  short  of  requir- 
iny  anyone  to  believe  that  the  expression 
is  idle  and  unmeaning.  For  this  reason, 
as  we  think,  Honorius  did  not  teach  ex 
cathedra,  and  there  is  nothing  in  his 
letters  or  in  his  condemnation,  fairly  con- 
sidered, which  can  be  justly  urged  against 
the  doctrine  of  Papal  infallibility  as  de- 
fined iu  1870. 

The  diflTerent  opinions  on  this  ques- 
tion are  given  with  tolerable  fulness  by 
Schneemann,  "  Studien  iiber  die  Hono- 
riusfrage,"  1869,  and  by  Hefele,  "  Concil.," 
vol.  iii.,  1877.  Pennachi's  treatise  "De 
Honorii  I.  Romani  Pontificis  Causa " 
appeared  at  Rome  in  1870,  and  was  sent 
to  all  the  bishops  of  the  Vatican  Council. 
The  learned  author  is  (or  was)  Professor 
Substitutus  at  the  Roman  University  in 
place  of  Archbishop  Tizzani,  who  had 
become  blind. 

HOPE.  One  of  the  theological  vir- 
tues [see  that  Art.].  It  may  be  defined 
as  a  supernatural  gift  of  God  whereby  we 
trust  that  God  will  give  us  eternal  life 
and  all  the  means  necessary  thereto  if  we 
do  our  part.  Hope  is  made  up  of  two 
elements,  desire  and  expectation.  Salva- 
tion and  the  means  of  obtaining  it  are  the 
objects  of  our  desire.  Our  expectation  of 
obtaining  these  is  based  upon  the  fact 
that  God  is  both  able  and  willing  to 
grant  them,  and  that  He  has  promised 
to  do  so.  "With  God  all  things  are 
possible"  (Matt.  xix.  20).  God  "will 
have  all  men  to  be  saved  and  to  come  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  truth"  (1  Tim.  ii.  4  ). 
"Let  us  hold  fast  the  confession  of  our 
hope  without  wavering,  for  He  is  faithful 
that  hath  promised"  (Heb.  x.  23).  .Vt 
the  same  time,  we  must  co-operate  with 
God's  work  in  us.  "He  who  made  us 
without  our  ludp  will  not  save  us  with- 
out it ;  "  yet  "  to  him  that  does  what  in 
him  lies  God  denies  not  grace."  Hence 


IIOSriTAL 


HOSPITAL  453 


our  expectation  is  not  absolutely  certain. 
"  With  fear  and  trembling  work  out 
your  salvation  "  (Phil.  ii.  12)  ;  "  Man 
knoweth  not  whether  he  be  worthy  of  love 
or  hatred  "  (Ecel.  ix.  1 ).  There  is  no  room 
for  hope  in  heaven :  the  blessed  already 
enjoy  eternal  life.  The  damned  in  hell 
cannot  hope,  for  they  can  have  no  expec- 
tation of  salvation.  It  is  on  earth  that 
this  virtue  finds  place.  Inconsequence  of 
the  twofold  element  of  hope  there  are  a 
number  of  vices  opposed  to  it.  The 
defect  of  desire  for  salvation  belongs  to 
the  vice  of  worldliness.  We  can  hardly 
sin  by  excessive  desire.  Want  of  confi- 
dence is  called  despair.  The  heinousness 
of  this  sin  arises  from  the  fact  that  it  is 
a  virtual  denial  of  God's  power,  or  good- 
ness, or  truth.  Too  great  confidence  is 
called  presumption.  This  may  be  due  to 
excessive  self-reliance  or  to  a  distorted 
idea  of  God's  goodness.  The  sins  of 
Judas  and  St.  Peter  are  familiar  instances 
ofthese  opposite  vices.  (See  St.  Thomas, 
1»  2"*  qii.  xli. ;  2*  2"  qq.  xvii.-xxi.) 

HOSPZTA.X>.  The  term  is  at  present 
restricted  to  institutions  for  the  treat- 
ment of  the  sick,  and  in  this  sense  only 
we  shall  use  it  in  the  present  article. 
For  a  general  account  of  early  hospitals 
(Nosocomia,  from  uoa-oKofj-dov ;  the  term 
first  occurs  in  the  fourth  century)  see  the 
article  on  Charity,  Works  of.  Hospital 
attendants  are  called  in  the  language  of 
the  canon  law  jmrabolani.  The  infirmary 
{ijifirynaria)  with  which  every  large 
monastery  was  provided  (see  the  Rule  of 
St.  Benedict,  c.  3o,  36)  appears  to  have 
furnished  the  model  for  the  hospitals  of 
later  times.  The  synod  of  Aix  in  816 
ordered  that  every  ecclesiastical  founda- 
tion, whether  of  canons  or  monks,  should 
provide  accommodation  for  the  poor,  the 
sick,  widows,  and  strangers.  As  a  rule, 
hospitals  were  in  early  times  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  bishop.  Even  at  the 
Council  of  Trent '  large  powers  of  visita- 
tion and  su])er\  l.-inn  nf  the  accounts  of 
hospitals  wri-  ,is-wii.m1  id  dn'  Ijishop.s  ; 
but  in  practicr  l  powers  were  gii'atiy 
limited  from  tin;  first  by  the  existence  of 
contrary  customs  and  privileges,  and  at 
present  they  are  hardly  exercised  at  all. 
The  special  endowments  which  in  course 
of  time  were  founded  for  the  support  of 
hospitals  came  to  be  much  diverted  from 
their  original  destination  ;  in  consequence 
of  which  the  Council  of  Vienne  (1.312) 
forbade  that  the  charge  of  a  hospital, 

1  Sess.  xxii.  De  Ref.  8,  9.  | 


unless  it  was  expressly  so  ordered  in  the 
original  foundation,  should  be  conferred 
titulo  benejidi  on  any  secular  clerk,  but 
ordered  that  their  government  should  be 
committed  to  prudent  and  capable  men 
of  good  character,  who  should  make 
periodical  reports  to  the  ordinaries  or 
their  delegates.'  From  this  decree  the 
lay  administration  of  hospitals  may  be 
said  to  date. 

The  earliest  distinct  record  of  the 
establishment  of  a  hospital  in  England 
connects  it  with  the  name  of  Archbisliop 
Lanfranc,  who  built  wooden  tenements 
outside  the  west  gate  of  Canterbury 
(about  1080)  for  the  reception  of  persons 
afflicted  with  the  king's  evil.'  The  priory 
and  hospital  of  St.  Bartholomew's, 
Smithfield,  were  founded  by  one  Rahere, 
a  minstrel,  in  1102.  The  hospital  of  St. 
Thomas,  in  the  Borough,  was  founded  by 
the  prior  of  Bermondsey  in  1213;  it  was 
removed  to  its  present  site  in  Lambeth 
in  1871.  The  priory  and  hospital  of 
Bedlam  (a  corruption  of  "  Bethlehem  ") 
were  founded  in  1247.  These  three  in- 
stitutions were  given  up  or  sold  to  the 
citizens  of  London  by  Henry  VIII.  after 
the  dissolution  of  monasteries,  and  have 
continued  to  be  flourishing  hospitals  down 
I  to  the  present  time.  A  great  movement 
'  in  the  building  of  hospitals  took  place  in 
!  the  eighteenth  century  ;  the  writer  in 
j  the  "  Enc.  Brit."  gives  a  list  of  forty-nine 
'  erected  in  England  and  Ireland  between 
;  1719  and  1797.  Of  late  years  the  Catho- 
lics of  Ireland  have  shown  a  most  laud- 
able and  fruitful  energy  in  this  direction, 
especially  in  the  dioceses  of  Dublin  and 
Cork.  The  Mater  Misericordise  hospital 
in  the  first-named  city  is  a  splendid 
monument  of  their  zeal  and  humanity. 

It  has  been  often  urged,  and  not  with- 
out plausibility,  that  the  treatment  of 
the  sick  in  hospitals  is  less  conducive  to 
their  recovei-y  than  their  treatment  at 
home.  The  returns  of  the  mortality  at 
these  institutions  are  said  to  prove  that 
it  varies  in  the  ratio  of  the  size  of  the 
hospital,  and  the  consequent  aggregation 
of  patients ;  the  larger  the  hospital,  the 
higher  is  the  rate  of  mortality.  The 
statistics  of  surgical  cases  and  lying-in 
cases  have  been  carefully  examined ;  and 
it  has  been  established  that  out  of  a 
thousand  amputation  cases  in  the  London 
hospitals,  four  hundred,  on  the  average, 
are  followed  by  death,  whereas  in  only  a 
hundred  and  eight  eases  out  of  a  thousand, 

Fleurv,  xci.  60. 
Maluiesbury,  Gett.  Pont.  i.  44 


HOSPITALLERS 


IKiSriTALLERS 


ill  country  practice,  is  this  the  case. 
Similarly,  in  the  lying-in  hospitals,  thirty- 
five  women  out  of  a  thousand  die, 
whereas  the  general  average  of  deaths 
in  country  practice  is  only  4|  per  1,000. 
The  diseases  which  are  specially  fatal  in 
hospitals,  and  which  it  is  most  ditlicult 
to  keep  out  of  them,  are  hospital  gan- 
grene, erysipelas,  surgical  fever,  and  puer- 
peral fever.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
iirged  that,  for  the  poor  at  any  rate,  the 
treatment  of  their  diseases  in  hospitals 
enables  them  to  obtain  an  amount  of 
care,  and  of  suitable  food  and  medicine, 
which  they  could  not  possibly  command 
at  home;  that  medical  practice  would 
suffer  severely  if  deprived  of  that  clinical 
instruction  for  which  hospitals  aHbrd 
facilities ;  and  that  rigorous  precautions 
as  to  ventilation  and  drainage,  and  against 
overcrowding,  have  been  always  found 
effectual  in  reducing  the  rate  of  hospital 
mortality.  (Ferraris,  Iloxjntale  ;  "  En(  ycl. 
Britan."  art.  Hospital,  by  Prof,  de  Claau- 
mont;  Smitlr  and  Cheetham.) 

HOSPZTAI.X.ERS.  (Hospitales  ; 
Knights  of  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  of 
Jer^^alem  ;  Knights  of  Rhodes ;  Knights 
of  Malta.)  This  celebrated  order,  which 
in  its  palmy  days  had  vast  posses^sions  in 
every  country  in  Europe,  and  enjoyed 
immunities  which  almost  rendered  them 
independent  of  the  lex  loci,  grew  up  out 
of  humble  beginnings.  Some  merchants 
of  Araalfi  founded  at  Jerusalem  about  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century  a  convent, 
church,  and  hospital,  for  the  benefit  of 
poor  pilgrims  visiting  the  Holy  Plao':>s. 
At  the  date  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  Crusaders  (1091»),  the  hospital  was  in 
charge  of  Abbot  Gerard,  a  Provencal. 
The  intrepid  devotion  with  which  Gerard, 
before  and  after  the  city  fell,  sought  to 
relieve  human  suffering  without  distinc- 
tion of  creed  or  class,  drew  forth  the  ad- 
miration of  Duke  Godfrey,  who  author- 
ised the  separation  of  the  hospital  from 
the  convent,  and  gave  to  it  one  of  his  own 
manors.  Others  among  the  princely  and 
noble  Crusaders  followed  this  example, 
and  the  "Brothers  of  the  Hospital  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist "  soon  became  a  wealthy 
fraternity,  and  founded  dependent  hospi- 
tals in  various  places.  Gerard  died  in 
1118;  his  successor,  Ruyiiiniid  du  Puy, 
took  the  title  of  Master,  and  drew  up  a 
rule  for  the  order,  which  Oalixtus  II.  con- 
firmed in  1120.  The  rule  was  exceed- 
ingly austere;  all  the  brothers,  laymen 
as  well  as  clerks,  were  required  to  take 
the  three  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and 


obedience;  abstinence  was  to  be  kept  ott 
all  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  and  from 
Septuagesima  to  Easter;  all  faults  were 
sternly  punished  ;  gross  sins  visited  by 
expulsion.  Knights  began  to  join  the 
brotherhood;  Raymond  himself  was  one; 
and  the  members  were  divided  into  three 
classes — knights,  who  were  all  of  noble 
birth  ;  priests  or  chaplains  ;  and  brothers 
servants,  who  were  not  noble.  The  reve- 
nues of  the  order  being  by  this  time  very 
considerable,  and  Jerusalem  being  in  a 
settled  condition,  new  views  presented 
themselves  to  the  more  aspiring  among 
the  members.  Of  the  religious  fervour 
of  the  first  knights  who  joined  the  order 
it  is  impossible  to  doubt,  when  one  con- 
siders the  rigour  of  the  life  which  they 
voluntarily  embraced  ;  still  they  did  not 

I  cease  to  be  knights;  and  the  critical  con- 
dition of  the  little  Christian  kingdom, 
planted  as  an  outpost  in  the  midst  of 
a  swarming  populati<m  of  misbelievers, 
might  naturally  suggest  to  them  that 
they  would  bear  the  sword  in  vain  if 
they  did  not  wield  it  as  occasion  arose 
in  support  of  the  Christian  cause.  They 
theref  ore  first  joined,  then  initiated  expe- 

'  ditions  against  the  Moslems;  returning 
from  which,  they  laid  aside  their  arms  and 
resumed  the  care  of  the  sick  in  the  hos- 
pital. By  degrees  their  military  duties 
assumed  the  first  place  in  their  own 
minds,  and  in  the  thoughts  of  other 
men ;  and  they  became,  with  the  Tem- 
plars, one  of  the  chief  bulwarks  of  the 
Christian  power  in  the  East.  Dissen- 
sions arose,  and  were  of  long  continuance, 
between  them  and  the  Templars;  on  one 
occasion  (1-59),  the  forces  of  the  two 
orders  fought  a  pitched  battle  on  the  soil 
of  Palestine.  When,  in  1187,  Jerusalem 
fell  before  the  arms  of  Saladin,  the  tenth 

j  Master  of  the  order  transferred  the  con- 
vent and  hospital  to  Markab,  in  Phoe- 
nicia, whence,  on  the  retaking  of  Acre 
by  the  Christians  in  1103,  they  were  re- 
moved to  that  city.  Acre,  the  last 
stronghold  of  Christian  power,  fell  before 
the  Mussulmans  in  1291,  and  the  Hos- 
pitallers withdrew  to  Cyprus,  whence 
they  carried  on  a  naval  war  for  some 
years  against  the  Saracenic  nations  of 

[  the  Levant.  After  the  suppression  of  the 
Templars  (1310),  their  lands  were  made 
over  to  the  Hospitallers  ;  but  the  latter 

I  "  had  to  purchase  the  suiTender  from  the 

'  King  [of  France]  and  other  princes  at 
such  vast  cost  of^  money,  raised  at  such 
exorbitant  interest,  that  the  Order  of 
St.  John  was  poorer  rather  than  richer 


nOSriTALLERS 


HOST 


455 


from  what  seemed  so  splendid  a  grant."  * 
The  sojourn  in  C%-prus  is  said  to  have 
■witnessed  a  great  moral  declension 
among  the  Knights,  and  a  departure 
from  the  spirit  and  letter  of  their  rule. 
In  1310  they  seized  the  ishiiu!  of  Rhodes, 
and  maintained  themselves  there  for 
more  than  cwo  centuries,  in  spite  of  all 
the  eliorts  of  the  Turks.  But  in  1522, 
the  Grand  Master  (this  title  had  been 
used  since  being  then  Villiers  de 

risle  Adam,  Solyman  the  Magnificent 
sent  an  immense  fleet  and  army  against 
Rhodes,  and  though  the  defence  was 
valiant,  and  creat  numbers  of  the  be- 
sieger?  were  Ivilled,  yet,  being  assisted  by 
treachery  within  the  walls,  the  Sultan 
at  length  compelled  I'lsle  Adam  to  capi- 
tulate. Some  years  later,  in  15.30,  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  granted  to  the  dis- 
possessed order  the  island  of  Malta. 
Here,  after  repelling  a  viirorous  attack 
made  by  Solyman  in  156-i,  they  re- 
mained undisturbed  till,  in  1798,  under 
the  Grand  .Master  Ferdinand  d'Hom- 
pesch,  a  German,  some  of  the  French 
knights  having  previously  been  won  over 
by  the  bribes  and  promises  of  the  French 
Government,  the  island  was  tamely  sur- 
rendered to  Najioleon  Bonaparte,  then  on 
his  way  to  Egypt.  It  was  soon  after 
blockaded  by  an  English  fleet,  and  the 
garrison  was  compelled  by  hunger  to 
capitulate  in  18UU,  since  which  time 
Malta  has  been  held  by  England.  The 
Grand-Master  Hompesch,  in  1799,  re- 
signed his  office  in  favour  of  the  Czar  of 
Rus.-.ia,  Paul  1.  In  that  and  following 
years  the  order  was  suppressed  in  several 
European  States  where  it  still  had  pos- 
sessions. Paul  was  assassinated  in  1^01  ; 
Hompesch  died  in  lb03;  the  head-quar- 
ters of  the  order  were  then,  with  Papal 
sanction,  fixed  at  Catana,  and  afterwards 
at  FeiTara.  An  order  of  knighthood, 
designed  apparently  for  the  purpose  of 
decorating  members  of  the  nobility  with 
crosses  and  ribands,  was  founded  in 
Prussia  in  1812,  under  the  same  name — 
Johanniter-thrden — by  which  the  Hos- 
])itallers  had  always  been  known  in 
Germany. 

After  the  order  had  attained  its  full 
development,  it  was  divided  into 
eight  "  languages,"  Provence,  Auvergne, 
France,  Aragon,  Castile,  England,  Ger- 
many, and  Italy.  The  Grand  Com- 
mander was  always  a  Provencal,  because 
that  was  the  nationality  of  Rkymond  du 

»  Villani,  quoted  by  Mihuan,  Lot.  Chrigt. 
viL276. 


I  Puy ;  the  chief  of  the  language  of  Au- 

!  vergne  was  Grand  Marshal ;  that  of 
France,  (iiand  Ilosjiitaller ;  of  Italy, 
Iliuli  Admiral  :  of  Arae-,ni,  Grand  Guar- 
dian ;  of  (leri.iany,  lligli  Bailiif;  of 
Castile,  Gram!  ( 'liancelli)r  ;  and  of  Eng- 
land (before  that  "language"  was  sup- 
pressed on  account  of  the  national  adop- 
tion of  Protestantism),  General  of  In- 
fantry. Each  I'anguage  was  divided  into 
grand  priories  and  bailiwicks,  which 
again  were  subdivided  into  coniman- 
deries.  The  ordinary  knights,  "cheva- 
liers de  justice,"  were  required  to  prove 
noble  birth;  but  a  certain  number  of 
knights  by  favour,  "  chevaliers  de  grace," 
were  also  admitted,  though  not  noble,  in 
consideration  of  distingtiished  valour  or 
other  mi'rit.  The  dress  of  a  Knight  in 
time  of  peace  was  a  long  black  mantle, 
with  a  white  cross  of  eight  points  (the 
"  Maltese  "  cross)  upon  it ;  in  the  field  he 
wore  a  red  coat  with  similar  crosses  in 
front  and  on  the  back.  The  banner  dis- 
jilayed  a  similar  cross  on  a  held  gules, 
(lI(?lyot,  "Ordre  de  Malte  ;  "  "Conver- 
sations-Lexicon," Johanniter-Orden.) 

HOST  (from  hostia,  a  victim).  It  is 
used  in  the  Vulgate  both  of  Christ  the 
victim  of  expiation  for  our  sins,  Eph.  v. 
2,  and  also  of  spiritual  sacrifices,  such  as 
almsgiving,  Phil,  iv.  18.  In  the  liturgies 
and  ecclesiastical  writers,  the  word  is 
used  (1)  of  Clirist  present  on  the  altar 
under  the  appearances  both  of  bread  and 
wine:  thus,  the  Mozaraljic  Missal  men- 
tions the  "  host  of  bread  and  wine ;  "  (2) 
of  Christ  present  under  the  form  of  bread  : 
this  use  is  recognised  by  the  three,  earliest 
Roman  Ordines,  which  were  drawn  up 
between  the  seventh  and  ninth  centuries  ; 
(?>)  of  the  bread  before  its  consecration : 
so  the  word  is  employed  in  the  ordinary 
laniruage  of  Catholics  at  the  present  day, 
and  the  word  in  this  sense  occurs  in  the 
Oll'ertory  of  the  Roman  Missal,  when  the 
priest  prays  "Receive,  O  Holy  Father, 
this  unspotted  Host,"  &c.,  taking  the 
bread,  not  for  what  it  is,  but  for  what 
it  is  to  become  after  consecration.  Le 
Brun  ("  Explic.  de  la  Messe,"  p.  iii.  a.  6) 
says  that  this  prayer  was  borrowed  from 
the  Spanisli  liturgy,  and  inserted  in  the 
Roman  Missal  towards  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century.  The  writer  of  the 
article  Host  in  Smith  and  Cheetham, 
maintains  that  in  the  Spanish  liturgy  the 
words  were  used  of  the  cojuccrated  Host, 

j  the  unconsecrated  elements  being  known 

I  in  early  times  as  "  oblata." 

The  form  and  material  of  the  altar- 


456 


HOST 


ITOZANNA 


breads,  the  offertory,  the  consecration  and  [ 
elevation  of  the  Hos-t,  are  explained  in 
separate  articles,  but  this  is  perhaps  the 
most  convenient  place  to  speak  of  the 
breaking  of  the  Host. 

All  litiirpies,  following  the  example  of 
our  Ijord  at  the  last  supper,  require  the 
Host  to  be  broken.  The  Oreeks  break 
the  Host  into  four  parts,  of  which  one  is 
received  by  the  celebrating  priest,  another 
by  the  otlier  communicants,  while  a  third 
is  reserved  for  the  sick,  and  a  fourth  put 
into  the  chalice.  In  the  Mozarabic  rite 
the  Host  is  divided  into  nine  parts.  In 
the  Roman  Mass  the  Host  used  to  be 
divided  into  three  jiarts,  one  for  the  cele- 
brant, another  for  tlie  communicants  pre- 
sent and  for  the  sick,  while  a  third  was 
placed  in  the  chalice.  Traces  of  this 
ancient  usage  still  remain  in  the  Papal  j 
Mass,  when  the  deacon  and  subdeacon  ! 
communicate  from  the  same  Host  as  the  [ 
Pope,  and  in  the  Mass  of  episcopal  conse-  ! 
cration,  in  wliicli  ihr  cinisiTi-ator  and  the  | 
new  bisho])  ricci\i'  pdi-lions  dI'  th»'  ilost 
consecrated  i'liiitly  by  liiith.  .Miircin ri,  in 
the  ancient  Roman  Mass  tlie  celeliratini;- 
bishop  ])ut  into  the  chalice  the  consecrated 
Host  sent  from  anotlier  clnirch  in  sign  of  1 
peace  and  unitv,  savinu'  as  he  phiced  tins  ; 
Host  in  the  Precious  I'.iood,  "  'i'lie  j.enee  of  I 
the  Lord  be  ah\  ays  witli  yuw."  The  Pope, 
according  to  file  two  oldest  Ordines,  per- 
foi  nied  the  same  rite  of  mixture  with  the 
Host  whieli  had  been  reserved  from  a 
previous  Mass,  and  which  was  placeil  on 
the  altar  and  adored  by  him  before  his 
own  Mass  began.  At  ])resent  it  is  oidy 
from  the  Host  consecrated  at  the  Mass 
that  a  part  is  taken  and  dro])ped  into  the 
chalice.  Just  be'ore  the  celebrant  puts 
this  portion  in  the  chalice,  lie  says,  "  Pax 
Domini,"  &c.,  words  originally  intended 
for  the  portion  consecrated  at  another 
Mass  and  rcvserved  to  svmbolise  the  unity 
of  the  Church  and  of  the  sacrifice.  The 
words  "  H;ec  conimixtio,"  "  May  this  mix- 
ture of  the  llody  anil  P.lood  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  liei  |i  my  soul  unto  everlast- 
ing life,"  are  said  alter  the  portion  of  the 
Host  is  placed  in  tlie  chalice,  and  have 
kept  llieir  iirielual  reference. 

'J'bis  eiistoiii  oi'  mixing  the  Host  and 
the  Precious  Rlood  is  very  ancient.  It 
occurs  in  the  Liturgy  of  St.  James,  and  is 
mentioned  by  a  Council  of  Orange  in  441. 
And  liturgical  writei's  tell  us  that  it 
figures  the  reunion  oC  (Christ's  body  and 
blood  after  His  resum^ction.  But  if  we 
ask  what  was  the  historical  origin  of  the 
rite,  the  question  is  not  easily  answered. 


Le  Brun  suggests  that  the  Host  sent 
from  another  churck  would  become  hard 
and  dry  (for  altar-breads  were  thicker  in 
those  days),  and  that  this  led  to  the  prac- 
tice of  moistening  them  with  the  conse- 
crated wine.  He  supports  this  ex])lana- 
tion  by  analogies  from  the  discipline  of 
the  early  Church,  and  it  seems  at  least 
very  probable.  As  to  the  portion  of  the 
Host  consecrated  in  the  same  Mass  and 
dipped  in  the  chalice,  Pouget  and  Vert 
suppose  it  S]jrang  from  an  old  custom 
connected  with  communion.  If  the  con- 
secrated wine  did  not  suffice  for  the  num- 
ber of  communicants.  onliinD-y  wine  was 
poured  into  a  chalice.  nuJ  liu-  li(|uid  was 
sanctified  by  contact  with  .i  ]icrtioii  of 
the  Host.  Benedict  XIV.  jii^ilv  lei.  cts 
this  theory  as  destitute  of  any  >oliil  inun- 
dation. There  is  no  proof  tint  llic  cus- 
tom alleged  is  older  than  the  jn-a^tice 
which  still  continues  of  plucmi;  part  of 
the  Host  in  the  chalice;  and  the  tliccrv 
is  o]ien  to  other  oljjections.  A\'e  are  not 
awaie,  howevei-,  that  any  better  explana- 
tion has  been  devised.  (Le  Brun  and 
Benedict  XIV.  on  the  Mass.) 

HOUSX3I..  For  many  centuries  this 
was  the  English  name  for  the  Blessed 
Sacrament:  it  had  not  liecome  obsolefe 
even  in  the  time  of  Shakespeare,  who 
makes  the  Ghost  in  Hamlet  lament  that 
he  had  been  hurried  "  unhoiisi  lleil  "  out 
of  the  world.  The  Anglo-Saxon  form 
was  husel;  compare  the  (iotlnc  liinisl, 
which  in  the  version  of  LHilas  i>  the 
translation  of  Tr/joo-r/^opn,  '•  olirriug."'  iu 
i'"])h.  V.  2,  and  is  seen  in  t  lie  rendering 
InnisljaiJu  of  trnivSofxai,  "  I  am  beinu' 
offered  up,"  in  2  Tim.  iv.  6.  Grein '  con- 
nects the  word  with  the  Gr.  xan'O)  and 
Sanskr.  l;l,an.  "  to  kill."  Hu.^cl  to  our 
forefathers  expressed  the  lii_'liest  -ood 
and  ahsolutt'  eiiioyineul  ;  thus  ('\iie\viilf 
(about  700  k.l).),  writing  of  the  ha])piness 
nf  the  blessed  in  lieaven,  says,  "  him  hi'"* 
lenge  husel,"  "  housel  shall  be  their  por- 
tion." Robert  of  Gloucester  (1270)  says 
that  the  Normans  made  their  shrift  before 
the  battle  of  Hastings,  "  and  amonve 
bom  let  hoseli  " — in  the  morning  caused 
themselves  to  be  houselled.^  The  word 
does  not  occur  in  thither  of  the  Wycliffite 
versions  of  the  Bible. 

HOZA.NM'A  {u>(ravva).  A  Hebrew 
word  taken  from  Ps.  cxviii.  (Vulg.  cxvii.) 
25.   "  O  Lord,  we  beseech  thee,  save  now : 

'  Glossar  der  Angelsdchsischen  Dichtir, 
1864. 

^  Quoted  by  Morris  and  Skeat's  Specimens, 
Part  2. 


HUGUENOTS 

0  Lord,  we  be.*eech  thee,  send  now  j 
prosperity."  The  words  of  the  Psalm, 
X3  n^'tl'in. "  save,  we  pray,"  were  shouted 
by  the  Jews  at  the  most  joyful  of  their 
feasts,  that  of  tabernacles,  while  they 
waved  their  branches  of  palm  and  wiUow. 
So  closely  was  the  feast  associated  with 
this  shout  of  joyful  prayer  that  it  came 
to\e  called  the  "  Hosanna  "  (Wyti'in  or 
npy^^in),  the  last  or  great  day  of  the  feast 
being  known  as  "the  great  Hosanna" 
(nai  ~3VL''in).'  It  was  with  this  joyful 
shout  that  the  crowds  met  our  Lord  as 
He  entered  Jerusalem  on  Palm  Sunday. 
"  Hosanna  in  the  liigliest  probably 
means  "  Send  help  from  thy  place  in  the 
highest  heavens  to  the  Messias." 

The  word  is  retained  in  the  S;nictus 
at  Mass,  and  in  the  hymn  in  the  Mass  of 
Palm  Sunday. 

HVCTTsio'OTS.  TSee  Refokmation.] 
HUMERAI.  VEZX..  An  oblong 
scarf  of  the  same  material  as  the  vest- 
ments, worn  by  the  subdeacon  at  Ilipli 
Mass,  wlien  he  holds  the  jjaten,  betwot  u 
the  Offertory  and  Paternoster :  by  the 
priest  when  he  raises  the  monstrance  to 
give  benediction  with  the  Blessed  Saci'a- 
ment ;  and  by  priests  and  deacons  when 
they  rt  irove  t'le  Blessed  Sacrament  from 
one  place  to  another,  or  carry  it  in  preces- 
sion. It  is  worn  round  the  shoulders, 
and  the  paten,  pyx,  or  monstrance  is 
wrapped  in  it.  According  to  Le  Brun 
{"Explication  de  la  Messe,"  i.  p.  SIO), 
this  veil  was  introduced  bt  cau.-.e  in  many 
churches  it  was  tlie  ancient  custom  for 
an  acolyte  to  huld  the  paten  at  W.^h 
Mass,  and  he.  not  being  in  holy  Girder-, 
could  not  lawfully  touch  the  sacred  vessels 
with  bare  hands.  The  Levites,  as  may 
be  seen  in  Numbers  iv.,  were  only  allowed  j 
to  hear  the  sacred  vessels  after  they  had 
been  wrnpped  up  in  coverinjrs.  This  \ 
reason  obviously  ihies  not  supplv  any  ex- 
planation of  the  u^e  iif  the  veil  by  the 
priest  at  Benediction,  &c.  But  though 
the  priest  is  permitted  to  touch  vessels 
containing  the  l)les>e(l  Sacrament,  he  ab- 
stains from  doing  so  at  certain  solemn 
moments  out  of  reverence.  We  ought  to 
add  that  the  use  of  the  humeral  veil  at 
Benediction  is  strictly  prescribed  in 
several  decrees  of  the  Congregation  of 
Kites. 

HTTSSXTES.  The  followers  of  the 
Bohemian  John  Huss,  rector  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Prague,  who  was  burnt  for 
heresy  at  the  Council  of  Constance.  His 

'  Buxtiirf,  Lex.  Chcdd.  et  Rabbin,  sub  voc 


imiN 


4.-7 


countrjTnen,  or  a  large  proportion  of 
them,  rose  in  arms  in  1418  against  the 
imperial  government,  and  during  a  war 
which  lasted  thirteen  years  inflicted  many 
defeats  on  the  German  armies,  and  laid 
many  churches  in  ashes  and  many  cities 
waste.  Their  principal  leader  -w  as  .liilin 
Ziska,  who  died  in  ]4:?4,  and  the  blind 
Procopius,  an  ex-priest.  Terrible  ex- 
cesses were  committed  on  both  sides,  the 
war  being  to  a  great  extent  one  betwet-ii 
two  hostile  nationalities,  the  Slavunian 
and  the  German.  Bohrmia  was  at  that 
time  celebrated  for  the  nTaiideiir  and 
beauty  of  the  churches  and  other  religious 
edifices  which  met  the  eye  in  every  part; 
but  the  Hussites  destroyed  most  of  these ; 
in  Prague  alone  may  still  be  seen  evid^tice 
of  the  ancient  architectural  glory  of  the 
land.  Several  crusades  were  preached 
ao-ain-t  them,  but  \\  ith  little  result.  Alter 
the  victorv  of  Taa>s  (^U^l),  which  dissi- 
pated the  forces  of  the  Fifth  Cru.-ade.  the 
war  ceased  :  and  the  bisho])s  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Basle,  wli'eh  met  in  that  vear, 
laboureil  earnestly  tii  bring  about  a  peace- 
ful arranofnient.  The  council  conceded 
to  that  VN'tlon  of  the  Hussites  called 
Utraqui>ts  the  comnumion  un<lt  r  both 
siiecies,  besides  certain  reforms  on  priints 
of  discipline  :  the  >ect  was  thus  divided; 
and  when  war  broke  out  again  in  14.'J4, 
the  insurgents  sustained  a  crushing  defeat 
at  Lepan  from  the  inijierial  forces"  The 
legate,  Philil-ert.  bishop  of  Contancns, 
succeeded  at  last  in  neootiatiii::'  a  peane; 
and  by  the  treaty  of  Iglau  (July  14.-'>n) 
the  I'oheinian  and  Moravian  nati(in»  re- 
tiinii-d  to  the  unity  of  the  Church.  Never- 
thele,-s.  heretical  opinions  continued  to  be 
rife,  until  the  pi-'Mohinff  of  St.  John 
Capi>tran.  the  plorv  of  the  Church  in  the 
fifteenth  r.-ntnry  -bi-rwrm  14ol  atid  14.5:J 
— wroiiL;ht  a  -r-af  and  sieWm  change. 
Eleven  thousand  Hussites  are  said  to  have 
renounced  their  errors  bcf  ne  him. 

HYIVXSI.  I.  In  the  wider  and  ancient 
sense,  incliidinfj  Psalms  and  Canticles: 
v^vos  meant  originally  a  sons:  of  prai.se 
in  honour  of  gods  or  heroes.  '  It  had  a 
religious  character,  and  was  distinct  for 
this  reason  from  the  ('yKcofjiiov  (sc.  eTros), 
or  laudatory  ode  in  honour  of  a  mere  man. 
In  the  LXX  the  word  is  adojited  as  a 
translation  of  several  Hebrew  terms,'  an<l 
here  the  word  hymn  keeps  its  old  classical 

1  Often  the  Helirew  -word  doe.s  not  answer 
at  all  closely  to  the  Greek  v/jlvos — f-p.  in  Ps. 
Ixxi.  20,  the  LXX  have  S/xvoi  f"r  'prayers" 
(niiiDJ]!)  and  the  Vulgate  translates  viwot  into 
"  laude-s." 


458 


HYMN 


HYMN 


meaning,  except,  of  course,  that  it  is  used 
of  songs  in  honour  of  the  true  God.  The 
use  of  the  New  Testament  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  LXX.  Thus  we  read  in  Matt . 
xxvi.  •")(),  Mark  xiv.  2(),  that  Christ  and 
His  disciples  sang  a  hymn  (vfxvrjaavrfs) 
at  the  close  of  the  last  supper.  This 
hj  mil,  no  doubt,  was  the  latter  part  of 
the  Ilallel  (^.^n))  or  ascription  of  praise, 
consisting  of  Ps.  cxiii.-cxviii.,  which  was 
suufi  oil  the  feast  of  the  new  moon,  the 
dt'dicut  Kin,  and  the  three  great  solemnities 
of  i';i>>o\ i  r,  I'fntecost,  and  Tabernacles. 
The  loimer  \yAvt  of  the  Hallel  (Ps.  cxiii. 
cxiv.)  was  sung  before  beginning  the  Pas- 
chal meal ;  the  latter  (Ps.  cxv.,  cxvi., 
cxvii.,  c.xviii.),  after  the  assembled  com- 
pany had  drunk  of  the  fourth  and  last 
cup,'  over  wliich  the  "blessing  of  the 
song  "  was  said,  beginning  with  the  words, 
"  Let  all  thy  works  praise  thee,  0  Lord," 
and  including  the  beautiful  and  solemn 
ascription,  "  Klessed  is  he  who  createth 
the  fruit  of  the  vine."  In  the  gospels,  then, 
the  word  hymn  is  not  distinct  from  psalm. 
St.  Paul,  however,  does  make  a  distinc- 
tion, tie  tells  the  Ephesians  (v.  19,  cf. 
(Joloss.  iii.  16)  that  they  are  not  to  imitate 
the  drunken  revelry  of  the  heathen,  but 
to  express  their  joy  in  a  diil'erent  way. 
They  are  to  "speak  to  each  other  in 
psalms  and  hymns  and  spiritual  odes." 
Probably  by  psahns  the  Apostle  means 
poems  in  the  style  of  the  Hebrew  psalter ; 
by  hymns,  songs  in  praise  of  God  and 
Christ  (see  v.  19);  while  spiritual  odes 
(aJdai  nvfVfjLartKai)  is  perhaps  a  generic 
term  including  both  psalms  and  hymns. 
In  the  first  part,  then,  of  this  article  we 
shall  continue  to  use  the  word  in  the 
wide  sense  with  which  we  set  out,  in- 
cluding under  it  any  composition  in  praise 
of  God  which  is  adapted  to  be  chanted  or 
sung. 

We  do  not  believe  (though  the  autho- 
rity of  Probst,  "  Lehre  und  Gebet  in  den 
drei  ersten  christlichen  Jahrhunderten," 
p.  2ri6  seq.,  may  be  quoted  against  us) 
t^iat  St.  Paul  in  the  passage  just  quoted 
refers  to  the  use  of  psalms  and  hymns 
in  public  worship.  The  context  appears 
to  show  that  he  has  in  view  the  private 
intercourse  and  social  meetings  of  Chris- 
tians, and  desires  to  point  out  the  kind  of 

1  All  present  must  taste  the  four  cups,  :in(l 
nfter  the  fourth  no  more  wine  could  be  drunk 
th.it  nifiht,  to  both  of  which  points  our  Lord 
-cenis  to  allude  (Matt.  xxvi.  27,  29).  The 
student  interested  in  such  matters  may  be 
referred  to  the  fascinating  article  in  Buxtorf  s 
Chuldte  and  Rabbmical  I^exicon,  sub  voc. 


joy  and  mirth  Avhich  should  accompany 
them.  But  it  is  certain  that  from  the 
earliest  times  psalms  and  hymns  were 
sung  In  Christian  a-,M  inl.lh>^.  "  Pliny,  in 
his  famous  letter  tu  Trajan,  w  ritten  about 
104,  mentions  the  Cliristian  custom  of 
singing  a  hymn  (carmen)  to  Christ  aa- 
God  in  their  assemblies.  Christian  hymns 
are  spoken  of  by  Justin  Martyr  ("  Apol." 
i.  1.3),  and  it  would  be  useless  to  multiply 
citations  on  the  use  of  the  psalms  in  the 
primitive  Church.  In  them  the  Church 
of  the  first  three  centuries  fomid  the  most 
natural  expression  of  her  own  sorrow  and 
hope  when  persecution  weighed  hard 
upon  her;  of  her  joy  in  the  midst  of  tri- 
bulation. There,  too,  she  found  the  most 
natural  expression  of  her  faith,  for  "  nearly 
all  the  psalms,"  Tertullian  says  ("Adv. 
Prax."  11),  "are  spoken  in  the  person  of 
Christ  "  ("Christi  personam  sustiuent").' 

The  psalms  still  form  the  bulk  of  the 
Breviary  office,  and  portions  of  them 
constantly  occur  in  the  Mass.  They  are 
sung  antiphonally — i.e.  alternate  verses 
of  the  psahns  are  chanted  by  each  side  of 
the  choir.  A  legend  given  by  Socrates 
attributes  the  introduction  of  the  anti- 
phonal  chant  to  St.  Ignatius.  Theodoret, 
with  better  reason,  says  that  it  was  begun 
at  Antioch  by  the  two  monks  Flavian 
and  Diodorus,  in  Coiistantine's  reign. 
This  mode  of  singing  came  to  the  West 
some  time  later.  Justina,  the  Arian 
empress,  sought  to  imprison  St.  Ambrose. 
His  people  gathered  round  him  in  his 
church,  and  passed  their  time  in  the  sing- 
ing of  psalms  and  hymns  antiphonally. 
This  was  the  earliest  instance  of  the 
custom  in  the  Latin  Church. 

Besides  the  hundred  and  fifty  psahns, 
the  Roman  Breviary  contains  seven  can- 
ticles taken  from  the  Old  and  three  from 
the  New  Testament.  Their  use  in  the 
offices  is  at  least  as  ancient  as  Ainalarius, 
who  wrote  in  820.^  The  following  is  a 
list  of  the  canticles  in  question : — 

"  Benedicite,"  from  the  book  of  Daniel 
(the  deuterocanonical  portion),  with  ab- 
breviations and  ascription  of  praise  to  the 
Trinity  inserted  at  the  end.  This  addi- 
tion, though  not  quite  in  the  present 
form,  is  mentioned  by  Amalarius.  This 
canticle  is  fitly  said  on  Simday,  the  first 
day  of  the  creation,  at  lauds. 

'  There  is,  however,  some  doubt  about  the 
reading.  Oehler  reads  "omnespsalmi  qui  Christi 
personam  Bustinent." 

^  His  remarks  on  the  cauticles  as  used  in 
the  office  are  quoted  by  Gavantns,  torn.  ii.  §  6,. 
cap.  9. 


HYMN 


HYMNS 


459 


"  Confitebor,"  from  Isa.  xii.  Monday 
at  lauds. 

Tbe  Song  of  Ezechias,  from  Isa. 
xxxviii.    Tuesdav  at  laudss. 

The  Song  of  Anna,  1  Reg.  ii.  Wed- 
nesdav  at  lauds. 

The  Song  of  Moses,  Exod.  xv.  Thurs- 
day at  lauds. 

'The  Song  of  Habac.  cap.  iii.  Friday 
at  lauds. 

The  Song  of  Moses,  in  Deut.  xxxii. 
Saturday  at  lauds. 

The  three  New  Testament  canticles 
are  the  "  Benedictus  "  or  Song  of  Zacha- 
rias  ;  "  Magnificat,"  called  by  Amalarius 
the  "  Hymn  "  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  ;  and 
the  "  Nunc  Dimittis or  Song  of  Simeon. 
At  the  chanting  of  these  last  all  stand, 
out  of  reverence  for  the  Incarnation,  to 
which  they  directly  refer,  and  particular 
honour  is  shown  to  the  "  Magnificat," 
because  of  its  special  connection  with 
that  mystery.  While  it  is  sung  at 
solemn  vespers  the  altar  is  incensed  by 
the  otlifiating-  priest. 

Further,  the  Roman  Church  uses 
Other  canticles,  which  are  not  to  be  found 
in  Scripture — viz.  the  "Te  Deum,"  and 
the  "Trisagion,"  of  which  an  account  is 
given  in  separate  articles,  and  the 
"  Gloria  in  excelsis  "  and  "  Gloria  Patri," 
of  which  we  have  spoken  in  the  article 
DosoLOGY.  The  Greek  Church  is  rich  in 
canticles.  A  beautiful  evening  hymn  or 
canticle  still  used  by  them,  and  as  old 
probably  as  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century,  is  given  by  Routh  in  the  "  Reli- 
quiae SaeriB,"  vol.  iii.  p.  516.  It  belongs 
to  the  first  division  of  our  subject,  for  it 
is  not  metrical,  and  may  be  rendered 
thus : — "  O  joyful  light  of  the  immortal 
Father,  who  is  heavenly,  holy,  blessed,  0 
Jesus  Chri.«t,  having  come  to  the  setting 
of  the  sun,  and  having  seen  the  evening 
light,  we  hymn  tlie  Father  and  the  Son, 
and  the  Holy  Spirit  of  God.  Worthy 
art  Thou  at  all  times  to  be  hymned  with 
holy  voices,  0  Son  of  God,  who  givest 
life :  wherefore  the  world  glorifieth  thee." 

II.  Hymns  in  the  modern  and  more 
restricted  sense. — HjTnn  is  now  generally 
used  for  a  religious  poem  adapted  to  be 
sung,  and  written  in  metre.  The  earliest 
hymn  of  this  kind  which  we  possess  is 
by  Clement  of  Alexandria.  It  occurs  at 
the  end  of  his  "  Predagogus,"  and  is  en- 
titled u/ii/or  Tov  auiTTipo'i  Xf)ia-Tov.  We 
have  hjTnns  by  other  Greek  Fathers — 
e.ff.  by  Gregory  Nazianzen  and  Synesius 
— but  the  hymns  actually  used  in  the 


Greek  offices  are  by  later  authors,  St. 
John  Damascene,  Joseph  of  Constanti- 
nople, Cosmas  and  Theophanes.  Hilars' 
of  Poitiers  is  the  first  Latin  hymn-wi  iter 
whose  hymns  survive:  he  was  followed 
by  Ambrose,  Prudentius,  Fortuiiiit  lis, 
Paul  the  Deacon,  Sedulius.  (tp'Oovv  the 
Great,  Venerable  Bede.  St  l'>rrnai-(l.  St. 
Thomas  of  Aquin,  ^cc.  X-e.  TIk-  t'oimeil 
of  Agde,  can.  30  (unno  '>iu>\:  ili.it  of 
Tours,  can.  2.')  (anno  ^A',7\:  that  of 
Toledo,  can.  13  (anno  P.3;i),  approve  the 
use  of  hymns  in  the  office;  tliousli  it  is 
plain  from  the  words  of  the  canon  cited 
last  that  many  felt  -in  objection  to  using 
even  the  hymns  of  Hilary  -uid  Ambrose, 
on  the  ground  that  they  were  not  Bibli- 
cal. It  was.  however,  very  late  (not, 
according  to  Grancolas,  till  the  thirteenth 
century)  that  the  Roman  Church  ad- 
mitted hymns  to  a  place  in  her  Breviaiy 
offices. 

Hefele,  "  Beitrage,"  ii.  p.  302,  thus 
traces  the  origin  of  the  hymns  which 
occur  in  the  Breviary  and  Missal.  The 
list  is  in  alphabetical  order. 

Beeviaet  Hymns. 

1.  "A  solis  ortus  cardine."  Used  at 
Christmas.  The  first  part  of  the  hymn 
is  called  Abecedarius,  because  the  first 
verse  begins  with  A,  the  second  with  B. 
By  Cifiiius  Sedulius,  a  poet  of  the  fifth 
century.    Country  unknown. 

2.  "  Ad  regias  agni  dapes."  Used  on 
Low  Sunday.  By  a  very  ancient  imitator 
of  St.  Ambrose. 

3.  "  Ad  sacros  virgo  thalamos."  For 
the  Feast  of  St.  Gertrude.  Author  un- 
known ;  of  the  media>val  period. 

4.  "  Adoro  te  devote."  In  the  thanks- 
giving after  Mass.  By  St.  Thomas  of 
Aquin  (t  1274). 

5.  "  ^F]tema  Christi  munera."  For 
feasts  of  Apostles.  Ascribed  by  the 
Benedictines  to  St.  Ambrose.  Mone 
doubts  whether  it  is  St.  Ambrose's,  but 
ascribes  it  to  the  fifth  century. 

6.  "  Sterna  cceli  gloria."  Friday  at 
lauds.  By  an  ancient  imitator  of  St. 
Ambrose. 

7.  "  JEteme  rector  sidenim."  For 
the  feast  of  Angel  Guardians.  By  Car- 
dinal Bellarmine  {d.  1621). 

8.  "^Eterne  rerum  conditor."  Sun- 
day at  lauds.    St.  Ambrose. 

9.  "  ..'Eterne  rex  altissime."  For  the 
Ascension.    St.  Ambrose,  but  altered. 

10.  "  Ales  diei  nuntius."  Tuesday  at 
lauds.  By  PrudentiuB  (bom  in  Spain, 
348). 


4G3 


HYMNS 


HYMNS 


11.  "Alma  Redemptoris  Mater." 
Antiplion  from  Advent  to  the  Purifica- 
tion. Bj-  Heimaimus  Contractus,  monk 
at  Reichenau  (d.  1054). 

12.  "  Alto  ex  Olympi  vertice."  Dedi- 
cation of  churches.  A  continuation  of 
"  Coelestis  urbs."    See  belo-w. 

13.  "Antra  deserti."  For  feast  of 
St.  John  Baptist.  By  Paulus  Diaconus, 
eighth  centur}'. 

14.  "Aspice  infami."  Feast  of  the 
Passion.  Unknown  author,  sixteenth  to 
eighteenth  century. 

15.  "Aspice  ut  verbum  Patris." 
Feast  of  Our  Lord's  Prayer.  Author 
unknown,  sixteenth  to  eighteenth  century. 

16.  "  Athlcta  Christi  nobilis."  Feast 
of  Yenantius.  A  continuation  of"  Martyr 
Dei  Yenantius." 

17.  "Aiictor  beate  sseculi."  Sacred 
Heart.  Author  unknown,  sixteenth  to 
eighteenth  century. 

18.  "Audi,  benigne  conditor."  For 
Lent.    By  Gregoiy  the  Great  {d.  604). 

19.  "  Audit  tyrannus  anxius."  Holy 
Innocents.    By  Prudentius.    See  No.  10. 

20.  "  Aurora  coelum  purpurat."  Sun- 
days after  Lent.  Old  imitator  of  St. 
Ambrose. 

21.  "Aurora  jam  spargit  polum." 
Saturday,  lauds.    Same  as  preceding. 

22.  "Ave,  maris  stella."  Ascribed 
by  Cardinal  Thomasi  to  Fortunatus, 
bishop  of  Poitiers  {d.  600),  but  certainly 
much  later.  Daniel  places  the  date  of  ' 
its  origin  between  the  sixth  and  ninth  i 
centuries.  Mone  considers  even  this 
date  much  too  early. 

23.  "  Ave,  Regina  coelorum."  Anti- 
plion at  compline  and  lauds.  Author 
unknown  ;  tenth  to  fifteenth  century. 

24.  "  Beata  nobis  gaudia."  For  Pen- 
tecost. According  to  Daniel,  by  Hilary 
of  Poitiers  {d.  379) ;  but  this  is  very 
doubtful. 

25.  "Beate  pastor  Petre."  Feast  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  &c.  By  Elpis, 
the  first  wife  of  Boethius,  the  famous 
minister  of  Theodoric.  Boethius  was 
executed  at  Pavia  in  524. 

26.  "  Christe,  sanctorum  decus  ange- 
lorum."  On  the  feasts  of  Gabriel, 
Michael,  and  Raphael.  By  Rabanus 
Maurus,  archbishop  of  Mayence  (d.  856). 

27.  "Christo  profusum  sanguinem." 
Common  of  Martyrs.  Except  that  the 
initial  words  are  altered,  this  hymn  is 
taken  from  the  ".Sterna  Christi  munera." 
See  No.  5. 

28.  "Oivis  beatas  patriae."  Feast  of 
Holy  Relics.    A  modern  hymn. 


29.  "Coelestis  ag-ni  nuptias."  Feast 
of  St.  Juliana  Falconieri.  By  her  bio- 
grapher, Lorenzini  (anno  1719). 

30.  "  Coelestis  urbs  Jerusalem."  Dedi- 
cation of  churches.  Author  unknown. 
Date  from  tenth  to  fifteenth  century. 

31.  "Coeli  Deussanctissime."  Wed- 
nesday at  Yespers.  By  an  old  imitator 
of  St.  Ambrose. 

32.  "  Coelitum  Joseph  decus."  Feast 
of  St.  Joseph,  sixteenth  to  eighteenth 
century. 

33.  "Ccelo  redemptor  praetulit." 
Maternity  of  Blessed  Virgin.  As  pre- 
ceding. 

34.  "  Consorspaterniluminis."  Tues- 
day at  matins.    St.  Ambrose. 

35.  "Cor,  area  legem  continens." 
Sacred  Heart.  Sixteenth  to  eighteenth 
century. 

36.  "  Corpus  domans  jejuniis."  A 
continuation  of  "  Gentis  Polonse  gloria." 
See  No.  54. 

37.  "  Creator  alme  siderum "  (in  the 
original  text  "Conditor  alme  siderum"). 
Imitated  from  St.  Ambrose,  but  at  least 
200  years  later. 

38.  "  Crudelis  Herodes."  Altered 
from  Sedulius.    See  No.  1. 

39.  "  Crux  fidelis."  Passion  Sunday. 
A  part  of  the  "Pange,  lingua,  gloriosi 
lauream  certaminis."  By  Yenantius  For- 
tunatus.   See  No.  22. 

40.  "Custodes  hominum  psallimus 
angelos."  Guardian  Angels.  By  Bellar- 
mine  {d.  1621). 

41.  "  Decora  lux."  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul.  By  Elpis  (see  No.  25),  but  much 
altered. 

42.  "  Deus,  tuorum  militum."  Com- 
mon of  a  Martyr.  By  an  old  imitator  of 
St.  Ambrose. 

43.  "  Domare  cordis  impetus."  Feast 
of  St.  Elizabeth  of  Portugal.  By  Urban 
VIII.  (d.  1044). 

44.  "  Dum  nocte  pulsa  lucifer."  A 
continuation  of  "  Martyr  Dei  Yenantius." 
See  No.  89. 

45.  "  Ecce  jam  noctis  tenuatur  umbra." 
Saturday  at  lauds.  By  St.  Gregory  the 
Great  (rf.  604). 

46.  "Egregie  doctor  Paule."  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul,  and  Conversion  of 
St.  Paul.    By  Elpis  (see  No.  25). 

47.  "En  clara  vox  redarguit."  For 
Advent.  By  an  old  imitator  of  St. 
Ambrose.  Altered  from  the  original 
text. 

48.  "En  ut  superba  criminum." 
Sacred  Heart.  Sixteenth  to  eighteenth 
century. 


HYMKS 


HYMNS 


401 


49.  "  Ex  more  docti  mystico."  Sun- 
day matins  in  Lent.  Attributed  by  Mone 
to  St.  Gregoiy  the  Great.  Daniel  puts 
it  in  seventh  to  ninth  century. 

60.  "  Exite,  Sion  filife.""  Crown  of 
Thorns.  Sixteenth  to  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. 

51.  "  Exultet  orbis  gaudiis."  Feasts 
of  Apostles.    Tenth  to  fifteenth  century. 

52.  "  Festivis  resoiient."  Precious 
Blood.  Sixteenth  to  eighteenth  century. 

53.  "  Fortem  virili  pectore."  Com- 
mune non  Virginum.  Cardinal  Sylvius 
Antonianus  (fJ.  lfiU3). 

54.  "  Genti.-i  Polonpe  gloria."  Feast 
of  St.  John  Uantius.  By  an  author  of 
the  eighteenth  century. 

55.  "  Gertrudis  area  numlnis."  Feast 
of  St.  Gertrude.    Medipeval  author. 

56.  "Gloriam  sacrae  celebremns  omnes 
Sindonis."  Feast  of  Our  Lord's  Wind- 
ing-sheet. Sixteenth  to  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. 

57.  "Haec  est  dies  qua  Candida." 
Feast  of  St.  Theresa.    By  Urban  VIII. 

58.  "  Hominis  supeme  conditor."  Fri- 
day vespers.  Ambro.<;ian. 

59.  "  Hujus  oratu,  Deus  alme,  nobis." 
Commune  non  Virginum.  A  part  of 
"  Virprinis  proles."    See  171. 

60.  "  Jam  Christus  astra  ascenderat." 
Pentecost.  Ambrosian,  and,  according 
to  Mone,  actually  by  St.  Ambrose. 

61.  "Jam  faces  lictor  ferat."  Feast 
of  St.  John  Nepomuc.  Eighteenth  cen- 
tury. 

62.  "Jam  lucis  orto  sidere."  At 
prime.  By  an  old  imitator  of  St.  Am- 
brose. 

63.  "Jam  noctis  umbras  lucifer." 
Feast  of  St.  Catherine  of  Ricci.  Eight- 
eenth century. 

64.  "  Jam  sol  recedit  igneus."  Trinity 
Sunday,  and  Saturday  at  Vespers.  Imi- 
tated from  Ambrose,  hymn  11.  Thomasi 
gives  a  similar  hymn  by  Ennodius,  bishop 
of  Pavia  {d.  521). 

65.  "  Jam  toto  subditus."  Seven 
Dolours.  Sixteenth  to  eighteenth  cen- 
turj-. 

66.  "Jesu,  corona  celsior."  Com- 
mune Conf.  non  Pont.  By  an  imitator 
of  St.  Ambrose. 

07.  "  Jesu,  corona  virginum."  Com- 
mon of  Virgins.    As  preceding. 

68.  "  Jesu,  decus  angelicum."  Feast 
of  the  Holy  Name.  A  part  of  "Jesu, 
dulcis  memoria."    See  No.  70. 

60.  ",Tesu,  dulcis  amor  meus."  Feast 
of  the  Winding-sheet.  Sixteenth  to 
eighteenth  century. 


70.  "Jesu,  dulcis  memoria."  Feast 
of  the  Holy  Name.  By  St.  Bernard  {d. 
1153). 

71.  "Jesu,  redemptor  omnium." 
Common  of  Conf.  Pont.  Tenth  to  fif- 
teenth century. 

72.  Jesu,  redemptor  omnium,  quem." 
Christmas.  By  an  old  imitator  of  St. 
Ambrose. 

73.  "Jesu,  rex  admirabilis."  Feast 
of  Holy  Name.  A  part  of  St.  Bernard's 
hymn,  "  Jesu,  dulcis  memoria." 

74.  "Immense  iwW  conditor."  Mon- 
day at  vespers.  Imitated  from  St.  Am- 
brose. Regarded  by  .Mdiie  as  prohalily 
the  work  of  St.  Grrnni  v  tlic  Great. 

75.  "In  profunda  noeti.^^  umbra." 
Feast  of  St.  John  Nepomuc.  Eighteenth 
century. 

76.  "  Invicte  martyr."  Common  of 
Martyrs.    Tenth  to  fifteenth  centui-y. 

77.  "Invictus  heros."  Feast  of  St. 
John  Nepomuc.    Eighteenth  century. 

7>^.  "  Ira  justa  conditoris."  Precious 
Blood.    Eighteentli  century. 

79.  "  Iste  confessor."  Common  of 
Confessors.  Mediaeval,  but  in  the  man- 
ner of  St.  Ambrose. 

80.  "  Iste  quem  laeti  colimus."  Feast 
of  St.  Joseph.  Sixteenth  to  eighteenth 
century. 

81.  "  Legis  figuris  pingitur."  Crown 
of  Thorns.    As  preceding. 

82.  "  Lucis  creator  optime."  Sunday 
at  vespers.  Ambrosian,  and  older  than 
St.  Gregoiy. 

83.  "  Lustra  sex  qui  jam  peregit." 
Passion  Sunday,  &c.  A  part  of  the 
"Pange,  lingua,  gloriosi  lauream  certa- 
minis."    See  No.  108. 

84.  "Lux  alma,  Jesu,  mentium." 
Feast  of  Trniisfipuration.    Urban  VIII. 

85.  "  Lux  ecce  siirn'it  aurt/a."  Tlnirs- 
day  at  lauds.  Slightly  altered  from 
Prudentius.    See  No.  10. 

86.  "  Magnse  Deus  potentiae."  Thurs- 
day at  vespers.  By  an  old  imitator  of 
St.  Ambrose. 

87.  "  Maria  castis  oculis."  Feast  of 
St.  Mary  Magdalen.  According  to  some, 
bv  Gregory   the   Great;   according  to 

I  others,  by  Odo  of  Clugny  {d.  942). 

88.  "  Martinre  celebri."  For  Jan.  30. 
By  Urban  VIIT. 

89.  "  Martyr  Dei  Venantius."  Feast 
of  St.  Venantius.  Sixteenth  to  eight- 
eenth century. 

'       90.  "  Mi'iuonto,  rerum  conditor."  In 
the  Little  Otlice  B.  V.  M.   From  "Jesu, 
1  redemptor  omnium."    See  No.  72. 
I      91.  "Miris    modis   repente  liber." 


462 


HYMNS 


HYMXS 


Feast  of  St.  Peter's  Cliains.  Ascribed  to 
Paulinus  of  Nola  (but  ?). 

O'i.  "  Man-entes  oculi."  Feast  of  the 
Passion.    iMghteenth  century. 

93.  "  Mvsterium  mirabile."  Feast  of 
the  "Winding-sheet.  Sixteenth  to  eight- 
eenth century. 

94.  "  Nocte  surgentes."  Sunday  ma- 
tins.   St.  Gregory  the  Great. 

95.  "  Nox  atra  rerum  contigit." 
Thursday  matins.  According  to  Thomasi, 
by  Ambrose;  to  Daniel,  merely  Am- 
brosian  ;  to  Mone,  by  Gregory  the  Great. 

96.  "  Nox  et  tenebrae  et  nubila." 
'\^'ednesday  at  lauds.  By  Prudentius 
Clemens  (see  No.  10),  but  altered. 

97.  "Nullis  te  genitor  blanditiis." 
Feast  of  St.  Ilernienegild.  From  "  Re- 
gali  solio."    See  No.  122. 

98.  "Nunc  sancte  nobis  Spiritus." 
At  tierce.  Ascribed  by  Hincmar  to  St. 
Ambrose ;  probably  only  Ambrosian. 

99.  "0  gloriosa  yirginum."  Feasts 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  From  "Quern 
tena,  pontus,  sidera."    See  No.  117. 

100.  "O  nimis  felix."  Feast  of  St. 
John  Baptist.  From  "  Ut  queant  laxis." 
See  No.  164. 

101.  "  0  quot  undis  lacrimarum." 
Seven  Dolours.  Sixteenth  to  eighteenth 
century. 

102.  "  0  sol  salutis."  Lent  at  lauds. 
Tenth  to  fifteenth  century. 

10.3.  "0  sola  maguarum  urbium." 
Epiphany.  By  Prudentius  Clemens. 
See  No.  10. 

104.  "0  Stella  Jacob."  Purity  of 
Blessed  Virgin.  Sixteenth  to  eighteenth 
century. 

105.  "  0  virgo  cui  praecordia."  Feast 
of  St.  Catherine  of  Ricci.  Eighteenth 
century. 

106.  "  0])es  decusque."  Feast  of  St. 
Elizabeth  of  Portugal.    By  Urban  VIII. 

107.  "Pange,  lingua,  gloriosi  cor- 
poris." Corpus  Cliristi.  By  St.  Thomas 
of  Aquin  {d.  1274). 

106.  "Pange,  lingua,  gloriosi  lauream 
(praelium)  certaminis."  Passion  and 
Palm  Sunday,  &c.  By  Venantius.  See 
No.  S3. 

1 09.  "  Pange,  lingua,  gloriosae  Lancese 
prseconium."  Feast  of  Lance  and  Nails. 
A  mediaeval  imitation  of  the  preceding. 

1 10.  "  Paschale  mundo  gaudium." 
On  Feasts  of  the  Apostles.  From  the 
"  Aurora  ccfilum."    See  No.  20. 

111.  "Paschali  jubilo."  Feast  of 
the  Lance,  &c.  Author  unknown,  but 
the  hymn  found  in  MS.  of  fourteenth 
centuty. 


112.  "Pater  superni  luminis."  As- 
cribed to  Odo  of  Clugny,  but  perhaps  by 
Bellarmine,  who  inserted  it  in  the  Bre- 
viary. 

113.  "Placare,  Christe,  servulis." 
For  All  Saints.  Written  late  in  the 
middle  ages. 

114.  "Praeclare  custos  virginum." 
Purity  of  Blessed  Virgin.  Sixteenth  to 
eighteenth  century. 

1 1 5.  "  Primo  die  quo  Trinitas."  Al- 
tered from  St.  Gregoiy  the  Great. 

110.  "Quaenam  lingua  tibi."  Feast 
of  the  Lance,  &c.  Sixteenth  to  eight- 
eenth century. 

117.  "Quern  terra,  pontus,  sidera." 
Feasts  of  Blessed  Virgin  Maiy.  Altered 
from  Venantius  Fortunatus.  See  No. 
22. 

118.  "Quicunque  certum  quaeritis." 
Sacred  Heart.  Of  late  and  uncertain 
origin. 

119.  "  Quicunque  Christum  quaeritis." 
Transfiguration.  By  Prudentius  Cle- 
mens.   See  No.  10. 

120.  "  Quodcunque  in  orbe,"  St. 
Peter's  Chair.  From  the  "  Miris  modis." 
See  No.  91. 

121.  "Rector  potens."  At  sext. 
Ambrosian. 

122.  "Regali  solio."  Feast  of  St. 
Hermenegild.    Urban  VIII. 

123.  "  Regina  coeli,  laetare."  Easter 
Antiphon  at  lauds  and  compline.  Tenth 
to  fifteenth  century. 

124.  "  Regis  superni  nuntia."  Feast 
of  St.  Teresa.    By  Urban  VIII. 

125.  "Reium  creator  optime."  Ma- 
tins of  Wednesday.  Ambrosian,  and  per- 
haps by  Gregory  the  Great. 

126.  "  Keruin  Deus  tenax  vigor."  At 
none.  Ambrosian. 

127.  "  Rex  gloriose  martyrum."  Com- 
mon of  Martyrs.  Written  early  in  the 
middle  ages. 

1 28.  "  Rex  sempiteme  ccelitum."  Sun- 
day matins.  Ambrosian. 

1 29.  "  Sacras  reliquias."  Feast  of 
Relics.    See  No.  28. 

130.  "Sacris  solemniis."  Corpus 
Christi.    St.  Thomas  of  Aquin. 

131.  "  Saepe  dum  Chi  isti."  Feast  of 
Blessed  Virgin  Help  of  Christians.  Nine- 
teenth century. 

132.  "Sacro  dolorum  turbine."  Feast 
of  the  Passion.  Sixteenth  to  eighteenth 
century. 

133.  "Salutis  humanae  dator."  All 
Saints.    Late  in  middle  ages. 

134.  "  Salutis  aetemae  sator."  Ascen- 
sion. Ambrosian. 


HYMNS 


HYMNS  463 


135.  "Salve,  Hegina."  Antiphon  at 
lauds  and  compline.  By  Herinannus 
Contractus,  or  bv  Peter  of  Monsoro, 
bishop  of  Corapostella. 

l;^6.  "  SalvetejChristivulnera.''  Pre- 
cious Blood.  Sixteenth  to  eighteenth 
century. 

137.  "  Salvete,  clavi  et  lancea."  Lance 
and  Nails.    As  prooeding. 

138.  "  SalTete,tloresmartyrum."  Holy 
Innocents.  Prudentius. 

139.  "  Sancta  mater,  istud  agas."  See 
"Stabat  Mater." 

140.  "  Sanctorum  meritis."  Com- 
mon of  Martyrs.  Sixth  to  ninth  century. 

141.  "  Solemne  laudis  canticum." 
Feast  of  St.  Catherine  of  Ricci.  Eight- 
eenth century. 

142.  "Somno  refectis  artubus."  Mon- 
day matins.    St.  Ambrose. 

143.  "  Splendor  paternae  glorias." 
Monday  lauds.    As  preceding. 

144.  "  Stabat  Mater."  Seven  Dolours. 
According  to  Wadding,  by  Giacopone  da 
Todi,  a  di.sciple  of  St.  Francis  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  It  is  inserted  in  the 
works  of  St.  Bernard  as  given  in  a  MS. 
at  Utrecht. 

145.  "  Summae  Deus  clementiae." 
Seven  Dolours.  Sixteenth  to  eighteenth 
century. 

146.  "Summse  parens  clementiae." 
Satiu-day  matins.  Ambrosian. 

147.  "  Sumroffi  parens  clementiae." 
Trinity  Sunday.  Compiled  from  the  pre- 
ceding and  other  ferial  hymns. 

148.  "  Sunimi  parentis  filio."  Sacred 
Heart.    As  No.  118. 

149.  "Summi  parentis  unice."  St. 
Mary  Magdalen's  day.  By  Odo  of  Clugny 
{d.  942).  ' 

150.  "Te  deprecante  corporum." 
End  of  "  Gentis  Polonae."    See  No.  54. 

151.  "  Te  Deum  laudauius."  Sunday 
matins.  Attributed  to  St.  Ambrose,  but 
certainly  older. 

152.  "Te  Joseph  celebrant."  St. 
Joseph.  Si.xteenth  to  eighteenth  century. 

153.  "Telucisanteterminum."  Com- j 
pline.  Ambrosian. 

154.  "  Te,  mater  alma."  Feast  of  the 
Maternity.    Sixteenth  to  eighteenth  cen- 

tUTJ. 

155.  "Te  redemptoris."  Blessed  Vir- 
gin Help  of  Ohristian.s.  Modem. 

156.  "  Te  splendor  et  virtus  Patris." 
St.  Michael  and  AU  Angels.  ByRabanus 
Maurus,  archbi-^hop  of  Mayence  {d.  856). 

157.  "  Telluris  alme  conditor."  Tues- 
day vespers.  Ambrosian,  and,  as  Mone 
thinks,  by  Gregory  the  Great.  ^ 


1 58.  "  Tibi,  Christe,  splendor  Patris." 
St.  Raphael.  By  Rabanus  Maurus.  An 
adaptation  of  the  "Te  splendor."  See 
No.  156. 

159.  "Tinctam  ergo  Christi  sanguine." 
Lance  and  Nails.  Sixteenth  to  eighteenth 
century. 

160.  "  Tristes  erant  Apostoli."  Feasts 
of  Apostles.  The  second  half  of  "  Aurora 
ccElum."    See  No.  20. 

161.  "Tu  nutale  solum."  Feast  of 
St.  Martina.    Urban  VIII. 

162.  "  Tu  Trinitatis  unitas,"  with  the 
second  strophe  "Nam  lectulo."  Friday 
matins.    Gregory  the  Great. 

lt?.'l.  "  Tu  Trinitatis  unitas,"  with  the 
second  strophe  "Ortus  refulget."  Imi- 
tated and  partly  borrowed  from  preced- 
ing. 

164.  "Ut  queant  laxis."  St.  John 
Baptist.  By  Paulus  Diaconus,  properly 
Paul  Wamefrid,  a  scholar  at  Charle- 
magne's Court,  and  author  of  the  "  His- 
tory of  the  Lombards  " 

165  "Veni,  creator."  Pentecost. 
I  Commonly  attributed  to  Charlemagne, 
I  but  found  in  MSS.  written  before  his  day. 
j  Probably  by  St.  Gregory  the  Great. 

1H6.  "  Venit  e  cojlo."  Agony  in  the 
Garden.  Sixteenth  to  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. 

167.  "Verbum  supernum  prodiens  e 
Patris  aeterni  sinu."  Advent.  Am- 
brosian, and  not  later  than  second  half  of 
fifth  century. 

168.  "Verbum  supernum  prodiens, 
nec  Patris  linquens  dexteram."  Corpus 
Christi.    St.  Thomas  of  Aquin. 

169.  "Verbum  supernum  prodiens, 
salvare  quod  perierat."  Feast  of  Lance, 
&c.  A  text  of  this  hymn  is  given  by 
Mone  from  a  MS.  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. 

170.  "  Vexilla  regis."  Passion  Sun- 
day, Finding  and  Exaltation  of  the 
Cross.  Venantius  Fortunatus.  See  No. 
22. 

171.  "Virginis  proles."  Common  of 
Virgins.  A  mediaeval  imitation  of  St. 
Ambrose. 

172.  "Virgo  virginum  praeclara." 
From  "Stabat  Mater."    See  No.  144. 

173.  "  Vix  in  sepulcro."  Feast  of  St. 
John  Nepomuc.    Eighteenth  century. 

Hykns  aitd  Seqtiekces  in  the  Missal. 

1.  "  Dies  irae."  By  Tliomas  of  Celano, 
disciple  of  St.  Fiancis,  about  1250. 

2.  "Exultet  jam  angelica."  Holy 
Saturday  at  bh  -sing  of  the  Paschal 
candle.    Ascribed  to  St.  Augustine. 


464 


HYMNS 


ICONOCLASTS 


.  3.  "  Gloria  in  excelsis."    [See  Doxo- 

LOGY.] 

4.  "Gloria,  laus  et  honor."  Palm 
Sunday  at  the  procession.  By  Theodulf, 
bishop  of  Orleans  (rf.  821). 

5.  "  Lauda,  Sion."  Corpus  Christi. 
St.  Thomas  of  Aquin. 

6.  "  Salve,  sancta  parens."  Introit  in 
Mass  of  Blessed  Virgin.  Sedulius,  in  fifth 
century. 

7.  "Stabat  Mater."  See  above,  No. 
144. 

8.  "Veni,  Sancte  Spiritus."  By  the 
French  King  Robert,  son  of  Hugh  Capet 
{d.  10;31). 

9.  "  VictimfB  paschali."  Easter.  At- 
tributed by  an  Einsiedeln  MS.  of  the 
eleventh  century  to  Wipo,  chaplain  to 
Conrad  II.  (eleventh  century). 

(Cardinal  Thomasi,  "0pp.  torn.  iL, 


contiuens     psalterium,"   Romae,  1747; 
I  Daniel,  "Thesaurus  Hyranolog."  Halle, 
I  1841  :  and  Mone,  "  Lat.  Hvmnen  des 
'  :Mittehilters,"  Freiburg,   1853,   are  the 
j  chief  authorities  on  the  subject.  MouU, 
"  Lat.  Hvmnen  des  Mittehal'ters,"  Einsie- 
deln, 18ii6:  Sfhlosser,  "Die  Kirche  in 
ihren  Liedern,"  Freiburg,  186.3;  Neale, 
"  Hymns  of  the  Eastern  Church," London, 
18fi-':S:  "Mediicvalllyrans  and  Sequences," 
]86-'i;  Hiras'hi,  "  Inni  sinceri  e  carmi  di 
S.  Amb.-nnio,"   Milan,  1862;  Hueiuer, 
"  Untcrsucluing    uher   die   altesten  lat. 
Christ.    Khythmen,"   Wien,  1879,  may 
also  be  consulted.) 

RVPOSTA.TZC  VXTZOir.  The 
union  of  Christ's  human  nature  to  the 
hypostasis  or  person  of  God  the  Word. 
[See  Cheist.] 


I 


XCOIiroCX.ASTS  ("Breakers  of  ima- 
ges"). A  name  given  to  the  powerful 
party  which  set  itself  against  the  religious 
use  of  images,  and  disturbed  the  peace  of 
the  Church  during  the  eighth  and  the 
former  half  of  the  ninth  centurv. 

1.  Fh-ft  Starje  of  the  Controversy  (726- 
775). — Leo  III.,  known  in  history  as  "  the 
Isaurian"  (717-741),  published  an  edict 
against  images.  Both  the  exact  date 
(Ilefele  places  it  in  726)  and  the  purport 
of  this  edict  are  uncertain.  The  Emperor 
is  said  to  have  acted  by  the  advice  of 
Constantine,Bishopof  Nacolia,in  Phrygia, 
and  it  is  certain  that  shortly  before  the 
Khalif  Jezid  II.  had  set  the  example — 
natural,  of  course,  in  a  Mohammedan — of 
destroying  images.  Possibly  Leo  may  have 
believed  that  he  was  removing  a  cause  of 
scandal  to  Jews  and  Saracens,  and  taking 
away  an  occasion  of  superstition  from 
ignorant  Christians.  Leo,  however,  met 
with  immediate  and  strenuous  opposition. 
The  destruction  of  a  famous  image  of 
Christ  over  the  brazen  door  of  the  palace 
led  to  an  uproiir  among  the  people.  Leo 
was  resisted  by  Germanus,  the  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  and  condemned  by 
Pope  Gregory  II.  St.  John  of  Damascus, 
who  was  living  under  the  rule  of  the 
Khalifs,  published  thr-^e  discourses  in 
defence  of  images,  entitled  Xoyoi  airo- 
\oyrjriKoi  The  Emperor  threatened  to 
destroy  St.  Peter's  image  at  Rome,  and 


to  take  the  Pope  captive ;  and  his  rage 
was  further  inflamed  by  the  rebellion  of 
Cosmas.  The  suppression  of  the  rebellion 
was  followed  by  a  new  edict  against 
images,  in  730,  and  by  fresh  acts  of 
violence.  A  fleet  was  sent  to  Rome,  in 
order  to  revenge  Gregory's  anathema 
published  in  a  Roman  synod  of  the  year 
732 ;  and,  although  this  attack'  failed, 
Illyria  was  torn  from  the  Holy  S(>e.  and 
its  possessions  in  Lower  Italy  seized. 
Leo's  successor,  Constantine  V.  (Coprony^- 
mus).  continued  his  father's  work.  Again 
the  Emperor's  zeal  against  images  caused 
a  reliellion.  but  this,  too,  was  quelled,  and 
in  754  Constantine  convoked  a  council  of 
3-is  bishops  —  -ndth  which,  however, 
neither  the  Pope,  nor  the  Patriarchs  of 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem, 
would  have  anything  to  do.  This  Council 
of  Constantinople,  whicli  pi-etended  to  be 
oecumenical,  anathematised  those  who 
venerated  images  ;  and  this  anathema 
was  the  excuse  for  additional  severity. 
Mona.steries  were  destroyed,  and  many 
monks — among  them  John  of  Monagria 
and  the  abbot  Stephen — died  as  martyrs 
for  the  faith  and  traditional  usage  of  the 
Church. 

2.  Second  Stage  of  the  Controversy 
(775-842).  —  The  persecution  abated, 
though  it  did  not  cease,  under  Leo  IV. 
(776-780).  His  wife,  Irene,  who  held 
the  regency  after  her  husband's  death. 


ICONOCLASTS 


ICONOCLASTS  465 


set  herself  to  restore  the  veneration  of 
images,  and  was  supported  by  Tarasius, 
the  new  Patriarch.  Irene  and  Tarasius 
convoked  a  general  council,  to  which 
Pope  Hadrian  I.  was  invited,  and  to 
which  he  promised  to  send  legates.  The 
soldiers  made  it  impossible  to  hold  the 
assembly  in  tlie  imperial  city,  but  the 
Father.s  met  in  787  at  Niciea.  Tie  P.-qml 
legates — viz  the  arclipri^st  Peter  and  the 
abbot  Peter — presided,  their  names  being 
always  mentioned  in  the  Acts  before  those 
of  the  otlier  menibi'rs,  but  the  business 
was  mainly  conducted  by  Tarasius.  The 
decrees  were  signed  by  at  least  308 
bishops,  or  proxies  for  bishops,  but  it 
appears  from  the  Acts  that  besides  the 
bishops  a  large  number  of  monks  and 
clerics,  not  entitled  to  vote,  were  present 
at  the  deliberations.  It  was  on  October 
13,  and  in  the  seventh  session,  that  the 
opos  or  definition  of  faith  was  issued.  In 
it  the  council  teaches  that  the  figure  of 
the  cross,  and  "  holy  images,  whether 
made  in  colours,  or  of  stone,  or  of  any 
other  material,"  are  to  be  retained.  They 
are  not  to  ■become  objects  of  "  adoration 
in  the  proper  sense  (ti)k  dXrjdLvriv  Xarpeiav), 
which  is  to  be  given  to  God  alone,"  but 
they  are  useful  because  they  raise  the 
mind  of  the  spectator  to  the  objects  which 
they  represent.  It  is  right  to  salute, 
honour,  and  venerate  them  (acrmia-nov 
(cat  TiprjTiK^v  TTpocrKvirrjaiv),  to  burn  lights 
and  incense  before  them,  not  only  because 
this  is  in  accordance  with  the  tradition 
of  the  Church,  but  also  on  the  ground 
that  such  honour  is  really  given  to  God 
and  His  saints,  of  whom  the  images  are 
intended  to  remind  us.  The  council  uses 
the  word  "  worship  "  {irptxTKvvei)  of  the 
veneration  due  to  images,  but,  as  we 
have  seen,  carefully  explains  the  sense  in 
which  the  word  is  employed.  This 
decision  was  approved  by  Pope  Hadrian, 
a-  he  himself  declares  in  a  letter  to 
Charlemagne. 

The  Iconoclast  spirit  revived  in  Leo  V., 
"the  Armenian"  (813-820),  Theodore, 
abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Studion,  at 
Constantinople,  being  the  champion  of 
the  orthodox  cause.  Michael  11.,  "the 
Stammerer"  (820-829),  tried  to  reconcile 
tlie  friends  and  enemies  of  images,  but 
his  son  Theophilus  (829-842)  persecuted 
the  monks  who  adhered  to  the  Nicene 
definition.  On  February  19,  842,  his 
widow,  Theodora,  brought  the  images 
b-ick  in  triumph  to  the  chief  church  at 
Constantinople,  and  this  day,  which  marks 
the  close  of  a  long  and  dreary  strife,  ie 


still  kept  by  the  Greeks  as  the  "Feast  of 
Orthodoxj-." 

3.  The  Controversy  in  the  West. — 
Pope  Hadrian  sent  a  very  unfortunate 

1  translation  of  the  Acts  of  the  Nicene 
Council  to  Charlemagne.  The  latter 
stated  bis  objections  in  a  document  sent 

'  to  the  Pope,  and  known  as  the  "Libri 
Carnlini."'  lie  n;j(^cls  both  synods— the 
IcDiiocList  one  at  Unii-l.Ditindple  in  754, 
and  Second  Council  of  Xic;e:i — ami  assi-i  ts 
that  God  alone  is  to  be  adoi  cd  {^(ijnrfui(lii>i) 
and  worshipped  {cole>i/fi's),  while  the 
saints  are  only  to  be  venerated  {rp/)/'rri>i(/i). 
A  certain  "  adoration  "  {ailoratio)  may, 

j  indeed,  be  given  to  men — e.y.  by  bowing 

j  reverently  before  them,  or  by  kissing, 
but  even  this  is  to  be  withheld  from 
images,  because  they  are  lifeless,  and  it 
is  foolish  to  burn  incense  or  lights  before 
them.  Moreover,  although  images  may 
lawfully  be  used  in  churches,  their  use  is 
by  no  means  necessary.  The  great  Coun- 
cil of  Frankfort,  in  794,  also  rejected  the 
Nicene  decree,  evidently  misled,  as 
Charlemagne  had  been,  by  the  faulty 
translation,  which  made  no  distinction 
between  supreme  worship  (Xarpela)  and 
secondary  veneration.  Indeed,  this  synod 
attributes  to  and  condemns  in  the  Nicene 
council  a  doctrine  which  it  had  expressly, 
and  in  set  terms,  rejected. 

(The  principal  ancient  authority  on 
the  Iconoclasts  is  Theophanes  (d.  818). 
His  "Chronographia"  is  published  among 
the  Byzantine  historians  (Bonn,  1839). 
Later  authors — e.ff.  Cedrenus  (sec.  xi.), 
Zonaras  (sec.  xii.),  Constantine  Manasses 
(sec.  xii.),  Glycas  (sec.  xv.),  draw  from 
him.  In  modern  times,  the  whole  or  part 
of  the  history  has  been  investigated  by 

;  the  Protestants,  Goldast,  "  Iniperialia 
Decreta  de  Cultu  Iniaginum,"  1608  ; 
Dallfeus,  "De  Cultu  Imaginum,"  1612; 
Spanheim,  "  Restituta  Historia  Imagi- 
num," 1686  ;  and  by  the  Catholics, 
Maimbourg,  "Histoire  de  l'H6r(5sie  des 
Iconoclastes  "  (not  always  trustworthy), 
Paris,  1683  ;  Marx,  "  Bilderstreit  der 
Byzantinischen  Kaiser,"  Trier,  1839 ;  and 


1  Petaviu8(Z)e  Incamat.  xv.  12, 3,  8)  thinks 
that  only  extracts  from  the  "Libri  Caroliiii" 
were  sent  to  Pope  Hadrian  ;  and  so  Ilifele, 
Concil.  iii.  p.  71S,  2nd  ed.    The  authenticity  of 

i  the  Libri  Carolini "  was  denied  by  Bellarmin, 
for  reasons  abundantly  refuted  l>y  later  Catholic 
scholars — e.g.  Sisniond  and  Natalis  Alexander. 
An  unsuccessful  attempt  to  attack  the  authen- 
ticity was  made  once  more  by  Dr.  Floss,  De 

j  Suspecta    Lihrorum     Carnlinorum  .  .  .  Fide, 

I  Bonn,  1860. 

H  H 


466  ICOXOSTASIS 


IGNORANCE 


by  Hefele,  "  Concil."  iii. — which  last  has 

been  chiefly  followed  here.) 

ZCOirbsTASIS  (eiKorocTTacTts).  A 
wooden  wall  which  in  Byzantine  churches 
separates  the  choir  from  the  nave.  It  is 
so  called  because  icons  or  images  of  Christ, 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  &c.,  are  ])laced  upon 
it.  The  icono.staais  is  found  in  Greek 
and  Russian  churches,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  it  was  known  before  the  middle 
ages. 

ZDOiiATRY.  [See  Images  and 
Saints.] 

zcxrosANCS.  St.  Thomas  (1  2'"^», 
Ixxvi.  2)  distinguishes  ignorance  from 
mere  nescience.  The  latter  he  explain.-i 
to  mean  the  simple  absence  of  knowledge; 
the  former  implies  absence  of  knowledge 
in  one  who  is  capable  of  acquiring  it. 
He  proceeds  to  show  that  ignorance  may 
easily  involve  sin,  since  a  person  is  bound 
to  use  all  reasonable  means  in  order  that 
he  may  have  the  knowledge  necessary  for 
the  performance  of  his  duties.  Thus  all 
men  are  hound  to  learn,  so  far  as  they 
can,  the  general  principles  of  religion  and 
morals  ;  and  a  man  sins  grievously  who 
remains  from  his  own  negligence  in  the 
belief  that  a  false  religion  i%  true,  or  that 
an  unlawful  course  of  action  which  he  is 
pursuing  is  really  lawful.  The  degree  of 
his  sin  will  difler  according  as  the  obli- 
gations whicli  he  does  not  fulfil  through 
ignorance  are  more  or  less  serious,  and 
according  to  the  amount  of  negligence  or 
malice  which  his  ignorance  implies.  Thus, 
while  a  man  is  never  excused  from  sin  of 
omission  or  commission  on  the  plea  of 
ignorance  which  he  can  be  fairly  expected 
to  overcome,  this  vincible  ignorance,  as  it 
is  called,  admits  of  subdivisions,  repre- 
senting different  grades  of  guilt.  A  man 
may  use  some  but  not  enough  industry 
in  removing  his  ignorance,  which  in  that 
case  is  said  to  be  "  sim|)ly  vincible ; "  he 
may  take  scarcely  any  pains  to  remove  it: 
then  liis  ignorance  is  "crass;"  he  may 
positively  wish  to  be  ignorant,  in  order 
that  he  may  sin  more  freely :  then  his 
ignorance  is  known  as  "  affected."  The 
reader  must  understand  that  up  to  this 
point  we  have  been  speaking  of  the  sin 
which  lies  in  the  ignorance  itself,  not  in 
the  evil  act  to  which  the  ignorance  leads ; 
and  the  conclusion  which  we  have  reached 
is  that  all  vincible  ignorance  of  the  things 
a  man's  duty  requires  him  to  know  is  in 
itself  sinful.  A  physician  who  practises 
his  profession  without  the  knowledge 
which  he  can  and  ought  to  have  sins, 
even  if  aa  a  matter  of  fact  he  happens  to 


prescribe  what  is  really  best  for  his 
patients. 

With  regard  to  the  guilt  of  sins  igno- 
rantly  committed,  invincible  ignorance 
altogether  excuses  from  sin,  because  no 
man  can  incur  moral  guilt  without  any 
intention  direct  or  remote  to  transgress 
God's  law.  A  Protestant  who  thinks  the 
Catholic  religion  idolatrous,  and  cannot 
reasonably  be  expected,  considering  his 
education,  circumstances,  &c.,  to  think 
otherwise,  is  guiltless  so  far  in  the  sight 
of  God.  So,  again,  if  a  person  is  aware 
that  he  sins  but  is  invincibly  ignorant  of 
circumstances  which  aggravate  or  change 
the  nature  of  his  crime,  he  is  responsible 
only  so  far  as  he  knows  or  maj'  know 
what  he  is  about.  A  man,  for  example, 
who,  meaning  to  kill  his  enemy,  kills  his 
father  unawares,  is  of  course  a  murderer, 
but  he  is  not  a  parricide.  We  pause  here 
to  observe  that  although  every  man  may 
know  the  first  principles  of  the  moral 
law  and  the  most  obvious  deductions 
from  them,  he  may  be  invincibly  ignorant 
of  certain  precepts  which  belong  to  the 
natural  law  of  right  and  wrong.  This 
point  is  profusely  argued  and  illustrated 
by  St.  Liguori,  "Theol.  Moral."  lib.  i. 
§  170. 

Supposing  that  a  man  is  responsible 
for  his  ignorance,  it  may  still  diminish 
the  guilt  of  the  sins  which  he  ignorantly 
perpetrates.  Such  is  the  case  with  igno- 
rance "  simply  vincible,"  and  even,  thougli 
in  a  less  degree,  with  "  crass  "  ignorance. 
When,  however,  a  man  remains  ignorant 
to  sin  more  freely  {i(/noranfia  affectata) 
St.  Thomas  {loc.  cit.  a.  4)  holds  that 
"such  ignorance  seems  to  increase  the 
voluntary  character  of  his  act  and  its 
sin "  ("  videtur  augere  voluntarium  et 
peccatum  "). 

Censures  are  not  incurred  by  those 
who  are  invincibly  ignorant  of  their 
existence,  though  they  may  be  aware  that 
the  action  forbidden  under  censure  is 
wrong.  If  the  censure  is  imposed  only 
on  those  who  sin  knowingly,  it  is  held  by 
some  theologians  that  even  a  person  whose 
ignorance  is  "  affected  "  escapes  the  cen- 
sure. The  other  opinion  is  better  sup- 
ported; but"  crass"  ignorance  undoubtedly 
would  serve  to  save  a  person  from  a  cen- 
sure promulgated  in  these  or  similar 
terms. 

We  may  mention  in  conclusion  that 
St.  Thomas  (1  2'^^,  qu.  vi.  a.  8)  and 
other  theologians  also  divide  ignorance 
into  that  which  is  "antecedent" — i.e. 
which  precedes  all  action  of  the  will; 


IMAGE  OF  GOD 


IMAGE  OF  GOD 


407 


"consequent"  or  voluntary  ignorance; 
"  concomitant,"  when  a  man  acta  in 
ignorance,  but  is  so  minded  that  he  would 
act  in  just  the  same  manner  if  he  under- 
stood the  nature  of  his  deed.  We  need 
not,  however,  dwell  on  this  distinction, 
since  "  antecedent "  coincides  with  invin- 
cible, "  cotiseipent  "  with  vincible  igno- 
rance, while  "  concomitant "  ignorance  has 
no  influence  on  moral  action. 

ZIVXACS  OP  GOD.    We  read  in 
Genesis  i.  20  that  God  said,  "  Let  us  make  I 
man  to  our  image  and  likeness,  and  let  ' 
him  rule  over  the  fishes  of  the  sea  and 
the  birds  of  the  air,"  &c.    Petavius,  "De 
Opiticio  Sex  Dierum,"  lib.  ii.  cap.  2-4, 
elaborately  discusses  the  meaning  of  these 
words  and  the  history  of  their  interpre-  '' 
tation.    We  select  the  most  important  \ 
points  from  his  account,  adding  a  few  ^ 
remarks  drawn  from  other  sources. 

1.  Althinigh  the  text  quoted  speaks 
of  Adam  only  as  created  in  God's  image, 
it  is  plain  that  neither  this  likeness  itself 
(see  Genesis  v.  1-3)  nor  the  dominion 
over  the  beasts  which  flows  from  it  (see  | 
Genesis  is.  8,  and  cf.  Ps.  viii.  6)  has  | 
been  wholly  forfeited  by  the  fall.  At 
the  same  time  it  has  been  partially  lost, 
and  thus  St.  Paul,  Goloss.  iii.  10,  speaks 
of  the  likeness  to  God  as  restored  in 
Christ. 

2.  We  may  at  once  dismiss  the  anthro- 
pomorphite  error  mentioned  by  Epi- 
phanius  that  the  likeness  to  God  consists 
primarily  in  the  bodily  shape.  Such  an  in- 
terpretation is  contrary  to  the  principles 
of  the  Mosaic  as  well  as  of  the  Christian 
religion.  God  has  no  body,  and  no  bodily 
form  as  such  can  be  like  Him  (see  Exod. 
XX.  4,  Deut.  iv.  12,  15  seg.,  Is.  xxxi.  3). 
Here  we  may  observe  that  though  many  ^ 
parallels  to  the  expression  with  which  : 
we  are  concerned  may  be  quoted  from 
heathen  writers  (e.c/.,  Knobel  and  Dill- 
mann,  ad  loc,  quote  eiKcuv  6eov  from 
Lucian,  "  De  Imag."  28,  "  Ad  effigiem 
moderantum  cuncta  deorum,"'  from  Ovid, 
"  Met."i.  83,  and  also  refer  to  Juvenal  xv. 
142),  the  force  of  the  passages  is  blunted 
by  the  fact  that  the  heathen  had  much 
less  perfect  notions  than  the  Jews  of 
God's  spiritual  nature. 

3.  We  may  also  set  aside  the  beauti- 
ful explanation  of  Tertullian,  who  makes 
the  likeness  refer  to  the  Incarnate  Word, 
who  made  man  in  the  likeness  of  that  ' 
bodily  form  which  He  was  to  take.  "  So 
runs,"  he  says  ("  Uesurr.  Gamis,"6),  "  the 
speech  of  the  Father  to  the  Son,  '  Let 
us  make  man,'  &c.  .  .  .  He  made  him  to 


the  image  of  God,  i.e.  Christ.  Thus  that 
slime,  even  then  taking  the  image  of 
Christ  who  was  to  come  in  the  flesh,  was 
not  only  a  work  of  God,  but  also  a 
pledge."  Even  if  the  plural  number 
indicates  the  my.<!tery  of  the  Trinity, 
there  is  no  hint  in  the  text  that  man  was 
made  in  the  image  of  one  Divine  Person 
rather  than  in  that  of  another. 

4.  Petavius  distin-ni^hes  that  which 
was  made  like  to  God  and  that  in  wliich 
the  likeness  resides.  The  whole  man,  he 
says,  with  his  double  nature  (bodily  and 
spiritual),  was  made  in  the  likeness  of 
God.  But  he  maintains,  following  the 
general  teaching  of  the  Fathers,  that  the 
reason  or  foundation  of  this  likeness 
resides  chiefly  in  the  soul.  The  essential 
point  of  the  resemblance  lies  in  man's 
possession  of  intellect  and  will,  wliich 
separates  him  specifically  from  the  beasts 
and  makes  him  like  God.  This  essential 
likeness  is  perfected  by  accidental  qualities 
— viz.  by  the  natural  and  supernatural 
virtues — and  in  consequence  of  these 
accidental  perfections  one  man  may  be 
more  like  God  than  another.  In  man, 
who  is  the  bead  of  the  woman,  this 
accidental  likeness  is  more  perfect  than 
in  woman  (1  Cor.  xi.  7). 

5.  He  goes  on  to  say  tliat  this  likeness 
overflows  {reduri'lat)  from  the  soul  to  the 
body,  and  no  doubt  his  erect  carriage, 
the  perfection  of  his  form,  the  way  in 
which  his  intelligence  manifests  itself  in 
his  features,  mark  man  out  as  like  (iod 
and  fit  to  rule  over  the  lower  creation. 
This  seems  to  be  the  view  adopted  in  the 
recent  edition  of  our  English  Catechism, 
where  man's  likeness  to  God  is  said  to 
reside  "  chiefly  "  in  his  soul. 

0.  From  the  time  of  St.  Ambrose 
(Petavius  quotes  "  De  Dignitate  Con- 
ditionis  Humanae,"  cap.  xi.),  it  has  been 
common  to  see  the  image  of  the  Trinity 
in  the  three  powers  of  the  one  soul — 
viz.  memory,  understanding  and  will. 
Dirt'erent  writers,  however,  have  fixed 
upon  different  powers  of  the  soul  aa 
representing  the  Persons  of  the  Trinity. 

7.  Still  older  is  a  distinction  made 
between  "image"  and  "likeness."  Irenajus 
(v.  6,  1),  whose  view  has  been  largely 
accepted  in  the  Church,  supposes  that 
man  was  made  in  the  image  of  God  by 
nature,  and  became  like  God  by  the  gift 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  A  similar  distinction 
has  been  defended  by  so  good  a  scholar 
as  Delilzscli,  but  Petavius  is  surely  right 
in  rejecting  it.  The  Hebrew  (literally 
"  in  our  image,  according  to  our  likeness") 


4G8 


IMAGES 


BIAGES 


shows  more  clearly  than  the  Greek  or 
Latin,  which  insert  the  copula  "  and," 
that  the  two  words  are  practically 
synonymous. 

ZMAGES.  The  idolatrous  worship 
of  images  is  vehemently  condemned  in  the 
Scriptures,  and  in  the  Old  Testament  two 
forms  of  idolatry  are  .specially  reprobated. 
First,  we  find  denimciations  of  worship 
paid  to  images  of  false  gods,  such  as 
Moloch.  Astarte,  &c.  Here  the  whole 
meaning  and  intention  of  the  religious 
act  was  bad.  No  respect  was  due  to 
such  a  divinity  as  Baal;  to  worship  him 
was  an  iict  of  treason  against  the  living 
God,  sii  that  there  could  be  no  possible 
excuse  for  venerating  his  image.  But 
besides  this,  the  law  and  the  prophets 
condemn  worship  given  to  images  of  the 
true  God.  It  seems  clear  that  the  calf- 
worship  begun  at  Mount  Sinai,  and  con- 
tinued in  the  northern  kingdom  at  Bethel, 
&c.,  was  meant  as  the  worship  of  the  true 
God  set  before  Israel  in  this  symbolical 
form.'  But  this  worship  also  is  de- 
nounced— e.f/.  by  Amos  and  Osee — and 
was  really  idolatrous,  because  it  conveyed 
false  notions  of  God,  who  is  a  pure 
spirit,  so  that  althougli,  e.c;.,  Jeroboam 
professed  to  worship  .Jehovah,  he  was 
really  serving  ii  god  of  his  own  imagi- 
nation. To  prevent  such  idolatrous 
errors,  to  which  the  .lews  were  constantly 
tempted  by  the  example  of  the  surround- 
ing heathen,  the  Hebrew  worship  was 
regulated  in  each  detail  by  God.  Images 
they  had  in  the  tabernacle  and  the 
Temple,  for  the  cherubim  were  placed  in 
the  holy  of  holies,  and  the  walls  and 
pillars  were  adorned  with  figures  of 
palms,  pomegranates,  &c.  But  these 
figures  were  placed  in  the  tabernacle  from 
which  the  pattern  of  the  temple  was 
taken  by  the  express  ordinance  of  God, 
and  the  Jews  were  by  no  means  left  to 
their  own  discretion  in  the  use  of  sacred 
images  and  symbols. 

The  prohibition  of  idolatry  conveyed 
in  the  first  commaudment  continues,  it  is 
needless  to  say,  in  full  force.  Idolatry  is 
evil  in  its  own  nature,  and  necessarily  a 
sin  of  the  deepest  dye  by  whomever  it 
may  be  committed.  Moreover,  it  is 
possible  to  commit  this  sin  without  fall- 
ing into  the  gross  and  brutal  error  of 
identifying  a  lifeless  image  with  the 

'  See  Exod.  xxxii.  6,  where  Aaron  calls  the 
idolatrous  feast  a  feast  to  Jehovah ;  and  3  Kings 
xxii.  6,  from  which  it  appears  that  prophets 
who  sanctioned  the  calf-worship  were  still  con- 
sidernd  prophets  of  Jehovah. 


Divinity.  Therefore  the  Ootincil  of  Trent 
(Sess.  XXV.  De  Invocatione,  &c.)  not  only 
reprobates  the  delusion  that  the  godhead 
can  be  really  portrayed  by  material 
figures;  it  also  states  that  in  images  there 
is  no  divinity  or  "  mi-tue,  on  account  of 
which  they  are  to  he  worship/>ed,  that  no 
petitions  can  be  addressed  to  tliem,  and 
that  no  trust  is  to  be  placed  in  them." 

At  the  same  time  the  Tridentine 
Fathers,  following  the  Second  Council  of 
Nicffia,  advocate  the  true  use  of  images. 
The  danger  of  idolatry  has  at  least  to  a 
very  great  extent  passed  away  from 
Christian  nations.  Further,  God  Himself 
has  taken  a  human  form  which  admits  of 
being  represented  in  art.  So  that  the 
reasoning  of  Moses  in  Deut.  iv.  15  no 
longer  holds,'  and  on  the  whole  matter 
the  liberty  of  Christians  is  very  different 
from  tlie  bondage  of  Jews.  Images, 
according  to  the  Tridentine  definition,  are 
to  be  retained  and  honoured,  but  abuses 
and  all  occasion  of  scandal  to  the  rude 
and  ignorant  are  to  be  removed.  The 
object  of  images  is  to  set  Christ,  His 
Blessed  Mother,  the  saints  and  angels 
before  our  eyes,  while  the  council  adds 
that  "  the  honour  which  is  given  to  them 
is  referred  to  the  objects  {j)rotot(ipa) 
which  they  represent,  so  that  through 
the  images  which  we  kiss,  and  before 
which  we  tincover  our  heads  and  kneel, 
we  adore  Christ  and  venerate  the  saints, 
whose  likenesses  they  are."  "  The  coun- 
cil," says  Petavius,  "  De  Incarnat."  xv. 
17,  "could  not  have  declared  more  ex- 
pressly that  the  cultus  of  images  is  simply 
relative  (f7-;^eriKdi')  :  that  they  are  not  in 
themselves  and  strictly  speaking  {per  se 
ef  proprie)  adored  or  honoured,  but  that 
all  adoration  and  veneration  is  referred  to 
the  prototypes,  inasmuch  as  images  have 
no  dignity  or  excellence  to  which  such 
honour  properly  appertains."  We  cannot 
imagine  any  better  exposition  than  that 
of  this  great  theologian,  who,  among 
many  othermerits,  is  always  distinguished 
for  his  sobriety  and  his  avoidance  of  use- 
less subtleties.  His  words  explain  the 
doctrine  of  the  Church  and  remove  all 
possibility  of  scandal,  when  we  find  the 
Church  in  the  Good  Friday  Office  inviting 
the  faithful  to  adore  the  cross.  It  is  the 
suffering  Saviour,  not  the  dead  wood, 
which  Catholics  adore  [see  Cross]. 
The  use  of  images  in  the  Church  dates 

'  "Ye  did  not  see  any  hkeness  on  the  day 
that  the  Lord  spake  to  you  on  Horeb  from  the 
midst  of  the  fire,  lest  ye  should  act  wickedly 
and  make  for  yourselves  a  graven  imatfe,"  &c. 


IMAHES 


IMMACULATE  COXrKPTTOX  ^GO 


from  the  very  earliest  times.  The  Church 
no  doubt  was  cautious  in  her  use  of 
images,  both  because  the  use  of  them  in 
the  midst  of  a  heathen  population  might 
easily  be  misunderstood,  and  also  because 
the  images  might  be  seen  and  pn)laned 
by  the  heathen  persecutors.  It  is,  as 
Hefele  and  De  Rossi  maintain,  for  this 
latter  reason  that  the  Council  of  Elvira, 
in  the  year  306,  forbade  the  placing  of 
"  pictures  in  the  churches,  lest  vrhat  is 
worshipped  and  adored  should  be  painted 
on  the  walls."  Certainly  the  Church  of 
that  time  did  not  reject  the  use  of 
Christian  art — witness  the  numerous 
sacred  pictures  recently  brought  to  light 
in  the  Roman  catacombs.  Many  ancient 
works  of  art  which  have  come  down  to 
us  from  the  old  Spanish  church — e.g.  the 
beautiful  sarcophagi  of  Saragossa— prove 
that  there  was  no  difference  of  feeling  or 
opinion  on  this  matter  between  Spanish 
and  Roman  Christians.  But  whereas 
the  Roman  churches  were  under,  the 
Spanish  were  above,  ground.  Hence  the 
anxiety  of  the  council  to  avoid  the 
mockery  and  actual  danger  which  the 
sight  of  images  misrht  have  created. 

"VVe  can  trace  the  veneration  of  imasres 
and  the  Trideutine  doctrine  concerning 
it  through  the  whole  history  of  the 
Church,  but  here  a  few  instances  must 
suffice.  The  early  Christian  poet  Pniden- 
tius  speaks  of  himself  ("  Peristeph."  ix.  9 
*ey.)  as  praying  before  an  image  of  the 
martjT  Cassian.  We  read  that  at  a 
conference  held  between  St.  Maximus  and 
the  bishop  Theodosius  the  Fathers  present 
bent  the  knee  to  the  images  of  Christ  and 
the  Blessed  Virgin.'  The  principles  of 
Gregory  the  Great  on  the  respect  due  to 
images  are  well  known.  \Mien  Serenus, 
bishop  of  Marseilles,  removed  images 
from  the  church  on  the  ground  that  they 
had  proved  an  occasion  of  idolatry, 
Gregory  tells  him  (Ep.  ix.  105)  that  he 
ought  not  to  have  broken  imj.ges  placed 
in  the  church  as  means  of  instruction, 
not  objects  of  adoration.  In  sending 
Secundinus  images  of  Christ,  the  Blessed 
Virgin  and  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul, 
Gregory  writes  (Ep.  ix.  52) :  "  I  know 
you  do  not  ask  for  the  image  of  our 
Saviour  to  worship  it  as  God,  but  that 
being  reminded  of  the  Son  of  God,  you 
may  be  inflamed  anew  with  love  of  Him 
whose  image  you  long  to  see.  And  we 
on  our  part  do  not  prostrate  ourselves 
before  it  as  a  divinity,  but  we  adore  Him 

1  See  Kraus,  Encydopiid.,  art.  "  Bilder- 
verehrung." 


whom  by  means  of  the  image  we  bring 
to  mind,  in  his  birth,  in  his  passion,  or  as 
He  sits  on  his  throne." 

Two  qualifications  must  be  made  to 
the  doctrine  stated  in  a  previous  part  of 
this  article.  We  have  said  that  no 
images  can  really  resemble  the  divine 
nature  which  is  immaterial.  But  there 
is  no  harm  in  symbolical  representations 
of  the  Holy  trinity,  or  of  the  divine 
Persons  singly.  The  contrary  proposition 
was  condemned  by  Pius  VI.  (Synod  of 
Pistoia,  prop  69),  in  the  bull  "  Auctorem 
fidei."  Again,  t bough  images  have  no 
virtue  in  themselves,  God  may  be  pleased 
to  give  special  graces  at  particular 
shrines.  This  is  taught  in  the  same  bull, 
and  the  words  of  St.  Augustine  (Ep.  78) 
are  aptly  quoted :  "  God,  who  divides 
special  gifts  to  each  according  as  He 
wills,  was  not  pleased  that  these  ''marvels] 
should  take  place  in  all  the  shrines  of  the 
saints." 

ZMIWACTTXiATE  COTrCEPTZOir 
OF  THE  BXiESSEO  VXRCZM-.    I.  The 

M&anu/r/  fjftlie  Doctrine. — Benedict  XIV. 
("  De  Fest."  clxxxvii.  seq.^.  quoting  Eras- 
sen,  a  Scotist  theolos-ian,  distinguishes  be- 
tween active  and  passive  conception.  The 
former  consists  in  the  act  of  the  parents 
which  causes  the  body  of  the  child  to  be 
formed  and  organised,  and  so  prepared 
for  the  reception  of  the  rational  soul 
which  is  infused  by  God.  The  latter 
takes  place  at  the  moment  when  the 
rational  soul  is  actually  infused  into  the 
body  by  God.  It  is  the  pnssive,  not  the 
active,  conception  which  Catholics  have 
in  view  when  they  speak  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception.  For  there  was 
nothing  miraculous  in  Mary's  generation. 
She  was  begotten  like  other  children. 
The  body,  while  still  inanimate,  could 
not  be  sanctified  or  preserved  from 
original  sin,  for  it  is  the  soul,  not  the 
body,  which  is  capable  of  receiving 
either  the  gifts  of  grace  or  the  stain  of 
sin.  Moreover,  from  the  fact  that  Mary 
sprang  in  the  common  way  from  Adam 
our  first  father,  it  follows  that  she  was 
the  daughter  of  a  fallen  race  and  incurred 
the  "  debt "  or  liability  to  contract  original 
sin.  Adam  was  the  representative  of 
the  human  race  :  he  was  ])ut  on  his  trial, 
and  when  he  fell  all  his  descendants  tell 
with  him,  and  must,  unless  some  special 
mercy  of  God  interposed,  receive  souls 
destitute  of  that  grace  in  which  Adam 
himself  was  created.  In  Mary's  case, 
however,  God's  mercy  did  int«rpose. 
For  the  sake  of  Him  who  was  to  be  bom 


470  iM:\iArrLATT-:  coyrr.rTioN 


IMMACrT,.VTT:  COXCF.rilON 


of  lier  and  for  "  his  merits  loivsci'n  " 
grace  was  poured  into  her  soul  at  the 
first  instant  of  its  being.  Christian 
children  are  sanctified  at  the  font:  St. 
John  the  Baptist  was  sanctified  while 
still  unborn.  Mary  was  sanctified 
earlier  still — viz.  in  the  first  moment  of 
her  conception.  She  received  a  gift  like 
that  of  Eve,  who  was  made  from  the 
first  without  sin,  only  the  immaculate 
conception  is  rightly  called  a  privilege, 
and  a  privilege  altogether  singular,  be- 
cause in  the  ordinary  course  of  things 
the  Blessed  Virgin  would  have  been  con- 
ceived and  born  in  original  sin.  We  beg 
the  reader  to  remt  niber  that  what  we 
have  written  up  to  this  point  is  the 
universal  teaching  of  theologians,  and  we 
have  carefully  abstained  from  entering 
on  scholastic  disputes  {e.g.  as  to  the 
remote  and  proximate  debt  of  sin), 
because  we  believe  that  the  mere  state- 
ment of  the  doctrine  is  enough  to  remove 
many  prejudices  from  the  minds  of  candid 
Protestants.  So  far  from  derogating 
from,  the  Catholic  doctrine  exalts,  the 
merits  of  Christ.  He  who  redeemed  us 
redeemed  her.  He  who  sanctified  us  in 
baptism  sanctified  her  in  her  conception. 
Nor  could  any  Catholic  dream  of  com- 
paring Mary's  exemption  from  sin,  we  do 
not  say  with  the  sinlessness  of  the  Divine 
nature,  for  such  a  comparison  would  be 
insane  as  well  as  blasphemous,  but  with 
the  sinlessness  of  Christ  as  man.  Sin 
was  a  physical  impossibility  in  the  human 
soul  of  Christ,  because  it  was  hypo- 
statically  united  to  the  Divinity.  M.'iry, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  sinless  by  the 
grace  of  God.  "Thou  art  innocent," 
says  Bossuet,  addressing  Christ,  "  by 
nature,  Mary  only  by  grace  ;  Thou  by 
excellence,  she  only  by  privilege ;  Thou 
as  Redeemer,  she  as  the  first  of  those 
whom  thy  precious  blood  has  purified  " 
("  Sermon  pour  la  fete  de  la  Conception  de 
la  Sainte  Vierge  ").  No  better  summary 
could  be  given  of  the  Church's  doctrine. 

2.  History  of  the  Controversy  on  the 
Doctrine. — The  controversy,  so  far  as  we 
know,  began  in  the  twelfth  century. 
The  church  of  Lyons  had  adopted  the 
custom,  which  already  prevailed  else- 
where (see  the  article  on  the  feast),  of 
celebrating  the  feast  of  IMnry's  con- 
ception. St.  Bernard  {d.  1153)  remon- 
strated sharply  with  them,  m  great 
measure  because  the  feast  had  not  been 
approved  at  Rome.  The  authenticity  of 
this  letter  has  been  disputed,  but  on 
grounds,  as  Benedict  XIV.  implies,  abso- 


lutrly  insul!k-i,M.t.  BrsiJes,  littl,-  u:.uld 
be  gained  even  if  tlie  letter  were  spurious, 

,  for  Petavius     De  Incarnat."  xiv.  'I)  has 

I  proved,  from  other  passages  in  his  works, 
Bernard's  opinion  to  have  been  that  the 

,  Bli  ssed  Yiiijin  was  not  conceived  im- 
iiKieulate,  but  w  as  sanctifietl  in  the  womb 
like  .Ten  uiias  and  St.  John  the  Baptist. 
Benedict  XIV.,  following  Mabillon, 
declines  to  accept  the  theory  that  St. 
Bernard  had  the  active,  not  the  passive, 
conception  in  his  mind.  At  the  same 
time  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
saint  refers  the  whole  matter  of  his 
dispute  with  the  canons  of  Lyons  to  the 
judgment  of  the  Roman  Church.  The 
quotations  in  Petavius  from  St.  Peter 
Damian,  St.  .'\  nselm,  Peter  Lombard,  and 
others,  abundantly  prove  that  St.  Ber- 
nard's opinion  was   the  prevalent  one 

1  before  and  during  his  own  age.  In  the 
following  century  St.  Thomas  (iii.  27,  2) 
held  that  Mary  was  only  sanctified  in 
the  womb  after  her  body  was  already 
informed  by  the  soul  {post  ejus  ani- 
mationnn),  and  he  argues  that  if  the 
Virgin  "had  not  incurred  the  stain  of 
original  guilt,"  she  would  have  stood  in 
no  need  of  being  saved  and  redeemed  by 
Christ,  whereas  Christ,  as  the  Apostle 
declares,  is  the  Saviour  of  all  men.'  But 
the  strongest  evidence  to  the  prevalence 
of  the  belief  that  the  Virgin  was  not 
conceived  withoutsinis  supplied  byScotus 
("  In  Lib.  III.  Sentent.,"  d.  iii.  qu.  ] ,  n.  4). 
He  gives  his  own  opinion  in  favour  of 
the  immaculate  conception  with  a 
timidity  which  clearly  betrays  his  con- 
sciousness that  the  general  opinion  was 
on  the  other  side.  After  maintaining 
that  God  might,  had  He  so  chosen,  have 
exempted  the  Blessed  Virgin  from  original 
sin,  and  might  on  the  other  hand  liave 
allowed  her  to  remain  under  it  for  a 
time,  and  then  purified  her,  he  adds  that 
"  God  knows "'  which  of  these  possible 
ways  was  actually  taken  ;  "  but,  if  it  is 
not  contrary  to  the  authority  of  the 
Church  or  of  the  saints,  it  seems  com- 
mendable {probahilc)  to  attribute  that 
which  is  more  excellent  to  Mary." 

Scotus,  however,  farther  on  in  the 
same  work  (d.  18,  qu.  1,  n.  4),  expresses 
a  more  decided  view,  and  he  inaugui-ated 
a  new  state  of  opinion,  though  the  change 

'  Cariiinal  Lambiuschini,  in  a  polemical 
dissertation  on  the  Immaculate  Conception 
(RomiE,  1842),  declared  that  here,  as  in  other 
places,  the  MSS.  of  St.  Thomas  had  been  cor- 
rupted. But  this  position  does  not  admit  of 
serious  defence. 


IMMACULATE  CO^-CEmON  IMMACULATE  C0>-CEPT10N  m 


did  not  come  at  once,  and  the  story  told 
by  Cavellus,  an  author  of  tlie  seventeenth 
century  whom  Benedict  XIV.  quotes,  is 
probably  a  mere  legend.  Accurding  to 
this  story,  vScotus  deleuded  the  doctrine  nf 
the  immaculate  conception  at  Cologne 
and  Paris,  and  a  disputation  which  ho 
held  in  the  latter  place  induced  the  Paris 
University  to  adopr  the  doctrine,  and  won 
for  Scotus  himself  the  title  of  the  '•  Subtle 
Doctor."  Scotus  died  in  1308,  and  events 
which  hapjiened  in  1387  show  how 
rapidly  the  Scotist  opinion  had  .-prcad 
and  how^  deeply  it  had  struck  root  at 
least  in  France.  A  Dominican  doctor, 
John  Montesono,  had  publicly  denied  the 
immaculate  conception,  whereupon  he 
was  condemned  by  the  University  and 
by  the  Bishop  of  Paris,  and  though 
he  ajipealed  to  the  Pope  (or  anti-Pope) 
Clement  VII.,  he  did  not  dare  to  ai>pear, 
and  was  condemned  for  contumacy.  The 
Fathers  of  the  Council  of  Basle  begged 
Cardinal  Torquemada  (Tnrrecremata)  to 
prepare  a  treatise  on  the  question,  and  so 
he  did  ;  but  circumstances  prevented  him 
from  laying  it  before  the  council,  and  his 
treatise,  which  was  adverse  to  the  doc- 
trine, was  practically  unknown  till  it  was 
published  by  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  with  the  consent  of  Paul  III.,  then 
Pope.  The  decree  of  Basle,  which  de- 
fined that  the  doctrine  asserting  Mary's 
immunity  from  original  sin  was  "  to  be 
approved,  held,  and  embraced  by  all 
Catholics,  as  being  pious  and  consonant 
to  the  worship  of  the  Church,  to  Catholic 
faith,  right  reason,  and  Holy  Scripture," 
was  passed  in  1439,  when  the  council 
had  become  schismatical,  so  that  it  in  no 
way  bound  the  consciences  of  Catholics. 
It  serves,  however,  to  mark  the  general 
feeling  of  the  time ;  and  other  signs  of  the 
hold  the  doctrine  had  obtained  are  not 
wanting.  It  was  asserted  at  a  provincial 
synod  in  Avignon  in  1457.  Forty  years 
later  the  University  of  Paris  required  an 
oath  to  defend  the  doctrine  from  all  who 
proceeded  to  the  doctor's  degree,  and  the 
tenet  was  embraced  with  ardour  by  the 
Carmelites,  tlie  different  branches  of  the 
Franciscan  order,  and  by  men  of  the 
highest  distinction  among  the  secular 
clergy. 

The  matter  gave  rise  to  keen  discus- 
sion at  Trent,  and  although  most  of  the 
bishops  held  the  doctrine,  the  council 
contented  itself  with  a  declaration  that 
in  defining  the  truth  that  the  whole 
human  race  fell  under  original  sin  it  did 
not  intend  to  include  in  the  decree  "  the 


blessed  and  immaculate  Virgin  Mary," 
"nut  desired  that    the  Constitutions  of 

Sixtus  IV.  >liould  be  observed.  These 
Constitutions  liad  bfcn  issued  inl47i''and 
in  14S3.  In  the  former  the  Pope  uraiUed 
iiululi^.'uces  to  tliose  who  said  the  Mass 
and  office  wl.lcli  he  had  a])pi-ovfd  for  the 
fea,st  of  the  <  "onception.  In  the  latter  he 
condemned  th.,se  who  accused  persons 
who  celebrated  the  feast  of  mortal  sin.  or 
those  who  maintained  that  the  doctrine 
itself  was  heretical.  Pius  V.,  in  1570, 
t'orl>ade  all  discussion  of  the  doctrine  in 
sermons,  permittini;-,  however,  the  ques- 
tion to  be  handled  in  asM'uiblies  of  the 
learned.  Paul  V.,  in  1017,  prohibited 
attacks  on  the  doctrine  in  public  as- 
seni lilies  of  any  kind,  while  Gregory  XV., 
in  KiL'l',  stricth-  forb.ide  anyone  to  main- 
tain, e\  en  in  private  discussions,  that  the 
Iilessed  Virgin  was  conceived  in  original 
sin.  He  made  an  exception,  however,  in 
favour  of  the  Dominicans,  to  whom  he 
granted  leave  to  maintain  their  own 
opinion  in  discussions  held  within  their 
own  order,  and  he  was  careful  to  add 
that  he  in  no  way  meant  to  decide  the 
theological  question,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
forbade  anyone  to  accuse  those  who 
denied  the  immaculate  conception  of 
heresy  or  mortal  sin.  Benedict  XIV., 
writing  about  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, sums  up  the  whole  state  of  the 
que'stiou  in  his  day  thus :  "  The  Church 
inclines  to  the  opinion  of  the  immaculate 
conception;  but  the  Apostolic  See  has 
not  yet  defined  it  as  an  article  of  faith." 

So  matters  stood,  when  on  February  1, 
1849,  Pius  IX.  wrote  from  Gaeta' to 
the  bishops  of  the  Catholic  world.  He 
asked  them  for  an  account  of  their  own 
opinion  and  of  the  feeling  entertained  in  the 
churches  subject  to  them  on  the  expe- 
diency of  defining  the  doctrine  that  the 
Blessed  Virgin  was  immaculate  in  her 
conception.  The  Italian,  Spanish,  and 
Portuguese  bishops,  about  490  in  niunber, 
were  nearly  unanimous  in  their  wish  for 
the  definition.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
were  bishops  of  great  eminence  in  France, 
Germany,  and  Switzerland  who  were  of 
a  ditlerent  mind.  Some  of  these  last 
thought  that  the  doctrine  was  not  promi- 
nent enough  in  Scripture  or  tradition  to 
be  made  an  article  of  faith  ;  others  depre- 
cated a  definition  which  would  put  fresh 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  Protestants  or 
timid  Catholics;  others,  again,  were 
afraid  to  pronounce  at  all  on  so  hard  a 
matter.  Nearly  six  years  later  the  ques- 
tion was  closed.    On  December  8,  1854. 


47l'  immaculate  COA"CErTION 


IMMACULATE  CONCErTION 


Pius  IX.,  in  tbe  presence  of  more  than 
200  bishops,  issued  his  solemn  definition 
that  the  inniiaculute  conception  of  Mary 
"was  a  truth  contained  in  ihf  orifjinal 
teachiufr  of  the  Apostlf s  and  an  article  of 
•divine  faith.  The  definition  w  as  accepted 
by  Gallicansas  well  as  by  Ultramontanes, 
for  it  was  notorious  that  the  entire  epis- 
copate gave  full  assent  to  the  doctrines 
of  the  Papal  bull.  Indeed,  the  opposi- 
tion made  within  the  Church  to  the  new 
definition  was  of  the  most  insignificant 
kind. 

3.  The  Doctrine  in  its  relations  to 
Scripture  and  Tradition. — A  Catholic  is 
bound  to  hold  that  the  doctrine  recently 
defined  was  contained  in  tlie  faith  once 
dehvered  to  the  saints  by  the  Apostles. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  is  under  no  obliga- 
tion of  believing  it  possible  to  produce 
cogent  historical  proof  (over  and  above 
the  Church's  decision)  that  the  doctrine 
was  so  contained.  It  is  enough  to  show 
that  no  decisive  argument  can  be  brought 
against  the  Apostolic  origin  of  the  Church's 
present  belief,and  there  are  at  least  probable 
traces  of  its  existence  in  the  Church  from 
the  earliest  times.  Petavius — ^.justl  y,  as  we 
think — dismisses  many  passages  from  the 
Fathers,  which  have  been  cited  in  support 
of  the  doctrine.  He  points  out  that  if  the 
Fathets  s])eak  of  Mary  as  "  stainless,"  "in- 
corrupt," "immaculate"  (axpcifros,  ("i(j)6ap- 
),  it  by  no  means  follows  that 
they  believed  her  to  have  been  con- 
ceived immaculate.  Still  tradition  does 
supply  solid  arguments  for  the  belief  in 
question. 

First,  from  the  earliest  times  and  in 
every  part  of  the  Cliurch,  Mary  in  her  office 
at  the  Incarnation  was  compared  and 
contrasted  with  Eve  before  the  fall.  We 
find  the  parallel  between  the  two  drawn 
by  Justin  Martyr  ("  Trypho,"  100),  by 
Irenseus  (iii.  .'!4,  v.  19),  by  Tertullian 
("De  Carne  Chri.sti,"  17),  7Jot  to  speak  of 
later  Fathers;  indeed,  tlie  doctrine  that 
Mary  is  in  some  sense  the  second  Eve  is 
a  commonplace  of  jirimitive  theology. 
This  comparison  enters  into  the  very 
substance  of  the  tlieology  of  St.  Irenaeus. 
He  urges  the  parallel  between  Mary  and 
Eve,  just  as  he  insists  on  the  resemblance 
between  Adam  and  Christ,  the  second 
Adam.  As  Eve  was  married  and  yet  a 
vii-gin,  so  Mary,  "having  an  appointed 
husband,  was  yet  a  virgin."  Eve  listened 
to  the  words  of  an  angel :  so  also  Mary. 
Eve's  disobedience  was  the  cause  of  our 
death:  Mary,  "being  obedient,  became 
botli  to  herself  and  all  mankind  the  cause 


of  salvation."  " The  knot  of  Eves  dis- 
obedience was  loosed  by  Mary's  obedience." 
The  Virgin  Mary  became  "  the  advocate 
of  the  virgin  Eve."  It  is  true  that 
-nhereas  Eve  of  course  was  made  im- 
maculate, yet  this  is  just  tlie  point  where 
Irenaeus  fails  to  draw  the  parallel  between 
Eve  and  Mary.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  in  Irenaeus,  as  in  the  Ante- 
Nicene  Fathers  generally,  there  is  no 
explicit  statement  of  tlie  doctrine  of 
original  sin,  so  that  we  cannot  expect  an 
explicit  statement  that  ^lary  was  exempt 
from  it.  There  is  further  a  presumption 
that  if  IreiiiBus  could  have  had  the 
question,  '' AVas  Mary  conceived  in  sin?" 
pro])osed  to  him  he  would  have  answered 
in  the  negative.  His  whole  theory  of  the 
Incarnation  tui-ns  on  the  proposition, 
"  3Ian  could  not  break  the  bonds  of  sin, 
because  he  was  already  bound  fast  by 
them."  He  in  Adam  had  been  already 
A\  orsted  by  the  devil.  When,  therefore, 
he  tells  us  that  Mary  untied  the  knot  of 
Eve's  disobedience,  we  may  infer  that 
she  never  had  been  bound  by  it  in  her 
own  ])erson. 

The  tradition  that  Mary  was  the 
second  Eve  was  familiar  to  gxeat  Fathers 
of  the  later  Church.  But  one  of  these, 
St.  E])hrem  (a.d.  379),  gives  much  more 
explicit  evidence — the  most  explicit  evi- 
dence, so  far  as  we  know,  to  be  found  in 
patristic  writings — of  belief  in  the  im- 
maculate conception.  Not  many  years 
ago  the  famous  Syriac  scholar  r>ickell 
edited,  with  a  Latin  version  of  the  Syriac, 
the  "  Carmina  Nisibena "  of  the  saint. 
There  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  authenticity 
of  these  poems.  In  hymn  27,  strophe  8, 
St.  Ephrem  speaks  thus :  "  Truly  it  is 
Thou  and  Thy  mother  only,  who  are  fair 
altogether.  For  in  Thee  there  is  no 
stain,  and  in  thy  Mother  no  spot.  But 
my  sons  [i.e.  the  members  of  the  Church 
of  Edessa]  are  far  from  resembling  this 
twofold  fairness."  Elsewhere  Ephrem 
places  first  among  fallen  men  infants  who 
die  in  baptismal  innocence;  so  that  it 
must  be  freedom  from  original  not  actual 
sin  which  he  ascribes  to  Mary.  So 
(ii.  327  a.),  "Two  were  made  simple, 
innocent,  perfectly  like  each  other,  Mary 
and  Eve,  but  allerwards  one  became  the 
cause  of  our  death,  the  other  of  our  Hfe." 
It  is  most  important  to  appreciate  this 
testimony  at  its  real  value.  It  is  not 
only  or  chiefly  that  it  proves  the  existence 
of  the  behef  which  we  are  discussing,  in 
the  fouith  century.  This  no  doubt  it 
does,  and  it  enables  us  summarily  to 


IMMACUT.ATE  CO^■CEPTION 


IMMACULATE  COXCEPTION  473 


ilismiss  the  confident  assumption  of  many  | 
Protestant  scholars  that  the  belief  arose 
for  the  first  time  in  the  middle  apes.  But 
besides  and  above  this,  St.  Ephrem  supplies 
■lu  authentic  commentary  on  the  meanintr 
of  the  tradition  that  Mary  was  the  second 
Eve.  e  may  well  believe,  considei  nio 
how  early  and  in  what  various  q>iarter#  it 
appears,  that  this  tradition  was  Apostolic. 
And  just  at  the  time  when  the  doctrine  j 
of  original  sin  becomes  prominent  in 
Christian  theology,  St.  Ephrem  assumes 
without  doubt  or  question  that  this  tra- 
dition implies  Mary's  entire  exemption 
from  the  cause,  and  supplies  us  with 
reasonable  grounds  for  believing  that  the 
doctrine  of  the  immaculate  conception  is 
coeval  with  the  foundation  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church. 

A  word  or  two  must  be  said  about 
St.  Augustine.  Undoubtedly  his  theory 
on  the  transmission  of  original  sin  by  the 
act  of  generation  drove  him  to  believe 
that  Mary,  being  conceived  in  the  ordi- 
nary way,  must  have  been  conceived  in 
sin.  So  Petavius  understands  him,  and 
the  Saint's  own  language  seems  to  be 
clear  and  decisive  on  this  point.  Thus 
("  De  Nuptiis  et  Concep."  i.  12),  he 
teaches  that  all  flesh  bom  "  de  concubitu  " 
is  "  fle^h  of  sin,"  and  ("  In  Genesim  ad 
lit."  X.  118)  he  expressly  affirms  that  on  \ 
this  ground  Mary's  flesh  was,  while 
Christ's  waa  not,  "  caropeccati."  Again, 
in  "  Contr.  Julian,''  v.  15,  his  language 
is  still  more  definite,  for  he  says  that 
original  sin  passes  to  the  child  from  the  , 
"  concupiscentia  "  of  the  parents,  and  that 
therefore  original  sin  could  not  infect 
the  flesh  of  Christ,  since  his  Virgin 
Mother  conceived  Him  without  concu- 
piscence It  may,  we  think,  be  affirmed 
without  irreverence  to  so  great  a  doctor, 
that  this  language  about  siu  passing  to 
the  flesh  involves  confusion  of  thought, 
and  probably  very  few  nowadays  would 
maintain  that  "  concupiscentia"  in  itself 
natural  and  innocent,  though  caused  as  a 
matter  of  fact  by  the  fall,  can  possibly  be 
the  cause  of  original  sin.  ITie  fact  that 
St.  Augustine  is  driven  to  the  position 
he  takes  with  regard  to  >rary  by  the  exi- 
gencies of  a  theological  theory,  probably 
mistaken,  and  cei  tainly  never  approved 
by  the  Church,  diminishes,  if  it  does  not 
altogether  destroy,  the  force  of  his  testi- 
mony. On  the  other  hand,  great  weight 
belongs  to  the  testimony  which  St. 
Augustine  bears  to  the  immaculate  con- 
ception, because  in  giving  it  he  speaks, 
not  as  a  theologian,  but  as  a  Christian. 


He  is  impelled  in  this  latter  case  by 
Catholic  instinct  and  tradition,  not  by 
any  theory  of  his  own.  His  testimony  is 
as  follows.  He  is  arguing  ("  De  Natura 
et  Gratia,"  cap.  36)  against  the  Pelagian 
theory  that  some  of  the  saints  had  been 
wholly  exempt  from  actual  sin.  He 
denies  the  truth  of  the  statement  alto- 
gether. All  have  sinned,  "  excepting  the 
holy  Virgin  Mary,  concerning  whom  for 
the  honour  of  the  Lord  I  would  liave  no 
question  raised  in  treating  of  sin.  For 
how  do  we  know  what  excess  of  grace  to 
conquer  sin  on  every  side  was  bestowed 
on  her  whose  lot  it  was  {qu(e  meruit)  to 
conceive  and  bring  fnrth  Him  who  cer- 
tainly had  no  sin  ?  "  "\Ve  fully  admit  that 
it  is  actual,  not  original,  siu  which  St. 
Augustine  is  thinking  of  directly.  But 
on  his  own  principles  he  was  bound  to 
hold  that  exemption  from  nctual  implied 
freedom  from  original  .\\.  Thus  he 
asserts  categorically  (''Contr.  Julian." 
V.  15)  that  if  Christ  had  been  conceived 
in  sin,  He  must  needs  have  committed 
actual  sin  ("  peccatum  major  fecisset,  si 
parvulus  habuisset").  Let  the  reader 
observe  that  this  theory,  unlike  that 
referred  to  above  on  the  transmission  of 
sin,  is  supported  by  the  tradition  and 
subsequent  decision  of  the  Church.  It  is 
of  course  conceivable  that  Mary  might 
have  been  conceived  in  sin  and  then 
enabled  by  a  special  and  extraordinary 
grace  to  avoid  all  actual  trespass.  In 
any  case  we  may  safely  say  that  St. 
Augustine  might  easily  have  accepted 
the  Church's  present  doctrine.  It  would 
have  satisfied  most  fully  this  inclination 
to  believe  that  Mary  "  for  the  honour  of 
the  Lord  "  was  enabled  to  "  overcome  sin 
on  every  side."  The  freedom  from  actual 
would  have  followed  suitably  upon  her 
preservation  from  original  sin,  and  the 
progress  of  her  life  would  have  been 
consonant  with  its  beginning. 

Finally,  the  rapid  acceptance  of  the 
doctrine  within  the  Church,  when  once 
it  came  under  discussion,  might  of  itself 
dispose  individual  Christians  to  believe  it 
and  prepare  the  way  for  definition.  The 
one  positive  objection  was  that  if  Mary 
was  conceived  immaculate  Christ  could 
not  have  been  her  Saviour  and  Redeemer. 
"When  once  the  truth  was  apprehended 
that  Mary's  exemption  from  original  sin 
was  due  to  the  merits  of  her  Divine  Son, 
and  magnified  instead  of  detracting  from 
them,  the  belief  in  this  exemption  grew 
and  spread  throughout  the  Catholic 
world.    We  cannot  expect  Protestants 


474  IMMACUI,ATE  CONCEPTION 


LMMUNITY 


to  appreciate  this  argument.  But  to  a 
Catholic,  who  believes  that  the  Holy 
Spirit  directs  the  ruitids  of  the  faithful, 
and  Sj)ecially  tlmse  of  the  saints,  the  very 
fact  of  the  doctrine's  acceptance  afl'ords  a 
stronof  jirt'sumption  of  its  truth.  He 
■n-ould  naturallj'  be  loath  to  believe  that 
God  allowed  the  Christian  people  to 
cling-  so  zealously  to  a  doctrine  which  had 
no  solid  foundation,  and  which,  if  untrue, 
would  be  an  error  of  a  very  serious  kind. 
He  would  recognise  in  the  belief  of  so 
many  saints  a  judgment  superior  to  his 
own,  and  a  {n'eater  quickness  to  discover 
the  "  analogy  of  the  faith."  The  solemn 
definition  of  the  Church  would  but 
enable  him  to  hold  with  greater  security 
what  he  already  held  as  a  certain  and 
pious  opinion. 

(The  evidence  for  and  against  the 
doctrine  is  given  by  Petavius,  "  De  In- 
carnat."  xiv.  2.  PeiTone  published  his 
treatise  "  De  Immaculate  B.  V.  M.  Con- 
ceptu :  an  dogmatico  decreto  definiri 
possit,"  at  Rome  in  1858.  Still  better 
known  is  the  work  of  Passaglia,  also  at 
that  time  a  Jesuit, "  De  Immaculato  B.  V. 
Conceptu,"  Eomse,  1854.  A  collection  of 
ancient  documents  relating  to  the  doctrine 
was  made  by  a  third  Jesuit,  Ballerini.) 

im:niAcvi.ATE  cosrcEPTzou', 
FEAST  or.  The  Greek  emperor 
Manuel  Comnenus  (died  1180),  in  a 
Novello  quoted  by  Balsamon,  mentions 
the  feast  of  the  Blessed  Virgin's  Concep- 
tion as  one  to  be  observed  by  the  people 
on  December  9.  In  the  AVest  it  is  kept 
on  December  8.  England,  it  is  said,  was 
the  first  among  the  countries  of  Western 
Europe  to  keep  this  feast,  and  a  Council 
of  London  held  in  1328  attributes  its 
introduction  to  St.  Anselm ;  but  an 
Epistle  of  the  Saint  which  begins  with  a 
formal  notice  on  the  subject  is  probably 
spurious. 

From  England  the  celebration  seems 
to  have  passed  to  Normandy,  and  then 
south  to  Lyons.  St.  Bernard  reproved 
the  canons  of  that  city  for  introducing  a 
custom  which  had  not  the  .sanction  of 
the  Roman  Church.  St.  Buonaventura 
(died  1274)  ("  In  Lib.  III.  Sentent.';  d. 
iii.  qu.  1)  mentions  the  custom  of  keeping 
the  feast,  and  says  he  does  not  dare 
either  to  approve  or  disapprove  it.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that  the  feast  had  es- 
tabli.-<hed  itself  in  the  calendar  of  the 
Roman  Church  before  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Sixtus  IV.,  towards 
the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  sanc- 
tioned an  office  and  Mass  proper  to  the 


day  ;  for  which,  however,  a  new  office  was 
substituted  by  Pius  V.  Clement  VIII. 
made  the  feast  a  greater  do\ible,  Cleinent 
IX.  added  an  octave  ;  Clement  XI.  made 
it  a  holiday  of  obligation.  Under  Pius  IX. 
the  office  was  again  changed,  and  the 
feast  w-as  entitled  that  of  the  "  Immacu- 
late Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary."  The  present  Pope  raised  it  to  a 
double  of  the  first  class.  (Benedict  XIV. 
"  De  Testis.") 

XIVTMORTAXiZTV  OF  SOTTIi.  [See 

Soul.] 

XIWIM[OVEABX.S.  [See  Fe.vsts.] 
zmtlMCVII'ITY.  Ecclesiastical  im- 
munity is  defined  to  be  "  the  right  by 
which  churches  and  other  sacred  places, 
as  well  as  ecclesiastical  persons  and  their 
property,  are  free  and  discharged  from 
secular  functions  and  burdens,  and  from 
acts  repugnant  to  the  sanctity  and  reve- 
rence which  are  due  to  them."  '  It  is  of 
three  kinds — local,  real,  and  personal.  On 
local  immtmit}',  which  is  of  ecclesiastical 
institution,  see  Sanctuary  and  Asylum. 
Real  immunity  is  the  right  whereby  it  is 
claimed  that  the  property  of  the  Church 
and  the  clergy  are  exempted  from  secular 
jurisdiction  and  from  all  fiscal  and  other 
burdens  imposed  by  secular  authority. 
Personal  immunity  is  the  right  of  the 
clergy  to  be  exempted  from  all  lay  juris- 
diction [see  Jurisdiction]. 

The  real  and  personal  immunity  of  the 
clergy  are  generally  held  by  canonists  to 
be  of  divine  right.  Several  passages  are 
adduced  from  the  Old  Testament,  among 
which  the  most  .striking  is  1  Esdr.  vii.  24, 
where  the  emperor  Art  ax  erxes,  addressing 
tlirough  E.=:dras  the  "  keepers  of  the  public 
chest"  beyond  the  river,  gives  them  to 
understand  that  "concerning  all  the 
priests,  and  the  Levites,  and  the  singers, 
and  the  porters,  and  the  Nathinites,  and 
ministers  of  the  house  of  this  God,"  they, 
the  keepers,  "have  no  authority  to  im- 
pose toll  or  tribute  or  custom  upon  them." 
The  words  of  Christ  (Matt.  xvii.  24,  25) 
form  an  important  text  bearing  on  the  sub- 
ject. Earthly  kings  exempt  from  tribute 
their  own  children  and  their  servants; 
Christ,  therefore,  as  the  Son  of  God,  is 
rightfully  exempt  from  the  payment  ol 
the  didrachma,  which  was  destined  for 
the  support  of  the  divine  worship  in  the 
Temple.  Moreover,  the  words  "  that  we 
may  not  scandalise  them "  show  that 
Peter  and  the  other  Apostles,  as  Ohrisfs 
servants,  are  included  under  the  same 
exemption.  In  Peter  it  is  held  that  the 
'  Ferraris,  "  Immun.  Eccles."  i.  4. 


liirEDIMEXTS  OF  MARRIAGE  475 


•clergT  of  the  Catholic  Chiirch  of  every 
age  is  included  by  representation.  Christ 
and  His  servants  the  clergy  are  therefore 
by  right  exempt  from  tax  or  tribute; 
nevertheless,  sooner  than  cause  scandal  by 
availing  Himself  of  this  exemption,  Christ 
bade  Peter  pav  the  sum  demanded  for 
them  both ;  and  the  pastors  of  the  Church 
have  generally  acted  similarly  in  later 
times. 

Political  reasoning  on  general  grounds 
might  be  employed  in  support  of  the  claim 
of  the  clerg}-  to  an  exemption  from  taxa- 
tion. As  kings  do  not  tax  their  o^^n 
children,  so  Governments,  in  a  natural 
state  of  things,  do  not  tax  their  own 
servants  or  officials.  The  officials  of  a  Go- 
vernment constitute  the  agency  by  which 
it  fulfils  its  duty  of  protecting  and  re- 
gulating society ;  and  taxes  are  raised  in 
order  that  it  may  have  the  means  of  sup- 
porting these  officials  while  so  engaged. 
To  make  the  officials  themselves  pay  taxes 
is,  theoretically,  an  absurdity ;  it  is  giving 
them  money  with  one  band  and  takin;r  it 
away  with  "the  other;  though  of  course 
there  may  be  sound  reasons  of  practical 
convenience  why  this  should  be  done.  So 
it  is  with  the  Catholic  clergy :  regarding 
them  as  the  moral  police  of  society,  a  wise 
State  would  recognise  them  as  its  children 
and  its  sei-vants,  and  assume  that,  as  a 
general  rule,  they  would  spend  their  own 
money  in  such  a  way  as  to  promote  peace, 
order  and  well-being  more  eflectually 
than  would  be  the  result  if  the  State  were 
to  tax  them  to  the  same  amount,  and 
spend  the  money  for  them. 

The  early  history  of  clerical  immunity 
is  given  in  great  detail  by  Thomassin.' 
Constantine  exempted  from  all  tribute  his 
private  property  and  "ecclesias  Catho- 
licas";  he  also  ordered  that  no  public 
functions  of  a  lay  cliaracter  should  be 
imposed  on  the  bishops.-  Constantius  at 
the  beginning  of  his  reign  passed  edicts 
highly  favourable  to  this  immunity,  but 
revoked  them  after  the  Council  of  Arim- 
inum  (359),  except  in  the  case  of  clerics 
who  were  very  poor,  and  whose  temporal 
business  was  of  trifling  value.  By  a  law 
passed  shortly  before  his  death  he  replaced 
things  nearly  on  their  old  footing.  These 
vacillations  in  the  policy  of  the  emperors 
were  of  continual  occurrence ;  thus  while 
Julian  the  Apostate  abolished  all  clerical 
immtmities,  Valentinian  restored  them. 
The  great  bishops  of  the  fourth  century 
■took  patiently  the  imperial  demands  on 

1  III.  i.  33-45. 

»  Euseb. 


their  temporalities,  and  complied  with 
them  ;  but  on  the  spiritual  side  they  wei-e 
inflexible.  Writing  of  his  refusal  to  gi'ant 
one  of  the  Milan  churches  to  the  Arians, 
at  the  request  of  Valentinian  II.,  St. 
Ambrose  said,  "  If  he  asks  for  tribute,  we 

do  not  refuse  it  "We  pay  to  Ca>sar 

the  things  which  are  Cajsar',-*,  and  to  God 
the  things  which  are  God's.  A  church 
belongs  to  God,  and  ought  not  certainly  to 
be  assigned  to  Cssar."  Thomassin  argues 
that  St.  Ambrose  was  quite  aware  that 
immunity  was  the  Church's  right,  but  that 
he  preferred  to  pay  taxes  rather  than 
cause  otfence.  "  Ambrose  knew  that 
from  Christ — the  Chmvh — the  Clergy — 
tribute  was  not  due,  but  yet  was  paid; 
and  paid  all  the  more  nobly  because  it 
was  not  owed.'' 

In  the  feudal  ages,  when  fiefs  and 
manors  were  granted  to  the  Church  to  be 
held  on  feudal  terms,  the  question  of 
ecclesiastical  immunities  became  much 
comphcated.  As  a  bishop  who  held  a 
fief  under  some  secular  prince  had  to  do 
homage  to  him  for  it,  kneeling  before  him, 
placing  his  hands  between  the  lord's 
bauds,  and  swearing  to  become  his  ■•  man  " 
— a  spectacle  which  moved  grief  and  in- 
dignation in  the  breast  of  many  a  zealous 
pontiff  and  saint — so,  as  to  all  other  ser- 
vices (rent,  corvees,  troops,  &c.)  which 
the  vassal  was  hound  to  render  to  his  lord 
by  the  condition  of  his  tenure,  he  could 
not,  if  a  churchman,  plead  the  ecclesias- 
tical immunity,  though  it  still  subsisted 
in  full  force  as  to  lauds  held  in  frank 
ahnoujne. 

The  Council  of  Trent'  entreated  all 
Catholic  princes  not  to  allow  their  ser- 
vants and  officials  to  violate,  through 
cupidity  or  carelessness,  "  the  immunity 
of  the  Church  and  of  ecclesiastical  persons 
which  had  been  estabhshed  by  the  ordi- 
nance of  God  and  canonical  sanctions." 
At  the  present  day,  through  the  continual 
i  encroachments  of  the  lay  power,  immunity 
\  as  regards  taxation  exists  nowhere  in 
Europe ;  and  even  that  shred  of  privilege 
j  by  which  the  burden  of  military  service 
was  taken  ofl'  the  necks  of  aspirants  for 
the  priesthood  has  been  swept  away  by 
the  so-called  Liberals  in  France  and  Italy. 
(Ferraris,  Immunitas  Eccleiiastica  \  Tho- 
massin,""\  etuset  Nova  Eccl.Disciplina.") 
ZiaPESIMEM'TS     OF  MASKZ- 
ACS.    The  contract  of  marriage  be- 
tween  certain   persons  and  in  certain 
cases  is  null  and  void  bv  the  law  of  God, 
natural  and  revealed,   bo  far  Protestants 
1  Sess.  XXV.  De  Kefonn.  c20. 


476  IMPEDIMENTS  OF  MARRIAGE 


IMPEDIMENTS  OF  MARRIAGE 


are  at  one  with  us,  for  they  would  not 
dream  of  holding  that  marriage  hetween 
father  and  daughter  or  brother  and  sister 
was  vaUd.  But  Catholics  further  main- 
tain with  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  xxiv. 
De  Matrimon.  can.  4)  that  the  Church 
may  institute  impediments  which  nullifj^ 
the  contract  of  marriage.  The  principle 
ou  wliieli  this  tenet  rests  is  a  very  simple 
one.  Marriage  between  baptised  persons, 
according  to  the  Catholic  doctrine,  is  a 
sacrament,  and  therefore  this  contract 
falls  under  ecclesiastical  authority.  Just 
as  the  State  may  pronounce  certain 
natural  contracts  which  are  lawful  in 
themselves  null  and  void— just  as,  for 
example,  it  ma}'  for  the  general  good 
nullify  certain  engagements  made  by 
minors  or  at  play,  so  the  Church  may 
interfere  with  the  freedom  of  the  marriage 
contract.  The  State,  on  the  contrary, 
hiis  no  power  to  nullify  marriage,  because 
the  sacrament  of  marriage  does  not  fall 
under  civil  jurisdiction,  although  as  the 
formalities  of  marriage  affect  the  public 
order,  tlie  Slate  may  regulate  them— e.y. 
provide  that  [ici  sons  about  to  be  married 
should  have  tln'ir  names  registered,  Sic. 

Impediments  are  of  two  kinds.  They 
may  render  marriage  unlawful  merely,  in 
which  case  they  are  called  "  mere  impedi- 
entia ; "  or  they  may  nullify  it,  in  which 
case  they  are  known  as  "  dirimentia." 
We  shall  treat  of  these  impediments  as 
settled  by  the  existing  law,  adding  his- 
torical notices. 

1.  Impedimenta  mere  Imped lentia  : — 

(a)  7  i/)ie.  The  solemnities  of  Mar- 
riage must  not  take  place  between  Advent 
Sunday  and  Epiphany,  or  between  Ash 
Wednesday  and  Liiw  Sunday.  So  the 
Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  xxiv.  De  Reform. 
Matr.  cap.  10.  Marriage,  solemnly  cele- 
brated, is  forljidden  in  these  times  because 
they  should  be  devoted  to  penance  or  else 
to  a  joy  purely  spiritual.  Marriages  in 
Lent  were  generally  prohibited  in  ancient 
times :  marriages  in  Advent  and  Christ- 
mas time  only  in  certain  places,  though 
Gratian  inserts  this  latter  prohibition  in 
his  "Decretum."  Some  provincial  coun- 
cils forbade  marriage  on  Sundays,  from 
three  days  before  the  Ascension  to  the 
first  Sunday  after  Pentecost,  &c.' 

0)  Ecclesiastical  Prohibition. — This 
includes  the  marriage  of  a  Catholic  with 
a  baptised  person  not  a  Catholic,  which 
marriage  is  valid,  but,  unless  a  dispen- 
sation has  been  obtained,  unlawful.  Such 

>  See  Chardon,  Hist,  des  Sacr.  torn,  vi 
**  Mariage,"  c  3. 


marriages  are  forbidden  by  the  Councils 
of  Elvira  (anno  306),  cap.  16,  and  of 
Laodicea,  can.  10  and  31.  The  Council 
of  Chalcedon,  can.  14,  foi-bids  "readers 
and  singers "  (diniyvuxTTat  koI  yf/oKTal)  to 
marry  an  heretical  girl.  The  reason  of 
this  prohibition  has  always  been  the 
same,  viz.  the  danger  that  the  children 
will  not  be  brought  up  Catholics  [see 
Mixed  Maeriages].  Hence  in  some  of 
the  rules  just  quoted  exception  is  made 
in  favour  of  marriage  with  heretics  who 
promise  to  become  Catholic.  Marriages 
without  previous  proclamation  of  bauna 
are  also  forbidden  by  the  Church. 

(y)  Simple  vow  of  chastity,  such  as 
is  made  privately  or  in  congregations  like 
the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  &c.,  which  are  not 
religious  orders  in  the  canonical  sense. 

(6)  Previous  engagement  to  another 
person,  unless  the  engagement  has  been 
lawfully  annulled — e.ff.  by  mutual  con- 
sent. This  impediment,  like  (y),  depends 
on  the  natural  law. 

2.  Diriment  Impediments  : — 

(a)  Error  and  cnnditio  affecting  the 
substance  of  the  contract.  Thus  a  man 
who  goes  through  the  form  of  marriage 
with  one  woman,  mistaking  her  for  an- 
other, really  marries  neither.  This  im- 
pediment comes  from  the  natural  law. 
If  a  person  marries  a  slave  unawares,  the 
marriage  is  null.  For  the  Roman  and 
early  Church  law  on  this  subject  see 
Diillinger,  "Hippolytus  and  Callistus," 
Engl.  Transl.  p.  147. 

(f3)  Vows  of  chastity,  if  solemn,  and 
holy  orders.  The  reader  will  find  under 
the  article  Celibacy  an  account  of  the 
gradual  process  by  which  holy  order 
came  to  be  a  diriment  impediment.  The 
ancient  Church  did  not  expressly  distin- 
guish between  simple  and  solemn  vows, 
but  Chardon  quotes  a  letter  of  Pope 
Innocent  I.  to  Victricius  of  Rouen  m 
which  a  very  similar  distinction  is  recog- 
nised. The  Pope  divides  nuns  who  have 
made  the  vows  of  continence  into  two 
classes — viz.  those  who  have  and  those 
who  have  not  received  the  veil  publicly 
from  the  Church.  The  former,  if  they 
marry,  he  treats  as  unfaithful  to  Christ 
their  Spouse,  and  excludes  from  commu- 
nion tiU  the  person  they  marry  is  dead. 
On  the  latter  he  merely  imposes  penance 
for  a  time.  Moreover,  the  Synod  of 
Elvira,  can.  13,  forbids  virgins  conse- 
crated to  God,  in  case  they  break  their 
vow,  to  communicate,  even  on  their 
deathbeds,  unless  they  have  done  penance 
and  ceased  to  cohabit  ("  abstineant  a 


IMPEDT^rENTS  OF  MARRIAGE     IMPEDT:\IEXTS  OF  >rARPJAGE  477 


coitu  ").'  So  atrain  the  First  Council  of  [ 
Toledo  (anno  400),  canon  16,  only  admits 
a  nun  ("  devota ")  to  penance  if  sepa- 
rated from  the  man  she  has  unlawfully 
married  ("  caste  vivere  cceperit,  recesserir 
et  poenituerit  ").  So  the  Second  Synod 
of  t)rleans,  canon  17,  with  respect  to 
deaconesses ;  and  many  Other  ancient 
authorities.  The  TruUan  Synod,  canon 
44,  treats  the  marriage  of  a  monk  as  an 
act  of  unchastity. 

(■y)  Vdmnmiuinity  and  affinity.  [See 
the  articles  so  entitled.] 

(8)  Public  decorum  ("  publica  hone.s- 
tas").  If  A  is  or  has  been  betrothed  to 
B,  A  cannot  validly  marry  a  third  person 
related  in  the  first  degree  of  kindred  to  ' 
B.  He  cannot,  e.g.,  marry  B's  mother, 
daughter,  or  sister.  A  similar  rule,  of 
course,  binds  B.  So  the  Council  of 
Trent,  for  in  the  older  canon  law  the 
impediment  from  betrothal  extended  to 
the  fourth  degree.  Again,  if  A  has  been 
married  to  H,  but  has  not  consummated 
the  marriage,  he  cannot  marry  afterwards 
anyone  related  to  B  in  the  tirst,  second, 
third,  or  fourth  degTee.  This  impediment 
was  adopted  from  the  Roman  law,  and  is 
not  referred  to  by  the  Fathers. 

(e)  Cnme.     (1)  Adultery    between  [ 
two  persons  accompanied  by  a  promise  of  ' 
marriage  when  they  are  free  to  contract 
it.    (2)  Successful  conspiracy  to  murder 
a  husband  or  wife  in  order  that  the  con- 
spirators may  marry.    (3)  Adultery  and  j 
murder  with  the  intention  of  marriage  1 
combined,  even  if  there  be  no  conspiracy  ! 
or  previous  promise   of  marriage,  are 
diriment  impediments.    Also  from  the  i 
Roman  law. 

(()  Difference  of  relir/ion  ("  disparitas 
cultus  ")  makes  the  marriage  of  a  baptised  . 
and  unbaptised  person  nuli.  In  the  early  j 
Church,  such  unions,  though  often  pro- 
hibited, were  not  regarded  as  invalid,  and 
nearly  all  theologians,  according  to  Char- 
don,  are  agreed  that  custom  only  has 
made  the  impediment  a  diriment  one.  { 

(7)  Grace fear,  if  unjustly  caused  with 
a  view  of  bringing  marriage  about.  Pro- 
bably this  cause  nullifies  marriage  by  the 
natural  law. 

{6)  Another  marriage  tie  still  existing 
("ligamen").  If  one  of  the  parties  has 
been  previously  married,  there  must  be  a 
moral  certainty  that  his  or  her  previous 
jiartner  is  dead.  In  any  case  in  which 
the  priest  or  the  parties  themselves  doubt, 

1  Even  then  only  in  case  this  fall  has  been 
a  single  act  of  we.ikness  atoned  for  by  a  life- 
long penance. 


recourse  must  be  had  to  the  bi.sliop,  who 
will  judge  whether  the  moral  certainty 
e.xists. 

(t)  Defect  of  age.  Boys  cannot  marry 
before  completing  their  fourteenth,  girls 
bef  ire  conipli'ting  their  twelfth,  year, 
"nisi  nialitia  suppleat  tetatem." 

(x)  (  imn/i-stiiiif  i/.  No  one  doubts 
that  from  the  earlie-t  times  marriages, 
wherever  it  was  possible,  were  contracted 
in  the  face  of  the  Chureh  ;  indeed  Tertul- 
lian  ("  De  Pudic."  e.  4)  tells  us  that  mar- 
riages contracted  otherwise  were  thouglit 
extremely  disreputable.  Chardon  quotes 
adeclaration  of  Charlemagne,  C-  'it  idaries 
of  French  kings,  and  decrees  Eastern 
emperors,  which  prove  that  marriage 
without  the  ecclesiastical  cert-m^inies  was 
treated  as  absolutely  null,  and  such  was 
the  discipline  both  in  East  and  West  till 
the  twelfth  century,  for  Ivo  of  Chartres 
quotes  the  False  Decretals  to  this  effect. 
But,  soon  after,  the  discipline  changed 
in  the  West.  The  validity  of  clandestine 
marriag-es  was  fully  recognised  by  the 
Church,  and  the  common  opinion  of  the 
mediaeval  doctors  made  the  essence  of 
marriage  consist  in  the  free  consent  of 
the  contracting  persons.  The  Council  of 
Trent  introduced  a  new  condition  for  the 
validity  of  the  contract,  and  therefore  of 
the  sacrament.  It  declared  all  marriages 
null  unless  contracted  before  the  parish 
priest,  or  another  priest  approved  by  him 
for  the  purpose,  and  two  or  three  wit- 
nesses. Hence,  e.g.,  two  persons  marry- 
ing in  France  merely  before  the  magis- 
trate are  really  not  married  at  all.  But 
in  order  to  avoid  the  difficulties  which 
would  otherwise  have  arisen,  the  decree 
of  Trent  was  not  promulgated  in  Great 
Britain,  Scandinavia,  Denmark,  several 
German  States— indeed,  in  Protestant 
countries  generally ;  so  that  the  marri- 
ages of  Protestants  or  Catholics  made 
before  the  Protestant  clergyman  or 
magistrate  or  without  any  functionary 
in  these  countries  are  valid.  In  1741 
Benedict  XIV.  declared  clandestine  mar- 
riages in  the  Low  Countries  valid  unless 
each  of  the  parties  was  Catholic.  Pius 
VI.  in  1785  made  a  similar  declaration 
with  regard  to  Ireland.' 

(X)  Irapotentia  {antecedens  et  per- 
petua). 

1  As  to  the  question  whether  clandestine 
marriapies  of  Protestants  are  valid  where  the 
Council  of  Trent  has  lieen  proclaimed  and  not 
restricted  by  any  Papal  declaration  such  as 
those  just  quoted,  see  Ballerini  on  Gary,  D« 
1  Matrim. 


478  IMPEDIMENTS  OF  MARRIAGE 


IMPOSITION  OF  HANDS 


(fj)  Raptus.  If  a  man  carries  off  a 
woman  from  one  place  to  anotlier  with 
the  view  of  marrj^ing  her,  the  Church 
nullities  any  marriafre  between  them  so 
long  as  the  woman  is  in  the  man's  power. 
The  impediment  still  exists  even  if  the 
woman  consents  to  the  marriage.  The 
Church  will  accept  no  proof  of  freedom 
on  the  woman's  part  short  of  her  removal 
from  her  suitors  power.  Severe  laws 
were  made  against  tbe  crime  of  rapUis  by 
the  Roman  emperors,  beginning  with 
Constantine.  Justinian  absolutely  pro- 
hibited marriage  between  the  raptor  and 
the  woman  he  had  carried  off.  So  did 
Charlemagne  in  his  Capitularies;  and  tlie 
Greek  Church  maintained  a  similar  disci- 
pline. "It  is,"  says  Chardon,  speaking 
of  the  Western  Church — "  it  is  specially 
in  the  ancient  councils  of  France  that 
raptus  has  been  expres.sly  declared  a 
diriment  impediment."  The  councils  he 
quotes  range  from  the  sixth  to  the  eighth 
century,  and  they  certainly  prohibit 
subsequent  marriage  between  the  raptor 
and  his  victim,  though  it  maybe  doubted 
whether  they  meant  to  pronounce  it  null. 
However,  in  the  anarchy  towards  the 
end  of  the  ninth  and  during  the  tenth 
centuries  these  canons  fell  into  disuse. 
Pope  Lucius  III.  decided  that  when  a 
girl  was  carried  off,  her  marriage  with 
the  man  who  had  seized  her  was  valid, 
provided  she  consented  to  it  freely.  Inno- 
cent III.  followed  the  same  principles. 
The  Council  of  Trent  introduced  the 
present  rule  at  the  request  of  the  French 
king.  The  reader  will  observe  that  it  is 
less  strict  than  the  prohibitions  of  the  old 
French  canons.  The  Council  of  Trent 
permits  marriage  between  the  raptor  and 
the  raptee,  provided  the  latter  is  out  of 
the  former's  power  when  she  gives  her 
consent. 

?>.  Visprnsaf.ions  from  Impediments. — 
If  the  impediments  arise  from  the  natural 
or  divine  law,  no  human  power  can  dis- 
pense from  them.  The  Po])e  may  dis- 
pense from  such  as  niv  of  ecclesiastical 
origin;  while  bisliops  in  virtue  of  their 
ordinary  power  can  only  set  aside  the 
"  ini]itMliniriita  mere  inijuMl  l^ntia."  Bi- 
shops, liowcver,  may  olini  dl.spense  from 
certain  diriment  im  iiiint  s  as  Apostolic 
delegates.  The  tacilitv  wiili  which  dis- 
pensations are  given  has  incieas(Hl  enor- 
mously since  the  thirteentli  century. 
Gregory  the  Great  grantivl  marriage  dis- 
pensations in  favour  of  the  I'Inglish  who 
were  just  converted  to  the  faith.  So 
Gregory  II.  in  favour  of  the  Germans. 


But  in  numerous  instances  dispensations, 
such  as  would  easily  be  granted  nowa- 
days to  ordinary  Catholics,  were  refused 
even  to  crowned  heads.  It  was  in  vain 
that  the  Council  of  Trent  tried  to  restore 
the  ancient  rigour.  (See  Chardon,  "  Hist, 
des  Sacr.,"  and  Gibert,  "Histoire  ou 
Tradition  de  I'Eglise  sur  le  Sacrement  du 
Mariage." 

xivxPoszTzonr  of  haio'DS  even 
in  the  old  dispensation  (Gen.  xlviii.  14, 
Deut.  xxxiv.  D)  symbolised  the  conveyance 
of  grace  and  power.  The  rite  has  been 
retained  under  the  new  law,  and  in  two 
instances  (the  imposition  of  hands  in 
ordination  and  confirmation)  it  has  re- 
ceived a  sacramental  efficacy.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  most  noteworthy  instances  in 
which  the  Church  employs  or  once  em- 
ployed the  rite. 

(1)  As  Christ  blessed  the  children, 
laying  his  hands  on  them  (Matt.  xix.  1.3), 
so  the  bishop  laid  his  hands  on  the  cate- 
chumens as  they  made  the  first  step  to- 
wards reception  into  the  kingdom  of  God. 
Thus  Eusebius  ("  Vit.  Constant."  iv.  61, 
where  see  the  note  of  Valesius)  tells  us 
that  Constanl  nil',  w1ien  prejiaring  shortly 
before  his  deatli  for  baptism,  tirsl  received 
the  imposition  of  hands  accompanied  with 
prayer  (jwv  dia  )(eip()6e(Ttas  €v\!av  rj^iuvro), 

'\  This  ceremony  was  repeated  durinji-  the 
catechumen's  course  of  preparation,  at 
the  renunciation  of  the  devil  (Tertull. 
i  "  De  Coron."  3)  and  at  the  exorcisms 
'  (Orig.  "In  .Jos."  Horn.  xxiv.  1).  Prolvahly 
it  is  this  imposition  of  hands  which  is 
intended  in  can.  39  of  the  Council  of 
Elvira  and  can.  6  of  the  Council  of  Aries 
(see  Hefele,  "  Concil."  i.  p.  172  -teq.),  and 
it  is  still  retained  in  our  baptismal  rite. 

(2)  As  Christ  laid  iiis  hands  on  the 
sick,  so  did  the  Church's  ministers  ("  Con- 

[  stit.  Ap."  ii.  41,  Cvprian,  "De  Laps."'  16) 

I  on  those  who  were  spiritually  sick — viz. 
on  penitents.  It  is  no  longer  the  custom 
to  lay  on  hands  in  the  sacrament  of 
penance,  but  it  seems  to  have  lasted  till 
some  time  after  the  Reformation,  and  is 
still  practised,  if  we  have  been  rightly 

j  informed,  by  priests  of  the  unreformed 

;  Carmelite  order. 

[       Hands  were  also  laid  on  heretics  when 

reconciled  to  the  Church.  "  Let  no 
I  change  be  made,"  such  are  the  words  ol' 
i  Pope  Stephen  (apud  C^-priaT),  Ep.  174) 
,  "  beyond  the  traditional  usage  of  laying 

liands  on  them  unto  penance. " 

Imposition  of  hands  was  also  used  in 

blessing  marriages  (Clem.  Al.  "  Pted.'"  iii. 

11,  p.  291,  ed.  Potter),  in  miraculous  heal- 


IKCARXATION 


INCENSE 


479 


ing  of  the  sick  (Ireuseus,  apu.d  Euseb. 
"  H.  E."  V.  7),  ill  consecrating  virgins 
and  ordaining  deaconesses.  These  last 
customs  do  not  exist  in  the  modern 
Church,  except  that  in  the  ceremonies 
■which  precede  extreme  unction  the  priest 
holds  his  hand  over  the  sick  man. 

The  impcisition  of  hands  in  confirma- 
tion and  order  is  treated  of  in  the  articles 
on  these  sacraments,  but  it  may  be  con- 
venient to  notice  here  a  rite  which  occurs 
in  the  Roman  Mass,  just  before  the 
consecration,  though  it  does  not,  strictly 
speaking,  form  part  of  our  present  sub- 
ject, since  it  is  an  extension  and  not  an 
;mposition  of  hands.  It  is,  however,  con- 
nected with  au  imposition  of  hands  in  the 
old  law.  Then  he  who  offered  sacrifice 
put  his  hand  on  the  head  of  the  victim 
(see  Levit.  i.  4,  iii.  2,  8,  13,  iv.  5,  15), 
whether  the  sacrifice  was  a  holocaust, 
eucharistic,  or  expiatory.  This  rite  irrdi- 
cated  the  "  personal  and  intimate  relation 
between  the  wor.-liipper  and  the  victim  " 
(Kalisch  on  Levit.  i.  p.  176).  It  is  with 
the  same  intention  that  the  priest  holds 
his  hands  extended  at  the  prayer  "  Hanc 
igitur  "  over  the  gifts  of  bread  and  wine 
"  which  are  soon  to  be  chanfjed  into  the 
victim  of  our  peace."  The  rite  does  not 
appear  to  be  ancient,  for  the  Ordo  Roma- 
nus  down  to  the  fifteenth  centui-y  simply 
prescribed  the  extension  of  the  hands  at 
this  prayer,  and  Le  Brun  ("  ExpHe.  de  la 
Messe,"  part  iv.  a.  5)  does  not  seem  to 
have  found  our  present  rubric  in  any 
missal  older  than  1481. 

ISTCARN'ATZOXI'.  The  Catholic 
doctrine  of  the  Incarnation  has  been  al- 
ready explained  under  the  word  Christ. 
Here  we  confine  ourselves  to  an  account 
of  the  word  and  its  .synonyms. 

The  history  of  the  word  and  its  sy- 
nonyms is  given  witii  great  fulness  by 
Petavius,  "  De  Incarnat."  ii.  1.  In  St. 
John's  gospel  we  are  told  that  the  Word 
"  was  made  flesh,"  where,  as  Maldonatus 
remarks,  "  flesh  "  (like  the  Hebrew 
:  e.g.  in  Gen.  vi.  12,  "all  flesh  had 
corrupted  its  way  '')  is  only  another  word 
for  "  man,"  though  the  word  ia  fitly 
chosen  to  mark  the  extreme  condescension 
of  God  the  Word.  St.  Justin,  "  Apol."  i. 
61,  combines  the  two  words  ''  became 
flesh  "  into  the  single  verb  "  flesh-made  ' 
{a-apKOTToirjdeis  ')  ;  while  in  the  Latin 
version  of  Irenaiu.s,  v.  1,  :i,  we  meet  with 
the  technical  term  which  has  been  so 
familiar  ever  since,  viz.  Incarnation  (in- 

Cf.  aapKuBivra  in  the  Xicene  Creed. 


camatio).  The  Greek  Fathers  use  a  word 
nearly  equivalent,  viz.  aupKoxris.  They 
also  employ  evavOpanrrjo-is,  "  being  made 
man,"  for  which  !St.  Ambrose  has  the 
word  hu7nanatio,  in  order  to  express  the 
truth  that  the  Word  took  perfect  human 
nature,  that  He  had  a  human  intelligence 
as  well  as  a  human  body  and  animal  .-oul, 
and  so  to  exclude  the  heresy  of  ApoUiuaris. 
The  Fathers  also  use  other  words  which 
are  less  plain  and  explicit.  Most  com- 
monly they  call  the  Incarnation  the  "eco- 
nomy "  {oiKovofila),  meaning  that  Christ 
took  flesh  in  order  to  proiid'-  for  our 
salvation.  They  often  substitute  for  the 
bare  word  "  economy  "  fuller  expressions, 
such  as  "  the  economy  according  to  the 
rte^h,"  "  according  to  man,"  and  the  like. 
They  also  speak  of  the  Iiu-arnation  as  the 
"  condescension  "     {avyKaTa,-ia(Tis),  tiie 

"  taking,"  "  assuming,"  "  clothin":  Him.^elf 
in  flesh,"  as  the  "  minghng  "  (viz.  of  the 
two  natures),  incorporation  {incorporatio) ; 
&c.  &c. 

IWCEirSE.  It  is  certain  from  Ter- 
tullian,  "  Apol."  42,  and  from  many  other 
early  writers  down  to  St.  Augustine,  that 
the  religious  use  of  incense  was  unknown 
iir  the  primitive  Church.  Le  Brun  quotes 
St.  .\mbrose  to  prove  that  incense  was 
used  in  the  churches  of  his  day,  but  the 
quotation  can  scarcely  be  said  to  prove 
the  point.  On  the  other  hand,  Dionysius 
the  Areopagite — whose  works  were  first 
quoted  in  532,  but  may  have  been  written 
a  good  deal  earlier — distinctly  mentions 
("Ilierarch.  Eccles."  iii.  §  2)  the  censing 
of  the  altar  by  the  chief  priest.  The  use 
of  incense  is  also  mentioned  in  the  first 
Ordo  Romanus,  which  may  belong  to  the 

I  seventh  century,  and  in  the  liturgies  which 
go  by  the  names  of  St.  James,  St.  Basiil, 

I  and  St.  Chry.sostom.  Possibly  also  the 
fourth  {al.  third)  canon  of  the  Apo>tles, 
which  forbids  anytliing  to  be  placed  on 

i  the  altar  at  the  oblation  except  "  oil  for 
the  lamp  and  incense,"  may  refer  to  the 
incense  as  liturgically  used.  If  so,  we 
should  be  justified  with  Le  Brun  in  sup- 
posing that  incense  was  introduced  into 
the  Church  services  when  the  persecution 
of  the  heathen  ceased  and  the  splendour 
of  churches  and  ritual  began. 

Some  authors  believe  that  incense  was 
at  first  introduced  to  sweeten  the  air,  and 
certainly  a  "Benediction  of  Incense"  used 
in  the  time  of  Charlemagne  and  given  by 
Martene  points  in  this  direction.  But  the 
mystical  significations  of  incense  are  ob- 
vious. It  symbolises  the  zeal  with  which 
the  faithful  should  be  consumed;  the  good 


480       rXCLUSI,  IXCLUSyE 


INDEX 


odour  of  Christian  virtue ;  the  ascent  of 
jira^er  to  God  (Ps.  cxl.  2).  It  is  used 
before  the  introit,  at  the  gospel,  offertory 
and  elevation  in  High  Mass  ;  at  the 
MaLHiificat  in  vepper^  ;  at  funerals,  &c. 

ZM'CX.VSX,  iNClATSm.  Recluses, 
men  and  women.  A  monk  or  nun  might, 
with  the  permission  of  the  superior,  be 
shut  up  permanently  in  a  cell,  either  near 
to  nr  within  the  precincts  of  the  monas- 
tery, whence  he  or  she  could  not  come 
forth  but  by  licence  of  the  bishop.  Cas- 
.•sian  describes  the  inclusi  of  his  day ;  as  a 
class,  they  were  not  then  held  in  great 
esteem.  The  manner  of  life  of  a  female 
recluse  in  the  twelfth  century  may  be 
cli-arly  seen  from  the  treatise  "  De  Insti- 
tutione  Inclusarum," '  ascribed  to  St. 
Ailred  of  llievauI.T.  The  writer  addresses 
hiii  counsels  to  his  own  sister,  who  had 
retired  into  a  cell ;  he  earnestly  warns 
her  to  shun  idlene.ss  and  frivolous  con- 
versation ;  from  the  general  tone  of  his 
remarks  it  is  plain  that  the  life  of  a 
female  recluse  was  beset  by  gi-eat  and 
peculiar  dangers  and  temptations.  (Du- 
cange,  Inclusi.) 

ZNDSX  OF  PROKZBZTED 
BOOKS.  Since  the  dawn  of  civilisation, 
the  perception  of  the  influence  for  good 
or  evil  exerted  by  books  has  induced  the 
authorities  of  every  strongly  constituted 
State  to  control  their  circulation.  Not 
to  search  for  other  instances,  the  speech 
which  Livy^  puts  in  the  mouth  of  the 
consul  Postumius  (B.C.  186)  shows  the 
sternness  of  Roman  feeling  on  the  subject. 
Addressing  the  assembled  people  in  the 
t'orum,  and  about  to  denounce  the  foul 
Racchic  rites  of  which  he  had  discovered 
the  trace,  "  How  often,"  he  says,  "  in  the 
time  of  our  lathers  and  grandfathers,  was 
the  duty  imposed  on  the  magistrates  of 
forbidfliiig  the  practice  of  foreign  rites; 
of  driving  away  [foreign]  priests  and 
prophets  from  every  corner  of  the  city;  of 
senrchinfj  for  and  burning  books  of  magic ; 
of  putting  a  stop  to  every  system  of 
sacrificing  that  was  not  according  to  the 
custom  of  Rome !  "  In  Christian  times 
the  danger  of  bad  b  loks  was  recognised 
from  the  fir.~.t.  The  coinert.s  at  Epliesus 
(Acts  xix.  19)  voluntarily  brought  their 
miigiral  blinks  to  St.  Paul  and  cii-t  them 
into  the  flames.  One  of  the  Aihi^Im],,- 
Caiiniis  (Ix.)  ordei-s  the  deposition  i.l'  any 
one  in  the  ranks  of  the  clergy  who  .'•Ininid 
pn])lish  in  the  Church  as  Imly  "the  falsely 
inscribed  books  of  the  impious.''  Ihe 

»  Printed  in  Milne's  Palnilocjia,  vol.  xxxii. 

*  Book  x.xxix.  c.  IG. 


practice  of  the  primitive  Church  in  con- 
demning and  suppressing  heretical  or 
dangerous  books  was  uniform.  The 
erroneous  writings  of  Origen  were  brought 
to  the  Roman  Pontiff",  Pontianus,  to  be 
condemned  by  him ;  Leo  the  Great  by 
letter  suppressed  and  prohibited  the  books 
of  the  Priscillianists.'  Descending  to  the 
middle  a^res  we  find  Leo  IX.  in  a  synod 
at  Vercelli  (1050)  condemning  and  order- 
ing to  be  burnt  the  writings  of  Erigena 
and  Berengarius  on  the  Eucharist.^  The 
Council  of  Constance  (1415)  ordered  all 
the  books  of  John  Huss  to  be  publicly 

■  burnt  at  the  council,  and  that  all  bishops 
should  make  diligent  search  for  copies  and 
burn  them  wherever  found.  Leo  X.  in 
the  bull  E.isnrge,  Domine  (1520),  con- 
demned the  earlier  heretical  writings  of 
Luther.  The  invention  of  printing,  and 
the  extension  of  facilities  of  communica- 
tion between  State  and  State,  made  it 
evident  to   the   hierarchy  that   if  the 

I  influence  of  books  was  to  be  kept  under 
control,  new  methods  must  be  adopted. 

j  When  copies  of  books  were  slowly  mul- 

!  tiplied  by  the  labour  of  scribes,  it  was 
sufficient  to  await  their  publication  before 
examining  them,  and  trust  to  being  able, 
if  they  were  to  be  suppressed,  to  call  in, 
get  bold  of,  and  cancel  the  few  copies  in 
circulation.  But  when  the  printing-press 
could  turn  out  a  thousand  copies  of  a  work 
in  a  few  days,  everything  was  changed. 
It  then  became  necessary  that  the  books 
should  be  examined  before  they  were 
printed ;  censors  were  appointed,  and  a 

I  system  of  licensing  came  into  force.  "  The 

I  first  known  instance  of  the  regular  ap- 
pointment of  a  censor  on  books  is  in  the 
mandate  of  Bertliold,  archbishop  of  Mentz,. 
in  1486;  "  and  a  few  yens  later,  in  1501,. 
"a  bull  of  Alexander  VI.,  reciting  that 
many  pernicious  books  had  been  printed 
in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  provinces  of  Mentz,  Cologne, 
Treves,  and  Magdeburg,  forbade  all 
printers  in  these  provinces  to  publish  any 
book  without  the  licence  of  the  arch- 
bishops or  their  officials."' 

In  the  movement  of  what  is  called  the 
Reformation,  a  deluge  of  books  containing 
doctrine    more    or   le.ss    erroneous  wa.s 

'  poun  d  over  Kumjie,  and  it  became  evident 
tlial  if  l)ook-e'lers  were  to  know  with 
certalntv  what  they  might  sell,  and  the 
Christian  faithful  what  they  might  read, 
it  would  not  do  to  trust  to  an  "im- 

1  Floiirv,  xxvii.  10. 
»  lhi<l.  iix.  G!>. 

S  Ilall.nn,  IM.  vf  Europe,  i.  254. 


iXDEX 


INDEX 


481 


priiuatur  "  on  the  title-page,  -which  might 
be  forged,  or  come  from  Protestant  censors; 
but  that  a  list  or  catalogue  of  books  con- 
demued  by  the  Church  must  be  drawn  up 
and  published.  The  matter  was  taken  up 
by  the  Council  of  Trent  (sess.  xviii.),  which 
appointed  a  commission  of  some  of  its 
members  to  collect  and  examine  the  cen- 
sures already  issued,  and  consider  and 
report  on  the  steps  which  it  was  advisable 
to  take  about  books  generally.  This 
commission  compiled  an  Index  of  Pro- 
hibited Books  accordingly,  but  the  council 
in  its  last  session  (I5G.3),  finding  that  from 
the  multiplicity  of  details  it  was  not  de- 
sirable to  frame  any  couciliar  decision,  re- 
mitted the  whole  matter  to  the  Pope.  In 
conformity  wii  h  this  reference,  St. Pius  V., 
a  few  years  later,  erected  the  Sacred  Con- 
gregation of  the  Index,  with  a  Dominican 
friar  for  its  secretary.  Sixtus  V.  con- 
tirmed  and  enlarged  their  powers. 

"  The  Congregation  of  the  Index  of 
Prohibited  Books  consists  of  a  competent 
number  of  Cardinals,  accordingto  the  good 
pleasure  of  the  Pope,  and  has  a  secretary 
taken  from  the  Order  of  Preachers,  and  a 
great  number  of  theological  and  other 
professors  who  are  called  Consultors,  the 
chief  of  whom  is  the  Master  of  the  Apo- 
stolic Palace  'Ctria  Eomaxa],  the  primary 
and  official  Consultor  of  this  Congrega- 
tion.'" ' 

A  Constitution  of  Benedict  XIV. 
(1753)  gives  minute  instructions  as  to  the 
principles  and  methods  to  be  observed  by 
the  Congregation  in  its  work  of  examining 
and  judging  books.  Some  idea  of  these 
principles  may  be  gained  from  the  follow- 
ing paragraph.  "  Let  tiiemknow  thatthey 
must  juHge  of  the  various  opinions  and 
sentiments  in  any  book  that  comes  before 
them,  with  minds  absolutely  free  from 
prejudice.  Let  them,  therefore,  dismiss 
patriotic  leanings,  family  affections,  the 
predilections  of  school,  the  espril  de  corps 
of  an  institute ;  let  them  put  away  the 
zeal  of  party  ;  let  thnm  simply  keep  be- 
fore their  eyes  the  decisions  of  Holy 
Church,  and  the  common  doctrine  of 
Catholics,  which  is  contained  in  the  de- 
crees of  Oeneral  Councils,  the  Constitutions 
of  the  Roman  Pontiffs,  and  the  consent  of 
oi  tiiodox  Fathers  and  Doctors ;  bearing  this 
in  mind,  moreover,  that  there  are  not  a 
few  opinions  which  appear  to  one  school, 
institute,  or  nation  to  be  unquestionably 
certain,  yet  nevertheless  are  rejected  and 
impugned,  and  their  contradictories  main- 

•  "(erraris,  "  Congre^'ationes." 


tained,  by  other  Catholics,  without  harm 
to  faith  and  religion — all  this  being  with 
the  knowledge  and  permission  of  the 
Apostolic  See,  which  leaves  every  parti- 
cular opinion  of  this  kind  in  its  own  de- 
gree of  probability." 

Numerous  editions  of  the  Index  have 
appeared  from  time  to  time.  That  issued 
under  Benedict  XIV.  (Rome,  17-44)  con- 
tains between  nine  and  ten  th  ousand 
entries  of  books  and  authors,alpl)al>'tically 
arranged;  of  these  about  one-third  are 
cross-references.  Prefixed  to  it  are  the 
ten  rules  sanctioned  by  the  Council  of 
Trent,  of  which  the  tenor  is  as  follows. 
The  first  rule  orders  that  all  books  con- 
demned by  Popes  or  General  Councils  be- 
fore 1515,  which  were  not  contained  in 
that  Index,  should  be  reputed  to  be  con- 
demned in  such  sort  as  they  were  formerly 
condemned.  The  St^cond  rule  prohibits  all 
the  works  of  heresiarchs,  such  as  Luther 
and  Calvin,  and  those  works  by  heretical 
authors  which  treat  of  religion  ;  their 
other  works  to  be  allowed  after  e.xamina- 
tion.  The  third  and  fourth  rules  relate  to 
versions  of  the  Scripture,  and  define  the 
classes  of  persons  to  whom  the  reading 
of  the  Bible  in  the  vulgar  tongue  may  be 
permitted.  The  tifth  allows  the  circula- 
tion, after  expurgatioi),  of  lexicons  and 
other  works  of  reference  compiled  by 
heretics.  The  sixth  relate.-  to  books  of 
controversy.  Ttie  seventli  .triers  ihat  all 
obscene  books  be  absolutely  pnihil.ited, 
except  ancient  books  written  by  lieatliens, 
which  were  tolerated  "  propter  sermouis 
elegantiam  et  proprietatem,"  but  were  not 
to  be  used  in  teaching  boys.  The  eighth 
rule  is  upon  methods  of  expurgation. 
The  ninth  prohibits  books  of  magic  and 
judicial  astrology;  but  "theories  and 
natural  observations  published  for  the  sake 
of  furthering  navigation,  a;jfriciilture,  or 
the  medical  art  are  permitted."  Tlie  tenth 
relates  to  printing,  introducing,  having, 
and  circula'ing  books.  Persons  reading 
prohilited  books  incur  excommunication 
forthwith  {statim). 

Luther,  Calvin,  Melanchthon,Cranmer, 
Jewel,  &c.,  are  named  as  in  the  first  class 
— 1.^.  as  heresiarchs.  Among  books  of  more 
or  le.ss  note  are  named  the  Hialogo  of 
(ralileo,  the  Satire  Metiippde,  the  Anti- 
Coton,  and  the  Augiixtimix  of  Jansenius. 
Among  the  English  authors  whose  works 
are  prohibited  occur  the  names  of  James 
I.,  Barclay,  Lusher ;  bishops  Sanderson, 
Bull,  and  Pearson  ;  Cave  and  Hobbes  ;  but 
not  Hooker,  nor  Milton,  nor  Chillingworth, 
nor  Bunyan,  nor  Swift. 

1 1 


482 


INDICTION 


IKDULGENCE 


ZSTDZCTION'.  A  fiscal  term,  mean- 
ing the  proclamiition  of  a  tax,  "  quicquid 
in  prjestationem  indicitur."  After  the 
reorganisation  of  the  empire  under  Dio- 
cletian and  Constantine,  it  was  customary 
to  proclaim  the  taxes  yearly,  and  the 
name  of  the  notice  thus  given,  indictio, 
was  transferri'd  to  the  year  itself.  Every 
fifteen  yeais  there  was  a  re-vuhiatiou  of 
property,  which  would  lead  to  material 
alterations  in  the  terms  of  the  tax-notices. 
To  one  of  the.se  quindecennial  periods  the 
name  of  "  circle  of  indictions,"  and  then 
briefly  "  indiction "  was  given.  This 
came  to  be  used  as  a  means  of  denoting 
the  date  of  a  transaction  ;  a  thing  was 
said  to  happen  "  indictione  V."  or  "  X." — 
that  is,  in  the  fifth  or  tenth  year  of  the 
circle  of  indictions  then  current.  Of 
course  the  denotation  of  time  was  in- 
complete, for  it  included  no  statement  of 
the  number  of  such  circles  which  had 
elapsed  since  the  epoch  from  which  the 
computation  started.  This  mode  of 
reckoning  the  years,  which  makes  its 
appearance  about  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  century,  continued  to  be  used  even 
into  the  middle  ages,  after  all  notions 
connecting  it  with  taxation  had  dis- 
appeared. The  first  indiction  is  sup- 
posed to  have  commenced  on  September 
24,  312,  on  which  day  Constantine  gained 
a  great  victory  over  Maxentius.  The 
rule  for  finding  the  indiction  of  any  year 
is  as  follows :  to  the  given  year  a.d., 
reckoning  it  to  commence  on  January  1, 
add  3  ;  divide  the  amount  by  15  ;  the 
remainder  is  the  number  of  the  indiction  ; 
if  there  is  no  remainder,  the  indiction  is 
15.  The  number  3  must  be  added,  in 
order  to  make  the  portion  of  the  date 
A.D.  which  is  anterior  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  indictions  (312  years) 
divisible  by  15  equally  with  the  portion 
subsequent  to  that  date.  Suppose  we 
wish  to  know  the  indiction  of  A.D.  595, 
the  year  in  which  Pope  Gregory  des- 
patched   St.    Augustine    to    Britain ; 

=  39,   with  rem.   13:   the  in- 
15  ' 

diction  number  for  this  year  is  therefore 
l:^..  "Indict.  XV."  applies  only  to  the 
portion  of  the  year  from  January  1  to 
September  24  ;  from  the  latter  date  to 
the  end  of  the  year  it  is  Indict.  I. 

XN'DUXiGEN'CE.  Indulycntia  is  a 
technical  term  in  the  Roman  law,  mean- 
ing amnesty  or  pardon ;  and  in  much  the 
same  sense  it  occurs  in  the  Latin  of  the 
Vul'i-ate,  where  it  is  synonymous  with 
remiasio,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing 


Isa.  Ixi.  1  with  Luke  iv.  18.    In  the 

language  of  the  Church  it  has  acquired  a 
much  more  definite  and  restricted  mean- 
ing, and  an  indulgence  in  the  theological 
sense  of  the  word  is  defined  by  Amort  in 
his  classical  work  on  the  subject,  as  "  a 
remission  of  the  punishment  which  is  still 
due  to  sin  after  sacramental  absolution, 
this  remission  being  valid  in  the  court  of 
conscience  and  before  God,  and  being 
made  by  an  application  of  the  treasure 
of  the  Church  on  the  part  of  a  lawful 
superior." 

I.  The  Catholic  Doctrine  on  Indul- 
gences, as  given  in  the  preceding  defini- 
tion, implies  several  points  of  Catholic 
belief  which  need  elucidation. 

(a)  An  indulgence  does  not  remit 
either  the  guilt  or  the  eternal  punishment 
of  sin,  much  less  are  the  authorities  of 
the  Church  wicked  and  blasphemous 
enough  to  give  permission  to  commit  sin 
for  the  future.  The  guilt  of  sin  is  for- 
given chiefly  by  the  sacraments  of  bap- 
tism and  penance,  and  even  these  are  of 
no  avail  unless  the  sinner  turns  to  God 

,  with  sincere  and  supernatural  sorrow  and 
with  firm  purpose  of  amendment.  An 

I  indulgence  cannot  be  obtained  for  unfor- 
given  sin.  Before  anyone  can  obtain  for 
himself  the  benefit  of  an  indulgence  tlie 
guilt  must  have  been  washed  away  and 
the  eternal  punishment,  if  his  sin  has 
been  mortal,  must  have  been  forgiven. 
Thus,  instead  of  being  an  encouragement 
to  sin,  the  desire  to  obtain  an  indulgence 
is  a  powerful  motive  to  repentance.  If 

I  the  phrase  "remission  of  sin''  occurs  in 
the  grant  of  an  indulgence,  the  Church, 
after  the  example  of  Scripture  (e.g.  1  Pet. 
ii.  2-1),  uses  the  word  to  denote  the  re- 
mission of  punishment.  Benedict  XIV. 
("De  Syn.  Dioec."  xiii.  18,  7)  holds  that 
indulgences  granted  "from  puni.shment 
and  guilt  "("apoenaet  culpa")  are  spurious. 
Others  (seeFerraris," Prompt.  Bibliothec." 
art.  Indulgentid)  understand  the  form 
as  conveying  to  the  confessor  power  to 
absolve  sacramentally  from  reserved  cases. 

(/3)  Even  when  the  guilt  of  sin  and 
the  eternal  punishment  sometimes  due  to 
it  have  been  removed  by  repentance  and 
absolution,  a  temporal  punishment  may 
still  remain.  Even  after  Nathan  tol3 
David  his  sin  was  forgiven,  it  was  never- 
theless punished  by  the  death  of  his 
child.  Baptism,  it  is  true,  annuls  both 
the  guilt  and  all  the  penalty  due  to  sLn. 
The  absolution  accorded  in  the  sacrament 
of  penance  is  less  efficacious  (ConcQ.  Trid. 
sess.  xiv.  De  Pcen.  can.  15).    St.  Paul 


rNTULGEXCE 


IKDULGEXCE  483 


made  the  incestuous  Corinthian  suffer 
in  this  world  that  his  soul  might  be  saved. 
The  Church  of  all  ages  in  giving  sacra- 
mental absolution  has  imposed  penances 
on  the  sinner.  Usually  speaking,  the 
sacnimental  penance,  at  least  in  the  pre- 
sent mild  discipline  of  the  Church,  leaves 
a  debt  of  temporal  punishment,  and  this 
debt  is  cleared  by  grant  of  an  indulgence. 
The  grant  of  this  indulgence  is  an  act  of 
jurisdiction,  not  of  order,  and  it  is  quite 
distinct  from  sacramental  absolution. 
Of  course,  this  indulgence  cannot  free 
the  repentant  sinner  from  temporal 
punishments  involved  in  the  very  fact  of 
repentance — e.g.  from  restoring  stolen 
goods,  retracting  calumnies,  taking  the 
necessary  means,  however  painful,  to 
avoid  future  falls;  or,  again,  from  the 
natural  consequences  of  sin,  such  as 
shame,  sickness,  and  the  like.  Nor,  again, 
does  the  Church  ever  excuse  a  sinner 
from  all  sacramental  penance ;  nay,  more, 
a  person  most  enlightened  on  the  real 
value  of  indulgences,  and  most  eager  to 
gain  them,  is  of  all  others  the  most  likely 
to  afflict  himself  with  voluntary  morti- 
tications,  recognising  in  them  powerful 
helps  to  overcome  himself,  to  obtain  that 
perfect  aversion  even  from  the  shghtest 
sin  which  is  required  before  a  plenary 
indulgence  can  be  gained,  and  to  avoid 
future  falls.  Heaven  helps  those  who 
help  themselves.  We  have  seen  that 
indulgences  are  a  powerful  incentive  to 
repentance;  now  we  see  that  they  en- 
courage strictness  of  life  and,  indeed,  all 
Christian  virtue. 

(•y)  Indulgences  are  not  merely  a  re- 
mission of  canonical  penances  (this  error 
is  condemned  by  the  Church,  Thes. 
Lutheri,  prop.  19;  Synod.  Pistoi.  prop. 
40),  but  they  also  avail  before  the  justice 
of  God.  Otherw  ise,  as-  St.  Thomas  argues 
("Suppl."  qu.  XXV.  a.  1),  the  indulgence 
would  be  a  loss  and  not  a  gain,  and  the 
Church  would  excuse  her  chilciren  from 
canonical  penances,  and  abandon  them  to 
more  grievous  sufferings  in  Purgatory. 
The  error  of  Luther  and  the  Jansenist 
Synod  of  Pistoia  on  this  part  of  the  sul>- 


ject  really  springs  from  misconceiving 
the  nature  of  canonical  penance.  This 
will  appear  more  fully  when  we  discuss 
the  history  of  iiululgences.  Here  it  is 
enough  to  say  that  just  as  in  imposing 
canonical  perance  the  Church  acts  in  the 
name  of  God  and  exercises  a  power  of 
binding  given  by  Him  for  the  profit  of 
souls,  80  in  remitting  it  she  exercises  a 
power  of  loosing  by  the  same  divine 


authority.  The  power  of  the  keys  (Matt, 
xvi.  19,  xviii.  18;  cf.  John  xx'.  22,  28) 
enables  her  not  only  to  forgive  sins,  but 
to  open  the  Idngdom  of  heaven.  Thus 
St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  V.  4)  imposed  penance 
"  with  the  power  of  the  Lord  Jesus  "  and 
relaxed  it  (2  Cor.  ii.  10)  "  in  the  person 
of  Christ."  Penalty  so  relaxed  was  no 
longer  due,  either  here  or  hereafter,  so 
tliat  the  doctrine  of  indulgences  exhibits 
at  once  the  justice  of  God  and  His  infinite 
mercy. 

(5)  An  indulgence  does  not  only  re- 
mit, but  also  satisfies  the  justice  of  God 
foi-,  the  temporal  punishment  of  sm.  The 
Church  has  recourse  to  the  infinite  merits 
of  Christ,  which  suflice  to  satisfy  for  all 
guilt  and  all  penalty,  and  to  tlic  nit'rit>of 
saints  who  lia\  .'  I'-in'  ]  iMKmce  m.ir.-  than 
sufficient  to  paythi-  t.-nijioial  juniMuiient 
due  to  their  own  sins.  Thi-y  obtained  an 
abundant  reward  for  their  own  good 
deeds,  but  many  of  their  actions  had  a 
penitential  character  which  availed  for 
others  if  not  needed  for  themselves. 
Theologians  fxpn-ss  this  characteristic  of 
an  indulgence  when  they  say  it  is  -^olutio 
as  well  as  rilninliifii,.  l)oth  payment  and 
remission;  or,  again,  that  it  is  "a  juridi- 
cal absolution,"  including  a  payment  of 
the  del)t  from  the  treasure  of  the  merits 
of  Christ  and  the  saints. 

We  may  end  this  explanation  by 
quoting  the  words  of  the  council,  which 
anathematises  those  who  "assert  that 
they  [indulgences]  are  useless,  or  deny 
that  the  power  to  grant  them  exists  in 
the  Church." 

II.  The  History  of  Indulgmces  con- 
firms the  teaching  of  the  pre-ent  Churcli, 
because  it  shows  that  the  difierence  be- 
tween ancient  and  modem  practice  is  to 
be  explained  by  change  of  circumstances, 
not  of  principle. 

(a)  In  primitive  times  many  years  of 
heavy  penance  were  exacted  for  great 
sins,  but  these  penances  were  curtailed  if 
the  penitent  had  displayed  great  contri- 
tion (Cyprian,  Epp.  15-17,  and  .3.3),  and 
this  indulgence  was  usually  granted  wlien 
persecution  was  impending  or  bogim 
(Cyprian,  Ep.  57,  7).  We  read  of  one 
case  (Euseb.  "H.  E.'*  v.  32)  in  which  the 
canonical  penance,  which  had,  as  a  rule, 
to  be  performed  before  absolution,  was 
wholly  remitted.  The  way  in  which 
this  indulgence  was  most  commonly 
granted  deserves  particular  notice.  A 
confessor  in  prison  and  expectinjr  death 
for  Christ,  sent  a  letter  of  peace  ("libellus 
pacis  ")  to  the  bishop  in  favour  of  some 
1  i2 


484  INDULGENCE 


INDULGENCE 


brother  who  was  under  penance — e.g.  for 
apostasy — and  the  bishop,  if  satisfied  of 
liis  contrition,  restored  him  to  the  peace 
of  the  Church  (see  Cyprian,  Epp.  15-17, 
and  33).  Here  we  have  the  modern 
doctrine  of  indulgence  in  full  operation 
among  the  Christians  of  the  third  cen- 
tury. We  find  the  behef  in  the  "treasure 
of  merits,"  for  Tertullian  ("  De  Pud."  22), 
when  he  had  become  a  Montanist,  re- 
proaches the  Catliolic  Church  on  this 
very  ground.  "  You  give,"  he  says, 
"even  your  martyrs  this  power.  Who 
permits  man  to  grant  the  things  which 
must  be  reserved  for  God  ?  Who  pays 
for  another's  deatli"  {i.e.  the  death  due 
to  sin)  "save. only  the  Son  of  God?" 
The  indulgence  was  given  by  ecclesi- 
astical authority,  as  has  been  already 
shown.  Lastly,  it  availed  before  God, 
and  was  no  mere  remission  of  canonical 
penance.  For  Cyprian  (Ep.  18)  speaks 
of  those  "  who  have  received  letters  from 
the  martyrs,  and  can  be  assisted  by  this 
prerogative  before  God."  "  He  [tlio 
Lord]  can  mercifully  pardon  him  who 
repents,  labours,  prays  ;  He  can  set  down 
to  his  account  whatever  the  martyrs  have 
asked,  and  the  bishops  (sacerdotes)  have 
done  for  such  persons"  ("De  Laps."  .3G). 
No  modern  theologian  could  put  the 
Church's  doctrine  better. 

(3)  From  the  Seventh  Century  to  the 
Crusndes. — As  public  was  gradually  re- 
placed by  private  penance  (though  ca- 
nonical penance  was  still  very  severe), 
indulgences  were  often  gi-arited  in  the  form 
of  commutation — i.e.  a  lesser  work  was 
supplemented  from  the  "  treasure  of 
merits"  and  made  equivalent  to  a  greater 
one.  Alms  to  churches,  monasteries,  or 
the  poor,  the  pilgrimages — greatly  in 
vogue  from  the  tenth  century  onwards — 
to  Jerusal(>iTi,  Rome,  and  Compostella, 
were  substituted  for  so  many  days,  years, 
&c.,  of  canonical  penance.  This  commu- 
tation is  said  to  have  begun  in  England 
and  then  to  have  spread  south ;  and  we 
may  notice  here  the  origin  of  the  termin- 
ology still  in  use,  when  indulgences  are 
granted  for  forty  days,  seven  years,  &c. 
After  the  eb'venth  century  j)l<'uary  in- 
dulgences, though  rare,  are  met  with. 
Thus  Urban  II.,  in  the  famous  assembly 
at  Clermont  to  promote  the  Crusades, 
gave  a  plenary  indulgence  to  the  Cru- 
saders ("iter  illud  pro  omni  pcenitentia 
reputetur  ")  by  the  authority  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul.  At  the  First  General 
Council  of  Lyons,  Innocent  IV.  gave  a 
plenary  indulgence  to  those  who  went  on 


the  Crusade  at  their  own  cost,  provided 
they  were  contrite  for  their  sins  ;  and  an 
indulgence  proportioned  to  their  zeal  to 
those  who  helped  the  Crusaders  by  money 
or  advice. 

(•y)  Later  History  of  Indulgevces. — 
The  period  of  the  Crusades  marks  a 
turning-]TOint  in  the  history  of  indul- 
gences, for  they  were  given  more  and 
more  freely  from  that  time  onwards.  In 
the  first  place  it  is  to  be  noted  that  in- 
dulgences were  g^ven  for  wars  analogous 
to  the  Crusades.  For  example,  at  the 
Council  of  Siena,  in  1425,  a  plenary  in- 
dulgence was  offered  to  those  who  took 
arms  against  the  Hussites;  while  wars 
against  the  Waldenses,  Albigenses, 
Moors  and  Turks  were  stimulated  by 
the  same  means.  From  the  eleventh 
century  indulgences  were  given  at  the 
dedication  of  churches  and  on  the  anni- 
versaries of  such  dedications.  Innocent  III. 
in  1215,  at  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council, 
limited  these  spiritual  favours  to  the 
grant  of  a  year's  indulgence  at  the  dedi- 
cation and  one  of  forty  days  at  the  anni- 
versary. The  great  indulgence  of  the 
jubilee  wasglvenfirst  in  l."500.  Urban  IV., 
iMartin  V.,  Eugenius  IV.,  granted  indul- 
gences to  those  who  assisted  at  the 
divine  office  on  Corpus  Christi.  The 
canonisation  of  saints  was  accompanied 
by  grants  of  indulgence,  the  first  known 
instance  being  an  indulgence  given  by 
Ilonorius  III.  at  the  canonisation  of 
Lawrence,  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  Since 
the  Dominicans  made  the  use  of  the 
rosary,  and  the  Franciscans  that  of  the 
crucifix,  popular  in  the  Church,  it  became 
customary  to  attach  indulgences  to  such 
objects  of  devotion,  and  at  last  indul- 
gences were  so  freely  given  that  there  is 
now  scarcely  a  devotion  or  good  work  of 
any  kind  for  which  they  may  not  be 
obtained.  This  common  use  of  indul- 
gences led  theologians  to  draw  out  more 
fully  the  theory  on  ^^-hich  the  doctrine  of 
indulgences  rests,  and  thus,  just  at  the 
beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  the 
phrase  "  treasure  of  merits"  occurs.  The 
attacks  of  Wiclif,  Huss,  Luther,  and  the 
Jansenists  served  to  develop  the  teaching 
of  the  Church  on  this  head  still  more 
perfectly.  The  Council  of  Ti-ent,  how^- 
ever,  energetically  prohibited  the  "dis- 
reputable gains"  made  from  those  who 
desired  to  obtain  indulgences  ("pravos 
quffistus  pro  his  consequendis "),  "from 
which  a  most  plentiful  cause  of  abuses 
had  flowed  into  Christian  nations  (Sess. 
XXV.  Decret.  de  Indulg.). 


INDTLGEXCE 


IXDULGEXCE 


485 


III.  Application  of  Indulgences  to  the  ] 
Dead. — In  the  ninth  century  Pascal  I.  and 
John  VIII.  bestowed  such  indul<:ences  on 
the  souls  of  tho.-e  who  had  fallen  figliting 
for  the  Church,  and  it  is  evident  from  the 
language  of  St.  Thomas  ("  Suppl.  'qu.bcxi. 
a.  10)  that  such  indulgences  were  common 
in  his  day.  No  doctrinal  difficulty  will 
he  felt  on  the  matter  if  the  real  intention 
of  the  Church  l)e  apprehended.  Sixtus  ' 
IV.,  in  his  Constitution  of  Nov.  27,  1477, 
lays  down  the  priuciple  that  indulgences 
of  this  kind  are  only  given  "  by  way  of 
suffrage."  His  meaning  is  that  the 
Church  has  no  direct  power  over  the 
souls  of  the  departed.  She  can  but 
humbly  entreat  God  to  accept  the  merits 
of  Christ,  and,  ha\ing  respect  to  them, 
mercifully  to  remit  the  whole  or  a  portion 
of  the  pains  due  to  the  souls  suffering  in  ; 
Purgatory.  The  Church  has  reprobated 
the  error  of  those  who  maintained  that 
indultrences  could  not  profit  the  dead 
(Prop.  Lutheri,  Prop.  22  ;  Synod.  Pistoi. 
Prop.  42). 

IV.  Indulgences  may  be  given  by  the 
Pope  throughout  the  Church ;  by  primates, 
metropolitaus,  and  bishops  within  the 
limits  of  their  jurisdiction.  By  bishop 
must  be  understood  a  bishop  actually 
ruling  a  diocese ;  bishops  in  partibus, 
and  even  coadjutors  with  the  right  of 
succession,  have  no  such  power;  nor 
again  have  vicars  general  or  capitular, 
abbots,  generals  of  orders,  &c.,  &c.  The 
power,  however,  may  be  delegated  to  any 
cleric.  Moreover,  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council,  can.  62,  confined  the  bishop's 
power  in  the  matter  to  an  indulgence  of 
a  year  at  the  dedication  of  a  church,  and 
of  forty  days  on  other  occasions.  Nor 
can  a  bishop  add  another  forty  days  for 
an  indulgence  already  given  for  the  same 
good  work  by  his  predecessor  (see  the 
decree  of  Clement  IX.,  Nov.  20,  ICRS). 
Archbishops  may  give  the  same  indul- 
gences as  bishops,  not  only  in  their  own 
dioceses,  but  also  in  those  of  their  suf- 
fragans, and  tliis  even  if  they  are  not  en- 
gaged in  visitation  (cap.  '•  Xostro ;  De  Poen. 
€t  Rem.,"  V.  38).  Cardinals,  even  if  not 
bishops,  may  give  an  indulgence  of  100 
days  in  their  titular  churches ;  the  Great 
Penitentiary  exercises  the  same  power ; 
while  legates  and  nuncios  may  give  an 
indulgence  of  100  days  and  more  (not, 
however,  of  a  year)  within  tlie  terri- 
tories committed  to  their  care,  and  may 
also  graut  an  indulgence  of  seven  years 
and  seven  periods  of  forty  days  to  those 
who  visit  a  particular  church  or  chapel, 


provided  they  worthily  confe.«s  and  com- 
municate and  pray  .according  to  the 
intention  of  the  Pope.  .\11  persons  who 
grant  indulgences  are  bound  to  do  so  only 
for  reasonable  causes,  and  to  take  care 
that  there  is  some  proportion  between 
the  work  done  or  at  least  between  the 
object  in  view  and  the  grace  accorded. 
Thus  the  Council  of  Constance  ordeis 
persons  suspected  of  heresy  to  be  asked 
"  if  they  believe  line  Roman  bishops  can 
grant  indulgences  for  reasonable  causes." 

V.  The  conditions  on  which  indul- 
gences may  be  obtained  are  that  the  per- 
son desirous  of  gaining  them  be  a  member 
of  the  Church  ;  that  he  should  perform 
the  good  work  exactly  as  prescribed  ;  and 
that  he  should  be,  at  least  before  con- 
cluding the  work  prescribed,  in  a  state  of 
grace.  Whether  this  last  condition  is 
necessary  to  obtain  indulirenees  for  the 
dead  is  uncertain;  it  can  Imrdly  be  s.i  in 
the  case  of  indulgences  applicable  only  to 
the  dead — e.g.  in  thecaseof  aRe(j^uieni  Mass 
at  a  privileged  altar.  In  order  to  sain 
the  whole  of  a  plenary  indulgence  it  is 
ftu'ther  necessary  to  detest  and  have  the 
purpose  of  avoidintr  so  far  as  possible 
even  the  least  venial  sin.  If  an  iinlul- 
gence  is  granted  for  a  particular  day,  the 
day  is  reckoned  from  midnight  to  mid- 
night, unless  the  day  be  a  feast  with 
a  vigil,  for  then  the  time  for  gainini;-  the 
indulgence  extends  from  first  U>  secjnd 
vespers.  For  plenary  indulgences,  it  is 
usual  to  prescribe  confession,  communion, 
and  prayer  for  the  Pope's  intention. 
Those  who  are  accustomed  to  confess 
every  eight  days  may,  without  further 
confession,  gain  all  indulgences  which 
are  offered  during  the  week.  Communion 
may  be  made  the  day  before  the  feast  on 
which  the  indulgence  is  given.  Five 
Paters  and  Aves  for  the  Pope's  intention 
are  considered  sufficient.  No  indulgence 
can  be  gained  for  a  work  already  com- 
manded. 

VI.  Divtsioti.i  of  Indulgences. — Plenary 
remit  all,  partial  a  portion,  of  the  tem- 
poral punishment  due  to  sin— e.^.  an 
indulgence  of  forty  days,  as  much  as 
would  have  been  atoned  for  by  forty 
daysof  canonical  penance.  " Indulgenti;e 
pleniores"' convey  to  the  confessor  fiiculties 
to  absolve  from  reserved  cases  :  "  plenissi- 
mae"  further  faculties  to  commute  vows. 
Indulgences  may  be  temporal — ».e.  granted 
only  for  a  time ;  or  again  perpetual  or 
indefinite,  which  last  till  revoked.  V.ven 
indulgences  granted  by  delegated  power 
continue  in  force  after  the  death  of  the 


4S6 


lyDULGEXCE 


lyDULGEXCE 


cleric  who  bestows  them.  If  a  feast  on 
which  an  indnlprence  is  g-iven  is  trans- 
ferred, the  iiidiilgence  remains  attached 
to  I  lie  orin-inal  day,  unless  the  celebration 
in  furo — i.e.  the  abstinence  from  servile 
work,  &c. — is  transferred  also.  Personal 
indulgences  are  those  granted  to  par- 
ticular person? — e.g.  to  an  order,  confra- 
teriiitv.  Local  indulgences  may  be  gained 
only  in  a  particular  ]il;ice.  Supposing  a 
church  is  pulled  down  to  be  re-erected 
under  the  same  title,  or  if  it  is  replaced 
under  competent  authority  by  a  church 
with  the  same  title  in  another  place,  the 
indulgences  may  be  L'ained  in  the  new 
building.  But  a  church  which  pos- 
sessed indulgences  as  the  church  of  a 
religious  order,  forfeits  them  if  it  passes 
into  the  hands  of  seculars;  however, 
French  churches  which  belonged  to 
Franciscans  before  1789  and  are  now 
Franciscan  no  longer,  still  have  the  in- 
dulgence of  Portiuncula.  Real  indul- 
gences are  those  attached  to  crucifixes, 
medals,  &c.  It  is  only  the  original  owner 
of  these  objects  {i.e.  the  first  owner  after 
the  indulgence  was  attached)  who  can 
gain  the  indulgences,  and  the  indulgence 
is  lost  if  the  object  is  sold  or  given  away. 
A  person,  however,  may  get  objects  in- 
dulgenced  with  a  view  of  distributing 
them  to  others.  In  that  case  the  indul- 
gences remain  good,  even  if  they  pass 
through  the  hands  of  any  number  of 
persons,  provided  that  they  have  not  been 
appropriated  to  use  by  the  intermediate 
per.sons.  The  owner  must  have  the  object 
with  him,  though  not  necessarily  in  his 
hands,  unless  this  condition  is  expressed  in 
the  grant.  A  rosary  may  be  restrung  and 
some  of  the  beads  (not,  however,  the 
greater  number)  may  be  replaced  by 
others  without  forfeit  of  the  indulgences. 

Among  the  most  famous  of  plenary 
indulgences  are  that  of  the  jubilee  al- 
ready mentioned ;  the  indulgence  given 
by  priests  (who  receive  power  from  the 
Pope  to  confer  it)  to  the  dying  ;  the  in- 
dulgence given  with  the  Papal  blessing 
[see  the  article  Blessing].  The  most 
celebrated  local  indulgences  are  gained  by 
visiting  the  seven  chief  churches  and  privi- 
leged altars  at  Rome ;  by  pilgrimages  to 
the  holy  places  in  Palestine  ;  or  visiting 
the  stations  mentioned  in  the  Missal.  The 
Popes  (especially  Clement  XII.,  in  1731) 
gave  all  the  indulgences  to  be  gained  at 
the  holy  places  to  those  who  make 
devoutly  the  Way  of  the  Cross  at  the 
"  Stations "  erected  by  Franciscans. 
Faculties  similar  to  those  of  the  Fran- 


ciscans are  now  granted  to  others.  Ad' 
account  of  other  indulgences,  such  as  that 
of  the  Portiuncula  and  the  Sabbatine 
indulgence,  will  be  found  under  special 
articl' s.    Indulgences  without  number 
have  been  given  to  confraternities,  per- 
[  sous  who  wear  scapulars,  medahs,  &c. 
I  Pius  IX.  (April  14,  1854)  bestowed  on 
those  who  wear  the  blue  scapular  of  the 
Immaculate    Conception   and   say  six 
Paters,  Aves,  and  Glorias  in  honour  of 
the  Trinity  and  the  Immaculate  Virgin, 
and  for  the  exaltation  of  the  Church,  ex- 
I  tirpation  of  heresy,  &c.,  all  the  indul- 
I  gences    which   could   be   obtained  by 
I  visiting  the  seven  Roman  basilicas,  the 
I  holy  places  of  .Jerusalem,  the  Church 
of  Portiuncula  at  Assisi,  and  that  of 
Coiiipostella.    Even  confession  and  com- 
munion are  not  required  for  these  indul- 
gences.   Large  and  often  plenary  indul- 
gences are  attached  to  the  recitation  of 
!  short  prayers  (though  usually  confession 
and  communion  are  required,  if  the  indul- 
gence is  plenary),  and  to   the  use  of 
blessed  crosses,  medals,  &c.    Sixtus  V.,  at 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  intro- 
duced the  custom  of  blessing  objects,  and 
\  so  attaching  indulgences  to  them.  A 
I  priest  with  the  neces,-ary  faculties  has 
only  to  make  a  sign  of  tlie  cross  over  the 
rosary,  medal,  &c.    Other  acts  of  piety — 
e.g.  examination  of  C(m.science,  hearing 
sermons,  visiting  tlie  Blessed  Sacrament 
— are  also  largely  indulgenced. 

VII.  Indulgpncfs  which  have  been  Ab- 

■  rogated  or  declared  Apocryphal. — (a)  Ac- 
I  cording  to  a  supposed  decree  of  September 

18,  lGii9,  and  Benedict  XIV.  ("  De  Syn." 
xiii.,  18,  8),  no   partial  indulgence  of 
1  1000  years  or  upwards  is  authentic.  But 

■  the  decree  cannot  be  found  in  the  Archives 
:  of  the  Congregation  of  Indulgences,  and 
:  its  existence  is  disputed.  (/3)  The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  (Scs.-.  xx.  cap.  9)  lays  down 
the  principle  that  indulgences,  must  be 
given  everywhere  gratis,  and  the  bull 
"  Etsi  dominici"  of  I'ius  V.,  issued  in 
1507,  annuls  the  indulgences  of  the  quaes- 
tors and  collectors  of  alms,  (y)  Clement 
VIII.  and  other  Popes  have  abrogated  in- 
dulgences said  to  be  given  in  the  form  of 
a  jubilee,  as  also  ((5)  the  indulgences  given 
to  rosaries,  images,  &c.,  before  the  rescript 
of  Clement  VIII. "  De  forma  indulgentiae  " 
(anno  1597).  (f)  All  indulgences  given 
before  the  Constitution  of  Clement  VIII. 
"Qunecunque"  (March  7, 1004),  "  Roma- 
nus  Pontifex  "  (May  13, 1606),  and  before 
the  Constitution  of  Paul  V.  (November 
23, 1610),  to  orders,  confraternities,  col- 


IXDULT 


INNOCENTS,  HOLY  487 


leges  or  chapters,  are  revoked  unless  these 
indulgences  have  been  renewed.  (()  The 
indulgences  said  to  have  been  given  by 
Alexander  VI.  to  the  Bi-idget  rosary  are 
apocryphal ;  so  are  those  which  Urban 
VIII.  is  said  to  have  given  to  the  crosses 
of  St.  Turibius,  and  Pias  V.to  thecro^^ses 
of  Caravaca  in  Spain.  A  long  list  of 
apocryphal  indulgences  is  given  in  the 
decree  of  Innocent  XI.  "  Delatae  ssepius  " 
(March  7,  167f<). 

(The  chief  authorities  on  the  subject 
are  Hellarmine,  "De  indulg.  et  jubilaeo 
libri  duo;"  Amort,  "De  orig.,  progressu, 
valore  ac  fructu  indulg.,"  Aug.  Vind. 
1735:  Theodorus  a  Spir.  S.  "Tract, 
dogmatico-moralis  de  indulg.,"  Romae, 
1743;  Benedict  XIV.  "De  Syn.  dio3C." 
lib.  xiii.  cap.  18;  Ferraris,  "Prompt. 
Biblloth."  We  have  been  chiefly  in- 
debted to  Amort  and  to  the  excellent 
article  "Ablass"  in  the  new  edition  of 
Wetzer  and  Welte.) 

ZM'SVIiT  (indulfum,  something 
granted  by  favour).  A  licence  or  per- 
mission gi-anted  by  the  Pope,  whether  to 
H  coqwration  or  to  an  individual,  author- 
ising something  to  be  done  which  the 
common  law  of  the  Church  does  not 
sanction  A  familiar  instance  is  that  of  [ 
the  Lenten  iudults.  by  which  the  Pope 
authorises  the  bishops,  according  to  the 
circumstances  of  different  countries,  to 
dispense  more  or  less  with  the  rigour  of 
the  canons  as  to  the  quadragesimal  fast. 
In  former  times  indults  chiefly  related  to 
the  patronage  of  church  dignities  and 
benefices. 

ZNFAi.x.iBZi.zT'Z'.  [See  Chueoh 
OF  Christ  and  Pope.] 

iNFZDEZi.  One  who  is  not  among 
the Jideks,  the  faithful  of  Christ.  Popu- 
larly, the  term  is  applied  to  all  who 
reject  Christianity  as  a  divine  revelation. 
In  order  to  reject  it,  they  must  have 
heard  of  it;  those,  therefore,  who  have 
never  heard  of  Christianity  are  not  in 
popular  language  called  infidels,  but 
heathens,  though  they  are  included  under 
the  theological  term  "  infideles."  Nor 
are  heretics,  even  Unitarians,  to  be  called 
infidels,  for  they  do  accept  the  religion 
of  Christ  as  divinely  revealed,  however 
erroneous  or  fantastic  their  notions  as  to 
the  nature  of  the  revelation  may  be. 

zxTnTOCEirTs,  hox.t,  feast  of, 
is  celebrated  in  the  Latin  Church  on 
December  28,  in  the  Greek  on  December 
29.  Among  the  Greeks  the  feast  is 
known  as  that  of  the  "  14,000  holy  chil- 
dren "  ija>v  ayiav  iS'  ;^iX(d£(i»'  vifiruov). 


From  the  earliest  times  the  Church 
has  regarded  the  children  whom  Herod 
slew  in  his  dfsire  to  make  sure  of  killing 
Christ,  us  .Martyrs.  Irenu'us  (iii.  1(5,  4) 
asserts  this  clearly,  ••md  so  does  St.  .liigus- 
tine  (lib.  iii.  "  De  Synibolo  ad  Catech."). 
But  it  is  uncertain  when  this  feast  Ijt  gan 
to  be  kept.  A  homily  attributed  to 
Origen  in  which  this  feast  is  mentioned 
is  certainly  spurious,  and  although  in 
an  ancient  catalogue  of  St.  Augusnne's 
(liscoui'ses  we  find  two  "tractatus"  "  De 
Octavis  Infant ium,"  Thomassin  ("Trait6 
dcs  Festes,"  p.  1'75)  explains  this  as  refer- 
ring to  Low  Sunday,  the  octave  of  Easter 
Sunday,  on  the  vigil  of  which  children 
were  in  those  times  commonly  baptised. 
However,  a  separate  festival  of  the  Holy 
Innocents  is  mentioned  in  the  "  Calendar 
of  Carthage,"  the  date  of  which  may  be 
approximately  fixed  from  the  fact  that 
the  latest  martjTS  whose  names  it  gives 
died  in  484.  In  the  rule  of  Chrodcgang 
(d.  7G0)  the  feast  is  placed  among  the 
"  chief  solemnities."  The  .Mass  is  said  in 
pui-ple  vestments,  probably  because  the 
Innocents  did  not  enter  heaven  imme- 
diately after  their  martyrdom.  They  had 
to  wait  till  Christ  at  His  Ascension  opened 
it  to  "  those  who  believe."  On  the  octave, 
Mass  is  celelnated  in  red,  the  usual 
colour  of  martjTS. 

St.  Thomas  (2"  2»,  qu.  cx.xiv.  a.  1) 
mentions  the  opinion  ofsome  who  tUought 
that  the  use  of  reason  was  accelerated  in 
the  case  of  the  Innocents,  so  that  they 
were  able  consciously  to  embrace  death 
for  Christ.  But  he  himself  dismisses  the 
opinion  as  without  warrant  in  Scripture. 
"  The  shedding  of  blood,"  he  says,  for 
Christ  takes  the  place  of  baptism. 
"Whence,  as  in  children,  the  merit  of 
Christ  operatt-s  through  the  grace  of 
baptism,  and  obtains  glory  for  them,  so 
in  those  slain  for  Christ  the  martyrdom 
of  Christ  operates  and  obtains  for  them 
the  palm  of  martyrdom." 

In  the  middle  ages  it  was  usual  for 
children  to  keep  a  time  of  festivity  in 
honour  of  the  Holy  Innocents,  which 
lasted,  according  to  Dui-andus,  from  St. 
Stephen's  Day  to  the  Octave  of  the 
Epiphany.  Boys  used  to  sit  in  the 
canons'  stalls ;  one  of  them,  who  was 
vested  in  episcopal  robes,  gave  his  blessing 
pontifically.  The  Council  of  Basle  (Sess. 
xxii.)  condemned  the  extravagances  of 
this  celebration,  which  was  accompanied 
by  the  celebration  of  the  Feast  of  Fools. 

I But  the  feast  of  children  is  still  inno- 
cently observed  in  some  monasteries  and 


488 


INQUISITION 


INQUISITION 


convents,  and  Thomassin  surely  errs  by 
excess  of  rigour  when  he  s])eaks  of  it  as 
impious. 

iM'QU'XSZTZon'.     In   no   age  of 

Christianity  has  the  Church  had  any 
doubt  that  in  her  hands,  and  only  in 
hers,  was  the  deposit  of  the  true  faith 
and  religion  placed  by  Jesus  Christ,  and 
that,  as  it  is  her  duty  to  teach  this  to  all 
nations,  so  she  is  hound  by  all  ]iracticable 
and  lawful  means  to  restrain  the  malice 
or  madness  of  those  who  would  corrupt 
the  message  or  resist  the  teacher.  Some 
have  maintained  that  no  means  of  co- 
ercion are  lawful  for  lier  to  use  but  those 
which  are  used  in  tlie  internal  forum 
[FoRTJM  Ecclbsiasticum]  iirul  derive  their 
sanction  from  anticipated  suffering  in  the 
next  world.  Tlie  power  of  the  Church, 
according  to  Fleury,'  is  "purely  spiri- 
tual," and  he  held  with  Mnrsilius  that  the 
Pope  could  employ  no  coactive  punish- 
ment of  any  kind  iinless  the  enijieror — 
i.e.  the  civil  powei- — gave  him  leave. 
From  such  a  view  it  higicallv  follows 
that  St.  Paul  ouglit  to  have  asked  tlie 
permission  of  Sergius  Paulus  before 
striking  Elymas  the  sorcerer  with  lilind- 
ness.  The  ovei-whehning  majority  of  tlie 
canonists  take  the  opposite  view — namely, 
that  the  Church  can  and  ought  to  visit 
with  fitting  punishment  the  heretic  and 
the  revolter;  and  since  the  publication  of 
the  numerous  encyclical  letters  and  allo- 
cutions of  the  late  Pope  treating  of  the 
relations  between  Church  and  State,  and 
the  inherent  rights  of  the  former,  the 
view  of  Fleury  can  no  longer  be  held  by 
any  Catholic. 

For  many  ages  after  the  conversion  of 
Constantino  it  was  easier  for  the  Church 
to  repress  heresy  by  invoking  the  secular 
arm  than  by  organising  tribunals  of  her 
own  for  the  ]iuipose.  lieference  to  eccle- 
siastical history  and  the  codes  of  Jus- 
tinian and  Theodosius  shows  that  the 
emperors  generally  held  as  decided  views 
on  the  pestilent  nature  of  heresy,  and 
the  necessity  of  extirpating  it  in  the 
germ  before  it  reached  maturity,  as  the 
Popes  themselves.  They  were  willing 
to  repress  it ;  they  took  from  the  Church 
the  definition  of  what  it  was;  and  they 
had  old-established  tribunals  armed  with 
all  the  terrors  of  the  law.  The  bishops, 
as  a  rule,  had  but  to  notify  the  a])])ear- 
nnce  of  heretics  to  the  lay  power,  and  the 
latter  hastened  to  make  inquiry,  .-ind.  if 
necessary,  to  repress  and  punish.  But 
in  the  thirteenth  century  a  new  race  of 
'  Floury,  Dernier  Dhconrs,  cli.  14. 


temporal  rulers  rose  to  power.  The 
emperor  Frederic  II.  perhaps  had  no 
Christian  faith  at  all;  John  of  England 
meditated,  sooner  than  yield  to  the  Pope, 
openly  to  apostatise  to  Islam  ;  and  I'hilip 
Augustus  was  refractory  towards  the 
Church  in  various  ways.  Tlie  (^'hurch 
was  as  clear  as  ever  upon  the  iieees^ity 
of  repressing  heretics,  but  the  weapon — 
secular  sovereignty  —  which  she  had 
hitherto  employed  for  the  puiii.'se  seemed 
to  be  breaking  in  her  liands.  The  time 
was  come  when  she  was  to  for;.'e  a  wea])on 
of  her  own;  to  establish  a  trilnuial  the 
incorruptness  and  fidelity  of  which  she 
could  trust;  which  in  the  task  of  detect- 
ing and  punishing  those  who  misled  their 
brethren  should  employ  all  the  minor 
forms  of  penal  repression,  while  still  re- 
mitting to  the  secular  arm  the  case  of 
obstinate  and  incorrigible  offenders.  Thus 
arose  the  Inquisition.  St.  Dominic  is  said 
by  some  to  have  first  proposed  the  erec- 
tion of  such  a  tribunal  to  Innocent  III., 
an<l  to  have  been  appointed  by  him  the 
first  inquisitor.'  Other  writers  trace  the 
origin  of  the  tribunal  to  a  synod  held  at 
Toulouse  by  Gregory  IX.  in  1229,  after 
the  Albigensian  crusade,  which  ordered 
that  in  every  ]iarish  a  priest  and  several 
res])ectal)le  laymen  should  be  apjiointed 
to  search  out  heieties  and  bring  them 
before  the  bishops.^  The  task  of  dealing 
with  the  culprits  was  difficult  and  invi- 
dious, and  the  bishojis  ere  long  made  over 
their  responsibility  in  the  matter  to  the 
Dominican  order.  Gregory  IX.  appointed 
none  but  Dominican  inquisitors;  Inno- 
cent IV.  nominated  Franciscans  also,  and 
Clement  VII.  sent  as  inquisitor  into  Por- 
tugal a  friar  of  the  order  of  Minims.  But 
the  majority  of  the  inquisitors  employed 
have  always  been  Dominicans,  and  the 
commissary  of  the  Holy  Office  at  Rome 
belongs  er  ojfirio  to  this  order. 

The  Congregation  of  Cardinals  of  the 
Holy  Inquisition  was  first  erected  by 
Paul  III.  (1542),  and  remodelled  by 
Sixtus  V.  about  forty  years  later.  "  It 
is  composed  of  twelve  cardinals:  of  a 
commissary  ....  who  discharges  the 
functions  of  a  judge  ordinary;  of  a  i  oun- 
sellor  or  a.«sessor,  who  is  one  of  the  pre- 
sidents of  the  Curia  ;  of  consultors, 
sel(>cted  by  the  Pope  himself  from  amonir 
the  most  learned  theologians  and  canon- 
ists ;  qualificators,  who  give  their  opinions 
on  questions  submitted  to  them  ;  an  advo- 
cate charged  with  the  defence  of  persona 

1  Ferraris,  "  Inquisitionis  S.  Offieiuni. 

-  Mijliler.  Kirrhengesrhichte,  ii.  651. 


INQUISITION 

pccused,  and  other  subordinate  officials.  1 
The  principal  sittings  of  the  congregation  ' 
are  held  under  the  immediate  presidency 
of  the  Pope." '  This  supreme  court  of 
inquisition  proceeds  against  any  who  are 
delated  to  it,  and  in  former  times  used  to 
hear  apjieals  from  the  sentences  of  simibir 
courts  elsewhere,  and  to  depute  inquisi- 
tors to  proceed  to  any  place  where  they 
might  appear  to  be  needed.  The  duties 
and  powers  of  inquisitors  are  minutely 
laid  down  in  the  canon  law,  it  being 
always  a.<snmed  that  the  civil  power  will 
favour,  or  can  be  compelled  to  favour, 
their  proceedings.  Thus  it  is  laid  down 
that  they  "  have  power  to  constrain  all 
magistrates,  even  secular  magistrates,  to 
cause  the  statutes  against  heretics  to  be 
observed,"  and  to  require  them  to  swear 
to  do  so ;  also  that  they  can  "compel  all 
magistrates  and  judges  to  execute  their 
sentences,  and  these  must  obey  on  pain  of  , 
excommunication  ;  "  also  that  inquisitors 
in  causes  of  heresy  "  can  use  the  secular 
arm,"  and  that  "  all  temporal  rulers  are  | 
bound  to  obey  inquisitors  in  causes  of 
faith."  ^  No  such  state  of  things  as  that  I 
here  assumed  now  exists  in  any  part  of 
Europe;  nowhere  does  the  State  assist 
the  ('hurch  in  putting  down  heresy  ;  it  is 
therefore  superfluous  to  de.^cribe  regula- 
tions controlling  a  jurisdiction  which  has 
lost  the  medium  in  which  it  could  work 
and  live.  ' 

The  canon  law  also  assumes  that  all  i 
bishops,  being  themselves  inquisitors  ex  i 
vi  termini  into  the  purity  of  the  faith  in  i 
their  respective  dioceses,  will  co-operate 
with  the  official  inquisitors.    Each  may 
inquire  ."separately,  but  the  sentence  ought  | 
to  proceed  from  both  ;  if  they  disagree, 
reference  must  be  made  to  Rome.  The 

firoceedings  taken  against  the  Lollard 
olio  wers    of   Wychf  by  Archbisho]>s 
Arundel  and  Chicheley  between  l.''>82  i 
and  1428,^  illustrate  both   the  points  i 
noticed  above  :  1,  tl-.:it  the  civil  power  in 
pre-Reformation  times  was  wont  to  give  i 
vigorous  aid  to  the  bishops  in  extirpating  i 
heresy  ;  2,  that  the  bishops  themselves 
could  and  did  e.xercise  stringent  inquisi-  ( 
torial  powers  apart  from  the  appointment  \ 
of  special  inquisitors. 

It  does  not  appear  that  Papal  inquisi- 
tors were  ever  commissioned,  eo  mmine, 
in  England.  In  France  the  Inquisition 
was  established  in  pursuance  of  the 
decrees  of  the  synod  of  Toulouse  (1229) 

1  De  Mov,  in  Wetzer  and  Welttb 
»  Ferraris,  he.  cit.  §§  33-37. 
»  Lewis'  Life  of  Wyelif,  p.  126. 


INQUISITION,  SPANISH  489 

already  referred  to.  Its  tribunals  were 
converted  into  State  courts  by  Philip  the 
Fair,  who  made  use  of  them  to  condemn 
and  ruin  the  Templars.  In  this  condition 
they  remained  till  the  Reformation.  In 
15.38  the  Grand  Inquisitor,  Uouis  de 
Rochette,  was  convicted  of  Calvinism 
and  burnt ;  soon  afterwards  the  powers 
of  these  courts  were  transferred  to  the 
parliaments,  and  finally  to  the  bishops 
(loGO).  In  Germany,  Conrad  of  Mar- 
burg, a  man  of  a  harsh  and  inflexible 
temper,  the  confessor  of  St.  Elizabeth, 
attempted  to  establish  an  inquisition  in 
the  thirteenth  century  ;  he  was  assassi- 
nated, and  the  tribunal  never  gained  a 
footing  in  the  country.  [On  the  Spanish 
Inquisition,  see  the  next  article."] 

XNqVXSZTXOIJ-,  SPAN-ZSB,  THE. 
It  was  founded  by  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella at  Seville  in  1481,  the  tirst  judges 
of  the  tribuiuil  being  two  Dominicans. 
The  clergy  and  many  of  the  laity  of  the 
Castilian  kingdom  had  for  some  time 
pressed  the  adoption  of  some  such  mea- 
sure in  order  to  check  the  profanations 
and  frauds  which  the  sham  conversion  to 
Christianity  of  a  large  number  of  Jews 
and  Moors  had  occasioned.  Even  the 
episcopal  thrones  of  Spain  are  said  to 
have  been  not  always  preserved  from  the 
intrusion  of  these  audacious  h^-pocrites. 
Torquemada,  another  Dominican,  ap- 
pointed in  14S.'5,  was  Grand  Inquisitor  for 
fifteen  years.  Under  him  three  new  tri- 
bunals of  the  Holy  Office  were  erected,  at 
Cordova,  Jaen,  and  Villa  Real ;  after- 
wards a  fifth  was  added  at  Toledo.  These 
tribunals  were  always  popular  with  the 
lower  orders  and  the  clergy  in  Spain,  but 
terrible  in  the  eyes  of  the  nobles  and  the 
rich  middle  class,  who  believed  that  they 
were  often  used  by  the  government  as 
engines  of  political  repression  in  order  to 
diminish  their  influence.  Ranke  calls 
the  Spanish  Inquisition  "a  royal  tribunal, 
furnished  with  spiritual  weapons."  In 
1492  an  edict  was  issued  for  the  banish- 
ment of  all  Jews  refusing  to  embrace 
Christianity  from  Spain,  chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  their  alleged  incorrigible  obsti- 
nacy in  persisting  in  the  attempt  to  con- 
vert Christians  to  their  own  faith  and 
instruct  them  in  their  rites.'  About  a 
hundred  thousand  went  into  banishment, 
and  an  eiiual  or  greater  number  are  sup- 
posed to  have  remained  in  Spain,  where 
their  merely  nominal  Christianity  and  se- 
cret addiction  to  their  ancestral  doctrines 

I  Prescott's  Reign  of  Ferdinand  and  liabeUa, 
IL  122. 


400   IXQriSITIOX,  SPANISH 


IKSPrHATinX  OF  SCRIPTURE 


lUid  a>:i_(  >  i:a\e  employment  to  the  In- 
quisition lor  centuries. 

The  history  of  the  Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion was  written  by  Lloreute,  who  was 
secretarj-  to  the  tribunal  of  Madrid  from 
1790  to  1792  Hence  he  has  been  sup- 
posed to  have  possessed  great  opportuni- 
ties for  obtaining  exact  information  ;  and 
his  statement,  that  during  its  existence 
of  330  years  the  Spanish  Inquisition  con- 
demned 30,000  persons  to  death,  has  been 
quoted  with  credulous  horror  in  every 
corner  of  the  civilised  world.  Dr.  Hefele, 
bishop  of  Rottenburg,  has  examined 
with  great  cave  and  ability  '  the  worth 
of  the  above  statement,  and  the  question 
of  the  credit  due  to  Llorente.  First, 
thi're  is  the  general  fact  of  the  greater 
relative  severity  of  penal  justice  in  all 
countries  alike,  till  within  quite  recent 
times.  The  Carolina,  or  penal  code  in 
force  under  Charles  V.,  condemned 
coiners  to  the  flames,  and  burglars  to  the 
gallows.  Burying  alive  and  other  bar- 
barous punishments  were  sanctioned  by 
it,  none  of  which  were  allowed  by  the 
Inquisition.  In  England,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  persons  refusing  to  plead  could 
be,  and  were,  pressed  to  death.  The  last 
witch  burned  in  Europe  was  sentenced 
in  the  canton  Glarus  by  a  Protestant  tri- 
bunal as  late  as  1785.  Secondly,  Llorente 
omits  to  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that 
the  Spanish  kings  obliged  the  Inquisition 
to  try  and  sentence  persons  charged  with 
many  other  crimes  besides  heresy— e.^. 
with  polygamy,  seduction,  unnatural 
crime,  smuggling,  witchcraft,  sorcery, 
imposture,  personation,  &c.    A  large  pro- 

Sortion  of  criminals  of  this  kind  would, 
own  to  the  present  century,  have  been 
sentenced  to  death  on  conviction  in  any 
secular  tribunal  in  Europe.  Thirdly, 
Llorente  does  not  pretend  to  base  the 
above  statement  as  to  the  number  exe- 
cuted by  the  Inquisition  on  written 
documents,  but  on  calculations  of  his 
own  making,  in  some  of  which  he  can 
be  proved  to  be  ine.xpert  and  inexact. 
Fourthly,  Hefele  gives  a  list  of  palpable 
misstatements  and  exaggerations  which 
he  has  detected  in  Llorente's  volumes. 
Fifthly,  the  man's  career,  when  closely 
examined,  does  not  invite  confidence. 
At  the  end  of  the  last  century  he  was  a 
liberal  ecclesiastic,  imbued  with  French 
ideas  and  on  intimate  terms  with  Free- 
masons. In  1806,  at  the  instigation  of 
Godoy,  he  wrote  a  book  against  the 
*  In  his  Lifeof  Cardinal Ximenes,  translated 
by  Canon  Dalton,  1860- 


fucrus,  or  ancient  privileges,  of  the  Basque- 
provinces.  He  accepted  employment 
from  the  usurping  government  of  Joseph 
Bonaparte.  Banished  from  Spain  on 
the  fill  of  Joseph,  he  escaped  to  Paris, 
and  published  his  "  History  of  the  Inqui- 
sition "  in  1814.  He  next  translated 
the  abominable  novel,  "  Faublas,"  into 
Spanish  ;  and,  being  exiled  from  France 
in  1822,  died  at  Madrid  the  next  year. 

"The  celebrated  Atitos-dn-Fi  (i.e. 
Acts  of  the  confession  of  the  faith)," 
says  Mohler,"  "  were  as  a  rule  bloodless. 
But  few  inquisitorial  processes  termi- 
nated with  the  death  of  the  accused." 
The  auto,  speaking  generally,  was  a  form 
of  reconciling  culprits  to  the  Church. 
Nevertheless,  the  severities  practised  by 
the  tribunals  were  such  that  Home  fre- 
quently interfered.  The  Spanish  Inqui- 
sition was  abolished  in  1813. 

zirsPXRATZoir  of  scrzptxtrs. 
The  word  "  inspiration,"  like  many  other 
theological  terms,  comes  to  us  from  the 
Latin  version  of  the  Bible.  Thus  St. 
Paul's  words,  2  Tim.  iii.  16,  iraa-a  yp(i<f)n 
deoTTveva-Tos,  "  Every  Scripture  breathed 
by  God,"  is  rendered  "omnis  Scriptura 
divinitus  inspirata,"  and  again  when  St. 
Peter,  2  Ep.  i.  21,  speaks  of  the  prophets 
as  xiTTO  TTvevfJiaTos  ayiov  ^(pojxivoi,  "  moved 
by  the  Holy  Ghost,"  the  Latin  has 
"  spiritu  sancto  inspirati."  Just  as  God 
is  said  in  Genesis  ii.  7,  Wisdom  xv.  11, 
to  have  breathed  man's  soul  into  his 
body  ;  just  as  in  Job  xxxii.  8,  the  "  in- 
spiration of  the  Almighty "  (inspiratio 
omnipotentis)  is  said  to  "  give  under- 
standing," so  the  sacred  writers  are  de- 
scribed as  inspired  because  God  breathed 
into  them  or,  to  drop  the  metaphor, 
suggested  the  thoughts  which  they  wrote 
down.  Inspiration,  therefore,  may  be 
defined  as  a  supernatural  impulse  by 
which  God  directed  the  authors  of  the 
canonical  books  to  write  down  certain 
matter  predetermined  by  Him.  Inspi- 
ration is  a  grace  gratis  data — i.e.  it  was 
bestowed  upon  the  writers  for  the  edifi- 
cation of  others,  and  like  all  graces  it  is 
specially  attributed  to  God  the  Holy 
Ghost. 

To  a  certain  extent  the  Old  Testament 
claims  to  be  inspired.  Thus  the  prophets 
constantly  represent  their  own  words  as 
being  in  reality  the  oracles  of  God.  Our 
Lord  and  His  Apostles  confirm  this  claim. 
Christ,  for  example,  in  Matt.  xxii.  43, 
declares  that  David  spoke  "in  the  Spirit," 
while  St.  Peter,  Acts  i.  16,  and  St.  Paul, 
1  Kirchengeschichte,  ii.  655- 


IKSPIRATIOX  OF  SCRIPTURE      INSPIRATION  OF  SCRIPTURE  491 


Acts  xxviii.  25,  use  similar  lang-uag-e. 
Ecclesiastical  writers,  from  the  time  when 
the  New  Testament  canon  was  first 
recognised  in  the  Church,  speak  in  just 
the  same  way  of  the  books  wliich  went 
to  make  it  up.  St.  Irenssus  regards 
("  Adv.  H;«r."  iii.  14,  2)  the  influence  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  as  extending  to  the  least 
•word  iii  the  gosjiels,  for  he  maintains 
that  the  divine  Spirit  directed  St.  Mat- 
thew in  i.  18  to  write  the  "  generation  of 
Christ "  instead  of  the  "  generation  of 
Jesus."  "  The  divine  Scriptures,"  "  the 
divine  oracles,"  "  the  Scriptures  of  God," 
•"the  Scriptures  of  the  Lord,"  are  the 
usual  phrases  by  which  the  Fathers  ex- 
press their  belief  in  inspiration.  The 
actual  term  apparently  is  of  rare  occur- 
rence in  the  early  ages.  However,  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Martyr  Speratus  (Acta  SS. 
Jul.  17,  p.  214)  we'are  told  that  when  the 
proconsul  asked  him  what  the  books  were 
which  Chri.^tians  "read  with  adoration" 
(quos  adoratis  legentes),  the  saint  replied 
that  they  were  the  four  gospels,  St. 
Paul's  epistles,  '•  and  all  the  divinely 
inspired  teaching "  (omnem  divinitus 
inspiratam  dortritiam).  In  the  "  Symbol 
of  Faith  "  which  was  approved  by  Leo 
IX.,  and  which  is  still  ustd  in  the  con- 
secration of  bishops  as  a  test  of  orthodox 
belief,  God  is  affirmed  to  be  the  "one 
author"  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
The  same  words  {ti7nis  nuctor)  are  repeated 
in  the  definitions  of  Florence  (Bull  "Can- 
tate  Domino"),  and  of  Trent  (Sess.  iv. 
Decret.  de  Can.  Scr.).  On  the  other  hand 
the  Vatican  Council  (cap  2)  comes  nearer 
to  the  actual  word  "inspiration,"  for  it 
defines  that  the  Bible  was  written  "Spiritu 
sancto  inspirante." 

Moreover,  the  s  ime  council  to  which 
we  referred  last  made  the  idea  of  in- 
spiration more  prici.<e  and  settled  a 
que.^tion  once  debuted  among  Catholics. 
The  great  Jesuit  theologian  Lessius,*  a 

1  In  a  tre-ifise  by  F.  Klputgen,  appfnded  to 
Schneemann's  work  on  the  Congregations  de 
Au.Nihis,  it  is  clearly  shown  from  the  oriyiu.-vl 
documents  in  the  archives  ot  the  Roman 
.Jrsaits  that  the  doctrine  of  Lfssius  was  mis- 
represented by  his  cm mies  at  Louvain.  He 
held  that  a  "book  misrhr  be  written  by  the 
tmptdsi:,  but  without  the  special  assistance  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  and  then,  if  (lod  testilied  that 
it  was  free  from  error,  mi^lit  have  the  au- 
thority of  Holy  Scripture.  He  did  not  suppose 
that  "the  case  had  actually  occurred.  F. 
Kleut<;en  considers  that  there  is  still  no  defini- 
tion of  the  Church  which  expressly  excludes 
this  view ;  at  the  same  time  be  considers  it 
erroneous,  on  the  ground  that  God  cannot 
reasoniibly  be  called  the  Author  of  books  if  He 


man  who  has  many  titles  to  respect,  was 
charged  with  maintaining  that  a  book 
migSt  justly  claim  to  be  inspired,  althoufrh 
it  had  been  written  by  mere  human 
industry,  provided  the  Holy  Ghost  had 
afterwards  declared  by  the  mouth  of  the 
Church  that  the  book  in  question  was 
free  from  error.  His  enemies  said  he 
looked  upon  the  second  book  of  Mac'.ia- 
bseus  as  a  possible  instance  of  surh  abook, 
and  Bonfrere  in  his  "Pragloquia"  main- 
tained that  such  a  case  was  at  least 
possible.  The  view  was  condemned  by 
the  chief  theological  faculties  of  the  day, 
and  surely  with  good  reason ;  for  how  can 
we  call  a  book  inspired  if  the  Holy  Ghost 
had  no  special  connection  with  its  origin 
and  merely  approved  it  when  already 
written  ?  This  theory  is  now  distinctly 
proscribed.  The  Church,  according  to 
the  Vatican  Council  {he.  cit.),  does  not 
count  books  canonical  because  they  were 
written  naturally  and  afterwards  approved 
by  her,  or  because  they  contain  revelation 
without  error,  but  because  they  were  ui- 
spired  in  the  first  instance  and  as  such 
were  committed  to  the  Church. 

The  common  teaching  of  theologians 
helps  us  to  understand  the  detiiiitions 
which  have  just  been  given.  They  dis- 
tinguish first  of  all  lift -Veen  inspiration 
and  the  mere  "  assisrentia  "  or  a.ssistance 
of  the  Holy  Ghnst,  the  latter  conveying 
a  merely  negative,  the  former  a  positive 
idea.  General  councils  have  the  "assist- 
entia"  of  the  Holy  Ghost  because  He 
protects  them  from  error  in  their  decrees, 
although  the  Pope  in  convuking  the 
council,  and  proposing  to  it  the  subjects, 
may  have  been  guided  only  by  the  ordi- 
nary motives  of  faith  and  reason.  In- 
spiration implies  over  and  above  this 
protection  a  special  impulse  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  write,  and  to  write  on  particular 
subjects.  Next,  a  clear  line  must  be 
drawn  between  revelation  and  inspiration. 
God  reveals  to  the  soid  truths  which  it 
did  not  know  before,  without  necessarily 
prompting  the  recipient  to  commit  the 
revelation  to  writing;  an  inspired  author 
has  received  the  impulse  to  write,  and  is 
directed  from  above  in  his  work,  but  it  is 
not  necessary  that  any  new  truths  should 
be  communicated  to  him.  There  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  author  of 
the  book,  e.g.,  of  Esther  received  any 
revelation. 

In  an  inspired  book  there  are  evidently 

merely  impelU  d  the  writers  to  compose  them, 
and  did  not  actually  assist  and  direct  them  in 
doing  wx 


492  INSPIRATTOX  OF  SCRIPTURE 


INSTALLATION 


two  factors-  the  natural  powers  of  the 
writer  on  this  side,  and  the  impulse  and 
direction  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  that. 
The  Church  has  not  decided  where  the 
one  factor  ceases  and  the  other  begins  to 
operate.  In  our  own  time  Scheggj  a 
priest  and  commentator  of  high  repute 
among  German  Catholics,  has  maintained 
the  existence  of  trifling  error  in  Scripture. 
Thus,  in  his  commentatory  on  the  Gospels, 
vol.  iii.  p.  552  seq.,  he  discusses  the  famous 
(lifliculty  in  St.  Matt,  xxiii.  35,  "  Zacha- 
rias,  the  son  of  liarachias,"  and  explains 
it  on  the  supposition  that  Jesus  men- 
tioned Zacharias  merely,  while  the 
Evangelist,  in  adding  the  father's  name, 
made  a  mistake  from  defect  of  memory. 
Recently,  Cardinal  Newman  has  given 
the  great  weight  of  his  authority  to  a 
similar  opinion.  He  sees  no  "serious 
difficult}' in  admitting"  the  existence  of 
"obiter  dicta"  in  Scripture,  which  obiter 
dicta  are  not  inspired  (in  the  article, 
"  Inspiration  of  Scripture,"  "  Nineteenth 
Century,"  Feb.  1884).  Others  (and  this 
opinion,  which  seems  to  find  some  sup- 
port in  the  Fathers,  found  wide  acceptance 
among  the  older  Protestant  theologians) 
have  believed  in  what  is  known  as 
"  verbal  inspiration  ;  "  they  have  argued 
as  if  the  authors  of  the  Biblir'al  books 
were  no  more  than  scribes  who  wrote 
down  the  words  which  the  Holy  Ghost 
had  dictated.  Put  this  view  most  cer- 
tainly sins  against  the  most  p.atent  facts.' 
Evidently,  the  style  and  method  of  the 
sacred  writers  are  coloured  throughout  by 
their  own  individuality,  and  the  differ- 
ences in  tliought  and  language  between 
Isaias  and  Ezechiel  are  utterly  inexplicable 
if  we  regard  them  as  passive  agents  under 
a  mechanical  inspiration.  St.  Augustine 
in  well-known  words  formulises  the  pre- 
vailing belief  of  the  Church,  without 
falling  into  the  exaggerations  of  the 
theoiy  that  inspiration  is  mechanical. 
"  To  those  books,"  he  says,  "  which  are 
already  styled  canonical,  I  have  learned 

'  The  Jesuit  Kleutgen,  in  the  treatise  al- 
ready referred  to,  cites  some  of  the  gre;ite.st 
thcoio'iians  of  the  Church  against  the  thonrv 
that  the  Holy  Spirit  dictated  the  material 
words  to  the  sacred  author.  Thus  he  quotes 
Suarez,  JJe  Fide,  disp.  5,  §  3,  n  3,  5,  who 
maintains  it  is  enough  to  believe  that  the 
Holy  Spirit  "  specially  assisted  him  (the  author 
of  the  inspired  book,  while  writing)  and  Uei)t 
him  from  all  error  and  falsehood,  and  from  all 
words  which  were  not  expedient."  To  the 
same  effect  Bellarmin's  De  Verbn  Dei,  lib.  v. 
15  ;  Melchior  Canus,  De  Loc.  Theolng.  lib.  ii. 
cc.  17  et  18. 


to  pay  such  reverence  and  honour  as 
most  firmly  to  believe  that  none  of  their 
authors  has  committed  any  error  in 
writing.  If  in  that  literature  I  meet 
with  anything  which  seems  contrary  to 
truth,  I  will  have  no  doubt  that  it  is  only 
the  manuscript  which  is  faulty,  or  the 
tianslator  who  has  not  hit  the  sense,  or 
my  own  failure  to  understand,"  Ep.  82. 
(Almost  entirely  from  Kaulen,  "Einlei- 
tung  in  die  heilige  Schrift."  Part  I.  pp.  12 
seq.). 

zirsTAUATXOK  (Low  Lat.  stal- 
lum,  a  stall).  The  actual  visible  esta- 
blishment {institutio  corporalis)  in  the 
pos.><ession  of  an  ecclesiastical  dignity  or 
l  enciice.  In  early  times  money  often 
passed  on  such  occasions ;  in  one  of  the 
Novels  Justinian  forbids  that  any  pay- 
ment .should  be  made  on  installation  to 
the  clergy  of  any  church  excepting  only 
the  great  church  at  Constantinople.  In 
another  place  he  says  that  the  custom, 
though  intrinsically  a  bad  one,  is  too 
firmly  rooted  to  be  destroyed  ;  he  there- 
fore decrees  that  twenty  pounds  of  gold 
may  be  paid  on  installation  by  the  patri- 
arch of  any  one  of  the  five  sees,  Rome, 
Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Anfioch,  and 
Jerusalem,  if  the  custom  is  to  that  efi'ect, 
but  no  more.  The  .sum  to  be  paid  by  a 
metropolitan  or  a  bishop  he  limits  to 
100  shillings  for  enthronisation,  and  300 
shillings  given  to  notaries  and  other 
officials  In  spite  of  his  apparent  zeal 
for  purity  of  election,  Ju.stinian  was  the 
first  emjieror  who  exacted  payment  for 
confirming  the  election  of  the  Roman 
pontifl^s  ;  this  abuse  was  not  removed  till 
the  time  of  Constantine  Pogonatus. 

It  was  afterwards  settled  by  the  canon 
law  that  the  fees  paid  on  installation, 
in  any  grade  of  orders,  should  never 
exceed  one  year's  profits  of  the  benefice 
conferred. 

Installation,  in  the  case  of  a  bishop,  is 
called  enthronisation ;  it  is  the  solemn 
entry  into  possession  of  his  cathedral  and 
episcopal  residence  on  the  part  of  the 
newly  consecrated  bishop,  who  wears  all 
his  pontifical  insignia  on  the  occasion. 
When  a  bishop  is  consecrated  in  his  own 
church,  the  enthronisation  becomes  iden- 
tified with  the  consecration;  but  when 
the  latter  rite  has  been  performed  in 
another  diocese,  then,  "  according  to  the 
ancient  tradition,  the  bishop,  dressed  in 
the  garb  of  a  pilgrim,  with  his  crozier  in 
his  hand,  and  the  pastoral  hat  on  his 
head,  is  received  on  arriving  at  the 
boundary  of  his  diocese  by  the  chapter 


INSTITUTE  B.  V.  M. 


INSTITUTE  B.  V.  M.  493 


»nd  clergy  of  the  cathedral  city  and  I 
ili.-trict  i  by  them  he  is  escorted  to  some  ' 
neighb  iuriro-  church,  where,  after  a  short 
prayer,  he  i.s  presented  with  the  episcopal 
ornaments  and  insignia,  and  then  con- 
ducted in  solemn  procession  to  the  sound 
of  bells  into  his  cathedral,  where  he  is 
welcomed  with  the  anthem  Ecce  sacerdns  \ 
magniig  and  the  Te  7>i<7n,  while  he  talies 
his  seat  on  his  throne,  from  the  raised 
dais  of  which  he  imparts  to  the  assembled 
throng  his  episcoj>al  benediction.  After 
this  he  is  escorted  to  his  palace,  the  cross 
being  borne  before  him." ' 

The  installation  of  a  canon  is  his 
solemn   reception  into  a  cathedral   or  i 
collegiate  chapter.    In  presence  of  the 
dignitaries  and   canons   seated   in  the  [ 
chapter-house  the  new  titular,  after  being 
chorally  vested,  makes  his  profession  of  [ 
faith  and  takes  the  capitular  oath.  He 
is  then  admitted  to  his  seat  in  chapter,  ; 
and  afterwards  conducted  into  the  church,  , 
and  installed  in  his  proper  stall  in  the  | 
choir. 

In  the  case  of  a  simple  parish  priest 
the  installation  is  usually  effected  by  a 
delegate  from  the  bishop,  who  admits  the 
new  incumbent  both  to  the  spiritual  and 
temporal  rights  of  his  benefice.  In  some  \ 
countries  a  commissary  attends  on  the 
part  of  the  civil  government,  and  admits 
him  with  certain  formalities  into  the 
possession  of  his  temporals,  Thomassin, 
"  Vetus  et  Nova,"  &c.,  iii.  1,  56. 

ZirSTZTUTZ:  of  the  BXiESSED 
VIRGIN'  nXARV.  (Dames  Anglaises,  \ 
"  English  ladies,"  or  "  English  Virgins.") 
As  this  appears  to  be  the  only  religious 
order  of  purely  English  origin  founded 
since  the  Refoi-mation,  we  propose  to 
trace  its  history  in  some  degree  of  detail, 
aided  by  a  series  of  papers  which  appeared 
in  the  Catholic  periodical  the  "  Month." 
These  papers  are  entitled  "Passages  from 
the  Life  of  a  Yorkshire  Lady,"  and  notify, 
while  they  partly  anticipate,  the  publica- 
tion of  a  forthcoming  wnrk  on  the  saintly 
foundress  of  the  "  English  Ladies."  * 
Mary  "Ward,  the  eldest  daughter  of 
-Marmaduke  AVard,  of  Givendale,  near 
Ripon,  a  gentleman  of  good  estate  and 
ancient  lineage,  was  bom  in  loSo.  Her 
]).irents  were  steadfast  Catholics,  and 
dedicated  the  child  to  the  Blessed  Virgin 
from  her  cradle.  Tliose  were  days  in 
which  the  professors  of  the  ancient  faith 

'  Wetzer  and  Welte,  art.  "  Provision  Cano- 
niquc." 

2  Life  of  Mary  Ward,  by  Mai-y  C.  E. 
Chambers,  ed.  by  Father  Coleridge. 


were  continually  harassed,  and  in  danger 
of  death,  imder  the  operation  of  the  penal 
laws;  and  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  the 
fervent  child,  who,  there  is  reason  to 
believe,  never  stained  the  grace  of  her 
baptism  by  mortal  sin,  growing  up  in  the 
thouglit  and  with  the  buniiiig  df">ire  of 
martyrdom.  When  she  was  about  tifteen 
or  sixteen  years  old,  she  began  to  long  for 
the  religious  life.  She  was  very  beauti- 
ful, and  projects  were  farmed  with  a  view 
to  her  marriage;  iim'  \  M^*or■^  ,-niiglit  her 
favour;  but  she  i' -  ■  !  -  iicitations, 
and  with  the  assi.-t;i!..  .1  1  atlier  Iloltby, 
of  the  Society  of  Jf;ii>,  l"i't  England  and 
her  father's  house  in  1606,  and  passed 
over  to  St.  Onifr.  We  are  told  that 
"  the  description  of  the  devotion  of  those 
of  her  sex  abroad  had  drawn  her  to  a 
foreign  land."  At  first  she  entered  the 
convent  of  Colettines  at  St.  Omer,  as  a 
lay  sister,  and  many  duties  of  a  kind  for 
which  she  was  little  fitted  were  imposed 
upon  her.  In  May  or  June  1607,  with 
the  advice  of  the  novice-mistress,  and 
after  having  experienced,  while  in  prayer 
on  St.  Gregory's  day,  a  strong  inward 
impulse,  prompting  her  to  found  a  con- 
vent of  the  order  for  English  women  ex- 
clusively, ^lary  quitted  the  Colettine 
convent.  With  the  help  of  her  confessor, 
Father  Txnger  Lee,  and  the  good  bishop 
Blaise,  of  St.  Omer,  she  obtained  access 
to  the  Archduke  Albert  and  his  wife 
Isabella,  and  obtained  from  them  the 
grant  of  a  vacant  ]iiece  of  ground  at 
Gravelines,  and  permission  to  build  a 
house  of  English  Poor  Clares  upon  it. 
Many  Englisli  ladies  (for  the  persecution 
at  home  at  that  time  caTised  numbers 
of  Enuflishwomen  to  seek  freedom  and 
security  in  Catholic  countries)  joined  her, 
and  the  new  community  was  begun  at 
Christmas  1607,  in  a  Lnge  hired  house  at 
St.  Omer,  pending  tlie  erection  of  a  con- 
vent at  Gravelines.  Mary  procured  from 
the  Duchess  of  Feria,  a  member  of  the 
English  family  of  Dormer,  a  copy  of  the 
original  rule  of  St.  Clare.  Against  the 
wish  of  the  bishop,  who  desired  that 
]Mary,  having  passed  what  was  equivalent 
to  a  noviciate  as  a  lay-sister  among  the 
Colettines,  sliould  be  professed  at  once, 
the  Superior  of  the  new  institute  insisted 
on  her  commencing  as  a  novice  in  the 
usual  way.  Mary  readily  compHed,  and 
conformed  with  joy  to  the  strictest  obser- 
vances of  the  rule  during  the  t^rm  of 
noviceship.  However,  on  May  2,  1608, 
she  received,  while  sitting  at  work,  mak- 
ing "girdles  of  St.  Francis,"  a  sudden 


494      INSTITUTE  B.  V.  M. 


i:\STlTUTE  B.  V.  M. 


£ommmi''-nion,  as  she  believed  it  to  be, 
the  purport  of  which  was  that  she  "  was 
not  called  to  the  order  of  St.  Clare,  but 
to  another  vocation  and  employment." 
Tier  confessor,  when  she  made  known  to 
him  what  had  h.ip])eued  within  her,  re- 
proved her  with  some  severity.  Being, 
however,  more  and  more  convinced  that 
she  was  called  to  another  way,  she  left 
the  Poor  Clares  in  the  spring  of  1G09, 
having  first  made  a  vow  of  pei-petual 
chastity  before  her  confessor,  and  also  one 
of  obedience  to  his  directions.  Her  con- 
duct drew  upon  her  ceusure  from  many 
quarters,  and  she  was  for  a  long  time  in 
great  perplexitj^,  but  her  confidence  in 
God  never  wavered.  Gradually  the  con- 
ception of  a  teaching  order,  recruited  from 
the  ranks  of  her  Catholic  countrywomen, 
not  cloistered,  nor  under  obedience  to  any 
other  order,  but  living  under  the  rule  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  bound  by  termin- 
able, not  perpetual,  vows,  took  form  within 
her  mind.  She  returned  to  England,  and 
bemg  joined  by  many  postulants  whom 
the  force  and  purity  of  her  character 
attracted  to  her,  she  founded  the  first 
community  of  the  "  English  Virgins  at 
Spitalfield's  in  1611.  A  year  or  two  later 
she  returned  to  St.  Omer,  and  there  also 
succeeded  in  establishing  a  commmiity. 
Before  his  death  in  1616  Father  Lee  had 
come  round  to  her  views,  and  laboured 
effectually  to  procure  the  confirmation  of 
her  institute  from  liome.  A  letter  ad- 
dressed to  her  by  nrder  of  the  Aieliduke 
in  May  1613  sets  forth  the  precise  nature 
of  her  work.  He  says  he  has  heard  with 
pleasure  that  she  and  her  companions  are 
established  at  St.  Omer,  "where  you  re- 
ceive and  teach  a  number  of  yotmg  girls 
of  your  nation,  in  order  that,  after  they 
have  been  well  instructed  in  all  that 
belongs  to  our  holy  faith.  Catholic,  Apos- 
tohc,  and  Roman,  and  carefully  trained 
to  virtue,  they  may  be  sent  back  to  their 
parents,  to  be  married  and  bring  up  their 
children  in  the  fear  of  God,  unless  they 
prefer  to  stay  in  our  countries  and  become 
religious."  In  161G  a  letter  came  from 
Rome  signed  by  Cardinal  Lancellotti,  the 
president  of  the  Sacred  Cnngregation  of 
the  Council,  recommending  the  new  com- 
munity to  the  care  of  Bishop  Blaise,  and 
speaking  of  the  probability  of  a  formal 
confirmation  at  a  future  day.  In  the 
years  between  1613  and  1627  Mary  paid 
several  visits  to  England,  during  one  of 
■which  she  wa.s  arrested  and  imprisoned 
by  order  of  Archbishop  Abbott,  who  said 
that "  she  did  more  harm  than  six  Jesuits." 


Details  are  wanting;  we  are  only  told 
that  "  sentence  of  death  was  passed  upt)u 
her  for  religion,  but  that  there  was  no 
execution,  for  fear  of  odium."  Probably 
the  Spanish  Ambassador,  Gondemar,  who 
saved  the  lives  of  many  English  Cathohcs 
in  this  reig-n  by  menacing  the  despicable 
king  with  the  anger  of  Ins  master,  inter- 
fered on  her  behalf;  something  is  said 
also  of  a  large  bribe  paid  by  her  relations. 
In  1617  she  opened  a  second  house  at 
Liege;  and  about  the  same  time  the 
Bishop  of  St.  Omer  wrote  to  Maiy  a 
"public  letter  of  approval  of  the  Insti- 
tute, by  which  he  constituted  its  members 
as  religious."  At  Liege  she  was  protected 
by  Ferdinand,  the  Prince  Bishop,  who 
loved  to  hear  the  music  in  the  church  of 
the  English  Ladies,  and  sometimes  said 
Mass  for  them.  Pope  Gregory  XV. 
(1621-3)  gave  her  permission  to  found 
houses  of  her  Listitute  at  Rome  and  in 
other  Italian  towns.  In  1U2"  shi-  esta- 
blished a  house  at  Munich.  Charges  being 
brought  against  the  purity  of  her  faith. 
Urban  VIII.  ordered,  in  1630,  that  she 
should  be  examined,  and  that  her  houses 
should  be  (provisionally")  closed.  Tlii-oush 
the  intercession  of  the  good  Ma.vmuhan, 
elector  of  Bavaria,  the  nuns  were  still 
allowed  to  continue  the  common  Ul'e, 
under  certain  restrictions.  The  result  of 
the  examination  was  favourable  to  her, 
and  Mary  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  decision 
from  Rome  that  the  bull  of  1(J30  closing 
her  liouses  should  be  regarded  as  tacitly 
al)olislied;  but  it  was  only  m  1703,  many 
Years  after  her  death  (which  happened  in 
liU.')),  that  the  Institute  was  again  for- 
mally confirmed  by  Clement  XI.  Since 
that  time  the  succi^ssiou  in  her  community 
has  never  failed  ;  and  at  this  day,  accord- 
ing to  the  "  Mouth,"  her  order  is  "a  very 
flourishing  religious  institute,  largely  in- 
strumental in  the  education  of  girls  of  all 
classes,  in  Bavaria,  Hungary,  Roumania, 
Italy,  and  other  parts  of  the  Continent," 
and  is  "  commonly  known  as  the  Institute 
of  the  'English  Virgins.'" 

The  noble  and  valiant  foimdress  im- 
printed the  seal  of  perpetuity  even  on 
the  community  which  she  abandoned.  The 
English  Poor  Clares,  after  she  left  them, 
prospered  greatly  at  Gravelines,  and  sent 
forth  several  filiations.  In  the  French 
Revolution  the  nuns  "  had  their  full  share 
of  suflTering,  though  they  escaped  the 
guillotine."  Banished  from  France,  they 
took  refuge  in  England,  and  finally  esta- 
blished themselves  at  Clare  Abbey,  near 
Darlington,  "which  now  represents  the 


INTERCALARY  YEAR 


IXTF.RDICT 


405 


'Gravelines  founclalioii  and  those  of  its 
three  daughter-houses." 

xn-Tz:R.CAi.ARV  VEAB.  [See 
Calexdak.] 

xio-TERCEssxosr.  [See  Msdia- 
tion/ 

XNTERBZCT.  1.  The  tnterdictiim  of 
a  Roman  priutorwas  a  decree  pfouounced 
between  two  litigants,  ordering,  or  (more 
commonly),  forbidding  something  to  be 
done,  a'  banished  man  was  also  said  to 
be  hiterdicted  from  the  use  of  fire  and 
water  in  Italy  {ngua  et  ujne  ci  iniei  dictum 
est).  Something  of  each  of  these  notions 
— e.g.  the  prohibition  of  saying  Mass,  and 
the  interdiction  of  the  guilty,  and  often 
of  the  innocent  also,  from  approach  to 
the  sacraments — appears  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical interdict,  whicli  is  defined  to  be 
^'an  ecclesiastical  censure,  by  which 
persons  are  debarred  from  the  use  of 
certain  sacraments,  from  all  the  divine 
offices,  and  from  Christian  burial.''  * 

Interdicts  are  divided  into  local, 
personal,  and  mixed.  In  the  first  kind  a 
place  is  interdicted,  so  that  no  divine 
office  may  be  celebrated  or  heard  in  it, 
-either  by  the  inhabitants  or  by  strangers. 
By  the  second  kind  ])ersons  arc  inter- 
dicted, so  as  to  be  del)arred  from  u>ing 
the  sacraments  or  exercising  the  fund  ions 
prohibited,  in  whatever  place  they  may 
be.  By  the  mixed  kind  botli  place  and 
persons  are  direedy  interdicted — e.g.  a 
city  and  its  inhabitants.  Again,  each  of 
the  first  two  kinds  may  be  either  gi-ni  i  al 
or  particular.  A  particular  local  ini  inlirt 
strikes  a  single  locality — e.rj.  a  church; 
ageneral  one  comjin-liendsmany  localities, 
being  pronounced  ng.iiiist  a  kingdom,  a 
province,  or  a  city.  A  particular  personal 
interdict  strikes  a  single  person  ;  a  general 
one  of  the  same  class  is  extended  to  a 
number  of  persons — e.g.  to  all  the  peo])l(? 
in  a  provinri',  all  the  members  of  a  uni- 
versity, all  the  monks  In  a  convent. 

A  general  intc-rdict  of  the  clergy  in  a 
country  does  not  touch  the  religious 
orders  in  that  country  unless  it  be  so 
expressed,  or  unless  the  Intention  to 
include  them  can  be  clearly  inferred  from 
the  circumstances,  and  the  same  holds 
good  vice  versa.  Nor  does  a  general 
interdict  of  the  clergy  include  bishops 
unless  it  be  so  expressed. 

When  a  citj-  is  laid  under  an  interdict 
its  suburbs  are  understood  to  be  included, 
even  though  they  belong  to  a  different 
diocese ;  otherwise  the  interdict  might  be 

*  Ferraris,  "  luterdictum." 


rendered  nugatory  through  the  citizens 
being  able  to  hear  Mass,  &c.,  in  tlie 
suburban  churches.  In  the  same  *ise 
the  cathedral  church  no  less  than  others 
is  interdicted,  and  also  the  churches  of 
regulars. 

Interdicts  are  either  imposed  pfi- 
modum poena,  as  a  punishment  for  a  ])ar- 
ticular  offence,  in  which  case  they  last 
for  a  prescribed  period,  and  then  cease — 
or  per  modum  censurcB,  as  a  weapon  to 
beat  down  contumacious  resistance  to 
the  laws  and  discipline  of  the  Church. 
In  this  last  case  they  ordinarily  last  till 
the  resistance  ceases,  and  the  offender 
makes  amends,  and  are  then  relaxed. 

Literdlcts  proceed  either  a  jure,  or 
ab  homine,  that  is,  either  by  operation  of 
law  or  by  the  act  of  some  one  competent 
to  Impose  them.  Everyone  who  can  ex- 
communicate or  suspend  can  also  inter- 
dict, except  the  suporlm-s  of  monasteries, 
both  because  their  jurisdiction  is  not 
'  local  but  personal,  and  also  because,  if 
'  they  had  the  power  of  interdicting,  the 
effects  of  their  action  would  extend  to 
and  damnify  lay  ])ersons  ^^  Im  are  not  in 
any  sense  their  subjects  [xuhditi). 

The  law  declares  persons  or  places 
Interdicted  In  a  great  variety  of  cases. 
I  As  instances  may  be  given — hindrance  of 
a  Papal  legate  or  nuncio  IVom  discharging 
his  duty,  in  which  case  all  tlu>  dominions 
of  the  prince  or  State  so  hindering  are 
interdicted;  the  burial  of  a  heretic, 
knowingly,  in  a  church,  in  which  ease 
the  church  is  interdicted;  appeal  (vom 
the  Pope  by  any  university  ch.-qiler  or 
college  to  a  future  general  C(nHicil,  the 
result  being  the  Interdict  of  the  ofi'endlng 
corporation  ;  and  the  Illegal  alienation  of 
Church  property  by  bishops  or  abbots. 

In  order  that  innocent  persons  might 
sutler  as  little  as  possible  from  the  effects 
of  an  Interdict  the  canon  l.iw  uradually 
Introduced  mitigations.  liiiptisni  and 
confirmation  might  be  administered  to 
persons  in  danger  of  death  ;  the  sacra- 
ment of  penance  was  open  to  all  but 
those  guilty  of  having  caused  the  inter- 
dict (who  could  not  ajiproach  it  before 
having  made  satisfaction) ;  marriage 
might  be  celebrated,  but  without  solem- 
nities ;  ordinations  might  be  made  if 
there  was  a  deficiency  of  priests  ;  eccle- 
siastics who  had  observed  the  interdict 
might  be  buried  in  the  churchyard,  but 
1  in  silence ;  one  Low  Mass  might  be  said 
every  week,  and  High  Mass  might  be 
sung  on  the  five  great  festivals  of  Chrlst- 
I  mas,  Easter,  Whitsunday,  Corpus  Ohristi, 


496  INTERDICT 


INTROIT 


and  the  Assumption,  the  persons  guilty 
of  the  interdict  being  carefully  excluded. 

General  interdicts  are  rarely  men- 
tioned in  ecclesiastical  history  before  the 
eleventh  century,  and  for  this  three 
causes  are  assigned:  (1)  the  comparatively 
stronger  sense  of  religion  in  the  Christian 
society  of  the  earlier  times,  restraining  a 
whdle  people  from  themselves  falling 
into,  or  conniving  at  in  their  rulers,  any 
notorious  tnnibgre.-siou  ;  (2)  the  salutary 
dread  of  excommunication  everywhere 
prevailing,  so  that  the  form  of  censure 
was  sufficient  of  itself  to  restrain  offen- 
ders ;  (3)  the  general  readiness  of  tem- 
poral princes  in  those  times  to  aid  the 
Church  in  maintaining  her  discipline. 

Non-Catholic  writers  are  prone  to 
judge  a  Papal  interdict  according  to  tlie 
measure  of  what  they  deem  its  success-. 
If  the  contumacy  of  the  prince  whom  it  i 
strikes  is  overcome,  the  firmness  and  j 
policy  of  the  Pope  are  ixsually  com- 
mended ;  but  if,  as  has  sometimes  hap- 
pened, it  be  not  overcome,  the  inference 
drawn  by  such  writers  is  that  the  in- 
creasing intelligence  and  civilisation  of 
the  age  have  deprived  the  "  Papal 
thunders  "  of  their  terrors,  and  that  the 
time  has  come  for  disowning  and  aban- 
doning the  use  of  tliem  for  evermore. 
Such  language  shows  an  ignorance  of 
the  deep  foundations  on  which  the  inter- 
dict, with  other  Church  censures,  rests. 
Our  Lord  gave  the  power  of  binding,  as 
of  loosing,  to  His  Apostles,  and  He  has 
never  withdrawn  it.  But  Jesus  Christ 
did  not  tell  them  that  whatever  they 
should  "  bind  on  earth  "  should  also  be 
p>mished  on  earth,  but  that  it  should  be 
"  bound  also  in  heaven."  Through  tlie 
dwindling  of  faith  and  the  decay  of 
virtue  a  ])i'ople  may  sink  so  low  as  to 
countenance  its  rulers  in  resisting  the 
Church ;  the  rulers  themselves  may  be 
atheists  and  disregard  ecelesinstical  cen- 
sures ;  and  all  this  may  pass  with  appa- 
rent impunity.  What  then  ?  If  the 
interdict  or  other  censure  be  just,  there 
is  no  real  impunity ;  the  sin  of  the  offen- 
der is  "  retained  "  in  heaven  as  the  priest 
has  retained  it  on  earth,  and  if  he  make 
not  amends  in  this  life  he  will  have  to 
make  all  the  more  amends  in  the  next. 
Nevertheless  the  Church  has  with  good 
reason  suspended  for  a  long  time  past 
the  proclamation  of  these  general  cen- 
sures ;  lest,  if  the  contumacious  were  to 
contemn  them  with  impunity,  and  so 
gain  an  apparent  triumph,  the  faith  of 
the  common  people,  already  weak  and 


assailed  from  many  quarters,  might  be 
stiU  more  shaken  and  impaired. 

2.  In  canon  law  the  term  "  interdict " 
is  also  used  of  a  judicial  order,  in  the  sense 
familiar  to  the  civil  law,  from  which  the 
threefold  distinction  into  interdicts  for 
restoring,  obtaining,  and  retaining,  and 
numerous  other  provisions,  are  also  bor- 
rowed. (Ferraris,  Interdicta,  Inter- 
dirtum.) 

ZNTSRSTXCES  {interstitio).  The 
intervals  which  canon  law  requires  be- 
tween the  reception  of  the  various  de- 
grees of  orders.  The  Council  of  Trent 
recommends  that  even  minor  orders  be 
conferred  at  intervals,  so  that  the  candi- 
date should  have  time  to  perfect  himself 
in  the  theory  ar.d  pr.ictice  of  each,  liefore 
proceeding  to  the  next;  this,  however, 
it  leaves  to  the  discretion  of  the  bishops. 
Alter  taking  the  last  grade  of  minor 
orders,  the  Council  requires  the  interval 
of  a  year  before  the  candidate  proceeds 
to  the  sub-dinconate,  "  unless  necessity 
or  the  good  of  the  Church  should  in  the 
bislioji's  judgment  dictate  a  different 
course."  Willi  the  like  salvo,  it  is  pro- 
vided that  a  I  all  year  mast  elapse  between 
the  sul>-dinconate  and  the  diaconate,  and 
the  s.-nne  jieriod  between  the  diaconate 
and  the  ]iriesHiMnd.  This  full  year  need 
not  be  the  snhir  year  of  305  "days,  but 
may  be  the  ecclesiasticnl  year,  as  from 
one  Lent  to  another,  or  from  one  Pente- 
cost to  another.  A  bisho-)  cannot  dis- 
pense with  the  interstices  in  ordaining 
candidates  coming  to  him  from  another 
diocese,  unless  in  their  dimissorial  letters 
[DiMissORiALs]  this  privilege  is  allowed 
them.  The  members  of  religious  orders 
can  be  ordained  in  many  cases  by  virtue 
ofs])eciiil  concessions  obtained  from  the 
Holy  See.  wilhout  observing  the  inter- 
stices; this  is  iiotalily  the  c:ise  with 
regard  to  the  Society  of  .Jesus.  The  non- 
observance  of  the  intei-.-tices  on  the  part 
both  of  the  ordinans  and  the  ordinand,  is 
a  sin;  but  no  penaKv  is  atKxed  to  it  in 
the  law.    (Ferraris,  info-^^fifirr.) 

ZN-TROIT.  Words  said  in  the  Mass 
when  the  priest  has  finished  theConfiteor 
and  has  ascended  the  altar.  Le  Brun 
and  Benedict  XIV.  attribute  the  intro- 
duction of  introits  to  Gr(>gory  the  Great. 
The  name  refers  either  to  the  fact  that  it 
is  said  at  the  beginning  or  "  entrance  "  of 
the  Mass,  or  else  to  the  practice  of  having 
the  introit  sung  by  the  choir  as  the  priest 
"  entered  to  "  the  altar. 

The  introit  consists  of  an  antiphon,. 
Gloria  Patri,  and  usually  of  a  psalm» 


INVESTITURE 


mVESTITURE  497 


which  it  was  once  the  custom  to  sing 
entire.  But  some  introits,  called  by  Du- 
randus  irregular,  are  taken  from  other 
parts  of  Scripture.  Such  are  the  Puer 
i.atus,  on  Christmas  day,  Spiritus  Domini, 
on  Pentecost,  Viri  Galilaei,  on  the  Ascen- 
sion. Some  few  in  our  present  Missal 
give  verses  from  uninspired  writers.  Such 
are  the  Salve  Sancta  Parens,  Gaudeamus 
omnes  in  Domino,  Benedicta  sit  Sancta 
Trinitas.  On  Whit  Sunday  the  verse  of 
the  introit  is  taken  from  the  fourth  (apo- 
cryphal) book  of  Esdras.  The  version  of 
Scripture  used  in  the  introits  is  usually 
the  Old  Latin,  not  the  Vulgate. 

The  word  for  introit  in  the  Ambrosian 
Mass  is  Ingressa  ;  in  the  Mozarabic,  Car- 
thusian, Dominican,  CarmeUte  Missals  it 
is  called  Officium. 

nrvESTZTVRE  (Low  Lat.  tnves- 
tire,  to  put  in  possession).  This,  accord- 
ing to  Ducange,  answered  nearly  to  what 
English  lawyers  call  "  livery  of  seisin." 
It  was  the  putting  in  possession  of  a 
person  entitled  to  property  ;  the  delivery 
of  possession  being  symbolised  by  the 
passing  from  hand  to  hand  of  some  tan- 
gible token,  such  as  a  rod,  a  staff,  a  fish, 
or  a  bird.  Ducange  enumerates  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-nine  forms  of  investiture. 
In  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries, 
great  temporal  possessions  having  ac- 
crued to  the  Church  all  over  Europe,  and 
the  patronage  of  the  sees  and  abbeys 
being  largely  in  the  hands  of  princes,  a 
tendency  arose  on  the  part  of  the  latter 
to  usurp  the  whole  affair  of  episcopal  or 
abbatial  nomination  and  installation  into 
their  own  hands.  Nor  was  this  tendency 
wholly  blameable ;  for  when  a  bishop,  as 
often  in  Germany,  was  the  ruler  over  ex- 
tensive territories,  or  when  an  abbot  pos- 
sessed plenary  jurisdiction  and  the  power 
of  life  and  death  within  the  broad  con- 
ventual domains,  it  was  both  the  in- 
terest and  the  duty  of  the  sovereign  to 
take  care  that  those  administering  such 
weighty  functions  should  be  men  of  loy- 
alty, capacity,  and  energy.  It  is  true 
that  many  stories  are  told  of  bishoprics 
given  by  princes  to  unworthy  kinsmen, 
or  sold  to  the  highest  bidder ;  but  these 
were  vicious  excrescences  on  a  sound  prin- 
ciple— that  principle  being  that  those 
who  are  deeply  concerned  in  obtaining 
good  government  should  have  some  con- 
trol over  the  appointment  of  their  gover- 
nors. This  control  may  be  exercised  di- 
rectly— as  by  the  acclamations  of  the 
clergj'  and  faithful  at  elections  in  early 
Christian  times — or  through  the  inter- 


vention of  princes  and  magistrates.  A 
joint  control  over  ecclesiastical  elections 
on  the  part  of  Church  and  State  seems  to 
be  the  happiest  and  the  best  compromise. 
A  temporal  government,  uncontrolled, 
would  never  place  a  St.  Charles  lior- 
romeo  in  the  see  of  Mihm  ;  on  thr  other 
hand,  the  ecelesiuftical  authority,  un- 
checked by  lay  jiower,  may  fa>ily  make 
i  such  mistakes  as  the  t'k'\ation  of  Pietro 
Morrone  to  the  supi\-uie  poutilicate. 

In  the  eleveutli  century  Hildebrand 
(1075)  published  a  decree  absolutely  pro- 
I  hibiting  the  lay  investiture  of  bishoprics. 
By  this  he  could  not  have  meant  that 
bishops  should  not  be  put  in  pos<es^io^ ' 
of  the  temporalities  of  their  sees  in  due 
legal  form,  nor  tlmt  they  thoiilJ  not  be 
responsible  to  princes  for  their  manaiie- 
ment  of  those  temporalities.    His  pvolii- 
bition  had  reference  to  an  encroachment 
and  an  abuse,  tlien  prevalent  both  in  Ger- 
many and  in   England,  by   which  the 
;  sovereign  pretended  to  give  investiture  to 
'  a  newly-appointed  bishop,  "  per  annulum 
et  baculum,"  by  ring  and  crosier.  These 
symbols  were  held  to  indicate  spiritual  and 
ecclesiastical  power,  and  the  delivery  of 
them  to  be  tantamount  to  the  transmis- 
sion of  the  whole  episcopal  authority.  To 
I  stop  this  abuse,  Gregory  MI.  chiinied  the 
I  rights   of    canonical    election    by  the 
chapters,    and   free  consecration.  The 
decorum    with  which    the  unchecked 
control  of  the  State  over  the  Church  of 
England    or    the    Russian    Church  is 
I  exercised,  blinds    us  to  the   depth  of 
I  degradation  really  involved.    The  bishops 
are  wealthy — have  social  influence — the 
State  it<  undisturbed  ;  but  at  what  cost  ? 
At  the  cost  of  exclusion  from  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  loss  of  communion  with  the 
see  of  Peter.    Tlie  Gregories,  Celestines, 
and  Innocents  resisted  this  consumma- 
tion;   the    noblest    Christian    men  in 
Germany  and  England  aided  them  ;  and 
the  fatal  breach  was  postponed  for  four 
centuries.    St.  An.selm  fouuht  the  battle 
I  for   England,  and   in    110(5  Henry  I. 
,  resigned  the  claim  to  investiture  by  ring 
I  and  crosier,  while  stipulating  that,  on  being 
admitted  to  their  temporalities,  bishops 
and  abbots  should,  in  compliance  with 
the  rules  of  the  feudal  system,  swear 
fealty  and  do  homage  to  the  sovereign. 
A  similar  compromise  was  effected  foe 
the  Empire  by  the  Concordat  of  Worms, 
concluded  between  Henry  V.  and  Calix- 
tus  II.  in  1122.    It  was  in  the  form  of  a 
double  declaration ;  the  Pope  granting 
that  the  elect  bishop  or  abbot  should 
£  Jl 


498  INVITATORIUM 


IRISH  CHURCH 


r.'ceive  the  regalia  [Regalia]  from  the 
Emperor  by  the  sceptre,  excepting  what 
belonged  to  the  Roman  Church,  and 
should  discharge  the  duties  thereof  as  he 
was  legally  bound  to  do ;  the  Emperor 
renouncing  all  investiture  by  ring  and 
crosier,  and  granting  in  all  the  churches 
of  his  empire  canonical  elections  and 
free  consecrations.  In  fact,  Henry  V. 
had  come  to  see  that  in  battling  for  the 
objectionable  form  of  investitui-e  he  was 
almost  contending  for  a  shadow.  "Wlien 
lie  was  in  France,  in  1121,  he  had  con- 
versed with  French  bishops,  and  had 
learnt  tVoni  th.-m  that  investiture  by  ring 
and  Lr.i>irr  liail  never  been  the  custom 
in  Francr,  and  yet  the  bishops  had  been 
loval  to  tlie  French  kings,  and  the  legi- 
tiiimte  iiiflaeuce  of  the  latter  in  im- 
portant appointments  had  not  been  nul- 
lified. 

Thus  the  particular  contest  about 
investitures  was  settled;  but  of  course 
the  general  contention  as  to  the  respective 
sliares  whicli  tlie  Church  and  the  State 
should  have  in  the  appointment  of  bishops 
still  went  on.  In  France  the  Concordat 
of  151G  between  Leo  X.  and  Francis  I. 
gave  all  the  episcopal  appointments  to 
the  French  crown ;  whence  the  rise  of 
Galhcanism  [Gallicanism].  In  England, 
for  a  long  time  before  the  Reformation, 
an  understanding  prevailed  between 
Rome  and  the  English  kings,  and  they 
filled  up  the  vacant  sees  in  concert. 

ZJirvXTil.TOKXXri«.  {Inmtatory 
Psalm.)  The  invitatory  psalm,  i.e.  Ps.  94, 
"Come  let  us  rejoice  before  the  Lord," 
is  said  at  the  beginning  of  Matins  on  all 
davs  except  the  Epiphany  and  the  last 
three  dav-s  of  llolv  Week.  The  in  vita- 
tori  uin  iias  all  aiitiphou,  the  whole  of 
which  is  iv|ii'atcd  six  times,  and  the  half 
three  times,  in  tiie  recitation  of  the  psalm. 
The  recital  of  the  im  itatory  psalm  at  the 
beginning  of  the  divine  uliiee  is  prescribed 
in  the  rule  of  St.  Bi  nediet.  Amalarius 
(anno  822)  tells  us  that  in  his  time  the 
invitatory  was  used  by  the  Romans  in 
the  dominical  but  not  in  the  ferial  office, 
80  that  the  present  practice  on  the  three 
last  days  of  Holy  "\Yeek  is  a  relic  of  the 
ancient  use.  Ti.  ■  invitatory  psalm,  with 
its  antiphon,  is  omitted  on  the  Feast  of 
the  Epiphany  simply  because  Ps.  94 
occurs  in  the  third  noctum.  Mystical 
reasons,  e.g.  detestation  of  Herod's  calling 
together  the  scribes,  and  again  because 
the  Magi  came  to  adore  Christ  without 
invitation,  are  suggested  by  mediaeval 
writers. 


IRISH  CHURCH.  In  the  fifth  cen- 
tury Ireland  was  divided,  as  it  was  for 
centuries  afterwards,  into  several  small 
kuigdoms.  Some  unknown  preachers  musi 
have  found  their  way  into  the  countiy 
even  before  the  mission  of  PaUadius,  and 
converted  some  of  the  natives  to  the 
faith  of  Christ,  for  St.  Prosper  in  his 
chronicle  (pubhshed  about  434)  writes 
that  Palladius  was  sent  by  Pope  Celes- 
tine  in  431  "  ad  Scotos  in  Christum  cre- 
dentes,"  to  the  Scots  believing  in  Christ. 
No  one  now  doubts  that  by  Scots  Prosper 
meant  the  natives  of  Ireland.  This  mis- 
sion of  Palladius,  who  was  deacon  of  the 
Roman  Church,  did  not  last  long,  and 
bore  little  fruit.  So  much  we  learn  from 
the  Book  of  Armagh  (written  before  700), 
with  the  additional  fact  that  Palladius 
died  in  Britain  on  his  return  from  Ii-eland, 

The  general  conversion  of  the  Irish 
nation  was  reserved  for  St.  Patrick,  who 
was  probably  born  at  the  place  now  called 
Kilpatrick  on  the  Clyde,'  whence  he  was 
carried  as  a  slave  into  the  north  of  Ireland 
while  still  a  youth.  The  degradation  and 
darkness  of  the  inhabitants  profoundly 
impressed  his  pure  and  generous  heart, 
and  from  the  time  when  he  regained  his 
liberty,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  the  divine  service,  and 
the  task  of  spreading  the  doctrines  of  sal- 
vation. After  going  through  a  course  of 
study  at  Marmoutier  and  Lerins,  he 
repaired  to  Rome.  We  next  hear  of  him 
as  accompanying  St.  Germanus  and  St. 
Lupus  on  their  anti-Pelagian  mission  to 
Britain.  Being  selected  by  St.  Germanus 
to  preach  the  faith  in  Ireland,  he  went 
first — if  we  may  accept  the  testimony  of 
Probus- — to  Rome  to  obtain  the  apo- 
stolic blessing.  Celestiue  dying  soon  after, 
Patrick  left  Rome  and  journeyed  towards 
Ireland.  Hearing  on  his  way  of  the  death 
of  Palladius,  he  went  to  St.  Amatorex, 
who  ordained  him  bishop.  Landing  in 
Ireland  in  432,  he  attended  the  assembly 
of  the  Irish  kings  and  chieftains  held  on 
the  hill  of  Tara  in  that  year.  Hi.s  recep- 
tion was  not  very  encouraging ;  however, 
he  converted  several,  and  among  others 
the  father  of  St.  Benignus,  his  immediate 
successor  in  the  see  of  Armagh. 

St.  Patrick  fixed  his  principal  resi- 

1  Card.  Moran,  Archbishop  of  Sydney,  who 
forniorly  leant  to  the  opinion  that  the  place  was 
near  Bnnlojrne  in  Fr  im  r,  has  Intoly  written 
convincinfrly  in  favour  nf  the  Soettish  site. 

'  Probus  wrote  a  Life  nf  St.  Patrick  in 
the  tenth  century;  see  OCurry's  Materials 
Ancient  Irish  llislori/. 


IRTSn  CHURCH 


IRISH  CHURCH  400 


dence  at  Armagh,  which  became  the  pri- 
niatial  see  of  the  island.  In  the  course 
of  his  long  career,  extending  beyond  sixty 
years,  he  visited  and  converted  the  greater 
part  of  Ireland,  and  established  bishoprics 
in  all  the  provinces.  Among  his  chief 
companions  and  assistants  -were  Auxilius, 
Isseminiis,  and  Secundinus.  The  Irish 
people  received  the  Gospel  with  extra- 
ordinary readiness.  St.  Patrick  left  few 
writings  behind  him  ;  his  "  Confession,"  a 
kind  of  autobiography,  is  his  chief  work. 
We  have  also  his  circular  letter  against 
Coroticus,  and  the  canons  of  a  synod 
which  he  held  with  Auxilius  and  Isser- 
ninus,  about  453,  to  regulate  Church  dis- 
cipline. In  his  "  Confession  "  he  does  not 
mention  the  Pope  or  the  Holy  See,  and 
Reda,  in  his  "  Ecclesiastical  History,"  is 
silent  about  St.  Patrick's  mission.  Hence 
Protestant  writers  have  inferred  that  he 
had  no  mission  from  Rome,  and  preached 
a  Christianity  of  his  own,  distinct  from 
that  of  the  Popes ;  in  short,  that  he  was  a 
kind  of  Protestant.  This  hypothesis  has 
been  exploded  by  Dr.  Lanigan,  Bishop 
Moran,  and  others,  who  show  that  al- 
though St.  Patrick,  having  a  special  object 
in  view  when  he  wrote  the  "  Confession," 
says  nothing  in  it  about  Rome,  yet  the 
history  of  the  early  Irish  Church  is  unin- 
telligible unless  we  assume  a  close  and 
fihal  relation  to  the  Holy  See  to  have  j 
existed  from  the  first.  Within  a  century 
after  St.  Patrick,  St.  Columbanus,  the  ! 
great  Irish  missionary  of  the  sixth  cen-  I 
tury,  said  to  the  Pope,  "The  Catholic  ] 
faith  is  held  unshaken  by  us,  as  it  was 
delivered  to  us  by  you,  the  successors  of 
the  holy  Apostles." '  Another  theory  was 
put  forward  by  tlu>  learned  Usher,  the 
Protestant  Archbisliop  of  Armagh ;  it 
was  that  Ireland  did  not  owe  her  Chris- 
tianity to  Rome,  nor  even  to  St.  Patrick, 
since  she  already  possessed  a  hierarchy  at 
the  time  when  the  saint  arrived.  But 
when  the  names  of  the  bishops  supposed 
to  have  belonged  to  this  hierarchy — Ailbe, 
Declan,  Tbar,  Kieran,  &c. — came  to  be 
examined,  Dr.  Lanigan  was  able  to  prove 
that  thev  were  all  posterior  in  date  to 
St.  Patrick.* 

With  respect  to  Beda,  although  it  is 
true  that  he  does  not  mention  St.  Patrick 
in  his  "Ecclesiastical  History," the  circum- 
stance— singular  as  it  must  be  admitted 
to  be — may  perhaps  be  explained  on  the 
ground  that  he  chose  to  confine  himself 

>  Moran,  £ssaui  on  iiie  Early  Irish  Church, 
1864. 

'  Ibid.  p.  40. 


strictly  to  the  religious  concerns  of  the 
Angles  and  Saxons.  It  is  impossible  to 
infer  from  it  that  Beda  passed  over  the 
conversion  of  Ireland  in  silence,  because 
he,  a  zealous  adherent  of  Rome,  disap- 
proved of  a  work  effected  independently 
of  Rome.  Had  he  so  felt,  he  would  have 
studiously  avoided  speaking  of  St.  Pat- 
rick in  his  other  writings,  as  well  as  in 
his  history.  But  the  fact  is  that  in  both 
his  "  Martyrologies  "  Beda  does  give  the 
name  of  St.  Patrick.  In  the  prose  one, 
under  March  17,  he  says,  "In  Scotia,  the 
birthday  of  the  holy  Patricius,  bishop 
and  confessor,  who  first  in  that  country 
preached  the  gospel  of  Christ."  In  his 
metrical  martyrology,  under  the  same 
day,  he  says,  "  Patricius,  the  servant  of 
the  Lord,  mounted  to  the  heavenly  court." 

The  death  of  the  apostle  of  Ireland 
occurred  in  493.  The  present  sketch  of 
the  history  of  the  Church  in  Ireland  from 
that  time  to  our  own  day  will  be  divided 
into  three  periods:  1,  that  of  sanctity, 
learning,  and  missionary  energy-  (40;)- 
800)  ;  2,  that  of  invasions  and  usui-pation 
(800-1530) ;  3,  that  of  persecution  (15:^0- 
1829).  The  period  commencing  at  the 
last-named  date  will  be  regarded  by  our 
descendants,  if  present  appearances  may 
be  trusted,  as  an  era  of  restoration. 

I.  The  Irish  saints  are  divided  by  the 
national  hagiographers  into  three  classes. 
In  the  first,  which  consists  of  those  of  the 
earliest  Christian  age  down  to  about  530, 
the  principal  figures  are  those  of  St.  Pat- 
rick himself,  St.  Brigid  of  Kildare,  St. 
Ibar,  St.  Declan,  and  St.  Kieran.  The 
second  class,  from  530  to  600,  contains 
St.  Coemgen  or  Kevin,  the  two  Brendans, 
Jarlath  of  Tuam,  and  the  great  St.  Co- 
lumba  or  Columbkill.  The  third  cla^^s, 
whose  period  is  from  600  to  about  660, 
contains  St.  Maidoc,  the  first  Bishop  of 
Ferns  ;  St.  Colman  of  Lindisfame,  Ultan, 
Fursey,  See.  The  first  class,  in  the  words 
of  the  ancient  authority  quoted  by  Dr. 
Lanigan,*  "  blazes  like  the  sun,  the  second 
like  the  moon,  the  third  like  the  stars 
.  .  .  the  first  most  holy,  the  second  very 
holy,  the  third  holy." 

That  learning,  in  all  the  branches  then 
known,  was  eagerly  followed  by  Irish 
students  from  the  time  of  the  conversion, 
is  a  fact  of  which  there  is  abundant  evi- 
dence. A  copious  literature  sprang  up, 
consisting  of  monastic  rules,  tracts  on 
ritual  and  discipline,  homilies,  prayers, 
hymns,  genealogies,  martyrologies  in  prose 
and  verse,  and  lives  of  saints.  This 
>  History  of  the  Church  of  Ireland,  ii.  330. 

£  K  2 


500         IRISH  CHURCH 


IRISH  CHURCH 


lileratiire,  as  was  to  be  expected,was  partly 
composed  in  the  vernacular  and  partly 
in  Latin ;  but  the  bulk  of  it  was  in  the 
GaeUc.  The  extant  remains  are  still  con- 
siderable ;  that  they  are  not  yet  more 
copious  is  explained  by  Professor  O'Curry 
in  a  remarkable  passage,  which  will  be 
cited  in  a  difl'erent  connection  further  on. 

The  English  Beda  bears  ungrudging 
testimony  to  the  high  character  of  the 
Irish  missionaries  who  had  laboured  in 
Korthumbria,  and  to  the  general  belief  in 
the  excellence  of  the  Irish  schools.  "  The 
whole  solicitude  of  those  teachers,"  he 
says,  "  was  to  serve  God,  not  the  world  ; 
their  one  thought  was  how  to  train  the 
heart,  not  how  to  satisfy  the  appetite." ' 
The  spt'cial  excellence  of  the  Irish  schools 
w.is  the  interpretation  of  Scripture  ;  thus, 
about  650,  Agilbert,  a  French  bishop, 
resided  a  long  time  in  Ireland  "  for  the 
sake  of  reading  the  Scriptures."^  Some 
years  later  (OlU)  it  became  a  common 
practice  with  the  Northumbrian  thanes 
to  visit  Ireland,  either  with  a  view  to 
greater  advance  in  the  spiritual  life,  or 
for  the  sake  of  biblicalknowledge,  "  divinae 
lectionis."  These  last  would  go  from 
place  to  place,  attending  the  cells  of  the 
diflereut  masters ;  and  so  generous  were 
the  natives,  that  they  provided  for  them 
all  "  their  daily  food  free  of  cost,  books 
also  to  read,  and  gratuitous  teaching."  ' 

The  missionary  energy  of  the  Irish 
Church,  commencing  with  a  little  island 
off  the  coast  of  Mull,  wliicli  it  made  a 
basis  for  further  operations,  ended  by 
embracing  France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy 
within  the  scope  of  its  charity.  St.  Co- 
lumba,  of  whom  Montalembert  in  his 
"  Monks  of  the  West "  has  given  to  the 
world  a  graphic  portraiture,  founded  the 
monastery  of  Ily  or  lona  in  56-3,  chiefly 
with  a  view  to  the  conversion  of  the  Picts 
dwelling  in  the  north  of  Scotland.  For 
more  than  'I'-M)  years  lona  continued  to 
flourish,  and  was  a  centre  of  pure  religion, 
education,  art,  and  literature  to  all  the 
6un-ounding  countries.  Here,  as  in  a 
"sacred  storeliouse,"  '  rest  the  bones  of 
not  a  few  Irish,  Scottisli,  and  Nor-\\i'gian 
kiiigs.  It  wasdeva-tiil.il  liy  llip  Italics  in 
7')o,  and  the  monks  wcjv  (lispr)-,-,(Ml  a  few 
years  later.  From  lona  tin- monk  Aidan, 
at  the  invitation  of  kingOswald,  came  into 
Northumbria,  the  Angles  of  which  were 
etiU  mostly  Pagans,  and  founded  in  633 

»  Hist.  Eccl.  iii.  26. 
»  Ibid.  iii.  7 
«  Ibid.  iii.  27. 

«  Shaksp.  Macbeth,  Act.  II.  sc.  4. 


a  monastery  on  the  isle  of  Lindisfarue,  of 
which  he  became  the  first  bishop.  To 
him  and  his  successors  the  conversion  of 
the  northern  Enghsh  was  chiefly  due. 
Lindisfarne  in  its  turn  became  a  gTcat 
school  of  sacred  learning  and  art,  and  its 
bishopric  ultimately  grew  into  the  palatine 
see  of  Durham.  In  East  Anglia  the  Iri.sh 
St.  Fursey  assisted  Felix  the  Burgundian 
in  the  conversion  of  the  natives ;  in  Wessex 
the  Iri.sh  jMaidulf  founded  the  great  con- 
vent of  Malmesbury.  In  the  sixth  and 
seventh  centuries  Irish  missionaries  were 
active  in  France:  Fridohn  restored  re- 
ligion at  Poictiers,  and  recovered  the 
relics  of  St.  Hilary  ;  St.  Fursey  founded 
a  monastery  at  Lagny  ;  St.  Fiacre  settled 
at  Paris ;  and  Columbanus  foimded  in 
Burgundy  the  historic  monastery  of 
Luxeuil.  In  Switzerland  the  name  of  the 
town  and  canton  of  St.  Gall  perpetuates 
the  memory  of  an  Irish  anchorite,  -w  lio  in 
613  planted  a  cross  near  a  spring  in  the 
heart  of  a  dense  forest,  soutli  of  the  lake 
of  Constance,  and  by  di\spising  tlie  world 
drew  the  world  to  him.  Bobbio,  in  Italy, 
was  the  last  foundation  and  resting-place 
of  St.  Columbanus.  In  Germany,  the 
Irish  Fridolin,  the  hero  of  many  a  tender 
Volhslic'd  and  wild  legend,  was  probably 
the  first  apostle  of  the  Alemanni  in  Baden 
and  Suabia.' 

The  well-known  controversy  respect- 
ing the  right  observation  of  Easter,  which 
raged  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries 
between  those  who  had  received  a  Rdnnn 
and  an  Irish  training  res})ectivelY,  turned 
on  tlie  fact  that  the  Irisli  Churcli",  from  its 
isolation  in  the  far  west,  and  the  diffi- 
culties of  communication  with  the  centre 
of  unity,  had  fallen  somewhat  behindliand 
in  ecclesiastical  science,  and  not  adopted 
the  improvedmethodsof  calculation  which 
had  come  into  force  in  Latin  Christendom 
generally.-  After  there  had  been  time  for 
a  full  discussion  and  comparison  of  views, 
the  Irish  gradually  came  round  to  the 
better  practice.  At  a  synod  held  at  Old 
Leighlin,  in  630,  a  letter  having  come 

1  Art.  "  Fridolin,"  by  Hefele,  in  VVetzer 
and  Welte. 

2  The  erroneous  practice  was  not  that  of 
tho  Quartodpcimnns  [Eastkk  Cycle],  f.-r  the 
Irish  alway.s  waited  ter  Sunday  befiire  eele- 
br.itiiin  the  feast;  it  cen.si.si.ed  in  kee|>iiifi 
Ea.ster  from  the  foiiit.viiih  to  the  twentieth 
(i:'V  of  tlie  llist  niOTitli,  instead  of  from  the 
liflVeiith  f<.  the  twent\ -tiisl  ;  the  C(inM'i|iieiice 
beiii-  th;it  Miiel.'e.  I-;!  on  tlie  loiiii.enth, 
E;isler  lie-.in  to  l.e  ke|,l  ..n  llie  ,  veoiii-  of  the 
tliirtei  ntli  ilitv,  tliat  is  inj'orc  the  uccuirciice  of 
the  Pa.sohal  full  n.oou. 


TPJSIl  CHURCH 


IRISH  CHURCH  501 


from  Honorius  I.,  the  Roman  cycle  and 
niles  for  computing  Easter  were  adopted 
in  all  the  south  of  Ireland.'  At  lona  and 
in  the  north  of  Ireland  the  necessary 
change  was  deferred  fi>r  many  years. 
Adamnan,  Abbot  of  Ily,  laboured  hard 
between  701  and  704  to  introduce  the 
Roman  Easter,  and  met  with  considerable 
success.  But  the  decisive  adoption  of  it 
at  Hy  is  said  to  have  been  due  to  the  per- 
suasions of  St.  Egbert,  about  716.- 

n.  Period  of  luvasions. — The  Danes 
{called  "  Ostmeii "  by  the  Irish)  appeared 
on  the  Irish  coasts  about  the  end  of  the 
eighth  centiu-y.  AVherever  they  came 
they  desecrated  churches,  burnt  monas- 
teries, destroyed  books,  pictures  and  sculp- 
tures; murdered  priests,  monks  and  poets. 
To  the  ferocity  of  the  wild  beast  they 
joined  the  persevering  energy  of  the 
Teuton;  their  arms  were  better  than  those 
of  the  Irish,  and  perhaps  they  had  more 
bMII  in  handling  them.  Confusion  and 
lamentation  were  soon  in  every  part  of 
the  island.  Men,  after  a  while,  seeing  the 
continued  success  of  these  odious  Pagans, 
began  to  doubt  of  Providence,  and  to 
grow  slack  in  faith.  Saiu-e  qui  peut  be- 
came the  general  feeling,  and  the  gene- 
rosity towards  the  Church  of  the  converts 
of  the  age  of  St.  Patrick  underwent  a 
selfish  but  not  unnatural  reaction  in  their 
descendants.  "  ^^'hen  foreign  invasion 
and  war  had  cooled  down  the  fervid  de- 
votion of  the  native  chiefs,  and  had  dis- 
tracted and  broken  up  the  long-established 
reciprocity  of  good  offices  between  the 
Church  and  the  State,  as  weU  as  the 
central  executive  controlling  power  of  the 
nation,  the  chief  and  the  noble  began  to 
feel  that  the  lands  which  he  himself  or 
his  ancestors  had  ofl'ered  to  the  Church, 
might  now,  with  little  impropriety,  be 
taken  back  by  him,  to  be  aj)plied  to  his 
own  purposes,  quieting  his  conscience  by 
the  necessity  of  the  case."  ^  The  beautiful 
Glendalough,  founded  by  St.  Kevin  about 
549,  being  near  the  sea,  was  peculiarly  ex- 
posed to  Danish  assault ;  but  not  one  of 
the  principal  monasteries — Armagh,  Kil- 
dare,  Clonmacnoise,  Slane,  &c. — escaped 
destruction  at  one  time  or  other.  Dublin — 
of  which  the  Irish  name  is"Ath-cliath" — 
became  a  Danish  city.  From  time  to  time 
the  invaders  were  heavily  defeated — as  in 
the  battle  of  Clontarf  (1014),  when  the 
victorious  Brian  Boru  feU  in  the  hour 
of    victory.     Gradually   they  adopted 

'  Lanigan,  ii.  389. 

»  Bed.  Hist.  Eccl.  V.  22. 

»  O'Curry,  Materials,  &c.  p.  343. 


Christianity,  lost  their  national  language, 
and  were  blended  with  the  natives,  never 
having,  as  in  England,  succeeded  in  sub- 
jecting the  whole  inland  to  their  rule. 

In  the  course  of  the  twelfth  century, 
the  power  of  the  O'Neils  of  Ulster,  who 
had  for  a  long  period  been  over-lords  of 
the  whole  of  Ireland,  declined,  and  the 
O'Connors  of  Connaught  attempted  to 
take  their  place.  But  it  was  a  weak  and 
wavering  sovereignty,  and  the  kings  oi 
the  five  petty  kingdoms  were  continually 
plotting,  combining,  and  making  war  one 
against  another.  A  state  of  general  in- 
security and  lawlessness  was  the  natural 
result ;  and  though  the  ftiith  of  the  people 
remained  intact,  moral  disorder  in  every 
form  was  rampant,  and  the  discipline  of 
the  Church  was  often  set  at  nought.  The 
clergy,  probably  for  the  sake  of  greater 
stability  and  safety,  tended  to  clustei- 
together  under  some  monastic  rule  :  and 
the  laity,  abandoned  to  themselves,  fell 
a  prey  to  gross  superstitions  and  excesses. 
The  Popes,  by  sending  legates,  and  writing 
admonitory  letters  from  time  to  time, 
attempted  to  reform  the  state  of  society. 
In  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century  a 
powerful  influence  for  good  was  exerted 
by  the  admirable  sanctity  of  St.  Malachy, 
who  died  at  Clairvaux  under  the  eves  of 
St.  Bernard,  in  114S,  and  who-e  life  was 
written  by  his  great  I'liend.  The  >tate  of 
things  at  Armagh,  \\hen  Malaehy  was 
elected  to  the  primacy  in  llio,  is  a  good 
illustration  of  the  disorderwhich  pervaded 
the  Iri.sh  Church.  A  certain  powerful 
family  had  for  more  than  two  hundred 
years  claimed  the  primatial  chair  as  a 
hereditary  possession  ;  for  fifteen  genera- 
tions they  had  made  good  their  claim  ; 
and  of  these  fifteen  occupants  of  the  see 
only  six  were  in  holy  orders,  the  rest 
being  married  laymen,  who,  though  they 
did  not  presume  to  exercise  the  episcopal 
functions,  enjoyed  the  title  and  emolu- 
ments of  the  bishopric*  Celsus,  the  last 
of  the  series,  being  a  good  man,  procured 
the  election  of  St.  Malachy  as  his  succes- 
sor ;  but  the  family  resented  this  intrusion 
on  their  "  rights  '  and  presented  to  the 
see  one  of  themselves,  Maurice  by  name, 
upon  the  death  of  Celsus.  For  the  sake 
of  peace,  St.  Malachy  waited  five  years 
before  entering  Armagh ;  on  the  death  of 
Maurice,  in  1133,  he  was  peaceably  in- 
stalled. In  1138  the  saint  visited  Rome, 
where  the  Pope,  Innocent  II.,  received 
him  with  the  highest  honour,  and  ap- 
pointed him  his  legate  in  Ireland.  His 
I  Lingard,  Hist,  of  Eng.  ii.  89. 


502         TETRH  OHrTRCH 


TEISH  CHURCH 


zeal,  but  still  more  his  saintly  example, 
eft'ected  a  salutary  change  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Ireland,  where,  having  obtained 
leave  to  resign  the  primacy,  he  spent  the 
last  ten  years  of  his  life  as  bishop  of  the 
small  see  of  Down. 

At  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  Henry  II. 
is  said  to  have  obtained  the  approbation 
of  Pope  Adrian  IV.,  an  Enghshman,  for 
his  project  of  entering  Ireland,  ostensibly 
with  a  view  to  extirpating  vice  and  igno- 
rance among  the  natives,  and  attaching 
the  island  more  closely  to  the  see  of 
St.  Peter.  Of  this  bull  Henry  made  no 
use  for  many  years,  and  the  actual  inva- 
sion of  Ireland  by  Strongbow  and  other 
Norman  knights  was  in  a  manner  acci- 
dental. For  several  generations  things 
went  on  much  as  before  ;  the  English 
power  was  confined  to  the  "  Pale,"  or 
strip  of  country  on  the  eastern  coast ;  in 
the  rest  of  Ireland  the  native  princes, 
though  they  often  recognised  an  ill-defined 
over-lordship  in  the  English  kings,  reigned 
practically  after  their  own  fashion.  Out- 
side the  I'ale,  Brehon,  not  feudal  law 
prevailed.  One  benefit,  at  least,  resulted : 
the  Normans  were  great  builders ;  and 
noble  churches  of  stone  soon  covered  the 
land.  It  is  true  that  in  this  reform  they 
were  preceded  by  St.  Malachy,  who  had 
built  a  church  of  stone  at  Bangor,  near 
Carrickfergus,  to  the  great  amazement  of 
the  natives,  who  had,  till  then,  seen  only 
their  own  ingeniously  constructed  edifices 
of  timber  and  wiclterwork. 

Three  great  Irish  synods  were  held  in 
the  twelfth  century.  At  the  first,  that  of 
Kells  (1152),  at  which  a  Roman  cardinal 
presided,  the  metropolitan  dignity  of  the 
three  sees  of  Cashel,'  Dublin,  and  Tuam 
was  solemnly  recognised ;  but  the  primacy 
over  the  whole  island  was  still  reserved 
to  Armii  gh .  At  the  second,  that  of  Ca  shel 
(117:^),  held  immediately  after  the  inva- 
sion. Church  property  was  declared  to  be 
exempt  from  the  exactions  of  the  chief- 
tains, the  regular  payment  of  tithes  was 
enjoined,  and  it  was  ordered  that  all 
matters  of  ritual  should  be  arranged  in 
future  "agreeably  to  the  observance  of 
the  Church  of  England  " — in  other  words, 
according  to  Roman  usage.  The  third 
synod,  that  of  Dublin  (118G),  passed 
several  canons  of  ritual;  it  is  chiefly 

1  Cashel  was  already  regarded  as  a  metro- 
politan see  as  early  as  1111,  and  its  bishops 
exerted  corresponding  powers  to  some  extent ; 
in  114U  it  was  formally  recognised  as  such  by 
Innocent  II.  at  the  request  of  St.  Malachy 
(Lanigan,  iv.  20). 


noted  for  a  sermon,  preached  before  it  by- 
Gerald  de  Barri,  or  Cambrensis,  in  which, 
while  praising  the  orthodoxy  and  the 
continency  of  the  Irish  clergy,  he  lamented 
that  too  many  of  them  were  addicted  to- 
intemperance. 

Many  of  the  English  and  Normans 
who  settled  in  Ireland  after  the  invasion 
adopted  by  degrees  the  dress,  customs, 
and  laws  of  the  natives,  and  became  no- 
less  intractable  than  they  in  their  attitude 
towards  the  Enghsh  government.  An 
eftbrt  was  made  to  stop  this  process  bv 
the  Statute  of  Kilkenny  (1367),  which 
made  it  treasonable  for  those  of  Enghsh 
descent  to  marry,  or  enter  into  the  rela- 
tion of  fosterage,  or  contract  spiritual 
affinity  with  the  natives;  and  forbade  to 

I  the  same  class,  on  pain  of  forfeiture  of 
property,  the  adoption  of  an  Irish  name, 
or  the  use  of  the  Irish  language,  dress, 
or  customs.  But  this  statute  was  to  a 
great  extent  inoperative,  and  from  the 

I  date  of  its  enactment  to  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII.  there  were  two  parties  in 
continual  opposition  to  the  government, 
the  "  English  rebels,"  and  the  "  Irish 
enemies."  The  demarcation  between 
English  and  Irish  which  the  civil  govern- 
ment thus  did  its  utmost  to  maintain, 
was  partially  introduced,  and  with  the 
most  unhappy  results,  into  the  adminis- 
tration of  Church  affairs.  In  the  counties 
of  the  Pale  it  was  scarcely  possible  for 
an  ecclesiastic  of  Irish  race  to  otitain 
preferment.  The  invasion  by  the  Scots 
under  Edward  Bruce  in  1315,  though 
ultimately  defeated,  caused  great  confu- 
sion, and  called  forth  during  its  continu- 
ance many  tokens  of  sympathy  from  the 
Irish  clergy.  This,  says  Mr.  Malone, 
was  made  a  pretext  for  "  throwing  off 
the  mask," '  and  under  colour  of  disloyalty 
Irishmen  were  excluded  from  all  the 
higher  dignities  and  benefices.  Yet  it 
would  appear  that  this  exclusion  could 
not  have  extended  much  beyond  the  Pale ; 
for  if  we  examine  the  lists  of  bishops  oc- 
cupying the  Irish  sees  in  1350,  we  find 
that  out  of  thirty-three  names,  eighteen 
are  certainly  Irish,  thirteen  English,  while 
two  may  be  doubtful.  All  through  this 
time  of  confusion  and  disunion  a  strong 
religious  feeling  was  abroad,  animating 
the  men  of  both  races  alike,  and  directing 
them  to  common  objects.  In  the  thir- 
teenth century  we  hear  of  170  monasteries 
being  founded ;  about  55  in  the  four- 
teenth; and  about  60  in  the  fifteenth. 

>  Church  History  of  Ireland,  ch.  ix. 


IRISH  CHURCH 


IRISH  CHURCH 


Two  unsaccessfiil  attempts  were  made  to 
found  universities:  one  at  Dublin  (IJISO) 
bv  Archbishop  Bicknor;  the  other  at 
Progheda,  by  the  Parliament  which  sat 
there  in  14(i5. 

HI.  Period  of  Persecution. — By  the 
aid  of  Brown,  the  Archbishop  of  Dublin, 
an  Englishman,  who  had  embraced  the 
Lutheran  opinions,  Henry  VIII.  had 
some  success  in  imposing  his  doctrine  of 
the  royal  supremacy  on  the  Irish  clergy. 
Under  Mary  all  progress  in  this  direction 
was  reversed.  Soon  after  the  accession 
of  Elizabeth,  in  15H0,  a  packed  Parlia- 
ment was  convened  at  Dublin  which 
passed  an  Act  of  Uniformity,  declaring 
■'.he  royal  supremacy  over  the  Church, 
and  imposing  the  Protestant  Prayer- 
book.  By  many  Protestant  writers  '  it 
has  been  maintained  that  the  bishops, 
with  the  exception  of  two,  either  approved 
of,  or  acquiesced  in  tlie  new  order  of 
things,  and  that  the  people  for  many 
years  frequented  the  churches  where  the 
English  service  was  performed.  The 
falsehood  of  all  such  statements  has 
been  exposed  bv  the  Bishop  of  Ossory 
[now  Cardinal' Moran  (18U2)].^  The 
real  state  of  the  case  appears  to  have 
been  this.  The  Archbishop  of  Dublin, 
Curwin,  conformed  to  Protestantism,  and 
O'Fihel,  Bishop  of  Leighlin,  did  the  same. 
The  conduct  of  four  bishops  (Ossory, 
Ferns,  Cork,  and  Clonfert)  is  more  or 
less  suspicious.  The  remainder  of  the 
Irish  hierarchy,  viz.  the  Archbishops  of 
Cashel  and  Tuam  (the  see  of  Armagh 
was  vacant),  two  bishops  holding  sees 
in  the  Pale  (who  were  deprived  by  the 
government),  and  sixteen  other  bishops 
of  suffragan  sees,  remained  faithful  to 
their  canonical  obligations.  As  these 
bishops  died,  or  as,  in  the  course  of  the 
Elizabethan  wars,  the  government  was 
able  to  consolidate  its  power  in  the  re- 
moter parts  of  Ireland,  the  cathedrals, 
Church  lands,  and  other  Church  property 
were  made  over  to  Protestant  bishops 
and  ministers  appointed  under  the  Act 
of  Uniformity.  The  Catholic  Bishop  of 
Kilmore,  Richard  Brady,  was  expelled 
from  the  see  so  late  as  1585.  The  Holy 
See  did  all  that  it  could  to  support  the 
oppressed  Church  of  Ireland,  and  animate 
the  clergy  to  meet  their  sufferings  with 
an  unbending  fortitude.  A  nuncio  was 
sent  to  reside  at  Limerick,  money  and 

'  lUshop  Mant,  Dean  Murray,  &(;. 
Episcopal  Succession  in  Ireland.    See  also 
an  article  in  the  Contemporary  Review,  for  May 
1880,  on  "  Dr.  LittleU  ile,  '  &c. 


arms  were  liberally  provided,  the  intcr- 
vinitioii  of  Spain  solicited,  and  Irisli 
rccloi.isi  ICS  visiting  Rome  welcomed  and 
;is>i>ii  !l.  Except  in  the  case  of  Dublin, 
the  .^ent  of  the  Anglo-Irish  government, 
where  the  see  was  left  vacant  for  many 
years  from  the  absolute  impossibility  of 
any  prelate  residing  there  in  safety,  the 
successions  of  bishops  in  all  the  Irish 
sees  appear  to  have  been  regularly  main- 
tained through  all  the  period  of  persecu- 
tion. 

The  cause  of  learning,  to  which  the 
Irisli  Church  had  been  ever  devoted, 
could  not  but  suffer  in  this  prolonged 
conflict.  Before  the  change  of  religion  in 
England  there  had  been  some  encouraging 
signs  of  progress  in  the  reconciliation  of 
the  races  through  the  influence  of  a  com- 
mon interest  in  intellectual  pursuits. 
Among  the  distinguished  Oxford  students 
of  the  first  thirty  years  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  a  considerable  proportion  were 
Irislinien,'  and  it  is  impossible  to  doubt 
that  had  peace  and  religious  unity  been 
preserved,  this  resort  to  the  English  uni- 
versities would  have  gone  on  increasing 
until  it  bore  its  natural  fruit  in  the 
establishment  of  a  great  university  on 
IrisJi  soil.  The  change  of  religion  in 
England  cut  off  the  supply  of  Irish 
students;  Catholicism  became  a  perse- 
cuted creed;  and  the  effect  on  learning 
■ — its  professors,  seats,  implements,  and 
productions — may  be  imderstood  from 
the  following  vigorous  passage.  "  From 
about  the  year  1530,  in  the  reign  of  the 
English  king  Henry  VIII.,  to  the  year 
ll'-M,  the  priests  of  Ireland  were  ever 
subject  to  persecution,  suppression,  dis- 
persion, and  expatriation,  according  to 
the  English  law  ;  their  churches,  monas- 
teries, convents,  and  private  habitations 
were  pillaged  and  wrested  from  them  ; 
and  a  Vandal  warfare  was  kept  up  against 
all  that  was  venerable  and  sacred  of  the 
remains  of  ancient  literature  and  art 
which  they  possessed.  When,  therefore, 
we  make  search  for  the  once  extensive 
monuments  of  learning  which  the  ecclesi- 
astical libraries  contained  of  old,  we 
must  i-emember  that  this  shocking  system 
continued  for  near  -300  years;  and  that 
during  all  that  long  period  the  clergy — 
the  natural  repositories  of  all  the  docu- 
ments which  belonged  to  the  history  of 
the  Church — were  kept  in  a  continual 
state  of  insecurity  and  transition,  often 
compelled  to  resort  to  the  continent  for 

1  See  the  list  in  Wood's  Athense  Oxon. 
Wood  does  not  go  farther  back  thau  1.500. 


604         IRISH  CHUECH 


lEISII  CHURCH 


education,  often  forced  to  quit  tlieir  homes 
and  churches  at  a  moment's  notice,  and 
&y  for  their  lives,  in  the  first  instance  to 
the  thorny  depths  of  the  nearest  forest  or 
the  damp  shelter  of  some  dreary  cavern, 
until  such  time,  if  ever  it  should  come, 
as  they  could  steal  away  to  the  hospitable 
shores  of  some  Christian  land  on  the 
continent  of  Europe." ' 

Under  James  I.  and  Charles  I.,  the 
Catholic  clergy  having  been  now  stripped 
of  all  their  property,  and  the  laity  of  a 
considerable  portion  of  theirs,  some  tole- 
ration was  extended  by  the  government 
to  Catholic  worship.  The  terrible  rising 
of  1641  was  the  commencement  of  a  war 
of  eleven  years,  ending  with  the  surrender 
of  Galway  in  1652.  Innocent  X.  sent 
the  Archbishop  of  Fermo  (Rinuccini)  as 
his  nuncio  to  Ireland  in  the  autumn  of 
1645,  with  considerable  supplies  of  arms 
and  money.  Unfortunately  dissension 
arose  in  the  national  ranks ;  a  moderate 
section  of  the  clergy,  with  most  of  the 
Catholic  gentry  and  laity,  were  for  aiding 
the  King  against  the  Parliament,  and 
not  exacting  from  him  very  stringent 
conditions  ;  but  the  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion, supported  hy  the  nuncio  and  the 
inferior  clergy,  were  for  turning  the  war 
into  a  struggle  for  complete  religious 
fi-eedom  and  national  independence. 
Cromwell  transported  his  victorious  army 
to  Ireland  in  1649,  and  by  several  suc- 
cessful sieges,  followed  by  bloody  military 
executions,  broke  the  strength  of  the 
resistance.  The  conquest  of  the  island 
was  completed  by  his  lieutenants.  Tlie 
suilerings  of  the  Irish  clergy  during,  and 
still  more  after,  tlie  war  were  indescrib- 
able. Bishop  O'Brien  of  Emly  was  exe- 
cuted by  Ireton's  order  (16.51)  after  the 
fall  of  Limerick.  Bishop  Egan  of  Ross 
was  murdered  by  Ludlow's  soldiers  in 
1650.  In  the  same  year  Bishop  McMahon 
of  Clogber,  being  in  command  of  a  body 
of  Irish  troo])s,  I'l'll  into  the  hands  of  the 
Puritans,  and,  tliough  quarter  had  been 
promised,  was  hanged.  A  letter  of  Dr. 
Burgatt,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Cashel, 
written  in  1667,  says  tbat  in  the  perse- 
cution begun  by  Cromwell  "  more  than 
300  [clergy]  w  ere  put  to  death  by  the 
sword  or  on  the  scaffold  .  .  .  ;  more 
than  inOO  were  sent  into  exile,  and 
among  these  all  the  sur\  iving  bishops," 
except  the  Binhop  of  Kilmore,  who  was 
too  old  to  move.''    The  Puritan  soldiers 

1  O'Curry's  Materials,  S^c.  p.  365. 

2  Monin,  Hist.  Sketch  of  the  Persecutions 
Milder  Cromwell  (18G2),  p.  82. 


put  every  priest  to  death  whom  they  fell 
in  with ;  and  yet  so  close  a  tie  of  affec- 
tion bound  the  clergy  to  their  native  land 
and  their  people,  that  even  in  1658, 
about  the  worst  time  of  all,  there  were 
upwards  of  150  priests  in  each  province.' 
The  regular  clergy  were  no  better  oti'; 
the  Acts  of  the  General  Chapter  of  the 
Dominican  Order  held  at  Rome  in  1656 
mention  that  out  of  600  friars  who  were 
in  the  island  in  1646  not  a  fourth  part 
were  left,  and  of  forty-three  convents  of 
the  order,  not  one  remained  stauding.'- 
All  these  horrors  the  Puritans  j)retended 
to  justify,  as  done  in  retaliation  for  the 
massacre  of  Protestants  in  1641.  Tbat 
a  great  number  of  persons  were  cruelly 
put  to  death  at  the  time  of  that  rising  is 
undeniable ;  but,  as  Lingard  points  out,* 
the  main  object  pursued  was  not  the 
murder  of  Protestants,  but  the  recovery 
of  the  confiscated  lands.  He  signifi- 
cantly adds,  "That  they  [the  Irish] 
suliered  as  much  as  they  inflicted  cannot 
be  doubted.'' 

The  exiles,  both  priests  and  laity, 
were  cast  on  the  French  coast  in  a  state 
of  such  utter  destitution  that,  but  for 
prompt  and  ample  relief,  many  must 
have  perished.  Happily,  a  saint  was  at 
hand  to  help  them.  St.  Vincent  of  Paul, 
tilled  with  compassion  for  these  victims 
of  war  and  fanaticism,  collected  money 
and  clothing  for  them,  and  provided 
them  all  with  homes  and  shelter ;  he 
even  sent  considerable  supplies  to  Ire- 
land.'' The  Bishop  of  Ossory  also  gives 
detailed  proof  of  the  imwearied  solici- 
tude of  the  Holy  See,  for  many  years 
after  the  Cromwellian  invasion,  in  pro- 
curing succours  of  every  kind  for 
the  Irish  Catholics,  and  itself  aiding 
them  with  money  to  the  utmost  of  its 
power.* 

The  Act  of  Settlement  (1660)  lega- 
lised a  great  part  of  the  Cromwellian 
spoliations;  but  the  Catholic  worship 
was  tolerated  all  through  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.     At  the  Revolution,  the 

1  Moran,  Hist.  S/ietch  of  the  Persecutions 
under  Cromwell  (1862),  p.  98. 
^  Moran,  op.  cit.  p.  74. 

*  Hist,  of  Engl.  vii.  npp.  note  nnu. 

*  Moran,  op.  cit.  )>.  ri2. 

5  About  1688,  72,(1011  francs  a  3'ear  were 
supplied  by  Koine  for  the  support  of  the  Irish 
secuhir  clergy  and  laity.  In  1699  the  Pope 
sent  to  .Tames  II.,  at'  St.  Germain's,  58,000 
francs  for  the  Irish  ecclesia>tics  exiled  that 
year.  From  .ihout  1760  to  1800  the  Popes 
sent  the  Irish  bishops  a  hundred  Roman  crowns 
a  year  in  aid  of  Catholic  poor  schools. 


IRISH  CHURCH 


IRISH  COLLEGE  605 


Irisb  espoused  the  cause  of  their  king, 
■who,  whatever  quarrel  the  English  might 
have  with  him,  had  done  Ireland  no 
■wrong.  Neither  the  letter  nor  the  spirit 
of  the  constitution  enjoined  that  the 
Irish  Pari  lament  and  people  should  change 
their  king  whenever  it  might  suit  the 
English  people  to  change  theirs.  But, 
in  the  absence  of  effectual  aid  from 
abroad,  the  superior  resources  of  the 
stronger  nation  crushed  the  resistance  of 
the  weaker  ;  and  a  period  commenced  for 
the  Irish  Church  and  people  sadder  than 
any  that  had  preceded  it.  The  -writings 
of  Burke,  and — among  recent  publica- 
tions— Mr.  Lecky's  "  History  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,"  paint  in  detail  the 
picture  of  Ireland  ruined  and  outraged 
by  the  penal  laws.  ^Tiatever  iniquitous 
law  and  crafty  administration  could  de- 
vise to  destroy  the  faith  of  the  people 
was  tried  during  the  gloomy  century 
which  began  at  the  Revolution,  but  all 
to  no  effect.  The  ill-success  of  the 
American  war  compelled  the  English 
government  to  propose  the  first  relaxation 
of  the  penal  laws  in  1778.  From  that 
time  the  Irish  Church  has  been  step  by 
step  regaining  portions  and  fragments  of 
the  rights  of  which  she  was  deprived  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  Protestant 
Church  was  disestablished  in  1869.  The 
last  thirty  years  have  seen  the  island 
covered  with  beautiful  religious  edifices 
— cathedrals,  parish  th  arches,  convents, 
colleges,  &c.  Of  such  a  people  it  may 
be  justly  said,  "  In  much  experience  of 
tribulation  they  have  had  abimdance  of 
joy,  and  their  very  deep  poverty  hath 
abounded  unto  the  riches  of  their  simpli- 
city." * 

The  foUo-wing  is  a  list  of  the  Irish 
sees,  of  which  four  are  metropolitan  and 
twenty-four  suffragan : — 

Province  of  Armagh. 

Armagh  M.ath 
Derry  Cloirher 
Dromore  Raphoe 
Down  and  Connor  Ardsijh 
Kilmore 

Province  <\f  Dublin, 
Dublin  Ossoty 
Kildare  and  Leighlin  Ferns 

Province,  of  CasheL 
Cashel  and  Emly        Waterford  and  Lismore 
Cork  Clovne 
KiUaloe  Ro^s 
Limerick  Kerry 


»  2  Cor.  viii.  2. 


Province  of  Tuam. 
Tunm  Elphin 
Achonrv  Galw.ay 
Kilmacdungh  and  Kil-  Clonfert 
fenora  Killala 
Mitred  Abbot :  The  Most  Rev.  the  Abbot  of 
Mount  Melleray,  Cappoquin. 

(Lanigan,  "  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
Ireland,"  1829;  Plowden,  "Historical 
Review  of  the  Sta-fe  of  Ireland."  1803; 
Malone,  "  Church  History  of  Ireland," 
Srd  edition,  1880;  Moran  [now  (1802)  Car- 
dinal Archbishop  of  Sydney],  "  Spicile- 
gium  Ossoriense:"  "Essays  on  the  Origin, 
Doctrine,  and  Discipline  of  the  earlv 
Irish  Church,"  1864  ;  "  Historical  Sketch 
of  the  Persecutions  suffered  by  the  Catho- 
lics of  Ireland  under  Cromwell  and  the 
Puritans"  [1862].) 

XRZSR  COI.X.ECZ:.  The  munificent 
Pontiff  to  whom  the  English  College 
owed  its  foundation — Gregory  XIII. — 
contemplated  a  similar  institution  for 
Ireland;  but  on  mature  consideration  he 
judgfd  that  whatever  portion  of  the 
Papal  revenues  could  be  spared  to  aid 
that  injured  people  would  be  better  spent 
in  sending  them  money  and  arms,  at  a 
time  when  they  were  engaged  in  a  deadly 
struggle  with  "their  heretical  oppressors, 
than  in  any  other  way.  His  original 
desire  was,  however,  carried  out  by  his 
nephew  the  Cardinal  Ludovico  Ludovisio, 
who  in  1628  founded  a  college  near  the 
Piazza  Barberini  for  the  instruction  of 
Irish  theological  students,  who  were 
afterwards  to  rv  -urn  to  their  own  land, 
and  do  their  bi  *  .o  keep  alive  the  flame 
of  religion  amoi  f^-  their  persecuted  coun- 
trymen. The  celebrated  Irish  Franciscan 
Ft.  Luke  Wadding,  the  historian  of  his 
order,  was  the  first  rer  jir  of  the  college, 
wj^h  opened  with  six  students,  and  a 
dc^.tion  of  fifty  scudi  per  month.  Car- 
dinfvl  Ludovisio  by  his  -will  bequeathed 
to  it  a  large  vineyard  at  Castel  Gandolfo, 
and  a  thousand  scudi  of  annual  rent ;  he 
further  directed  that  its  management 
should  be  transferred  to  the  hands  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  A  permanent  site  for 
the  college  was  found  near  the  convent 
of  the  Dominican  nuns  of  the  Anuuu- 
ziata.  The  students  attended  lectures  at 
the  CoUegio  Romano  [Romak  College! 

The  college  remained  under  Jesuit 
management  till  1773,  when  the  order 
was  suppressed;  from  that  time  to  the 
date  of  the  French  invasion — when  it 
shared  in  the  general  ruin  which  fell  or 
all  the  Roman  colleges — it  was  governed 
by  an  Irish  rector  assisted  by  three  oi 


506  IRREGULARITY 


IRREGULARITY 


four  secular  priests  of  that  nation.  In 
1H26  it  was  restored  by  Leo  XII.,  who 
placed  it  in  a  suitable  building  near  the 
church  of  S.  Lucia  de'  Ginnasi,  with 
Mgr.  Blake  for  its  first  rector.  Soon 
afterwards  it  was  arranged  that  the 
Cardinal  Prefect  of  Propaganda  pro  tern. 
should  always  be  the  protector  of  the 
college.  Card.  Cappellari,  afterwards 
Gregory  XVI.,  who  thus  became  their 
protector,  conceived  a  sing-ular  affection 
for  tliis  Irish  community  and  loaded  it 
witli  I'aYours.  In  18-3f)  he  paid  a  formal 
visit  to  the  college,  while  Paul  Cullen, 
afterwards  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Dub- 
lin, was  rector  ;  and  in  the  same  year  he 
made  over  to  it  the  monastery  and  church 
of  S.  Agata  alia  Suburra.  As  another 
proof  of  his  r(^g,'ird,  he  granted  to  the 
students  the  privilege  of  carrying  in  the 
annual  procession  of  Corpus  Christi  the 
staves  of  the  baldacchino  under  which 
the  Pope  carries  the  Blessed  Sacrament, 
from  the  end  of  the  colonnade  in  the 
piazza  of  St.  Peter's  to  the  great  gate  of 
the  Accoramboni  palace. 

XRREGUXiARZTY  is  defined  as  & 
"canonical  impediment,  which  prevents 
a  person  from  entering  the  ranks  of 
the  clergy,  from  rising  to  a  higher 
order,  or  from  exercising  the  order 
which  he  has  received "  (Gury).  The 
term  "irregular,"  according  to  the  emi- 
nent canonist  Phillips,  first  occurs  in  the 
decretals  of  Innocent  III.  An  "  irregu- 
laris" is  one  who  does  not  fulfil  the 
"rules"  imposed  upon,  or  the  require- 
ments which  the  Church  makes  of  those 
who  seek  to  be  tonsured  or  ordained. 
The  same  Pope  distinguishes  between  the 
"  nota  defectus  "  and  the  "  nota  delicti," 
and  this  is  the  basis  of  the  division  of 
inegularities  which  still  prevails  among 
canonists  and  theologians,  viz.  into  such 
as  proceed  from  defect  (ex  defectu),  and 
from  crime  (ex  delicto).  This  arrange- 
ment is  a  convenient  one,  but  it  is  not 
strictly  scientific.  In  reality  irregularity 
is  always  "ex  defectu."  It  is  not  a 
penalty,  and  so  is  quite  distinct  from  cen- 
sure, deposition,  or  degradation.  It  may 
arise,  no  doubt,  from  crime,  but  only  in- 
directly— so  far,  that  is  to  say,  as  crime 
constitutes  a  defect  in  the  reputation 
which  is  desirable  in  a  clergyman.  Hence 
repentance,  sacramental  absolution,  and 
amendment  do  not  in  themselves  remove 
the  irregularity  "  ex  delicto."  We  ob- 
.serve  before  going  further  that,  though 
the  term  "irregular"  is  of  mediaeval 
origin,  the  idea  is  ancient.    From  early 


times  "bigamy"  (in  a  sense  to  be  explaiued 
presently),  bodily  defects,  ignorance, 
recent  reception  of  baptism,  military 
service,  servile  condition  or  entangle- 
ment in  worldly  business,  and  crimes 
which  subjected  a  man  to  public  penance, 
have  been  regarded  as  impediments  to 
ordination. 

I.  Irregularities  ex  Defectu. 

(1)  Ex  Defectu  Animi. — Lunatics, 
&c.,  are  irregular,  so  are  persons  without 
sufficient  knowledge.  Ignorance  is  men- 
tioned as  a  bar  to  ordination  by  Popes 
Hilary  (Ep.  2,  Mansi,  torn.  vii.  928)  and 
Gregory  the  Great  (Ep.  lib.  ii.  37).  The 
Council  of  Ti'ent  (Sess.  xxiii.  De  Ref.) 
requires  for  the  tonsure  ability  to  read 
and  write,  with  elementary  religious 
knowledge;  for  minor  orders  acquaintance 
with  Latin ;  further  instruction  in  letters 
and  ability  to  fulfil  their  respective  duties 
is  exacted  from  those  who  desire  to  be 
subdeacons  and  deacons,  while  a  priest 
must  have  proved  himself  on  examination 
fit  to  instruct  the  people,  administer  the 
sacraments,  &c.  Provincial  synods  are  to 
provide  a  careful  form  of  examination 

I  and  inquiry  into  the  knowledge  and  other 
qualities  of  one  who  is  to  be  consecrated 
bishop  (Sess.  xxiv.  De  Ref  c.  1).  Neo- 
phytes are  excluded  from  ordination.  This 
defect,  called  "defectus  fidei  confirmatse," 
is  recognised  by  Pope  Siricius  (Mansi,  iii. 
069),  and  has  its  justification  in  1  Tim. 
iii.  6. 

(2)  Fx  Defectu  Corporis. — Which 
may  arise  either  from  some  horrible  muti- 
lation or  the  like,  which  might  cause 
horror  in  the  people,  or  else  from  the  want 
of  some  sense,  member,  &c.,  necessary 
for  the  performance  of  clerical  duty. 
Thus  one  who  has  lost  his  left  eye,  called 
the  "  eye  of  the  canon,"  because  chiefly 
used  in  reading  the  canon  of  the  Mass, 
cannot  receive  the  priesthood.  Bodily 
mutilation  is  mentioned  in  this  connection 
by  Popes  Hilary  and  Gregory  (Ep.  2, 
Mansi,  vii.  928,  "in  qualibet  corporis  parte 
vitiatum,"  Ep.  lib.  ii.  37).  The  prescrip- 
tions of  the  old  law  seem  to  have  weighed 
here. 

(3)  Ex  Defectu  Natalium. — Which 
excludes  children  born  out  of  wedlock, 
unless  their  parents  have  subsequently  mar- 
ried, or  unless  the  illegitimate  person  has 
made  his  profession  in  a  religious  order. 
Otherwise  the  bishop  may  dispense  for 
minor  orders,  the  dispensation  for  Holy 
Orders  being  reserved  to  the  Pope,  and  a 
fresh  dispensation  being  needed  in  case  of 
promotion  to  the  episcopate.  This  impedi- 


IRREGULARITY 


IRREGULARITY  5U7 


ment,  Phillips  says,  was  not  distiuctly  ' 
recognised  till  the  eleventh  century.  It 
arose  partly   because   in    the  German 
nations  illegitimate  children  were  with- 
out civil  rights,  partly  because  the  pre- 
Talence  of  clerical  concubinage  and  the 
frequent  promotion  of  priests'  sons  to 
their  fathers'  otBce  threatened  to  bring  the  i 
spirit  of  caste  ijito  the  clerical  ranks.  As 
early,  however,  as  a.d.  845,  we  find  a  | 
Council  of  Meiiux  (Can.  64,  Mansi,  xiv. 
•834)  prohibiting  the  ordination  of  children 
born  before  marriage  to  "raptores  vir- 
ginum  aut  viduarum." 

(4)  Ex  Ihfectu  Piatt's.— The  older 
rule  admitted  very  young  people  to  the 
minor  orders,  of  which  then  the  sub- 
diaconate  was  one,  but  the  diacoiiate  was 
reserved  for  the  thirtieth,  the  priesthood 
for  the  thirty-tifth,  and  the  episcopate  for 
the  completion  of  the  i'ortieth  year.  The 
decretals  prescribe  for  the  tonsure  the 
seventh  year  complete,  for  the  subdia- 
conate  the  eighteenth  year,  for  the  dia- 
■conate  the  twentieth,  for  the  priesthood 
the  twenty-fifth  year  begun,  for  the 
episcopate  tlie  thirtieth  year  complete. 
The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  xxiii.  De 
Ref )  has  partially  altered  these  rides, 
requiring  for  the  subdiaconate  the  twenty- 
second,  for  the  diaconate  the  twenty-third 
begun. 

( 5)  Ex  Defectu  Libe>-tatis.~Fope  Leo 
I.  (Ep.  4)  excludes  slaves,  and  generally 
those  under  tlie  power  of  others,  and 
Innocent  1.  (Ep.  2,  Mansi,  iii.  1035) — 
^•curiales  vel  quibuslibet  functionibus  pu- 
blicis  occupatos."  These  rules  still  sub- 
sist, and  married  persons  are  also  excluded 
at  least  from  Holy  Oixlers,  unless  they 
obtain  their  wife's  consent,  and  she,  if 
young,  enters  religion  (Gury). 

(6)  El-  Dcfrctu  Sacra7nenti.  — This 
irregularity  aliects  tliose  who  have  been 
married  twice,  or,  having  married  once, 
were  wedded  to  one  who  was  not  a  virgin. 
The  former  part  of  the  rule  is  found,  as 
many  think,  in  1  Tim.  iii.  2;  Tit.  i.  6, 
and  certainly  obtained  in  the  Church  at 
a  very  early  date  (see,  e.g.,  TertuU.  "  De 
Monog."  12).  The  second  part  of  the 
rule  was  in  force  from  the  fourth  cen- 
tury (see  Ep.  Siric.  Mansi,  iii.  G70;  Inno- 
cent I  Ep.  2,  Mansi,  iii.  lt).!4;  Hilarv, 
Ep.  2,  Mansi,  iii.  928  ;  Gregoiy,  Ep.  lib. 
ii.  37).  The  canon  law  extends  the  pro- 
hibition to  one  who  has  continued  to  live 
with  an  adulterous  wife,  or  has  gone 
through  the  Ibrm  of  marriage  after  reli- 
gious profession  or  the  subdiaconate. 
AJl  such  unions  fail  iu  the  "  sacramen- 


tum"  or  mystical  resemblance  to  Christ's 
perfect  union  with  His  Church. 

(7)  E.v  D.ferfu  Lnittatk.— The  early 
Church  (see,  e.g.,  .Siric.  Mansi,  iii.  (UiS) 
would  not  allow  soldiers  to  be  ordained, 
and  the  canons  forbid  the  ordination  of 
any  who,  althougli  justly,  have  concurred 
"  willingly,  actively,  efficaciously,  and 
proximately  "  to  the  death  or  mutilation 
of  another  by  an  action  tending  in  its 
own  nature  to  that  end. 

(8)  Ex  Defectu  Famee. — This  applies 
to  persons  notoriously  guilty  of  some 
enormous  crime,  to  those  «ho  are  w-ell 
known  to  have  committed  a  crime  stig- 
matised as  infamous  by  the  law,  to  those 
who  have  been  sentenced  iji  a  public 
court,  even  if  they  are  innocent.  Infamy 
which  simply  comes  of  notorious  crime, 
without  any  judicial  sentence,  may  cea.se 
of  itself  without  the  need  of  any  disjien- 
sation.  When  a  couit  has  pa>sed  sen- 
tence, the  sentence  may  be  reversed,  and 
the  consequent  irregidarity  disappear. 

II.  Ex  Delicto. — It  was  a  constant 
principle  of  the  ancient  Church  not  to 
admit  persons  who  had  l)een  under  or  had 
become  liable  to  public  penance  to  orders 
(see,  e.g.,  August.  Ep.  \6o,  §  4.5 :  the 
ancient  collection  known  as  "  Concil. 
Carthag.  IV."  Mansi,  iii.  1046;  Greg. 
Magn.  Ep.  lib.  ii.  37 ;  Isidor.  "  Eccl. 
Oilic."  ii.  0).  The  modern  law,  after  the 
disuse  of  the  penitential  system,  limited 
irregularity  ex  delicto  to  the  following 
cases  :  (1)  The  reception  of  baptism  with- 
out necessity  by  an  adult  from  a  de- 
clared heretic:  reiteration  of  baptism 
with  solemn  rite ;  receiving  baptism  in 
such  circumstances  ;  assistance  thereat  by 
a  cleric.  (2)  Pretending  solemnly  to 
exercise  a  holy  order  never  received  ;  re- 
ceiving orders  in  various  unlawful  ways 
— e.g.  by  stealth,  from  the  bishop  of 
another  diocese  without  dimissorials,  from 
a  suspended,  schismatical,  simoniacal.  or 
heretical  bishop ;  receiving  more  than 
one  holy  order  on  the  same  day.  ij't) 
.Solemnly  exercising  an  order  whUe  bound 
b\  a  censure.  (4)  Crime — i.e.  the  special 
crimes  of  public  heresy  and  aj)osiasy  from 
the  faith.  The  sons  of  heretics  are  also 
irregular,    (5)  Murder  and  mutilation. 

III.  Dispensation. — Certain  irregular- 
ities—total  blindness,  hopeless  lunacy, 
kc. — cannot  be  removed.  Others — such 
as  the  defect  of  age  and  infamy  (see 
above) — may  cease  of  themselves.  For 
the  rest,  tlie" rule  is  that  all  irregularities 
which  How  from  any  secret  crime  except 
murder  may  be  removed  by  the  bishop  or 


ITAI.A  YETUS 


JACOBITE  CHRISTIANS 


liy  the  prelates  in  a  religious  order.  The 
I'lrpe  only  and  his  delegates  can  remove 
those  ex  dcfectu  or  ex  homicidio.  The  ex- 
ceptions to  these  rules  have  heen  noted 
above. 

XTAKA  VETUS.  [See  Vulgate  I.] 
ITE  nxxssil.  EST.  The  meaning 
of  the  word  Missa  is  discussed  under 
Mass.  Here  it  may  suffice  to  say,  that 
after  the  Gospel  the  catechumens  were 
dismissed  by  the  deacon  with  the  words, 
"  Ite  Missa  est ;"  Go,  you  are  dismissed — 
literally  "a  dismissal  is  made;"  and  that 
the  same  formula  was  repeated  at  the  end 
of  the  whole  Mass.  In  the  liturgies  of  St. 
James,  St.  Basil,  and  St.  Chrysostom,  we 
find  the  form  "  Let  us  go  in  the  peace  of 
Christ,"  the  people  answering  "  In  the 
name  of  the  Lord."  "  Benedicamus 
Domino"  is  substituted  in  Masses  of 
ferias  and  Sundays  in  the  penitential 


seasons,  "Requlescant  in  pace"  in  Masses 
of  the  dead,  because  those  Masses  were 
followed  by  penitential  prayers,  and  by 
the  absolution  at  the  tomb,  for  which  the 
people  waited.  (Benedict  XIV.,  "  De 
Miss."    Hffele,  "  Beitrage.") 

ZTZN'SRA.RY  {Itinerarium).  A 
form  of  prayer  consisting  of  the  canticle 
Benedictus,  with  an  antiplion,  "preces," 
and  two  collects,  intended  for  the  use  of 
clerics  when  setting  out  on  a  journey, 
and  placed  for  their  convenience  at  the 
end  of  the  Breviary.  The  collects  are 
found  in  the  Gregorian  Sacramentary. 
The  itinerary  is  not  inserted  in  the  older 
Breviaries.  But  Gavantus  refers  to  an 
ancient  Pontifical  which  contains  an 
itinerary  for  prelates  rather  longer  than 
ours,  but  very  similar.  (Gavant.  torn.  11, 
§  69,  cap.  6.) 


TACOBZirs.  The  Dominicans  had 
before  the  Revolution  three  convents  in 
Paris,  of  which  tll^>  chief  was  that  of 
St.  James  (Lat.  Jacobus),  in  the  Rue  St. 
Jacques.  This  was  considered  the  prin- 
cipal house  of  their  order  in  France,  and 
from  it  French  preaching  friars  were 
called  Jacobins.  The  second  of  their 
houses  at  Paris  was  in  the  Rue  St.  HoiiortS, 
between  the  church  of  St.  Roch  and  the 
Place  Vendome;  before  the  Revolution 
it  had  a  noviciate  and  a  library  of  thirty- 
two  thousand  volumes.  The  Club  Breton, 
containing  the  ablest  and  most  dangerous 
men  in  the  National  Assembly,  began  to 
hold  its  sittings  in  the  library  of  the 
convent  in  the  Rue  St.  Honor^  in  1789 ; 
hence  their  name  was  soon  changed  to 
Club  Jacobin.  Later  on,  the  church  was 
used  as  a  place  of  meeting,  and  many  of 
the  worst  infamies  and  atrocities  of  the 
Revolution  were  there  debated  and  de- 
cided on. 

JACOBITE     CHRXSTZAia-S.  A 

name  given  to  the  Monophysites  in 
Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Kurdistan,  and  East 
India,  who  are  subject  to  the  heretical 
Patriarch  of  Antioch.  In  1850  they 
were  said  to  number  about  80,000. 

They  call  themselves  Surigani,  or 
Syrian  Christians;  the  name  Jacobite,  by 
which  they  are  commonly  known,  is  de- 
rived from  Jacob  or  James,  a  monk  of 


Phasilta  near  Nisibis,  and  a  disciple  of 
the  Monophysite  Severus  of  Antioch. 
This  monk,  who  was  zealous  in  resisting 
the  authority  of  the  Fourth  General  Coun- 
cil held  at  Chalcedon,  and  in  denying 
the  two  natures  in  Christ,  was  ordained 
Metropolitan  of  Edessa  by  heretical 
bisliops,  and  with  the  consent  of  Severus. 
When  Severus  died,  Ln  539,  James  con- 
secrated his  successor,  and  so  the  line  of 
Monophysite  Patriarchs  of  Antioch  has 
been  continued  to  this  day.  In  736  the 
Jacobites  entered  into  communion  with 
the  Armenians,  who  also  deny  that  there 
are  two  natures  in  Christ,  but  the  peace 
between  the  two  sects  did  not  last  long. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Jacobites,  al- 
though a  distinct  and  independent  body, 
are  in  communion  with  the  Monophysite 
Copts  of  Egypt. 

The  Jacobite  clergy  are  divided  into 
singers,  readers,  subdeacons,  deacons, 
archdeacons,  priests,  chorepiscopi,  perio- 
deutai,  bishops,  metropolitans,  and  patri- 
arch ;  but  of  these  the  archdeacon,  chor- 
episcopus,  and  periodeutes  are  merely 
nominated  by  the  bishop  without  special 
ordination. 

The  Patriarch  is  chosen  in  the  follow- 
ing manner.  Three  names  are  selected  by 
the  assembled  bishops  and  placed  in  an 
urn  beneath  the  altar.  After  Mass  has 
been  said,  he  whose  name  is  first  drawn 


JACOBITK  CIIKISTIANS 


JANSENISM 


is  chosen  Patriarcli.  He  holds  office  for 
life,  but  may  be  deposed  by  the  bishops 
if  he  falls  away  from  the  tenets  of  tlie 
Jacobite  Church.  He  is  enthroned  with 
the  title  "Patriarch  of  the  Pity  of  Anti- 
och,  and  of  the  whole  doniinimi  of  the 
Apostolic  chair."  He  has  the  right  to 
name  and  consecrate  the  other  bishops 
and  metropolitans,  and  the  blessiusr  of 
the  chrism  is  reserved  to  him ;  but  before 
he  can  exercise  jurisdiction,  his  appoint- 
ment must  be  confirmed  by  a  tinuaii  of 
the  Sultan.  The  ancient  rule,  observed 
down  to  1222,  forbade  anyone  already 
a  bishop  to  be  chosen  Patriarch.  Now, 
generally  speaking,  it  is  a  bishop  who  is 
chosen,  so  that  no  further  consecration  is 
needed.  Since  878  it  has  been  the  custom 
foi  the  Patriarch  to  take  a  new  name  on 
election,  and  since  120;!  that  of  Ignatius, 
the  martyred  Bishop  of  Antioch,  has 
always  been  adopted.  At  first  the  Patri- 
arch had  no  fixed  residence;  in  116(i 
Amida,  the  modern  Diarbekir,  became  the 
patriarchal  residence,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  century  it  was  tnuislerred  to 
the  monastery  of  Z.ipliaran  or  St.  Ananias, 
near  Mardin.  The  Patriarch  is  supported 
partly  by  the  monaster}-,  partly  by  a  con- 
tribution of  grain  from  all  the  Jacobite 
congregations. 

Next  comes  the  Maphrian,  a  dignity 
which  arose  in  the  seventh  centurj-,  when 
the  Jacobites  gave  the  title  of  Katholikos 
or  Primate  of  the  East,  held  since  Jus- 
tinian's time  by  the  Metrdpolitiui  of  Se- 
leucia  and  Ctesiphoii,  to  one  of  tlieir  own 
bishops.  The  fir.-t  M:qihi'ian,  Maruthos, 
appointed  in  ()29,  had  twelve  bishops  in 
Arabia  and  Persia  subject  to  him,  and 
over  them  he  had  quasi-patriarchal  power, 
though  he  himself  was  nommated  by  the 
Patriarch.  At  present  the  dignity  is 
merely  titular. 

Tlie  metropolitans  are  distinct  in 
name  only  from  the  other  bishops.  The 
bishi>ps,  who  are  usually  taken  from  the 
monks,  are  very  ignorant,  rarely  preach, 
and  though  they  read,  scarcely  under- 
stand the  Syriac  of  their  ritual.  The 
archdeacon,  as  syncellos,  is  the  chief  re- 
presentative of  the  bishop  in  settling  dis- 
putes between  the  clergy,  &c.  Formerly 
there  were  twenty  metropolitans  and  lO'-i 
bishops.  The  number  has  fallen  since  to 
eight  metropohtans  and  three  bishops, 
the  Metropolitan  of  Jerusalem  being 
Maplirian. 

Tlie  secular  priests  have  to  recite  the 
prayers  of  their  Beth-gaza  or  Breviary 
daily,  and  to  administer  the  sacraments. 


I  tut  they  support  themselves  in  part  by 

'  agriculture,  trade,  &c.  They  may  be 
married  men.  but  cannot  contract  a 
second  marriage.  The  Jacobite  monas- 
teries, once  exceedingly  numerous,  are 
now  comparatively  tVw.  The  rablian  or 
abl.iit  is  chosen  by  t  he  mouks  of  his  house, 
but  the  election  must  be  confirmed  by  the 
bishop.  The  religion-  observe  perpetual 
abstinence  from  meat,  and,  except  in  sick- 
ness, from  wine.  They  keep  four  fasts 
besides  Lent:  viz.  fifty  days  m  honour  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  fourteen  days  in 
honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin's  Assump- 
tion, twenty-five  in  honour  of  Christ's 
birth,  and  the  Nini\ iticnni,  or  i'asr  of 

'  three  days,  at  the  beginning  of  the  third 
week  beiore  Lent.  In  other  respects  their 
mode  of  life  is  most  severe. 

j  In  a  quarter  of  their  own  at  Mardin, 
a  curious  comnumity  of  about  100  fami- 
lies are  loosely  attached  to  the  Jacobite 
Chureh.  They  are  descendants  of  the 
Slieinsii'l,  or  worshipjiers  of  the  sim,  and 
in  17t)2  the  pasha  inquired  about  their 
religion,  and  told  tliem  no  toleration  was 
gi-anted  except  to  those  who  possessed 

]  divine  books — i.e.  to  Mohammedans, 
Jews,  or  Christians.  Thereupon  some 
embraced  the  faith  of  Islam,  the  rest 
were  about  to  be  executed,  when  the 
Jacobite  bishop  interceded  for  them,  and 
afterwards  induced  them  to  join  his 
church.  They  are  baptised  Christians 
and  conform  to  the  Jacobite  rites,  but 
they  only  intermarry  among  themselves, 
andliavt'  customs  and  ceremonies  of  their 

I  own.    (^AsM.nunii,  ■•  I'.ililiotheca  Orient.," 

'  tom.il.;  "Di.s.deMonophvs.-'  No.  I.  in. 
VI.;   Le  Quien,   -Orl.  ns  Cln  i-' ianus," 

i  tom.  ii.  p.  1-'14-1  ,<rfy. ;  Sillirrna^!. '■  Kirchen 
des  Orients,"  Landsluit,  18fi5.  pji.  I'o:;  -t'//.) 

1  JANSEN-ISIVI.  It  is  very  (lillinilt  to 
define  Jansenism,  or  e\  en  to  (li'-ci  :lir  it  in 
general  terms,  and  tlu-ri'liiie  still  nion* 
dirticult  to  give  a  t'onipi  ini ions  lii-tory  of 
the  movement.  I*r"pri  ly  .-peaking,  it  was 
a  heresy  which  consisted  in  denying  the 
freedom  of  the  will  and  the  pn-.-ilii!ity  of 
resisting  diviiu>  prace.  But  from  the  very 
beginning,  Jansrnins  ami  his  followers 
.id  many  objects  in  view.  {j\ute  distinct 
from  their  opinions  on  the  efficacy  of 
grace.  Perhaps  the  best  description  of 
Jansenism  is  that  it  was  a  professed  at- 
tempt to  restore  the  ancient  doctrine  and 
discipline  of  the  Church.  The  I!ei<niners 
prof"«sed  to  restore  a]io>to!ie  diH-irine  and 
di.sci])liue  by  nuikin::  new  rlinrelies  ;  the 
Jansenists  wislu'd  to  n'lnain  in  the  Catho- 
lic Pomau  Church,  and  to  reform  it  from 


510 


JANSENISM 


JANSENISM 


within.  The  Ixeioimers  appealed  to 
Scripture  and  made  light  of  tradition. 
To  the  Jansenists  the  Fathers  were  all  in 
all,  though,  practically,  St.  Augustine, 
and  Western  Fathers  under  his  iutiuence, 
were  taken  as  the  sole  representatives  of 
the  Church's  doctrinal  tradition,  and 
Jansenist  contempt  was  reserved  for  the 
mediaeval  Schoolmen.  This  position  of 
the  Jansenists  within  the  Church  occa- 
sions fresh  difficulty  in  treating  of  their 
history.  They  called  themselves  Catholics, 
and  treated  the  existence  of  a  Jansenist 
sect  as  a  mere  phantom,  invented  to  trouble 
consciences  and  calumniate  pious  Catho- 
hcs.  Nobody  admitted  he  was  a  Jansen- 
ist, and  the  Jansenist  tendency  displayed 
itself  in  so  many  ways,  in  attempts  to 
correct  doctrines,  devotions,  discijiliiie, 
more  or  less  established,  that  it  is  often 
no  easy  matter  to  decide  where  the 
reproach  of  Jansenism  was  deserved. 
Undoubtedly,  some  Cathohcs  were  far 
too  ready  to  narrow  the  limits  of  oi-tho- 
doxy,  and  to  charge  their  opponents  with 
Jansenism.  Thus  the  "  Bibliotbeque 
Jans6niste,"  which  appeared  in  1722  and  ' 
1735,  was  placed  on  the  Index  in  1744, 
and,  ten  years  later,  the  new  edition, 
entitled  "  Dictiomiaire  des  livres  jiln- 
s6nistes,"  met  with  the  same  fate.  This 
book,  ascribed  to  the  Jesuit  Colonna, 
stigmatises  even  the  great  Augustinian 
theologians,  Noris  and  Berti,  and  others, 
as  Jansenists.  In  this  article  we  propose  I 
to  trace  the  different  m.'niifestntious  of  j 
Jansenism  in  chronological  order  ;  paying  j 
special  attention  to  the  authoritative  ' 
condemnations  of  the  Church. 

1.  Jansfiiius  ami  his  Book. — Cornelius 
Jansen  was  born  in  1585,  at  Accoy,  in 
the  Dutch  province  of  Ijoerdam,  studied 
at  Utrecht,  Louvain,  and  Paris,  became 
connected  with  several  disciples  of  Baius 
{e.g.  James  Baius  and  .Tames  Jansen), 
and,  from  16U4,  Avas  the  intimate  friend 
of  .John  du  Verger  de  llauratiiie,  born  in 
1581,  and  better  known  as  the  Al)b6  de 
St.  Cyran.  Jansenius,  who  tauglit  for 
some  time  at  Bayonne,  till,  in  1617,  he 
became  professor  at  Louvain,  devoted  ; 
himself  to  the  study  of  St.  Augustine,  j 
while  his  friend  Ilaurainie,  now  Abb6  of 
St.  Cyran,  near  Poitiers,  took  on  himself 
the  task  of  depicting  the  ancient  consti- 
tution of  the  Church.  Jansen  made 
several  journeys  to  tin-  Sjianisli  f^ourt,  as 
representative  of  tln' Lomain  T'iii\ cr,-,!! y, 
was  promoted  to  I  lie  see  of  \\>yi'n  in 
Ki35,  and  died  May  6,  4\\  ()  years 

after  his   death,  Fromiuond  published 


Jansen's  posthumoLif.  work,  "  Augustinus 
S. :  Doctrina  S.  Aug.  de  Hum.  Natune 
Sanitate,  .iEgritudine,  Medicina,  adversiis 
Pelagianos  et  Massilienses,"  Lovanii, 
1040,  torn.  4.  Jansen  had  studied  St. 
Augustine  for  twenty  years.  He  sub- 
mitted the  book  to  the  Pope's  judgmeut, 
though  he  could  not  believe  that  it  con- 
tained doctrinal  error,  but  this  declaration 
was  suppressed  by  the  editor.  The  work 
falls  into  three  great  divisions,  treatiiig 
(1^  of  the  history  of  the  Pelagian  heresy  ; 
(2)  of  reason  and  authority  in  theological 
matters,  the  grace  of  Adam  and  the 
angels,  of  fallen  nature,  of  mere  nature 
{nafura  pura)  ;  (3)  of  redeeming  grace, 
and  the  errors  of  the  Semipelagians  and 
some  moderns.  The  following  is  a  sketch 
of  the  doctrinal  system  maintained  in  the 
book. 

Since  the  fall,  man's  will  is  entirely 
dominated  by  a  double  attraction,  viz. 
the  heavenly  attraction,  or  pleasure  (delec- 
tatio),  which  leads  to  good,  the  earthly 
attraction  which  induces  to  evil,  and  the 
will  necessarily  follows  the  attraction 
which  is  stronger  at  the  moment.  Jan- 
•■-enius  did  not  deny  the  freedom  of  the 
will  in  express  terms,  but  he  utterly  re- 
jected the  Catholic  notion  of  freedom,  viz. 
the  power  to  choose  at  the  time  good  or 
evil  [libertas  contradict ionis),  and  asserted 
merely  the  existence  of  freedom  from 
external  constraint  {libertas  a  coacHom). 
lie  also  destroyed  all  belief  in  grace 
merely  sufficient,  as  Catholic  theolo^uians 
understand  it:  i.e.  there  was,  according 
to  him,  no  grace  which  enabled  a  man  to 
perform  a  good  action,  and  which  iailcd, 
or  could  fail,  to  produce  its  ell'ect  Irom 
defect  in  correspundenee  on  the  ])art  of 
the  agent.  The  grace  which  a  man  did 
not  follow  might  have  Ijei-n  Miliicieiit  in 
other  circunibtances,  viz.  if  the  impulse  to 
evil  had  not  been  so  strong;  but  it  was 
insufficient  relatively  to  the  force  on  the 
other  side.  If  gi-ace,  or  the  impulse  to 
good,  be  represented  by  0,  the  teniptatiou, 
or  impulse  to  evil,  by  Gi,  the  agent  must 
needs  sin;  if  the  i)n)portions  were  re- 
versed, he  necessarily  did  the  good  pro- 
posed to  him.  Hence  even  the  just  are 
not  always  able  to  fullil  God's  command- 
ments (see  Prop,  i.,  below);  interior  grace 
is  irresistible  (Prop,  ii.) ;  there  is  no  free- 
I  dom  from  interior  necessity,  but  only 
i  from    exierior   conqinlsloii    (Pro]),  iii.). 

Further,  he  held  that  the  ennr  of  the 
,  Semi]ielagians  lay  in  making  f:!raee  resist- 
I  ible  (Pro]),  iv.),  and  maintaining  that 
I  Christ  died  for  all. 


JAiNSENISM 


JAXSEXISM 


oil 


2.  The  History  of  Jansenism  doini  to 
the  Constitution  of  Innocent  X.  in  1653. — 
The  book  excited  great  attention  in  the 
Low  Countries  and  in  France  when  a 
second  edition  was  issued  in  1641.  In 
the  same  \-ear  it  was  condemned  by  the 
Eoman  Inqui.-^ition,  and,  in  the  year  fol- 
lowing, by  Urban  VIII.,  in  general  terms, 
as  renewing  the  errors  of  Baius.  The 
authenticity  of  Urban's  bull  was  disputed; 
Flemish  bishops,  headed  by  Boonen,  arch- 
bishop of  Malines,  and  the  University  of 
Louvain,  resisted  its  publication  for  a  con- 
siderable time  ;  and,  although  the  French 
king  and  the  Sorbonne  ranged  themselves 
on  the  side  of  authority,  "  the  disciples  of 
St.  Augustine  " — as  the  Jansenists  styled 
themselves — were  numerous  and  power- 
ful. The  learned  Aiitoine  Arnauld,  born 
in  1612,aiid  after  Richelieu's  death  Doctor 
of  the  Sorbonne,  was  especially  active. 
He  signalled  himself  in  the  early  stage 
of  the  controversy  by  attacking  Isaac 
Habert,  a  Sorbonuiste,  and  champion  of 
the  Cathohc  doctrine  on  grace. 

In  KUO  Nicolas  Comet  submitted 
Five  Propositions  from  the  "  Augustinus" 
to  the  S  nbonue,  and  a  commission  was 
nominated  to  examine  them.  Friends  of 
the  Jansenist  doctrine,  among  whom  Dr. 
Louis  de  St.  Amour  was  most  prominent, 
appealed  to  the  Parliament,  of  which 
body  also  many  favoured  Jansenism.  The 
Parliament  prohibited  the  Sorbonne  from 
taking  any  further  step,  and  committed 
the  inquiry  to  the  assembly  of  the  clergy. 
On  April  12,  1651,  eighty-five  bishops 
wrote  to  Innocent  X,,  begging  him  to 
pronounce  judgment  on  the  Five  Propo- 
sitions, although  eleven  bishops  protested 
against  this  immediate  appeal  to  Rome, 
as  subversive  of  the  Gallican  liberties. 
The  Pope  appointed  five  cardinals  and 
thirteen  theologians  to  decide  the  ques- 
tion, and  after  two  years  had  been  occu- 
pied in  this  task,  during  which  the  Jan- 
senists were  heard  at  length  in  their  own 
defence,  a  bull  appeared  (May  19,  1653), 
in  which  a  definite  sentence  was  given. 
Proposition  I. — "  Some  commandments 
of  God  are  impossible  to  just  men,  wish- 
ing and  striving  (to  observe  them)  accord- 
ing to  the  strength  which  they  have  at 
the  time ;  moreover  they  lack  grace, 
■which  would  make  them  (the  command- 
ments) possible.''  Proposition  II. — "  No 
resistance  in  the  state  of  fallen  nature  is 
€ver  made  to  interior  grace."  Proposition 
111. — •"  For  merit  and  demerit  in  the 
Btate  of  fallen  nature,  man  does  not  need 
freedom  from  necessity,  but  only  freedom 


from  compulsion."  Proposition  IV. — 
"The  Semipelagians  admitted  the  need 
of  interior  prevenient  grace  for  each  act, 
even  for  the  beginning  uf  faith  ;  and  they 
were  heretical  on  this  account,  viz.  lie- 
cause  they  held  that  grace  to  be  such 
that  the  human  will  could  resist  or  corre- 
spond to  it " — were  condemned  as  here- 
tical. Proposition  V. — "  It  is  Semipela- 
gian  to  say  that  Christ  died,  or  shed  His 
blood  for  all  men  together,"  as  felse,  rash, 
&c.,  and,  if  meant  in  the  sense  that 
Christ  died  only  for  the  elect,  as  heretical. 
Shortly  after  it  was  issued,  an  edict  of 
the  French  king  commanded  the  recep- 
tion of  this  bull ;  the  French  bishops, 
assembled  at  Paris,  thanked  the  Pope  for 
it,  and  it  was  registered  by  the  Sorbonne 
and  the  Louvain  University.  The  famous 
Franciscan  Wadding,  formerly  an  advo- 
cate of  the  Five  Propositions,  submitted 
to  the  judgTuent  of  the  Church. 

Meanwhile  the  Jansenist  spirit  had 
been  active  in  other  directinns.  St.  Cyran 
("Lettres  Chi-dtiennes   et  Spiritnelles," 
Paris,  1645),  recurring,  as  he  said,  to  the 
primitive  practice,  held  it  inadvisable  to 
confess  venial  sius,  or  the  number  and 
circumstances    altering   the    species  of 
mortal  sins,  while  he  required  the  utmost 
perfection  and  purity  of  conscience  for 
communion,  or  even  for  assisting  at  Mass. 
Under  his  direction,  some  of  the  nuns 
belonging  to  the  Convent  of  Port  Royal, 
near  Paris,  actually  died  without  the 
sacraments.    St.  Cyrau  also  published  a 
"Brief  Explanation  of  the  Mysteries  of 
Faith,"  and  an  edition  of  "  St.  Augustine 
on  Virginity,"  with  notes   inimical  to 
j  vows.    He  was  imprisoned  on  suspicion 
i  of  false  teaching  by  Richelieu,  was  libe- 
I  rated  on  that  statesman's   death,  and 
died,  revered  as  a  martyr  by  his  followers, 
,  in  1643.     A  large  number  had  come 
under  his  influence — Singlin,  his  succes- 
sor in  the  direction  of  Port  Royal,  An- 
toine  Arnauld,  his  no  less  gifted  sister, 
Angelique,  &c.    Of  these,  Antoine  Ar- 
nauld published  his  famous  book,  "  De  la 
frequente  Communion"  (Paris,  1643),  in 
i  the  year  that  St.  Cyran  died.    Tlie  object 
I  of  the  book  was  to  mend  the  relaxed 
j  discipline  of  the  Church.    It  urged  the 
I  duty  of  imposing  public   penance  for 
mortal  sins,  even  if  secret,  and  of  prepar- 
'  ing  sinners  for  absolution  and  communion 
by  a  long  course  of  rigorous  discipline. 
It  was  approved  by  sixteen  bishops  and 
twenty  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne,  who, 
I  however,  had  not  read  the  preface  with 
j  which  it  appeared,  and  which  gave  spL>cial 


512 


JANSENISM 


JAXSENIS.M 


offonce.     Some  ecclesiastics,    eg.    Dii  I 
Hamel,  in  the  diocese  of  Sens,  ventured 
to  reduce  the  Jansenist  theolntrv  to  prac- 
tice, and  restored  public  penance. 

.'>.  Javsenhm  from  the  Bull  of  Inno- 
cent X.  in  1653  to  the  Death  of  Aryimtld 
in  1694. — The  condemnation  of  the  Fire 
Propositions  by  the  Pope  necessitated  a 
chang-e  in  Jansenist  tactics,  for  the  Jan- 
senists  resolved  to  remain  in  external 
communion  with  the  Church.  Some  ap- 
pealed to  a  general  council,  but  Amauld 
was  now  the  real  leader  of  the  party,  and 
he  hit  upon  a  device  which  became  the 
main  point  of  contention  for  many  j-ears. 
He  was  willing  to  reject  the  Five  Pro- 
positions, but  he  denied  that  they  were 
to  be  fonnd  in  .Tansenius,  or,  if  so  found, 
that  they  bore  the  sense  imputed  to  them 
in  the  ]'a]ial  Constitution.  Bishops  imd 
theologians  disproved  Arnauld's  ass(^rtinn,  ' 
and  the  Pope  reprobated  it  September 
1654.  This  only  led  Arnauld  to  develop 
his  views  more  thoroughly.  The  Duke  of 
Liancourt  was  refused  absolution  in  the 
parish  of  St.  Sulpice,  because  of  his  con- 
nection with  the  Jansenists,  and  Amauld 
addressed  two  letters  to  the  peer.  In  his 
second  letter  ("  Seconde  Lettre  de  M. 
Amauld,  docteur  de  Sorbonne,  h,  un  Due 
et  Pair  de  France,  pour  servir  de  r^ponse 
k  plusieurs  (5crits  qui  ont  6t6  publics 
contre  la  premiere  lettre  sur  ce  qui  est 
arriv6  k  un  seigneur  de  la  cour  dans  une 
])aroissc  de  Paris."  A  Paris,  1655)  he 
distinguished  between  the  "  question  of 
law  "  {question  de  droit)  and  that  of  fact 
(question  de  fait) ;  in  other  words,  between 
the  question  whether  the  Five  Propositions 
as  condemned  by  the  Church  were  errone- 
ous, and  the  question  whether  the  book 
of  Jansenius  contained  them  in  the  sense 
condemned.  On  the  former  question  he 
admitted  the  Church's  infallibility  and 
the  duty  of  entire  submission  ;  the  latter, 
he  said,  was  a  question  of  historical  fact 
on  which  the  Church  midit  err,  and  it 
was  enough  if  the  faithful  received  her 
decision  upon  it  with  "respectful  silence." 
AVe  may  remark  in  passing  that  nobody 
claims  infallibility  for  the  Church  in 
facts  merely  liisf oiienl.  but  here  was  a 
question  intimately,  nay,  imlissolulily, 
connected  with  doctrine.  Ol'  what  avail 
would  the  Church's  infallibillly  l>e  if  she 
was  liable  to  error  in  intei  jn-et  lug  the 
natural  sense  of  books  and  jirnposlt  imis 
submitted  to  her,  and  so  of  mistaliing 
truth  for  error,  error  for  truth?  "\\'e 
say  the  natural  sense,  for  again  it  must 
rot  be  supposed  that  the  Church  professes 


to  read  the  heart  of  an  author.  He  may 
have  used  words  in  an  unnatural  sense^ 
he  may  have  suffered  from  some  mental 
confusion  or  aberration,  and  on  all  that 
the  judgment  belongs  to  God  alone,  to 
God  who  searches  the  heart.  But  the 
Church  can  judge  of  the  natural  and 
obvious  sense  which  words  bear  in  a 
book,  nor  could  she  execute  her  divine 
commission  to  feed  the  flock  of  Christ  if 
she  had  no  power  to  distinguish  between 
wholesome  and  poisonous  pasture. 

Generally  speaking,  the  Jansenists 
accepted  the  means  of  escape  which 
Arnauld  had  suggested.  The  nuns  of 
Port  Royal,  however,  did  so  with  difli- 
culty,  and  only  when  over-persuaded  by 
the  .\bliess  Augelique  Arnauld.  Among 
tlie  (listiuijuished  men  of  the  ])arty  who 
tonli  up  their  al)ode  in  the  Convent  of  Port 
Koyal  des  Champs  after  th.'  nuns  had 
moved  to  Port  Royal  de  Paris,  Pascal 
utterly  refused  to  accept  the  compromise. 
This  did  not  hinder  him,  however,  from 
aecomjilishiug  a  mighty  work  in  the 
.lanseuist  interest.  In  his  "Provincial 
Letters"  (Paris,  1656),  published  under 
thepseudoiiyin  Louis  Moutalt,  he  attacked 
the  Jesuits  for  relaxed  morals,  and  de- 
fended the  Jansenist  doctrine  of  grace 
with  a  refinement  of  style  and  delicacy  of 
wit  which  have  never  been  sur])assed  in 
any  literature.  There  were  many  members 
of  the  party  more  learned  than  Pascal, 
but  he  had  no  equal  in  genius.  Nothing 
can  be  more  amazing  tlian  the  interest 
with  which  he  invest  s  the  dry  controversies 
on  grace,  and  although  no  doubt  he  was 
often  unfair  to  the  casuists  whom  he  held 
up  to  scorn  and  detestation,  and  altliough 
many  of  his  charges  were  rebutted — e.ff. 
by  tiie  Jesuit  Father  Daniel — the  charm 
of  his  l)ook  led  his  readers  captive,  and 
the  answers  were  read  l)y  lew.  No  one 
who  has  read  the  "  Provincial  Ijctters  "  is 
likely  to  lose  the  impression  which  they 
make:  it  may  be  said  without  exaggt>ra- 
tion  that  they  touch  every  chord  of  the 
human  heart,  and  the  sudden  transitions 
from  logic  and  wit  to  sublime  and 
pathetic  eloquence  produce  an  effect 
which  can  neither  be  resisted  or  efl'aced. 
Pascal's  "Peusees,  fragments,  et  lettres" 
are  a  lasting  monument  of  deej)  and 
!  subtle  thouglit,  and  have  doiu'  good  work 
j  for  religion,  tliough  even  these  are  marred 
liere  and  there  l>v  Jaii.-euist  teiuleucies. 
Pascal  die<l  vouu-.  in  Ki'-.L'.  Hi-  friend- 
Nicole,  also  one  of  solitaries  of  Port 
i  Royal,  wi'ote  chiefly  on  moral  subjects  in 
j  French  which  is  still  esteemed  as  a  model 


JANSENISM 

of  correct  writing.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  work  of  the  Janseuist 
writers  was  ver\-  far  from  being  wholly 
evil.  Arniiukl  and  his  friends  defended 
many  Catholic  doctrines  against  the 
Calvinists,  and  the  elaborate  work, 
"  Perpetuity  de  la  Foi,"  by  Amauld  and 
Nicole,  is  perhaps  the  very  best,  as  it 
certainly  is  the  most  learned  and  ex- 
haustive, defence  of  the  Catholic  doctrine 
on  the  Eucharist.  Every  one  knows  what 
important  contributions  the  Port  Royal 
Jansenists  made  to  the  sciences  of  logic, 
grammar,  and  philosophy,  nor  is  it  the 
least  among  their  many  titles  to  enduring 
fame  that  the  great  historian  Tillemont 
was  their  pupil. 

The  Jansenists  were  not  left  long  in 
peace.  Amauld's  thesis  on  the  distinc- 
tion between  the  "  question  de  droit "  and 
the  "question  de  fait"  was  condemned 
by  the  Sorbonne,  and  he  with  sixty  other 
doctors  was  expelled  from  that  society. 
"  To-day,"  he  writes  to  his  beloved  sister 
-■^g^lique.  "  they  are  erasing  my  name 
from  the  list  of  doctors,  but  I  hope  our  I 
Lord  will  not  erase  it  from  the  number 
of  His  servants."  In  a  Constitution  of 
October  16,  1656,  Alexander  VII.  de- 
clared that  the  Five  Propositions  were 
condemned  "  in  the  sense  of  the  author," 
and  in  1665  imposed  on  all  ecclesiastical 
persons  the  subscription  of  a  "formulary" 
consisting  of  a  solemn  profession  so  to  j 
accept  the  Papal  condemnation.  Four 
bishops — those  of  Alet,  .^gers,  Beauvais, 
and  Pamiers,  refused  to  sign  except  with 
the  evasive  distinction  between  "  droit " 
and  "fait."  After  nearly  two  years  of 
strife  and  much  intrigue,  Clement  IX., 
early  in  1669,  restored  the  bishops  to  his 
favour,  and  this  step,  known  as  "the 
peace  of  Clement,"  was  hailed  by  the 
Jansenists  as  a  triumph  for  themselves 
and  a  revocation  of  past  censures.  In 
reality  the  Pope  was  led  to  believe  that 
the  bishops  had  made  an  unqualified  sub- 
mission. The  Jansenists  were  jubilant 
again  when  Innocent  XI.  in  1679  censured 
a  large  number  of  propositions  extracted 
from  the  la.x  casuists.  Nobody  certainly 
who  reads  them  will  wonder  at  the 
scandal  and  the  reaction  which  lax  theo- 
logy created.  "What,  e.g.,  is  to  be  said 
of  a  writer  professedly  Christian  who 
held  that  "  frequent  confession  and  com- 
munion, even  in  those  who  live  like  i 
heathen,  is  a  mark  of  predestination " 
(Prop.  .06)? 

But  the  peace  of  which  the  Jansenists 
dreamed  did  not  last.  The  Flemish  bishops 


JANSENISM  513 

in  their  zeal  against  error  had  required  the 
"formulary  "  to  be  signed  with  additions  of 
their  own.  These  additions,  as  well  as 
vague  accusations  of  Jansenism,  the  Pope 
forbade  in  a  brief  of  1694,  but  at  the 
same  time  he  did  strictly  require  subscrip- 
tion to  the  original  "  formulary,"  and  the 
condemnation  of  the  Five  Propositions 
"in  the  obvious  sense  which  they  bear." 
A  few  months  later  "  the  great  Arnauld," 
as  his  disciples  loved  to  call  him,  died  in 
the  Low  Countries,  and  his  friend  Nicole 
followed  him  the  year  after.  Arnaiilds 
sister  Angelique  was  gone  more  than 
thirty  years  before ;  the  Society  of  Port 
Royal  des  Champs  had  been  scattered, 
while  the  nuns  had  been  forbidden  to  take 
novices  and  ordered  to  dismiss  their 
pupils.  It  was  during  our  next  period, 
in  1709,  that  the  nuns  were  all  expelled  ; 
the  convent  itself  was  utterly  destroved 
in  1710. 

4.  Jansenism  under  Quesnel,  down  to 
the  publication  of  the  Bull  Unigenitu-i  in 
1713. — Pasquier  Quesnel  was  bom  at 
Paris  in  1634,  and  ordained  priest  in  1659. 
At  an  early  age  he  had  entered  the  Oratory 
founded  by  Cardinal  BeruUe,  in  which 
Jansenist  principles  had  become  dominant, 
and  devoted  himself  to  learned  pursuits. 
In  1671  he  published  "Moral  Reflexions 
on  the  Gospels,"  and  in  1675  a  learned 
edition  of  St.  Leo,  which  was  censured 
by  Clement  X.  On  account  of  his  refusal 
to  sign  the  formulary  he  was  first  banished 
to  Orleans,  then  in  1684  expelled  from 
the  Orator}',  and  finally  fled  to  Brussels, 
whither  Arnauld  had  gone  in  1679.  Here 
he  extended  his  Moral  Reflexions  on  the 
Gospels  to  Reflexions  on  the  whole  of  the 
New  Testament.  This  enlarged  work 
appeared  in  two  editions  more  and  more 
Jansenist  than  those  of  1687  and  1692. 
It  was  in  Quesnel's  arms  that  Arnauld 
died,  and  to  him  he  entrusted  the  care  of 
the  party.  Gerberon,  a  Benedictine  of 
the  Congregation  of  St.  Maur,  was  Ques- 
nel's companion  in  prison  and  exile,  and 
laboured  long  and  zealously  in  the  same 
cause. 

Clement  XI.  (Pope  from  1700  to  1721) 
issued  two  bulls  against  Jansenism,  each 
of  which  marks  an  epoch  in  the  contro- 
versy. The  former  of  these,  the  "  Vineam 
Domini,"  was  occasioned  by  the  "  Cas  de 
Conscience."  In  1701  a  Jansenist  con- 
sulted the  Sorbonne  on  the  lawfulness  of 
absolving  a  dying  ecclesiastic  who  was 
not  convinced  that  the  Five  Propositions 
as  condemned  by  the  Church  were  to  be 
found  in  the  book  of  Jansenius.  Forty 

LL 


514 


JANSENISM 


JANSENISM 


doctors,  among  whom  were  Dupin  and 
Natalis  Alexander,  signed  a  document 
atlirming  that  absolution  should  be  given. 
Bossuet's  influence  led  nearly  all  these 
doclnrs  (not,  however,  Dupin)  to  retract 
their  opinion,  and  NoaiUes,  archbishop 
of  I'aris,  raiii^cd  liini.self,  after  some 
wavering,  on  Jio>,-iii  t',s  side.  Dupin  was 
banished;  Qutsiit'l,  \\  lio  had  addressed  a 
violent  letter  to  Xoailles,  was  imprisoned 
by  the  An  hljishop  of  Malines,  but  escaped 
to  Anist.T.lain.  Li  1705  the  Pope,  at 
the  iii^laiici-  of  the  French  Court,  gave  a 
fresli  decision  on  the  matter.  In  the 
^'  Vineam  Domuii "  he  renewed  the  Con- 
stitutions of  Innocent  X.  and  Alexander 
VII.  and  the  Briefs  of  Clement  IX.  and 
Innocent  XII.,  and  again  hisisted  that 
Catholics  were  bound  to  give  full  and  uu- 
doubting  assent  to  the  Church's  decision  on 
the  matter  of  fact,  a  "  respectful  silence" 
being  by  no  means  sufficient.  In  1711, 
after  difficulties  and  delays  occasioned 
cliiefly  by  Colbert,  archbishop  of  Rouen, 
the  Pope  was  satisfied  that  the  French 
episcopate  had  accepted  the  decree. 

Vorse  troubles  were  in  store.  Ques- 
nel's  '-floral  Kellexions"  had  been  pro- 
scribed by  the  I*ope  in  1708,  but  the 
Parliament  of  Paris  objected  to  any  pro- 
hibition of  French  books  except  by  their 
own  authority,  and  Noailles,  the  weak- 
minded  Arclibisho])  of  Paris,  was  swayed 
bv  tlie  Jaii>eiiist  Ueiiaudot  (now  remem- 
bered chietly  for  his  admirable  translation 
and  edition  of  the  Oriental  Liturgies,  still 
the  classical  work  on  the  subject),  De  la 
Tour,  general  of  the  Oratory,  Le  Noir, 
Boileau,  and  Duguet.  The  kin-',  how- 
ever, and  many  French  bisli(i|is  were 
^^aiting  anxiously  for  the  Pope  to  speali 
out  more  fully.  I'enelon  informed  him  of 
tile  \\  av  .Jansenism  spread  in  France  and 
in  neighbouring  States.  In  1713  the  ex- 
pected answer  came  from  liome.  The 
bull  "Unigenilus"  condemned  101  pro- 
positions from  the  later  editions  of  Ques- 
iiel's  book,  and  furnished  a  more  complete 
exhibition  of  the  Church's  mind  on  the 
controversy  than  any  wlrich  had  hitherto 
appeared.  Forty-three  of  the  condemned 
propositions  concern  grace  and  ])redesti- 
nation ;  twenty-eight  treat  of  the  theologi- 
cal virtues ;  thirty  deal  with  t  lie  Church, 
with  discipline,  and  with  the  sacraments. 
The  errors  of  the  first  class  need  not  detain 
u^  here.  As  regards  those  of  the  si'coiul, 
Quesnel  was  condemned  loi- lln|,llll^  iImi 
all  love  except  the  supeniat ui 1  lii\e  ui 
God  was  evil,  that  without  this  love  there 
could  be  no  true  hope,  observance  ot  the 


law  or  religion,  that  every  prayer  made 
by  a  sinner  was  sinful.  The  errors  of  thti 
third  class  consisted  in  Quesnel's  assertioii 
that  the  Church  was  made  up  of  the  elect 
alone,  and  that  the  chief  pastors  must  not 
excommunicate  except  with  the  consent 
of  the  whole  body ;  that  all  without  ex- 
ception should  read  the  Bible ;  that  the 
j  faithful  at  Mass  should  join  their  voice 
to  that  of  the  priest ;  ^  that  sinners  should 
1  not  hear  Mass  at  all;  that  absolution 
j  should  be  deferred  till  penance  had  been 
1  done.  No  note  was  affixed  to  the  par- 
ticular propositions,  some  of  which  plainly 
are  not  positively  heretical,  while  others, 
apart  from  their  context  and  the  spirit  b} 
which  they  are  animated,  are  capable  of 
a  good  sense.  But  they  are  condemned 
in  mass  {in  globu),  as  respectively  false, 
captious,  ill-sounding,  scandalous,  impious, 
&c.,  and  even  as  heretical. 

5.  The  last  Struggles  of  the  Jansenists. 
— Quesnel  was  a  very  old  mau  when  the 
"  Unigenitus  "  appeared,  and  he  died  but 
a  few  years  later,  in  1719.  With  him  the 
significance  of  Jansenism  as  a  great  theo- 
logical and  literary  movement  came  to  an 
end,  for  no  intellectual  leader  arose  to  re- 
place the  great  men  who  had  passed  awaj-. 
Partly,  no  doubt,  Jansenism  lost  its  youth- 
ful vigour  by  the  same  law  of  decay  which 
seems  to  affect  all  rehgious  and  political 
parties.  Enthusiasm  dies  out,  and  with 
it,  to  a  certain  extent,  self-sacrifice  :  men 
of  genius  leave  no  successors.  But,  be- 
sides, it  had  become  very  hard  for  a  mau 
of  sense  to  join  the  Jansenist  ranks.  It 
had  grown  clearer  and  clearer  that  the 
whole  teaching  authority  of  the  Church 
had  uttered  itself  against  tlie  Jansenist 
doctrine.  Those  who  had  already  com- 
mitted themselves  might  be  content  with 
the  evasions  to  which  the  later  Jansenists 
had  recoiu-se ;  they  might  agree  that 
Papal  decisions  were  worthless  because  a 
few  bishops  had  not  assented  to  them,  or 
because  the  vast  majority  of  the  e])isco- 
pate  which  had  assented  were  deficient 
in  learning,  were  corrupted  by  their'  belief 
in  Papal  infallibihty,  had  forgotten  to 
consult  the  clergy  of  the  second  order,  &c., 
&c.  They  might  require  an  absolute 
unanimity  on  the  part  of  the  episcopate, 
or  make  the  Church's  infallibility  depend 
on  an  asseut  of  the  laity  which  could  not 
possibly  be  ascertained.  Scarcely  any- 
one, wi'  sav,  could  accept  these  evasions 
e.\i-.  ]il  iiM'ler  stress  of  circumstances,  and 
niore  li.uiial  minds  were  sure  to  reason 
more  boldly  and  consistently,  and  to  re- 
I       1  This  .setnis  to  be  tliu  sense  of  Prop.  86. 


JAXSEXISM 


JANSEXTSTS  OF  HOLLAND  51 5. 


ject  the  Church's  authority  altogether.  I  Jansenist  Church  in  Holland,  and  of  the 
Jansenism  in  its  sincere  form  ended  in  council  of  Pistoia.  Unhappily,  the  spirit 
fanatical  superstition.  Miracles  were  sup-  !  of  opposition  to  the  Church  which  .Ian- 
posed  to  be  worked  at  the  tomb  of  a  senism  had  aroused  was  powerful  for  evil 
.lansenist  deacon,  Francois  de  Paris,  who  '  long  after  Jansenism  itself  had  ceased  to 
•lied  in  1727,  and  was  buried  in  the  ceme-  be  danpernus.  From  1731  down  to  about 
tery  of  St.  M^dard.  Accounts  of  his  life  17o7,  the  Parliaments  inflicted  a  long 
and  miracles  were  printed  at  Utrecht,  series  of  persecutions  on  the  clergy  who, 
Brussels,  Paris,  and  Cologne.  Crowds  faithful  to  their  duty,  refused  the  sacra- 
made  pilgrimages  to  his  gnive,  and  many  j  ments  to  the  Appellants.  De  Beaumont, 
fell  into  ridiculous  ecstasies  and  horrible  j  archbishop  of  Paris,  was  bani.-^hed  from 
convulsions  which  gained  for  the  Jan-  '  his  see  because  he  would  not  abandon 
senists  the  name  of  "  Convulsionnaires."  Catholic  principles  on  this  point.  And 
Louis  XV.  closed  the  cemetery  in  1732.  even  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution 
A  melancholy  end  surely  for  the  party  of  '  which  swept  the  ancient  Church  and 
Pascal  and  Arnauld.  i  Monarchy  of  France  away,  the  Jansenist 

But  we  have  been  anticipating.  Louis  Camus  undertook  the  thankless  task  of 
XIV.;  always  a  determined  foe  of  Jan-  I  justifying  the  notorious  "  Civil  Constitu- 
senism,  died  in  1715;  his  great-grandson,  tion  of  the  Clergy"  on  theological  prin- 
Louis  XV.,  was  a  child  of  five,  and  under  ciples. 

the  Regency  freer  rein  was  given  to  the  (The  facts  in  this  article  are  taken 
opponents  of  the  Roman  decisions.  In  from  Cardinal  Hergenrother's  "Church 
1717  the  Bishops  of  Mirepoix,  Mont-  History,"  vol.  ii.  Vol.  iii.  contains  a  very 
pellier,  Boulogne,  and  S^ez  notified  to  j  full  account  of  the  enormous  literature 
the  Sorbonne  their  appeal  against  the  on  the  Jansenist  controversies.) 
"  Unigenitus  "  to  a  future  council.  The  TASrSEM'ZST  CHURCH  OP 
"  Appellants,"  as  they  were  called,  were  HOXtliATTB.  The  revolt  of  the  Dutch 
supported  by  the  Universities  of  Rheims  Provinces  from  Spanish  rule  led  to  some 
and  Nantes,  by  the  Sorbonne,  although  it  measures  of  repression  ag.iinst  the  Dutch 
had  previously  accepted  the  Papal  bull,  Catholics.  The  Church  property  was 
by  the  Bishops  of  Verdun  and  Pamiers,  confiscated  and  the  hierarchy  overthrown, 
by  Noailles,  archbishop  of  Paris,  and  The  first  and  last  Archbishop  of  Utrecht 
practically  by  the  Regent.  In  1721  the  !  died  in  1.580,  just  before  even  the  public 
Bishops  of  St$ez,  BoulogTie,  Montpellier,  I  worship  of  the  Catliolic  rehgion  was 
Pamiers,  Macon,  Auxerre,  Tournay,  ad-  |  forbidden  by  William  of  Orange  ;  two 
dressed  a  letter  to  the  new  Pope,  Inno-  |  successors  nominated  by  Spain  could  not 
cent  XIII.,  which  he  condemned  in  the  I  reach  their  see,  and  except  at  Utrecht 
following  year  as  schismatical  and  full  of  ■  and  Haarlem,  the  members  of  the  ancient 
the  heretical  spirit.  In  1723  the  assembly  chapters  were  nearly  all  dead.  Accord- 
of  the  French  clergy  besought  the  king  ingly,  in  1583,  Gregory  XIII.  appointed  a 
to  declare  the  two  bulls,  "  Vineam  Do-  Vicar  Apostolic  for  the  Dutch  mission, 
mini "  and  "  Unigenitus,"  binding  laws  of  and  in  1697  this  dignitary,  who  of  course 
Church  and  State;  and  in  1727,  Soanen,  !  possessedonlyadelegated authority, which 
bishop  of  S6ez,  was  suspended  with  the  |  could  be  withdrawn  at  the  mere  will  of 
Pope's  sanction  by  the  ])rovincial  council  I  the  Pope,  was  subjected  to  the  supervision 
of  Embrxm  and  banished.  But  confusion  |  of  the  nuncio  at  Brussels.  A  step  which 
and  strife  still  prevailed  in  the  French  I  afterwards  led  to  important  results  was 
Church.  Twelve  bishops,  headed  by  I  taken  by  Philip  Roven  van  Ardensal, 
Noailles,  protested  against  the  sentence  |  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Holland  and  Arch- 
of  Embrun.  However,  the  beginning  of  j  bishop  of  Philippi  in  partibus.  In  1<>31 
the  end  was  now  near,  so  far  as  episcopal  j  he  formed  tiieremainingcanons  of  Utrecht, 
opposition  to  the  bull  went.  Noailles  along  with  certain  parish  priests  and 
recanted  in  1728,  shortly  before  his  death,  other  ecclesiastics,  into  a  collegiate  body, 
and  the  next  year  the  Sorbonne  again  We  shall  speak  of  this  body  for  the  snke 
accepted  the  "Unigenitus."  These  steps  of  brevity  as  the  Utreclit  Chapter,  but  it 
were  followed  in  1730  by  a  vigorous  de-  must  be  remembered  it  had  no  just  claim 
claration  on  the  part  of  the  king  against  to  the  rights  and  privileges  of  a  cathedral 
the  Jansenists.  j  chapter.    Later  on  in  the  same  century, 

Here  we  may  close  the  history  of  French  Jansenists  fled  to  Holland,  and  im- 
Jansenism  as  a  theological  system,  for  an  bued  many  of  the  Dutch  Catholics  with 
account  is  given  in  separate  articles  of  the  |  their  principles.   Even  a  Vicar  Apostolic^ 

L  L  2 


5]  6  JAXSENISTS  OF  HOLLAND 


JANSENISTS  OF  HOLLAND 


Peter  Kodde,  consecrated  at  Brussels 
in  1689,  supported  tbe  Jansenist  cause, 
and  was  suspended  by  Clement  XI.  in 
1702.  Jansenist  intri^es  led  to  the 
banishment  of  Van  Kock,  whom  the 
Pope  had  named  Pro- Vicar,  from  Hol- 
land. 

Kodde  organised  a  schism,  and,  when 
Rome  deposed  him  altogether,  declared 
that  he  had  been  elected  Archbishop  of 
Utrecht  by  the  chapter  of  that  see.  He 
refused  to  sign  the  formulary  of  Alex- 
ander VH.,  and  died  without  recantation 
in  1710.  Fifty -two  missions  and  eighty 
priests  fell  from  Catholic  communion, 
while  Quesnol,  Gerberon,  Petitpied,  and 
otlier  French  Jansenists  were  allowed  to 
labour  in  the  interests  of  their  party  by 
the  Protestant  government.  The  Chap- 
ter of  Utrecht  refused  obedience  to  suc- 
cessive Vicars  Apostolic,  and  joined  the 
French  Appellants  in  their  resistance  to 
the  "  Unigenitus."  They  were  able  to 
teop  u])  a  supply  of  schismatical  priests 
by  sending  their  candidates  with  dimis- 
fiorials  to  French  Appellant  bisliops. 

In  1723  the  Chapter  of  Utrecht  chose 
Stenhoven,  formerly  Vicar  General,  Arch- 
bishop of  Utrecht,  and  he  was  consecrated 
by  Varlet,  suspended  Bishop  of  Babylon 
in  pai-tihus.  Two  years  later  the  Pope 
excommunicated  all  who  took  part  in  this 
act,  and  the  great  canonist  Van  Espen, 
who  defended  its  legality,  had  to  leave 
Louvain  in  consequence.  Altcigetlier, 
Vailet  consecrated  no  less  than  four 
Arelibishops  of  Utrecht,  all  of  them 
excommunicated  by  Rome,  and  when  he 
himself  died,  Meindarts,  the  last  arch- 
bishop whom  he  coiisocrated,  estabUshed 
the  schismatical  bishopric  of  Haarlem  in 
1742,  and  that  of  Deventer  in  1752.  In 
1763  Meindarts  held  a  synod  at  Utrecht 
and  sent  the  acts  to  Rome,  where  of  course 
they  were  re  jected.  Meindart's  successor 
was  consecrated  by  the  schismatical 
Bishop  of  Haarlem,  and  so  the  succession 
of  bisliops  and  priests  has  been  main- 
tained down  to  our  own  day.  But  they 
have  been  constantly  diminishing,  and 
the  Bishop  of  Deventer  is  obliged  to 
officiate  as  a  parish  priest,  not  having 
any  Jansenists  in  his  diocese.  The  Dutch 
Jansenists  novr  number  less  than  5,000 
Bouls.  They  protested  against  the  defi- 
nition of  the  Immaculate  Conception  in 
1854,  and  the  Papal  Infallibility  m  1870, 
and  they  attracted  some  notice  when 
Loos,  so-called  Archbishop  of  Utrecht, 
consecrated  Dr.  Reiiikens  bishop  for  the 
German   "Old   Catholics."     They  are 


completely  overshadowed  by  the  great 
and  flourishing  Catholic  Church  of  Hol- 
land. Since  lfe51,  when  Pius  IX.  restored 
the  Dutch  hierarchy,  there  has  been  a 
real  Archbishop  of  Utrecht,  with  Bisliops 
of  Haarlem,  Hertogenbosch,  Breda,  and 
Roermond. 

The  Dutch  Jansenists  are  in  many 
ways  an  interesting  body.  Unlike  most 
other  sects,  they  remain  just  where  they 
were  on  their  separation  from  Rome. 
They  have  retained  valid  orders,  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy,  the  Mass  and  other 
services  in  Latin.  They  are  known  in 
Holland  as  old-Roman  (oud-Roomsch), 
for  they  profess  to  be  not  only  CathoUcs 
but  Roman  Catholics,  and  they  acknow- 
ledge the  Pope  as  the  visible  head  of  the 
Church,  out  of  which  there  is  no  salva- 
tion, and  one  of  their  synods  condemned 
the  doctrine  that  the  schismatic  Greeks 
are  part  of  the  Church  of  Christ.  The 
Blessed  Sacrament  is  reserved  in  their 
churches.  The  writer  of  this  article  has 
carefully  read  recent  editions  of  their 
prayer-book  corresponding  to  our  "  Gar- 
den of  the  Soul,"  their  popular  catechism 
and  their  hymn-book,  procured  for  him 
by  the  kindness  of  a  friend,  and  has 
found  them  to  be  exactly,  or  almost 
exactly,  like  English  Catholic  books  of  the 
same  sort,  or,  to  speak  more  accurately, 
like  what  our  English  Catholic  books 
were  some  fifty  years  ago,  before  many 
modern  devotions  were  introduced.  Thus 
in  a  short  summary  of  belief  appended  to 
a  sort  of  layman's  Missal,  pubhshed  at 
Utrecht  in  1879,  the  unity  of  the  Church 
under  the  Pope,  the  seven  Sacraments, 
the  duty  of  prayer  for  the  souls  in  Pur- 
gatory, the  Invocation  of  Saints,  and 
especially  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  Mother 
of  God  and  of  all  Christians,  are  taught 
just  in  the  language  familiar  to  us.  The 
"  Hail  Mary  "  occurs  in  the  morning  and 
evening  devotion,  and  two  hymns  are 
addressed  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  the 
hymn-book.  The  ordinary  of  the  Mass 
is  given  in  Dutch,  though  of  course  the 
priest  recites  it  in  Latin.  We  have  been 
unable  to  discover  any  trace  of  heresy  in 
these  books.  The  Jansenists,  we  believe, 
as  a  rule,  practise  their  rehgion  by  hear- 
ing Mass,  going  to  confession,  &c.,  and 
are  under  strict  discipline,  absolution 
being  sometimes  deferred  for  a  very  long 
time.  The  friend  ab-eady  referred  to 
was  told  by  the  Cathohc  Archbishop  of 
Utrecht,  that  conversions  of  Jansenists 
to  Catholicism  are  very  rare.  He  him- 
self had  only  known  of  one  instance  at 


JANUARIUS,  ST. 


JEROXYMITES  517 


Utrecht  during  a  ministry  of  nearly  fifty 
years  in  that  city. 

TAM-VARIVS,     ST.,  TCXRACXiE 

or.  Januarius,  Bishop  of  Bcuevento, 
•p-as  h4;headed  for  the  faith  near  Puteoli 
•n  the  persecution  of  Diocletian,  and  his 
relics  after  a  time  were  removed  to 
Naples.  In  the  great  church  there  are 
preserved  his  head  and  some  of  hishlood, 
■which,  as  his  Acts  relate,  was  gathered 
up  from  the  ground  by  a  poor  woman  at 
the  time  of  the  martyrdom,  and  enclosed 
in  two  small  glass  phials  {ampuUee)  of 
peculiar  construction.  On  several  occa- 
sions it  is  recorded  that  his  rehcs  were 
carried  in  procession  during  eruptions  of 
Vesuvius,  and  that  danger  was  averted 
from  the  city.  The  celebrated  standing 
miracle  of  the  liquefaction  of  the  blood 
of  St.  Januarius  consists  in  this:  that 
when  the  dried  up,  congealed  blood  in 
the  phials,  which  is  ordinarily  hard  and 
solid  and  in  several  pieces,  is  brought 
near  to  the  head  (the  phials,  or  one  of 
them,  being  placed  on  the  altar,  and 
prayer  being  made  to  God),  the  blood, 
after  a  longer  or  shorter  interval,  is 
usually  seen  to  become  liquid  and  flow, 
and  bubbles  to  arise  on  its  surface. 
Among  many  other  eye-witnesses,  the 
learned  and  gifted  Picus  of  Mirandola 
says :  "  I  saw  that  blood  with  my  own 
eyes  .  .  .  when  the  head  was  brought 
near  to  it,  grow  red,  melt,  and  bubble  up 
as  if  it  had  been  newly  shed  from  the 
veins."  (See  the  "  Commentarius  Prae- 
vius  "  in  the  Acta  SS.,  vol.  vi.  of  Sep- 
tember, where  the  whole  question  is  fully 
discussed.) 

JEROXTTniXTES.  The  example  of 
St.  Jerome,  who  spent  four  years  in  the 
Syrian  desert,  wrestling  with  the  powers 
of  evil  and  his  own  irregular  thoughts, 
was  followed  by  great  numbers  of  holy 
men  in  the  middle  ages,  who  passed 
under  the  general  name  of  Hermits  of  St. 
Jerome  or  Jeronymites.  H61yot,  the 
historian  of  the  ^lonastic  Orders,  dis- 
tinguishes four  Congregations  of  Jerony- 
mites, of  which  the  iirst  was  incomparably 
more  important  than  the  others.  These 
are — 

1.  The  Hermits  of  Spain.  Disciples 
of  the  Blessed  Thomas  of  Sienna,  a 
brother  of  the  third  order  of  St.  Francis, 
passing  into  Spain  about  the  middle  of 
the  fomlaentli  ceiiturv,  lived  at  first  like 
hermits,  but  afterwaiils  deciding  for  the 
coenobitic  life,  were  api)iiived  in  1374  by 
Gregory  XI.,  who  gave  them  the  ride  of 
St.  Austin.    Ferdinand  de  Guadalajara 


I  was  their  first  prior ;  his  convent,  at  St. 
Bartholomew  de  Lupiana  in  Castile,  was 
always  regarded  as  the  principal  house 
of  the  order.  Another  division  of  these 
hermits  from  Italy  settled  in  Valencia, 
adopted  the  life  in  common  about  the 
same  time  as  their  brethren  in  Castile, 
and  in  the  course  of  time  founded  several 
convents,  the  fame  of  which  spread 
through  Europe.  These  were,  (1)  Our 
Lady  of  Guadaloupe  in  Estremadura  (of 
which  we  shall  speak  presently) ;  (2)  that 
commonly  called  St.  Just,  but  more 
accurately  the  convent  of  St.  Jerome  at 
Yuste  near  Placencia,  to  which  Charles 
V.  retired  after  his  abdication;  (3)  St. 
Lawrence  of  the  Escurial  near  Madrid, 
built  and  adorned  on  a  majestic  plan  by 
Philip  n. ;  and  (4)  Belem  near  Lisbon, 
the  burial-place  of  the  royal  family  of 
Portugal.  Of  the  magnificent  convent 
of  Our  Lady  of  Guadaloupe,  famous  for 
its  wonder-worlting  image,  H^lyot,  writ- 
ing early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  says  • 
"The  house  is  so  large  and  spacious 
that  when  Philip  11.  passed  by  it  in  1 5H0 
on  his  way  to  the  war  of  Granada  with 
the  Archduke  Rodolph,  afterwards  Em- 
peror ....  these  princes  resided  there 
for  twenty  days  with  all  their  court, 
without  causing  the  least  inconvenience 
to  the  monks,  who  are  a  himdred  and 
twenty  in  number.  .  .  The  alms  re- 
ceived are  very  considerable,  and  serve 
for  some  portion  of  the  maintenance  of 
the  large  number  of  religious,  of  a  semi- 
nary of  forty  clerical  students,  who  are 
here  taught  the  humanities  and  the  exer- 
cises of  a  clerical  Ufe,  of  two  hospitals  for 
men  and  women  adjoining  the  monastery, 
and  of  a  great  number  of  servants  and 
workmen  in  all  kinds  of  trades.  The 
hospital  for  men  is  served  by  more  than 
forty  attendants,  and  that  for  women  by 
an  equal  number  of  Oblates  ;  and  without 
counting  the  pilgrims,  of  whom  as  many 
as  two  thousand  sometimes  arrive  in  a 
day,  and  who  are  entertained  during 
three  days  in  the  convent,  the  establish- 
ment feeds  more  than  seven  hmidred 
persons  daily." 

In  1415,  when  the  first  chapter  general 
was  held,  there  were  twenty-five  houses 
of  Jeronymites  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 

2.  Tiie  Hermits  of  the  Obsen-aiice,  or 
of  Lombardy.  This  branch  of  the  Jerony- 
mites was  founded  by  the  prior  Lope  de 
Olmedo,  who,  not  being  able  to  persuade 
his  monks  at  Guadalajara  to  give  up 
certain  relaxations,  went  to  Rome  (1424), 
and  being  cordially  received  by  Martin  V., 


518  JERUSALEM 


JERUSALEM 


ultimately  established  in  Lombardy  and 
other  parts  of  Italy  a  flourishing  congre- 
gation of  Jeronymites,  whose  chief  house 
was  at  Ospitaletto  near  Lodi.  In  H^lyot's 
time  this  Congregation  had  seventeen 
houses  in  Italy. 

3.  The  Hermits  of  the  Blessed  Peter 
of  Pisa.  Pietro  Gambacorti,  horn  in 
1355  of  a  noble  Pisan  family,  quitted  the 
world  about  1377,  and  lived  as  a  liciinit 
at  Montebello  in  Umbria.  Many  joined 
him ;  he  made  his  followers  practise  a 
very  austere  rule,  and  formed  them  into 
a  congregation  under  the  patronage  of 
St.  Jerome.  When  H^lyot  wote,  there 
were  forty  houses  of  this  order  in  Italy, 
besides  a  few  in  Tyrol  and  Bavaria. 

4.  The  Hermits  of  Fiesole.  The 
founder  of  this  branch,  Carlo  di  Monte- 
graneli,  was  bom  about  1340.  They 
were  suppressed  by  Clement  IX.  in  1668, 
along  with  the  Jesuats.  So  far  as  we 
can  discover,  no  Jeronymite  convents 
exist  at  the  present  day.  (H6lyot,  "  Hist, 
des  Ordres  Monastiques.") 

7x:rvsa.i.x:ivi,pa.trzarcha.te 
OP.  The  first  bishop  of  Jerusalem  was 
James  the  Less,  who  was  appointed  by 
the  Apostles  (Euseb.  "H.  E."  ii.  23). 
After  his  death  the  Apostles  and  disciples 
of  Christ  chose  Simeon,  son  of  Clopas,  a 
relation  of  our  Lord,  to  fill  the  vacant 
see  (Euseb.  "  H.  E."  iii.  11).  It  is  a 
natural  inference  from  the  words  of 
Hegesippus  (Euseb.  "  H.  E."  iii.  32),  that 
Jerusalem  at  that  time  had  a  prominence 
over  all  the  churches  in  Palestine,  which 
were,  like  the  church  of  Jerusalem  itself, 
mostly  composed  of  Jewish  Christians. 
Things  were  entirely  altered  when 
Hadrian  punished  the  Jewish  revolt  by 
the  destruction  of  the  holy  city,  and  re- 
placed it  (a.d.  130)  by  ^lia  CapitoUna. 
The  old  Judaao-Christian  community  was 
scattered ;  Hadrian  made  it  an  oflence  for 
a  Jew  to  enter  the  new  city  built  on  the 
site,  or  rather  part  of  the  site,  of  Jeru- 
salem, so  that  there  was  no  hope  of  fresh 
converts  from  Judaism,  and  a  series  of 
freiitile  bishops  began  of  whom  Mark  was 
the  first  (Euseb.  "  H.  E."  v.  12).  The 
church  of  ^lia  Capitolina  was  subjected 
to  that  of  Caesarea,  ])nrtly  because  of  the 
civil  prominence  which  belonged  to  the 
latter,  partly  because  it  could  claim  a 
connection  with  the  Apostles  (there  St. 
Peter  had  baptised  Cornelius)  and  an 
antiquity  to  which  the  new  church  of 
.Elia  Capitolina  could  not  pretend.  The 
very  name  of  Jerusalem  fell  out  of  use 
till  after  the  Nicene  Council. 


Still  it  was  impossible  to  ignore  en- 
tirely the  associations  connected  with 
Jerusalem.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
second  century  Eusebius  ("  H.  E."  v.  23) 
tells  us  that  the  bishop  of  ^lia  presided 
along  with  (and  no  doubt  as  second  in 
rank  to)  the  bishop  of  Caesarea  at  Pales- 
tinian synods,  and  we  can  see  how  near 
tlie  two  sees  stood  in  rank  from  the  fact 
tliat  I'^usebius  in  giving  a  list  of  bishops 
mentions  the  bishop  of  ^Elia  once  before 
("  H.  E."  V.  25),  and  once  after  {ib.  22), 
the  bishop  of  Cresarea.  The  letter  of  the 
Synod  of  Antioch  in  269  is  subscribed 
first  by  Helenus  of  Tarsus,  next  by 
Hymenseus  of  Jerusalem,  while  the  name 
of  Theotecnus  of  Caesarea  holds  only  the 
fourth  place.  (Euseb.  "  H.  E."  vii.  30 ; 
cf.  22.) 

The  interpretation  of  the  seventh 
Nicene  canon,  which  treats  of  the  eccle- 
siastical rank  of  Jerusalem,  has  given  rise 
to  much  discussion,  and  it  is  impossible 
to  be  certain  about  its  meaning.  These 
are  its  words :  "  Since  a  custom  has  pre- 
vailed and  an  ancient  tradition  that  the 
bishop  in  ^Ua  should  be  honoured,  let 
him  have  the  next  place  of  honour  {ttjv 
aKoKdvdiav  Trjs  rt/a/jr),  its  proper  dignity 
being  secured  to  the  metropolitan  church 

{rfl  /XfJTpOTToXfl)." 

There  can,  we  think,  he  no  reasonable 
doubt,  though  a  question  has  been  raised 
on  the  point,  that  the  metropolitan  church 
is  that  of  Caesarea.  But  what  are  we  to 
understand  by  the  words  e'xf'raj  rfiv 
uKokovdiav  r^s  Ti/i^s  ?  The  "  next  place," 
De  Marca  replies,  after  the  three  great 
sees  of  Rome,  Alexandria  and  Antioch, 
mentioned  in  the  previous  canon,  the 
precedence,  however,  being  one  of  honour 
mei'ely,  and  the  bishop  of  ^lia  remain- 
ing subject  in  actual  jurisdiction  to  the 
metropolitan  of  Caesarea.  Beveridge,  on 
the  other  hand,  will  not  hear  of  an 
honorary  patriarch  subject  to  a  metro- 
politan, and  supposes  tlie  meaning  to  be 
that  the  bishop  of  ^lia  is  to  rank  next 
the  metropoHtan  of  Caesarea.  He  is  to 
be  the  first  of  his  suft'ragan  bishops,  just 
as  in  the  AngHcan  Church  the  bishop 
of  London  holds  the  first  rank  as  dean 
of  the  province  after  his  metropolitan  of 
Canterbury. 

Beveridge  is  probably  right,  and  his 
theory  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  for 
some  time  afterwards  the  two  bishops 
struggled  for  pre-eminence  with  alternate 
success.  Soon  after  the  Nicene  Council 
Maximus  of  Jerusalem  held  a  Palestinian 
synod  in  favour  of  Athanasius,  without 


JERUSALEM 


JESUITESSES  .510 


reference  to  the  authority  of  Caesarea,  I 
though  he  ■n  as  blamed  for  this  assumption 
of  power  (Socnit.  ii.  iM).  At  the  Second  I 
General  Cnuiu  il  Cvril  nf  Jerusalem  signs 
before  Thala^>l  us  olC.csaroa.  On  the  other 
hand,  Eulogius  of  C'lesarea  presided  in 
415  at  the  Synod  of  Diosiiolis,  although 
John  of  Jerusalem  was  present.  More- 
over, although  Juvenal  of  Jerusalem  took 
a  very  promiupiit  ]):n  t  at  Ephesus  in  431, 
and  signed  immediatply  after  the  bishop  j 
of  Alexandria  (the  bisliop  of  Caesarea 
was  absent),  stiU  Cyril  resisted  Juvenal's 
attempt  to  obtain  conciliar  recognition  of 
his  authority  over  Palestine,  and  begged 
the  Pope  to  interfere  (Leo,  Ep.  62).  At 
the  seventh  session  of  Chalcedon  (October 
26,  451)  Maximus  of  Antioch  declared 
that  after  long  strife  with  Juvenal  he  had 
at  last  consented  to  cede  the  three  Pales- 
tinian provinces  to  Jerusalem — an  ar- 
rangement which  was  approved  by  the 
council  and  the  Papal  legates. 

The  patriarchate  of  Jerusalem  was 
severed  like  the  other  Eastern  patriarch- 
ates from  the  unity  of  the  Church  by 
the  Greek  schism.  The  city  was  rescued 
from  the  Mohammedans  by  the  Crusaders 
in  1099 ;  a  Latin  ecclesiastic — Dagobert, 
archbishop  of  Pisa — was  appointed  patri- 
arch, and  the  hierarchy  was  reorganised. 
After  the  Christian  defeat  at  Gaza  in 
1244,  and  tlie  consequent  capture  of 
Jerusalem  by  tlie  Sultan  of  Egypt,  the 
Latin  palriarcliato  became  little  more 
than  a  nominal  dignity,  and  Nicolas  de 
Anapis,  a  Dominican  and  Roman  peni- 
tentiai-y,  appointed  by  Pope  Nicolas  IV. 
in  1288,  was  the  last  Latin  patriarch 
down  to  our  day  who  resided  in  Palestine 
(Fleury,  livr.  Ixxxviii.  c.  49).  In  the 
Decree  of  Union  (Florence,  14.39),  the 
Greek  patriarchate  of  Jerusalem  was 
again  united  to  the  Church  and  recognised 
as  holding  the  fifth  place  after  Rome,  but 
the  luiion  only  lasted  a  fewyears.  PiusIX. 
gave  Jerusalem  a  resident  Latin  patriarch, 
Joseph Valerga  (1847-1872).  Hewas  suc- 
ceeded by  Vincent  Pracco  (Hergenrother, 
"  K.  Geschichte,"  ii.  p.  1008).  There  is  no 
Greek  Catholic  patriarch  of  Jerusalem. 
The  United  Greeks  or  Melchite  Catholics 
of  this  patriarchate  are  subject  to  the 
patriarch  of  Antioch.  He  is  represented 
by  a  vicar  who  is  a  bishop  in  partihiis  and 
resides  at  Jafia.'  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens 
Christianus,"  tom.  3.  Hefele,  "  Concil." 
vol.  i.,  on  the  7th  canon  of  Nicsea,  and 
vol.  ii.,  on  Chalcedon.) 

'  Silbernagi,  Kirchen  des  Orients. 


I  JESVATS.  A  congregation  founded 
by  St.  John  Colombini,  and  confirmed  by 
I  Urban  V.  in  1367.  Colombini  was  a 
native  of  Sienna,  and  had  held  the  highest 
offices  in  that  republic;  but  being  con- 
verted entirelj-  to  God  by  accidentally 
reading  the  Life  of  St.  Mary  of  Egypt, 
he,  with  his  wife's  consent,  embraced  a 
life  of  continence,  turned  his  house  into 
a  hospital,  preached  frequently,  and  de- 
lighted to  humble  himself  to  the  condi- 
tion of  the  poorest  and  most  miserable. 
He  soon  had  a  ring  of  fervent  disciples 
around  him.  Proceedingtomeet Urban  V., 
who  was  coming  from  Avignon  to  Rome, 
in  1367,  the  new  society  is  said  to  have 
been  caUed  the  "  Gesuati "  by  children, 
who  noticed  how,  as  they  walked,  they 
continually  repeated  "  Viva  Gesn  !  " 
Alexander  VI.  obliged  them  to  add  to 
the  name  Jesuats,  "of  St.  Jerome." 
Urban  V.  confirmed  them,  in  1.367,  and 
gave  them  a  white  habit  and  hood,  with 
a  large  brown  mantle,  and  wooden  shoes. 
For  more  than  two  centuries,  it  was  a 
strictly  lay  order,  but  Paul  V.  (1606) 
permitted  them  to  receive  holy  orders. 
In  many  of  their  houses  they  practised 
pharmacy  and  distillation,  and  sold  the 
alcoholic  liquor  which  they  manufac- 
tured ;  hence  they  came  to  be  known 
as  the  "  Aquavita  Fathers."  For  this 
and  other  reasons  Clement  IX.,  in  1668, 
deemed  it  advisable  to  suppress  the  order. 
(Ilelyot.) 

TESVZTESSES.  Isabel  Rosella,  a 
pious  lady  of  Barcelona,  assisted  St.  Igna- 
tius greatly  with  her  alms  when  he  was 
studying  at  that  city  in  preparation  for  a 
university  career.  She,  with  two  com- 
panions, came  to  Rome,  where  the  saint 
then  was,  in  1545,  and  entreated  him  to 
take  the  direction  of  them,  and  allow  them 
to  live  by  the  Jesuit  rule.  St.  Ignatius 
thought  himself  bound,  in  gratitude  for 
her  former  kindness,  not  to  refuse  her 
request;  but  he  soon  found  that  the 
direction  of  these  tliree  women  took  up 
an  unduly  large  proportion  of  his  time, 
and  he  obtained  from  Paul  III.,  in  1547, 
an  order  that  the  Company  should  not 
undertake  the  direction  of  nuns.  "  When 
certain  women  in  Flanders  and  Piedmont 
afterwards  assembled  in  houses  under 
vows '  and  this  rule,  and  called  them- 
selves Jesuitesses,  their  institute  was 
abolished  by  Urban  VIII.,  in  16.3:$,  the 
end  and  exercises  of  this  society  not  suit- 
ing that  sex."    (Albau  Rutler,  July  31.). 

*  Vows  self-imposed,  according'  to  H^lyot. 


620 


JESUITS 


JESUITS 


TSSVZTS.  The  annals  of  this  great 
order,  and  the  Life  of  its  founder,  have  been 
so  frequently  written,  that  the  general 
outlines  of  both  are  familiar  to  most  per- 
sons. St.  Ignatius  Loyola,  born  in  1491, 
of  a  noble  family  in  ]5iscay,  and  trained 
to  the  military  profession,  received  a  severe 
wound  in  the  le<i'  while  defending  Pampe- 
luna  against  tile  French  in  1521.  During 
his  slow  recovery  he  called  for  books  to 
amuse  him  ;  romances  were  Ijrought,  and 
also  a  volume  of  "  Lives  of  the  Saints." 
Reading  this  last,  at  tirst  carelessly,  but 
afterwards  with  ever-increasinti  interest, 
Ignatius  recognised  the  heroism  of  the 
true  servants  of  God,  and  saw  how  much 
their  glory,  being  founded  on  the  abase- 
ment of  the  Cross,  tran.scended  what  till 
then  he  had  been  accustomed  to  call  so. 
When  he  had  sufficiently  recovered,  he 
broke  with  -his  former  life,  embraced 
poverty  and  mendicancy,  confessed  him- 
self to  a  Benedictine  of  Montserrat,  and 
passed  a  noviciate  of  sublime  but  ten-ible 
trial  in  the  cave  of  Manresa.  Gradually 
the  thought  of  founding  an  order,  which 
should  support  the  Chair  of  Peter,  me- 
naced by  the  German  heretics,  sustain,  by 
example,  preaching,  and  education,  the 
cause  of  the  Gospel  and  Catholic  truth, 
and  carry  the  light  of  Christ  to  the  hea- 
then, rose  into  clearness  in  his  mind. 
But  to  carry  out  all  this,  he  must  become 
a  priest ;  the  soldier  must  turn  himself 
into  a  clerk.  "With  unfailing  patience  he 
laboured  to  obtain  the  nece.ssary  know- 
ledge. After  being  driven  from  two 
Spanish  universities,  liecause  his  efforts 
to  influence  the  students  caused  him  to 
be  esteemed  a  mischievous  fanatic,  he 
went  to  the  University  of  Paris,  and 
there  completed  his  studies.  Here  it 
was  that  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  a 
number  of  remarkable  men,  chiefly  Spa- 
niards, with  whom  being  made  one  in 
lieart  and  s]>irit,  he  understood  that  it 
was  now  possible  to  carry  out  the  project 
which  he  had  long  cherished.  He  con- 
ducted them  first  throu>ih  tlie  "  Spiritual 
Exercise.s,"  which  he  had  composed  at 
Manresa.  On  the  feast  of  the  Assump- 
tion, in  153-t,  in  the  church  of  IMont- 
martre  at  Paris,  Igiuitius  and  his  compa- 
nions,' after  they  had  all  received  com- 
munion from  Peter  Faber,  who  was  then 
the  only  priest  among  them,  pronounced 
the  vow  which  constituted  the  order. 

'  'I  lii  ii- n.niies  were  ;  Fram-is  Xavicr.  .lames 
LaviK-z,  AlplioiiMis  Salnienii).  Niclidliis  lioba- 
ililia— Siiaiiiaids  ;  Simon  KiHlrii;uez,  a  Portu- 
.gue.se;  anil  Peler  Fabcr,  a  Savoyard. 


Its  tenor  was,  "  to  renounce  the  world, 
to  go  to  preach  the  gospel  in  Palestine, 
or,  if  they  could  not  go  thither  within  a 
year  after  they  had  finished  their  studies, 
to  offer  themselves  to  his  Hohness  to  be 
employed  in  the  service  of  God  in  what 
manner  he  should  j  udge  best." '  Ignatius 
then  passed  into  Spain,  partly  on  medical 
advice,  to  recruit  his  wasted  health  by 
breathing  the  air  of  his  native  hills, 
partly  to  transact  some  necessary  busi- 
ness for  those  of  his  companions  who 
were  Spaniards.  It  was  agreed  that  they 
should  all  meet  at  Venice,  in  January 
1.537.  Before  that  time  three  others  hail 
joined  the  society — Claude  le  Jay  of 
Savoy,  Codure  of  Dauphin^,  and  Pasquier 
Brouet  of  Picardy.  His  followers  tra- 
velled on  foot  from  Paris,  in  the  winter 
of  1536,  and  through  much  danger  and 
hardship  made  their  way  to  Venice  at  the 
appointed  time ;  Ignatius  had  come  from 
Barcelona  by  sea,  While  at  Venice,  they 
occupied  themselves  in  i)reaching  and 
serving  in  the  hospitals.  In  the  summer, 
after  sending  the  others  to  preach  and 
laboiu-  in  various  towns  of  North  Italy, 
Ignatius,  taking  with  him  Faber  and 
Laynez,  set  out  for  Rome.  At  La  Storta, 
not  far  from  the  Eternal  City,  while 
praying  in  a  wayside  chapel,  he  fell  into 
an  ecstacy;  he  seemed  to  see  the  Al- 
mighty Father,  who  commended  him  to 
His  Son  ;  Christ  at  the  same  time  said  to 
him,  "  I  will  be  favourable  to  you  at 
Rome."^  Before  the  parting,  he  had 
told  his  followers  that  if  asked  to  what 
congregation  they  belonged,  they  should 
say  tliat  they  were  of  the  Company  of 
Jesus.  The  Pope  (Paul  III.)  gave  Igna- 
tius a  cordial  reception,  and  commissioned 
Faber  and  Laynez  to  lecture  ou  divinity 
at  the  Sapieuza,  the  Roman  University. 
The  Holy  Father  doubtless  felt  the  full 
significance  of  the  adhesion  of  such  a  band 
at  such  a  crisis.  The  huge  fabric  of  the 
German  empire  was  in  wild  confusion ; 
the  king  of  England,  saluted  by  his  pre- 
decessor, not  twenty  years  before,  as 
"defensor  fidei,"  had  just  destroyed  six 
hundred  monasteries,  and  stopped  all 
intercourse  between  his  kingdom  and 
Rome :  France  was  unquiet ;  Sweden 
lost.  At  this  moment  a  company  of 
I  devout  combatants,  disciplined  alike  in 
[  mind  and  will,  serving  under  a  leader 
j  every  lineament  of  whose  face  bespoke 
I  furce  and  majesty,  but  all  under  the 
I  strictest  control,  offered  themselves  to  the 
I        1  Albau  Uiitler,  July  31. 

'  "  F,go  vobis  Romse  propitius  ero." 


JESUITS 


JESUITS 


521 


Pnpe,  to  do  service  of  whatever  kind  and 
against  whatever  adversaiy  he  might  ap- 
point. The  encouragement  which  he  re- 
ceived led  Ipfuatius  to  set  earnestly  to 
work  at  framing  the  constitutions  of  tlie 
new  order.  As  mipht  be  e.xpecied  from 
the  man  and  the  times,  a  military  and 
monarchical  spirit  pervailed  them.  He 
resolved  to  establish  in  his  order  "a 
genend  whom  all,  by  their  vow,  should 
be  bound  to  obey,  who  should  be  perpe- 
tual, and  his  authority  absolute,  subject 
entirely  to  the  Pope,  but  not  liable  to  be 
restrained  by  chapters."  ^  He  also  deter- 
mined to  prescribe  a  fourth  vow — that  of 
going,  without  question  or  delay,  wher- 
ever the  Pope  might  think  fit  to  send 
them  for  the  salvation  of  souls.  As  to 
property,  he  resolved  that  the  professed 
fathers  of  the  society  should  possess  no 
real  estates  or  revenues,  either  indivi- 
dually or  in  common,  but  tliat  colleges 
might  enjoy  revenues  and  rents,  for  the 
maintenance  of  students  of  the  order  and 
the  advancement  of  learning.  He  sum- 
moned all  his  followers  to  Rome,  and  at 
last,  in  1540,  was  able  to  lay  the  pro- 
gramme and  constitutions  of  the  new 
order  before  the  Pope,  who,  after  the 
opposition  raised  by  some  of  the  cardinals 
had  been  overcome,  solemnlv  confirmed 
them  by  the  bull  (dated  Sept.  27,  1540) 
"Regimini  militantis  ecclesia3."  The 
bull  recites  and  approves  the  "  form  of 
life "  which  had  been  devised  by  the 
founder  for  those  who  should  join  his 
institute.  Preaching,  spiritual  exercises, 
works  of  charity,  teaching  the  catechism, 
and  hearing  conlessions,  were  to  be  their 
employments.  The  general  or  prelate  to 
be  chosen  was  to  decide  on  the  work  to 
be  done  by  each  individual  member,  and 
to  frame  any  new  constitutions  that 
might  be  needed,  with  the  consent  ot  his 
assiiciates.  Befure  admission,  all  were  to 
undergo  a  long  probation. 

The  Society  being  thus  confirmed,  the 
members  met  i'nv  the  election  of  a  gene- 
ral, and  Ignatius  was  unanimously  nomi- 
nated. He  refused  at  lirst,  but  afterwards 
yielded,  and  entered  upon  the  office  in 
April  1541.  The  constitutions,  which 
were  wholly  composed  by  the  saint,  and 
in  liis  native  tongue,  were  translated  into 
Latin  by  Polanco,  his  secretary,  and  first 
publislied  in  1558.  In  them  his  aims 
and  ideas,  and  the  chief  methods  by 
which  he  hoped  to  realise  them,  are 
clearly  set  forth.  He  desired  to  "  stand 
ou  the  ancient  ways,"  to  teach  men  that 
'  Albaii  Butler,  July  31. 


they  could  not  safely  do  othem  ise,  and 
thus  prevent  new  defections.  Novelty, 
curiosity,  ambition,  and  self-indulpence, 
were  aU  on  the  side  of  Protestantism;  if 
they  were  to  be  resisted  etl'ectually,  it 
could  only  be  by  using  the  same  weapons 
of  which  the  temper  had  been  tried 
against  the  CfEsarism  of  the  Romans, 
and  the  idolatry  of  the  barbarians.  This 
weapon  was  the  personal  sanctification  of 
the  defenders  of  Catholic  truth.  The 
hohness  of  St.  Antony  and  the  hermits 
won  the  battle  for  Christ  in  the  third 
century.  When  St.  Aidan  began  to  con- 
vert the  Angles  of  Northumbria,  he  esta- 
blished himself  and  his  monks  in  a  remote 
island,  so  that  monastic  piety  might  not 
be  interrupted  in  its  daily  duties  and 
sanctifying  discipline  never  relax  its  hold 
on  those  who  were  preacliing  Christ  to 
the  heathen.  Similarly  St.  Ignatius,  in- 
stead of  writing  a  great  book,  settles  a 
round  of  spiritual  exercises  which  he  and 
his  lollowers  are  to  go  through  before 
attempting  anything  serious.  His  aim  is 
to  sanctify  the  soldiers,  that  by  them  he 
may  sanctify  the  world.  The  rules  which 
he  prescribes  are  partly  drawn  from  the 
contemplative  life  (e.ff.  mental  prayer, 
examination  of  conscience,  pious  reading, 
frequentation  of  the  sacraments,  retreats), 
partly  suited  to  form  men  of  action. 
He  gives  no  particular  habit  to  his  fol- 
lowers, because  he  designs  them  to  live 
in  the  world  and  to  be  continually  mix- 
ing with  it,  that  they  may  overcome  its 
evil,  while  remaining  interiorly  separate 
from  it.  None  are  to  be  received  who 
have  worn  the  habit  of  another  order. 
The  postulant  must  renounce  his  own 
will,  his  family,  and  all  that  men  hold 
most  dear  on  earth.  The  vows  could 
not  be  taken  before  the  age  of  thirty- 
three.  A  Jesuit  must  canvass  for  no 
office,  and  take  no  ecclesiastical  dignity 
unless  constrained  by  the  Pope  on  pain 
of  mortal  sin.  Six  grades  of  membership 
are  described :  (1)  novices,  (2)  formed 
temporal  coadjutors,  (?>)  approved  scho- 
lastics, (4)  formed  spiritual  coadjutors, 
(5)  the  professed  of  the  three  vows,  (6) 
the  professed  of  the  four  vows.  Tliese 
distinctions  are  observed  to  this  day,  but 
the  professed  of  the  four  vows  form  only 
a  small  class;  the  professed  of  both 
grades  and  the  spiritual  coadjutors  form 
not  quite  one  half  of  those  whom  the 
world  calls  "  Jesuits." 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  name 
by  which  they  are  commonly  known  was 
given  to  them  by  their  enemies,  or  by  the 


522 


JESUITS 


JESUITS 


people,  not  assumed  by  themselves.  Till 
1600  they  never  called  themselves  any- 
thing else  but  the  "  Company  of  Jesus." 

Among  the  generals  there  have  been 
Spaniards,  Italians,  Germans,  Poles,  and 
Belgians,  but  never  a  Frenchman. 

Ah  eady  in  1563  the  usefulness  of  the 
new  society  must  have  been  signally 
manifest,  for  the  Council  of  Trent  in 
that  year,  while  laying  down  general 
rules  about  novices,  declares  that  it 
intends  not  to  make  any  change  which 
should  prevent  "  the  religion  of  tbe  clerks 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus  from  being  able 
to  serve  the  Lord  and  His  Church  accord- 
ing to  their  pious  institute  approved  by 
the  holy  Apostolic  See."  ' 

St.  Ignatius,  after  having  founded  the 
German  College  at  Rome,  and  assisted  in 
founding  the  great  "  Collegio  Romano," 
having  lived  to  see  the  fruit  of  his  la- 
bours— his  order  being  solidly  established 
in  many  countries  of  Europe,  and  engaged 
in  successful  missions  among  the  heathen 
in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America — passed  to 
his  reward  in  1556.  The  following  brief 
sketch  of  the  subsequent  history  of  the 
Society  arranges  events  under  the  names 
of  the  generals  down  to  the  death  of 
Aquaviva;  and,  from  that  point  to  the 
suppression  of  the  Society,  under  the 
principal  countries  and  missions  in  which 
its  influence  was  exerted.  Some  of  the 
more  prominent  successes  and  reverses 
which  it  has  experienced  since  1814  are 
all  that  our  limits  will  allow  us  to  give 
of  its  history  subsequent  to  the  re-esta- 
blishment. 

I.  Father  James  Laynez,  who  had  as- 
sisted as  a  theologian  at  the  deliberations 
of  the  Tridentine  Council,  succeeded  St. 
Ignatius  in  1558.  The  chief  event  of  his 
rule  was  his  visit  to  Paris  in  1561,  on 
which  occasion  he  confronted  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Huguenots  at  the 
Conference  of  Poissy,  and  did  much  to 
overcome  the  opposition  which  the  Paris 
parliament  had  hitherto  made  to  the 
admission  of  the  Society.  The  parlia- 
ment did  in  fact  ratify  in  1562  the  royal 
edicts  of  Henry  II.  and  Francis  II., 
granting  permission  to  the  Company  to 
erect  a  college  in  Paris.  During  this  and 
the  two  following  generalates,  the  pro- 
gress of  heresy  in  Germany  was  stopped, 
and  much  lost  ground  recovered,  by  the 
labours  of  the  Jesuits,  among  whom  the 
Blessed  Peter  Canisius  was  pre-eminent. 
This  great  man  won  the  alfection  of  the 
powerful  archbishop  of  Augs))nrg,  Otto 
1  Sess.  XXV.  c.  16,  De  Reg.  et  Mon. 


Truchsess,  who  made  over  to  the  Society 
the  University  of  Dillingen.  They  had 
already,  in  1556,  obtained  a  firm  footing 
in  the  Bavarian  university  of  Ingolstadt, 
whence  they  extended  their  efforts  to 
other  parts  of  Germany.  The  favourite 
calumny  of  the  German  Protestants,  that 
the  Catholic  Church  was  hostile  to  learn- 
ing, received  an  effectual  practical  refuta- 
tion through  the  Jesuit  colleges,  in  which 
all  subjects — humanities,  philosophy,  the 
sciences,  &C. — were  taught  according  to 
the  newest  methods,  and  more  skilfully 
and  energetically  than  elsewhere. 

Meantime  missions  to  the  heathen 
were  carried  on  with  much  success.  The 
first  Jesuit  mission  in  India  had  been 
founded  by  St.  Francis  Xavier,  who 
landed  at  Goa  in  1642,  and  by  his  preach- 
ing and  miracles  converted  great  num- 
bers of  the  inhabitants  of  Travancore, 
the  Fishery  Coast,  and  Madura.  After- 
wards he  carried  the  Gospel  to  Celebes 
and  the  Spice  Islands,  and  (1549)  esta- 
blished a  flourishing  church  in  Japan. 
The  saint  died  on  the  island  of  Sancian 
near  Macao  in  1552,  while  endeavouring 
to  penetrate  into  China.  The  field  of  the 
missions  was  tilled  by  many  different 
orders,  among  which  the  Company  cer- 
tainly was  not  the  least  zealous.  Father 
de  Nobrega  had  been  sent  to  Brazil  by 
St.  Ignatius  himself,  and  had  made  a 
good  commencement ;  we  shall  presently 
see  by  what  a  strong  and  holy  hand  the 
work  was  continued.  By  1560  the  So- 
ciety had  extended  its  activity  in  every 
direction ;  Melanchthon,  as  he  lay  on  his 
deathbed  in  that  year,  is  reported  to  have 
said,  "Alas!  What  is  this?  I  see  the 
whole  world  being  filled  with  Jesuits."' 
Laynez  died  in  1565. 

Under  the  rule  of  St.  Francis  Borgia, 
tlie  third  general,  a  relation  of  the  em- 
peror Charles  V.  (1565-1573),  the  ad- 
vance of  the  Society  was  uninterrupted. 
St.  Pius  V.  was  dissatisfied  with  the 
exemption  from  the  obligation  of  sayuig 
the  office  in  choir  which  the  order  pos- 
sessed under  tbe  constitutions,  and  was 
inclined  to  insist  on  a  change.  But  the 
fathers  presented  a  memorial  in  which  it 
was  shown  that  the  existing  regulation 
was  the  result  of  profound  meditation  on 
the  end  and  means  of  his  institute  on  the 
part  of  the  founder ;  St.  Francis  himself 
with  a  respectful  firmness  supported  this 
view ;  and  the  Pope  gave  way.  Affairs 
prospered  in  Germany  ;  Austria  and  Ba- 
varia, where  heresy  had  nearly  got  the 
upper  hand,  remained  on  the  whole  true 


JESriTS 


JESnXS  523 


to  the  ancient  faith.  Canisius  founded  I 
colleges  at  Wiirzburg,  Olmiitz,  and 
"VN'ilna.  The  Duke  of  Bararia  in  the 
decree  foundin<r  a  Jesuit  college  at  Lands- 
hut  declared  that  "certainly  it  was  to  j 
this  Society  that  Bavaria  owed  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  faith  of  her  ancestors,  ' 
that  had  been  shaken  by  the  calamities  of 
the  times.''  The  present  church  of  the 
Gesn  at  Eome  was  bes'nn  in  1567.  St.  i 
Charles  Borronieo  warmly  befriended  the 
Society  in  his  archdiocese  of  Milan, 
founding  (1572)  a  novitiate  for  them  at 
Arena  at  his  own  ex])ense.  How  danijjer- 
ous  tho  order  was  felt  to  be  to  the  pro- 
gress of  Protestantism  was  shown  by  a 
terrible  event  in  1570.  A  Portuguese 
ship  bound  for  Brazil,  in  which  wer.'  F. 
Azevedo,  of  the  Society,  and  thirty-nine 
companions,  mostly  novices,  was  attacked 
by  a  French  privateer  commanded  by  the 
Calvinist  Jacques  Sourie,  of  Dieppe.  After 
a  brave  resistance  the  Portuguese  vessel 
was  overpowered,  the  sailors  who  were 
left  alive  were  spared  ;  but  the  Calvinists 
put  all  but  one  of  the  Jesuits  to  death. 
A  somewhat  similar  incident  happened 
the  next  year,  and  resulted  in  the  murder 
of  twelve  Jesuits,  of  whom  the  chief  was 
F.  Francis  de  Castro,  by  the  Huguenot 
captain,  Oapdeville,  and  his  crew.  j 

Under  the  fourth  general,  F.  Mer- 
curian,  a  Belsrinn  (lo7;Vlo80),  the  genius 
of  the  great  Bellarmin  began  to  show 
itself;  he  was  engaged  for  several  years 
before  1577  in  combating  the  errors  of 
Baius,  a  doctor  of  Louvain.  The  members 
of  the  Society,  who  in  1505  had  numbered 
3,500,  distributed  among  130  houses,  in 
eighteen  provinces,  amounted  in  1580  to 
upwards  of  5,000,  divided  among  twenty- 
one  provinces.  ] 

Under  the  prudent  but  energetic  rule 
of  Aquaviva  (1581-1615)  the  prosperity 
and  reputation  of  the  Society  were  at 
their  height.  Enterjjrises  formerly  begun 
developed  themselves  now  with  great 
rapidity  and  brilliancy,  and  new  under- 
takings, the  fame  of  which  still  resounds  { 
through  the  world,  were  commenced. 
The  Roman  College,  which  in  1555  had 
but  200  students,  in  1584  had  grown  into 
a  flourishing  uuiversitj',  with  more  than 
2,000  students,  in  which  all  the  faculties  • 
but  tho^e  of  law  and  medicine  were 
worthily  represented.  The  ideas  of  St. 
Ignatius  on  the  methods  of  instruction 
•were  worked  out  by  .\quaviva  into  a 
systematic  ratio  stiidiorum,  of  which  the 
chief  feature  was  the  thorough  mastery  ' 
which  it  aimed  at  giving  to  all  their  | 


scholars  over  the  Latin  language.  In  the 
mission  field,  we  find  that  extraordinary 
progress  was  made  in  Japan,  where  the 
Christians,  who  numbered  but  200,000  in 
1588,  were  750,000  in  1612,  most  of  these 
being  Jesuit  converts.  In  Brazil  the  work 
of  F.  de  Xobrega  was  carried  (in  for  forty- 
four  years  by  the  ^"e^.  Joseph  Anchieta 
of  the  Society,  who  instituted  native 
settlements  much  resembling  the  later  and 
more  celebrated  Paraguayan  "reductions." 
and  has  been  called  the  Apostle  of  Brazil. 
The  Jesuit  inis>ions  in  India,  which  had 
languished  or  been  retarded  for  a  time, 
passed  into  a  new  phase  on  the  arrival  of 
F.  Kobert  de'  Xobili,  in  1605.  Nohili 
thought  [Missions  to  the  Heathex]  that 
ideas  of  caste,  being  grounded  in  the  very 
structure  of  Hindoo  society,  should  be 
temporarily  complied  with,  so  far  as  was 
lawful,  by  the  ambassadors  of  Christ. 
Accordingly  he  assumed  the  dress  and 
manners  of  a  Brahmin,  and  kept  aloof 
from  the  inferior  castes,  making  after  a 
time  many  conversions.  He  died  many 
years  later  (1656).  and  his  tomb,  near 
Madura,  is  still  an  object  of  popular  vene- 
ration. A  breach  was  made  about  this 
time  in  the  heathenism  of  China  by  the 
success  of  F.  Kicci  and  his  followers. 
Ricci  was  a  sonnd  mathematician,  and 
skilled  in  mechanics:  and  when,  after 
twenty  years'  resi<]eiire  in  China,  he  suc- 
ceeded (16U1)  in  making  himselt  known 
to  the  emperor  at  Pekin,  he  soun  obtained 
his  cuntidence.  and  made  the  favour  ex- 
tended to  him  on  account  of  his  scientific 
acquirements  contribute  more  or  less  to 
the  spread  and  protection  of  Christianity. 
Kicci  died  in  I6l0,  but  was  .succeeded  by 
missioners  not  less  able  and  zealous — 
Schall.  V'erbiest,  Gerbillon,  and  Bouvet. 
Of  the  dill'erences  which  arose  between 
the  Jesuit  and  iJoujinican  missionaries  in 
China,  something  will  be  said  in  the  next 
section.  F.  Yaldivia  carried  the  gospel 
to  the  Indians  of  Chili  in  150a ;  a  harbour, 
a  city,  and  a  peak  of  the  Andes  immor- 
talise the  name  of  the  intrepid  missionary. 
The  first  Paraguayan  "reduction"  was 
made  in  l(jlO.  but  of  this  great  civilising 
enterprise  a  connected  view  must  be  re- 
served for  the  article  on  Missions  to  the 
Heathen. 

In  Europe  generally  the  progress  of 
the  order  was  maintained  in  peace;  but 
compUcations  arose  at  three  principal 
points.  The  Venetian  oligarchy,  enraged 
against  the  fathers  because  they  observed 
the  interdict  laid  by  Pope  Paul  Y.  upon 
the  republic  in  1606,  banished  them  from 


524 


JKSnTS 


JESUITS 


Venice;  and,  although  the  rupture  with 
the  Holy  See  was  rep:iired  soon  after- 
wards, would  not  readmit  the  order  for 
lifty  years.  In  France,  where  the  Par- 
liament of  Paris  was  always  hostile  to  the 
Society,  the  members  of  the  latter,  being 
charged  with  eomplicity  in  the  attempt 
of  Chatel  to  assassinate  the  Ifing,  Henry 
lY.,  were  expelled  from  Paris  in  1595. 
Henry,  however,  recalled  them  in  1601, 
and  on  that  occasion  administered  a  telling 
reproof  to  the  officials  of  the  Parliament, 
who  had,  under  the  influence  of  the 
jealousy  whicii  has  too  commonly  actu- 
ated French  lawyers  in  regard  to  eccle- 
siastics, laid  before  him  a  paper  full  of 
ridiculous  calumnies  against  the  Com- 
pany. In  England,  where  Jesuits  first 
arrived  in  1580,  their  pastoral  work  was 
attended  by  greater  danger  than  even  in 
Japan.  I  he  Protestant  government  put 
to  death,  under  Elizabeth,  Fathers  Cam- 
pion, Briant,  Southwell,  Walpole,  &c. ; 
and,  under  James,  Father  Oldcome,  the 
two  Garnets,  and  F.  Page.  These  mar- 
tyrdoms, though  unable  to  produce  their 
full  natural  eflfeci  on  account  of  the 
terrorism  practised  by  the  Government, 
undoubtedly  led  to  numerous  conver- 
sions, sustained  the  wavering  faith  of 
many,  and  powerftilly  contributed  to 
keep  alive  the  flame  of  Catholicism  in 
the  breasts  of  a  down-trodden  but  uncon- 
querable minority. 

The  Company  numbered  in  its  i-anks 
at  this  time  some  of  the  finest  and 
strongest  minds  in  Europe:  such  were 
Cardinal  Bellarmin,  Emanuel  Sa,  Mal- 
donatus,  Suarez,  Clavius,  and  Canisius. 
The  saintly  life  of  St.  Aloysius  Gonzaga, 
who  died  in  1597  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
three,  reflects  a  yet  purer  lustre  on  their 
annals.  The  .series  of  "  Lettres  Edifiantes 
et  Curieuses,"  sent  by  the  Jesuit  mi.ssioners 
to  Europe,  commences  from  this  period. 

II.  1615-1773.  In  this  section— after 
a  brief  survey  of  the  Jesuit  missions — the 
history  of  the  order  in  Europe,  the  cir- 
cumstances which  led  to  its  expulsion 
from  various  kingdoms  and  its  suppres- 
sion by  Clement  XIV.  will  be  related. 

In  India,  De'  Nobili,  whose  method  of 
extending  the  gospel  was  approved  by  a 
bull  of  Gregory  XV.  in  16i*."5,  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Fathers  Fernandez,  De  An- 
drada.  Blessed  John  de  Britto,  Beschi, 
Bouchet,  &c.  De  Britto  was  beheaded 
by  the  king  of  Marava  in  1693.  The 
question  of  the  Malabar  Rites,  which 
arose  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighte^nt  h 
century,  caused  an  agitation  unfavourable 


to  the  progress  of  the  missions.  Still,  if 
Southern  India  and  Ceylon  are  to  a  great 
extent  Christian  countries,  it  i>i  to  these 
unwearied  labours  of  the  Society  that  the 
result  is  chiefly  due.  The  last  provincial, 
Father  Anthony  Douarte,  after  the  sup- 
pression of  the  order,  did  not  desert  his 
converts,  but,  dying  at  a  great  age  in 
1788,  bequeathed  to  them  a  box  of  papers 
relating  to  the  mission,  which  he  charged 
them  to  give  to  the  future  Provincial  of 
the  Jesuits  in  India. 

In  China,  the  establishment  of  the 
Tartar  dynasty  at  Pekin  in  1644  threat- 
ened to  injure  the  missions,  but  the  new 
rulers  were  at  first  not  unfriendly.  The 
Dominicans  had  come  to  China  in  1633  ; 
they  found  that  the  Jesuits  tolerated  in 
their  converts  the  continued  adherence  to 
certain  customs  and  ceremonies  which 
appeared  to  savour  of  idolatry;  a  pro- 
tracted controversy  arose  which  spread 
from  China  to  Europe.  [For  an  account 
of  these  ceremonies  see  Chinese  Rites.] 
Clement  XI.  sent  out  De  Tournon,  the 
patriarch  of  Antioch,  in  1703,  to  India 
and  China  as  his  legate.  Soon  after  hia 
landing  at  Goa,  De  Tournon  issued  a 
pastoral,  in  which  he  unconditionally  con- 
demned the  Malabar  rites.  The  Jesuits, 
fearing  the  effect  of  the  prohibition  on 
the  native  mind,  resolved  on  appealing  to 
the  Holy  See,  and  De  Tournon  gave  his 
verbal  consent  to  their  doing  so.  From 
India  the  legate  passed  to  China,  and  in 
1706  condemned  the  ceremonies  as  unfit 
for  Christians  to  use.  The  emperor  Kang 
Hi,  who  had  always  maintained  that  they 
had  only  a  civil  meaning,  was  extremely 
angry,  and  gave  up  De  Tournon  into  the 
hands  of  the  Portuguese  at  Macao,  by 
whom  he  was  imprisoned  and  iU-treated. 
dving  in  consequence  in  1710.  A  brief 
of  Clement  XL  in  1710,  followed  by  the 
bull  "Ex  ilia  die"  in  1715,  confirmed  the 
legate's  condemnation,  first  of  some,  then 
of  all  the  obnoxious  ceremonies.  The 
indignation  of  Kang  Hi  was  extreme,  and 
the  new  legate,  Cardinal  Mezza  Barba, 
perceiving  the  great  difficulty  of  the  case, 
authorised  the  Jesuit  lathers  to  make  a 
fresh  application  to  Rome,  and  in  the 
meantime  to  suspend  their  obedience  to 
the  briefs.  The  application  wa.s  vain; 
Clement  XII.  contirmed  the  bull  "  Ex 
ilia  die,"  and  Benedict  XIV.  by  his  bull 
in  1742  (before  which  the  Jesuits  are 
said  to  have  submitted  unreservedly) 
confirmed  the  decisions  of  his  predeces- 
sors, and  finally  settled  the  question. 

Kang  Hi,  after  a  reign  of  sixty  years. 


JESUITS 


JESUITS 


525 


died  in  1722,  and  was  succeeded  by  Yun» 
TcLiu,  who  inunediately  ordered  a  perse- 
cution of  the  Christians.  His  son,  Khian- 
loanff,  was  a  man  of  singuhir  character ; 
political  and  personal  motives  prevented 
him  from  embracing  Christianity,  bnt  he 
respected  and  loved  the  Jesuit  fathers, 
whom  he  drew  to  his  Court  at  Pekin. 
and  was  especially  gratified  by  the  skill 
with  which  they  ministered  to  his  scien- 
tific and  artistic  tastes.  Father  Heiioist 
constructed  a  fountain  to  plea.se  him ; 
other  Jesuits  made  wonderful  clocks  and 
automata,  or  prepared  charts,  or  painted 
the  halls  of  his  palace.  Yet  he  was  afraid 
of  allowing  Chris^tianity  to  become  power- 
ful in  the  empire,  lest  it  should  open  the 
door  to  an  ascendency  on  the  part  ol  some 
European  nation,  similar  to  what  was 
taking  place  before  his  eyes  in  India. 
AVhile,  therefore,  the  Jesuits  at  Pekin 
were  safe  and  honoured,  the  Christian 
communities  in  many  provinces  were 
cruelly  persecuted.  Eight  Jesuits  were 
strangled  at  Naukin  in  1748.  The  decree 
of  suspension  became  known  at  Pekin  in 
1774.  The  fathers  Amiot,  Cibot,  Dollieres, 
and  others,  though  wounded  to  the  heart 
by  the  ruin  of  their  beloved  Society, 
remained  at  their  posts,  and  there  died, 
Amiot  not  till  1794.  The  benevolent  dis- 
positions of  the  emperor  towards  them 
were  never  changed. 

lu  Japan,  where  the  prospectsof  Chris- 
tianity had  been  so  bright,  all  was  sud- 
denly overclouded.  Taicosaraa,  who  seized 
the  supreme  power  in  1  oS3,  commenced  a 
persecution  of  the  Christians,  but  with  no 
great  malignity  or  fixity  of  purpose. 
Hence  at  his  death  in  1598  the  native 
church  was  more  flourishing  than  ever. 
Daifusama,  who  succeeded  him  as  regent, 
reigned  till  1615.  In  1612  an  English 
merchant  captain,  named  Adams,  is  said 
to  have  made  the  regent  believe  that  the 
real  designs  of  the  Jesuits  were  political, 
and  that  his  only  safety  lay  in  extermin- 
ating them.  A  terrible  persecution  was 
then  beguu,  which  Xogun,  the  son  of 
Daifusama,  carried  on  with  demoniacal 
cruelty  and  persistency.  Before  1640, 
after  scores  of  thousands  of  Japanese 
Christians  had  suffered  martyrdom,  and 
great  inimbers  had  apostatised,  all  public 
proffs-sion  of  Christianity  was  stopped, 
and  the  Jesuit  mission — the  nii.ssioners 
having  been  killed  or  banished — came  to 
an  end.  From  that  time  Europeans  could 
only  land  their  goods  at  onf>  port  in  Japan, 
and  then  after  trampling  ou  the  cross. 

The  missions  of  the  Society  in  North 


America  have  been  described  by  an 
American  Protestant.'  in  a  tone  generally 
fair  and  almost  syniiiathetic.  Samuel  de 
Champlain,  a  French  naval  officer,  'ounded 
Quebec  in  1608;  in  1625  Jesuit  mission- 
aries arrived  there,  and  after  providing  for 
the  spiritual  wants  of  the  colonists,  began 
to  preach  to  the  Ked  Indians.  The  Huron 
nation  proved  to  be  the  most  tractable : 
most  of  them  became  Christians,  and 
showed  considerable  ajititudefor  agricul- 
ture and  other  civilising  employment 
under  the  guidance  of  the  fathers.  The 
Iroquois  fri^m  the  south,  instigated  by  the 
settlers  in  the  British  colonies,  made  war 
on  the  Hurons  and  nearly  annihilated 


!  them.    Fathers  Lallemand,  Daniel,  and 

I  Brebeuf  were  put  to  death  with  every 
species  of  torture  in  1649.  The  Abenakis, 
a  tribe  living  on  the  Kennebec  river  be- 
tween Canada  and  New  England,  asked 
for  and  received  baptism  in  a  body.  The 
remnant  of  the  Hurons  was  trathered  round 
Montreal  and  Quebec.  The  treaty  which 
in  1760  transferred  the  French  possession.'* 

[  in  North  America  to  Great  Britain  pro- 
vided for  the  maintenance  of  the  Catholic 

j  religion  in  the  ceded  provinces :  hence  it 
is  that  the  Indian  and  lialf-caste  population 
ofBritish  America,  among  whose  ancestors 
the  Jesuits  laboured  and  suffered,  are  to 
this  day  mainly  Catholic.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  th"  Abe- 
nakis were  in  the  care  of  Father  Rasles; 
a  body  of  armed  cr>lonists  from  New  Eng- 
land (1724')  attacked  their  settlem  -nts  on 
the  Kenueliec,  dispei  st  d  the  Indians,  and 
butchered  the  unresi-ting  missionary.* 
In  1673  the  Jesuit  Father  .Marquette, 
making  his  way  to  the  south-west  from 
Lake  Michigan,  discovered  the  Mississippi, 
which  Frenchmen  soon  de.scended,  and 
founded  the  colony  of  Louisiana  at  its 
mouth.  The  French  nation,  which  first 
opened  the  valleys  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  the  Mississippi,  long  ago  wrested  from 
them  by  their  rivals,  realised  to  the  full 
— history  can  show  no  more  striking  in- 
stance— the  bitter  truth  of  the  adage.  Sic 
vos  non  vohis. 

Jesuits  assisted  Sir  George  Calvert  in 
founding  the  Catholic  colonv  of  Maryland 
in  1633. 

St.  Peter  Claver  (t  1654),  a  Spanish 
Jesuit,  called  the  Apostle  of  the  Ne- 
groes, spent  more  than  forty  years  in 
New  Granada,  assisting  corporally  and 

'  The  Jesuits  in  North  America,  Samuel 
Parkiiiaii. 

-  Hcnrion,  Hist.  Gen.  des  .Vissions,  iii.  ch. 


526 


JESUITS 


JESUITS 


epiritually  the  poor  Africans  whom  the 
Spaniards  were  bringing  over  in  great 
numbers  at  that  time  to  work  on  the 
pliuitutions. 

Of  the  Jesuit  mission  in  Paraguay — 
the  most  reinai-l;al)!c  examj)!.'  of  a  wliole 
people  transronii'  il  and  exaltoil  tlirough 
Chri*tianity  that  lias  been  known  since 
the  middle  ages — an  account  will  be  found 
under  Missions  to  the  Heathen.  The 
first  "Reduction,"  or  colony,  was  founded 
in  1610;  in  1717  the  Christian  Indians  in 
all  the  Reductions  numbered  120,000.  A 
transaction  between  Spain  and  PortUfjalin 
17o8  caused  the  transfer  of  the  territory 
on  which  the  Reductions  stood  to  the 
latter  power;  Pombal  dispersed  the  Jesuit 
teachers ;  the  white  settlers,  with  their 
selfish  greed  and  indift'erence  to  native 
rights,  had  everything  their  own  way,  and 
the  fair  experiment  was  ruined. 

Returning  now  to  Europe,  we  find 
that  the  history  of  the  Society  in  Italy  and 
Spain  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  was  marked  by  few  striking 
events.  In  Germany  the  fathers  devoted 
themselves  with  great  ardour  to  the  miti- 
gation of  the  miseries  caused  by  the  Thii  t y 
Years'  War.  The  emperor  Ferdinand  III., 
and  also  bis  general,  Count  Tilly,  had  re- 
ceived their  education  in  .Jesuit  colleges; 
both  of  them  loved  and  valued  the  Society. 
In  Poland  an  e.\-Jesuit  ascended  the 
throne  in  1648  in  the  person  of  John 
Casiniir.  In  Belgium  arose  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  great  modern  school  of 
hagioui-a]ihti-s  ISoi.LANKisTsI,  BoUaudus 
publi-hing  the  tirst  volmue  of  the  "Acta 
Sanctorum"  at  Antwerp  in  1G43.  He 
and  all  his  coadjutors,  Ilenschen,  Paj.c- 
broch,  Stilting,  &c.,  were  Jesuits,  and  the 
resumed  work  is  still  in  the  hands  of  the 
Society. 

In  England  the  penal  laws  forbade  any 
freedom  of  action  to  Jesuits  even  more 
tlian  to  secuhuN  ;  yet  in  1684  two  hundred 
and  fifty  memliers  td'the  Company  are  >aid 
to  have  been  in  the  kingiioui.  Father 
AiTOWSmith  sulfered  in  Lancashire  in 
1628  ;  under  Charles  1 1 .  five  .lesuits  were 
executed  during  the  |):mic  at  Ihe  time  of 
the  Popish  Plot.  Tlie  la\,iiir  of  James  II.  } 
inspired  them  with  fal-e  \i,>-\if,  and  led  to 
an  extension  of  0]>erat  inn>  :  (  (dieses  liegan 
to  rise,  but  these  buds  wi-v  ni|i|ied  ihe 
"killing  I'rost"  of  the  l!e\ ohilion.  Yet, 
the  laws  being  now  nnn-e  niihlly  execut  'd, 
the  fathers  in  Fngliind  in  17'1()  numbered 
].">1  ;  and  this  Dumber  jindidilN  did  not 
vary  much  down  to  the  suppression. 

In  Ireland,  the  barbarou.s  tyranny  of 


j  the  government   under   Elizabeth  and 
I  James  I.  was  replaced  in  the  next  reign 
by  a  somewhat  easier  state  of  things. 
The  Jesuits  on  the  mission,  who  had 
before  1620  been  attached  to  the  houses 
of  the  CathoUc  nobihty,  after  that  date 
were  able  to  live  in  a  more  regular  way, 
I  and  in  a  short  time  they  had  eight  col- 
:  leges  and  residences.   But,  as  the  Vandal 
i  heretics  extinguished  civilisation  iuRoman 
j  Africa,  so  the  renascent  well-being  and 
I  culture  of  Ireland  were  uprooted  by  the 
j  Puritan  invaders  under  Cromwell.  Amidst 
j  an  infinite  number  of  other  calamities 
which  then  fell  on  the  country,  the  Jesuit 
colleges  were  destroyed,  and  the  mission 
broken   up.     In  1713   there  were  but 
eleven  Jesuits  in  all  Ireland,  with  Father 
Knowles  as  their  superior ;   and  these 
could   only  exercise   their  ministry  in 
secret.    A  few  continued  to  labour  there 
till  1773. 

The  fortunes  of  the  order  in  France, 
Spain,  and  Portugal  have  still  to  be 
noticed.  In  France  the  success  of  the 
fathers  in  education  was  remarkable. 
The  College  de  Clermont,  founded  in 
1562,  changed  its  name  to  "College  de 
Louis  le  Grand,"  and  towards  the  end  of 
j  the  seventeenth  century  numbered  2,500 
scholar.-.  In  the  confessional,  the  fathers 
were  charged  with  letting  olf  too  easily 
.such  of  their  penitents  as  desired  to  con- 
cihate  the  claims  of  the  world  and  the 
flesh  with  those  of  the  Gospel.  They 
were  said  to  be  lax  casuists ;  and  on  this 
ground  Pascal  attacked  them  (1656)  in 
his  celebrated  "  Lettres  Provinciales." 
On  the  struggle  betwi'en  them  and  the 
.lansenists,  and  on  the  Quesnel  contro- 
^el■sy,  see  the  article  Jaxsiixism.  With 
the  declaration  of  tlie  French  clergy  in 
1682  [Gallicaxtsk]  the  Freucli  .]e>uits 
bad  nothing  to  do;  but  tbey  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  Innocent  XL  by  refusing 
or  neglecting  to  publish  the  bidl  against 
1^0  uis  XIV.  on  the  question  of  the  Regalia, 
and  the  Pope  forbade  them  to  receive 
novices.  The  irreat  preacher  Hourdaloue 
(t  1704),  and  F.  de  la  Colombiere,  the 
director  of  St.  INIargaret  Mary  Alacoque. 
flourished  at  this  time.  In  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  a  league  of  many 
]iarties  and  jiersons  was  formed  for  the 
destruction  of  the  order.  The  Marquise 
de  Pompadour  hated  them  because  they 
^\ Duld  not  countenance  in  any  shape  the 
immoral  relation  subsisting  between  her 
and  the  king,  Louis  XV.  Voltaire,  him- 
self one  of  their  pupils,  and  not  averse  t  < 
doing  them  ju.stice  on  occasion,  as  many 


JESUITS 


JESUITS 


527 


passages  in  his  works  prove,  desired  their 
extinction  as  the  defenders  of  revealed 
religion  and  the  upholders  of  the  purity  of 
private  morals.  The  whole  party  of  the 
Encyclopsedists  and  freetliinkers  were 
Jiaturally  their  enemies;  the  remains  of 
the  Jansenist  party  L)nged  to  be  revenged 
on  them;  the  Parliament  and  university 
were  hostile  to  them,  as  they  had  ever 
been.  Lastly,  the  Minister,  the  Due  de 
■Choiseul — wlio  by  his  blundering  had  just 
lost  Canada  for  France — leing  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  freethinkers,  was  disposed 
to  yield  to  the  clamour  which  the  many 
ill-wishers  of  the  Company  raised,  and  to 
induce  the  king  also  to  yield.  In  .\pril 
and  August  1762  edicts  of  the  Parliament 
'if  Paris  closed  the  Jesuit  colleges  and 
declared  their  order  to  be  inadmissible  in 
any  civili.sed  State.  The  archbishop  of 
Paris,  Chiistopher  de  Beaumont,  put 
himself  courageously  on  their  side,  and 
the  secular  clergy  generally  took  the  same 
line.  Nevertheless,  Louis  XV.  confirmed 
(November  1764)  the  edict  of  the  Parlia- 
ment, and  about  four  thousand  Jesuits, 
their  colleges  having  been  closed  and  their 
property  plundered,  were  compelled  to 
depart  from  France. 

The  fall  of  the  order  in  Spain  was  a 
mysterious  event.  It  was  the  work  of 
the  irresponsible  despotism  which  ruled 
the  country,  and  which,  as  it  had  been 
swift  and  stern  for  iiges  in  repressing 
whatever  was  against  the  Church,  so 
now,  being  itself  perverted,  dealt  sudden 
blows  that  none  could  parrv  on  the  great 
Company — the  creation  of  Spanish  genius 
— -which  existed  only  for  the  Church's 
defence  and  glory.  I)'.\j-anda,  the  Minis- 
ter of  Charles  III.,  is  snid  to  have  induced 
him  to  believe  that  the  Jesuit  general, 
Ricci,  had  boasted  of  possessing  docu- 
ment^ showing  that  the  king  was  an 
illegitimate  child.  The  wrathful  Charles 
immediately  ca\ised  a  despatch  to  be 
written  to  all  the  government  authorities 
in  Spain  and  the  colonies,  requiring  that 
all  the  Jesuit  fathers  should  be  forthwith 
conducted  to  the  nearest  port,  and  com- 
pelled to  take  ship  for  some  foreign 
country.  Six  thousand  Spanish  Jesuits 
were  ruined  and  exiled  at  a  blow,  by 
•what  can  only  be  regarded  as  the  act  of 
a  lunatic. 

Previously  to  this,  the  order  had  been 
despoiled  and  banished  from  Portugal  by 
the  famous  Car\  alho,  Count  de  Pombal. 
Pombal  was  a  man  of  iron  determination, 
and  unscrupulous  in  the  choice  of  means. 
In  1750  he  had  been  made  .Secretary  of 


State  to  Joseph  I.,  and  set  himself 
actively  and  ably  to  work  to  revive  the 
languishing  trade  and  industry  of  Portu- 
gal. He  had  been  Portuguese  minister  in 
England  for  several  years  from  17-''9.  A 
mind  so  observant  must  have  been  struck 
by  the  docility  of  the  Anglican  cleigy, 
and  the  ease  with  which,  being  isolated 
from  the  rest  of  Christendom,  they  were 
managed  by  the  Government  of  tlie  day, 
and  it  was  probably  this  experience  which 
led  him  to  form  plans  for  a  similar 
national  church  in  Portugal,  separated 
from  the  Holy  See  and  the  hierarchy. 
The  Jesuits,  the  sworn  defenders  of  Papal 
rights,  stood  in  his  way ;  they  must 
therefore  be  sup})ressed.  Into  the  intri- 
cate history  of  the  plot  to  assassinate  the 
king,  and  the  manner  in  which  Pombal 
used  it  against  the  Jesuits,  besides  attack- 
ing them  in  other  ways,  it  is  impossible 
here  to  enter.  In  the  end,  their  property 
was  sequestrated,  the  University  of  Coim- 
bra  taken  out  of  their  hands,  and  the 
fathers  themselves  (1750  )  to  the  number 
of  two  hundred  and  tifty-five,  bani.shed 
from  Portugal.  Clement  XHI.  vainly 
pleaded  that  they  might  be  treated  with 
ordinary  justice.  On  the  death  of  Jo- 
seph I.  in  1777  Pombal  was  di-sgraced, 
declared  a  criminal,  and  forbidden  to  live 
within  twenty  leagues  of  Lisbon.  A  new 
inquiry  being  ordered  into  the  alleged 
conspiracy  of  1758,  those  who  by  Pom- 
bal's  management  had  been  condemned 
to  death  or  imprisonment  were  exone- 
rated from  all  criminality.  From  some 
of  these  had  been  extorted  by  torture 
the  statement  that  the  .Jesuits  were  con- 
cerned in  the  plot;  this  statement,  of 
course,  if  the  revising  tribunal  may  be 
trusted,  falls  to  the  ground. 

The  order  had  been  expelled  from 
France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Naples,  but 
it  was  still  proteete  l  in  Austria  liv  Maria 
Theresa.  Her  son,  al'terwards  J.i^.j.li  II., 
used  all  his  influence  against  tln.'ni  ;  he 
was  said  to  covet  their  estates.  Diplo- 
matic pressure  was  used  by  all  the  Courts 
which  had  expelled  the  order  to  induce 
Clement  XIII.  to  decree  their  suppression, 
but  the  aged  Pope  stood  firm.  On  his 
death  in  1700,  the  Bourbon  sovereigns 
used  every  efl'ort  to  secure  the  election 
of  a  Pontilf  wlio  would  comply  with  their 
views.  Cardinal  (langanelli  was  (dected 
and  took  the  name  of  Clement  XIV.  He 
hesitated  long  before  taking  the  decisive 
step  to  which  he  was  urged.  At  length 
(1773)  he  .signed  the  constitution  "  Domi- 
nus  ac  Redemptor  noster,"  by  which,  on 


628 


JESUITS 


JESUS 


the  ground  of  the  numerous  complaints 
and  accusations  of  -n  hich  the  Society  was 
the  object,  without  declaring;  them  to  be 
either  guilty  nr  innocent,  he  suppressed 
the  order  in  e^'ery  part  of  the  world,  and 
directed  that  those  of  its  members  who 
were  priests  should  fall  into  the  ranks  of 
the  secular  clergy. 

In  1626  the  Society  had  possessed 
15,000  members.  At  the  time  of  the 
suppression  the  total  number  was  about 
20,000. 

Lalande,  the  astronomer,  said  of  the 
suppression,  "  Carvalho  and  Choiseul 
ha\e  irretrievably  destroyed  the  finest 
work  of  man,  unrivalled  by  any  human 
institution.  .  .  .  The  human  race  has 
lost  that  wonderful  and  invaluable  as- 
sembly of  20,000  men,  disint.-iv.tcdly 
and  unceasingly  occupied  w  ith  luiictions 
mo.st  important  and  most  useful  to  man." 

III.  Frederic  the  Great,  King  of 
Prussia,  refused  to  have  anything  to  do 
with  the  suppression;  he  retained  the 
Jesuits  in  his  dominions,  and  desired 
them  to  exercise  their  teaching  and  other 
functions,  so  far  as  was  possible,  as  if 
nothing  had  happened.  Catherine  II., 
Empress  of  Russia,  supported  them  with 
so  much  zeal  that  the  Pope  ultimately 
exempted  Russia  from  the  operation  of 
the  bull  of  suppression ;  novices  were 
received  in  that  country  without  inter- 
ruption during  the  interregnum.  Other 
attempts  were  made  to  keep  the  order 
alive  (see  Baccanarists).  In  1814  Pius 
VII.,  by  the  constitution  "Solicitude  om- 
nium Ecclesiarum,"  derogated  from  the 
brief  of  suppression,  and  appointed  Francis 
Karen,  who  was  then  provincial  in 
Russia,  general  of  the  whole  order.  Since 
the  restoration  the  fortunes  of  the  Society 
have  varied  with  the  varying  strength  of 
the  infidel  and  revolutionary  forces  which 
from  time  to  time  have  been  opposed  to 
it.  In  France,  where  their  colleges  had 
been  brilliantly  successful,  an  envious 
agitation  was  set  on  foot  against  them  by 
the  University,  to  which  the  government 
of  Charles  X.  weakly  yielded  and  closed 
their  colleges  (1828)"  Under  the  Second 
Em])ire  they  enjoyed  frei'dom ;  the  Re- 
publican Government  has  again  (1880) 
closed  their  colleges,  and  denied  them  the 
right  of  corporate  and  regular  existence. 
In  Switzerland  they  had  a  noble  uni- 
versity at  Fribourg,  and  their  influence 
WHS  great  in  the  Forest  Cantons  and  the 
Valais.  The  anarchic  and  infidel  ele- 
ments in  Swiss  society,  combining  with 
the  Protestants  and  encouraged  by  Lord 


Palmerston,  raised  in  1846  the  war  of 
the  Sonderbund;  the  Catholic  cantons 
were  crushed  by  superior  niunbers,  and  the 
Jesuits  banished  from  the  Confederacy. 

At  tlie  present  day  the  total  nimiber 
of  memliers  of  the  Society  is  beheved  to 
bo  about  ten  thousand. 

(Cr6tineau  Joly,  "Ilistoire  de  la  Com- 
pagnie  de  Jc^sus,""  1846;  "The  Jesuits, 
their  Foundation  and  History,"  by  B.  N. 
(a  useful  compilation)  ;  Ferraris,  Jesu 
Societas ;  H^lyot ;  Henrion,  "  Histoire 
G(5n6rale  des  Missions;  "  Bouchot,  "His- 
toire du  Portugal.") 

JESUS  (^\r)o-ovs,  ylC'.''.).  Name  and 
Feast  of  the  Name. — The  name  means, 
not,  as  is  often  said,  "  Saviour"  or  "God 
the  Saviour,"  but  "the  Lord  [t.e. Jehova] 
is  help  or  salvation."  It  is  simply  a 
shortened  form  of  Josue  (yEJ'in*),  which 
in  the  LXX  appears  as  "Jesus,"  and,  ac- 
cording to  Delitzsch  ("  History  of  Redemp- 
tion," p.  182),  was  a  common  name  in 
post-exilic  times.  In  our  Lord's  case,  it 
liiid,  however,  a  pre-eminent  fitness,  be- 
cause in  Him,  through  the  perfect  example 
of  His  lite  and  through  His  death,  the 
salvation  of  God  came  to  the  children  of 
men.  This  name  was  announced  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin  by  the  angel,  and  actually 
imposed  on  our  Lord  at  His  circumcision. 
It  was  His  personal,  whereas  "Christ" 
was  His  official,  name. 

In  all  ages  of  course  Christians  have 
spoken  with  devotion  of  this  holy  name, 
and  St.  Pauls  words  in  the  epistle  to  the 
Philippians  will  occur  to  everyone.  The 
devotion  received  a  new  impulse  and  took 
a  tangible  form  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  Fi-anciscan  friar  St.  Beniardine  of 
Sienna  (d.  1440)  used  to  exhibit  before 
the  people  to  whom  he  preached  a  board 
with  the  holy  name  painted  on  it  in  the 
midst  of  rays,  and  he  persuaded  a  poor 
man  who  used  to  paint  cards  and  had 
been  ruined  by  the  saint's  sermons  against 
gambling  to  make  a  hving  in  another 
way — viz.  by  painting  the  holy  name. 
The  new  devotion  was  examined  before 
Miirtin  v.,  prohibited  for  a  time,  defended 
by  St.  John  Capistran,  and  finally  ap- 
proved by  the  Holy  See.  A  third  Fran- 
ciscan, Beniardine  de  Bustis,  composed 
an  office  of  the  Holy  Name,  which  he 
offered  for  approval  to  Sixtus  IV.  and 
Innocent  VIII.,  but  without  success. 
At  last  Clement  VII.  approved  the  office 
for  use  in  the  PVanciscan  order ;  permis- 
sion to  use  it  was  extended  by  subsequent 
Popes  to  other  churches,  and  at  last  Inuo- 


JEWS,  CIIITX'H  LAWS 


JEWS,  CHURCH  LAWS  529 


rent  XIII.,  yielding  to  the  prayers  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  VI.,  ou  Psovember  29, 
1721,  ordered  the  feast  to  be  celebrated 
throughout  the  Church  on  the  second 
Sunday  after  Epiphany. 

JEWS,  CHVRCH  X.AWS  RE- 
SPECTING. When  Christianity  be- 
came supreme,  we  find  Constantine  pub- 
lishing restrictive  edicts  agiiinst  the  Jew.s, 
in  which  it  was  declared  penal  for  them 
to  insult  or  injure  cfmverts  to  Christianity, 
and  the  adoption  f)f  Judaism  by  those  not 
born  to  it  was  forliiddoii.  Tlic  Tlicodnsian 
Code  brands  the  desertion  of  Christianity 
for  Judaism  as  apostasy,  and  the  blending 
together  the  rites  and  doctiunes  of  the 
two  as  heresy.  In  Spain,  where  Jews 
were  numerous,  a  long  series  of  canons 
regulating  the  relations  between  them 
and  Christians  may  be  quoted  from  the 
Acts  of  the  early  councils.  These  were 
severe  in  their  tenor,  for,  indeed,  the 
Talmudic  Jew,  with  his  intense  pride  of 
race,  and  scorn  and  hatred  of  other 
nations,  was  a  difficult  person  to  deal 
with.  The  Fourth  Council  of  Toledo 
(633),  over  which  St.  Isidore  of  Seville 
presided,  ordered  that  Jews  should  be  no 
longer  coerced  to  become  Christians,  but 
that  those  who  had  been  so  coerced  in 
the  reign  of  king  Sisebut  should  not, 
since  they  had  received  Christian  sacra- 
ments, be  allowed  to  return  to  Judaism. 
This  council  also  ordered  that  the  children 
of  Jews  should  be  separiitod  from  them 
and  placed  in  monasteries,  or  in  pious 
Christian  families,  to  be  instructed  in 
Christianity.  This  sweeping  measure  can 
onlv  have  been  partiallv  carried  out ;  for 
at  the  Eighth  Council  of  Toledo  (6.53)  we 
find  the  king  undertaking  to  protect  the 
Catholic  faith  against  Jews  and  heretics, 
and  it  is  ordered  that  the  decrees  of  the 
fourth  council  respecting  Jews  should  be 
observed.  Again,  a  canon  of  the  ninth 
council  (655)  directs  that  baptised  Jews 
be  obliged  to  repair  to  the  cities  on  the 
principal  festivals,  in  order  that  the  bishops 
might  be  able  to  judge  of  the  sincerity  of 
their  conversion.  The  Jews  in  Spain, 
being  through  Talmudic  influences  more 
in  sympathy  with  Islam  than  the  religion 
of  Christ,  assisted  the  Moors  in  the  eighth 
century  to  master  the  country  and  destroy 
the  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths. 

The  Third  Council  of  Orleans  (-538) 
made  some  important  canons.  It  allowed 
that  Christians  .should  be  in  servitude  to 
Jewish  masters;  if,  however,  a  Christian 
slave  took  sanctuary  because  his  master 
was  tampering  with  his  religion,  he  was 


not  to  be  returned  to  bondage  but  re- 
deemed at  a  fair  valuation.  Jews  were  not 
to  appear  in  the  streets  nor  to  hold  inter- 
course with  Christians  on  the  three  last 
days  of  Holy  Week  and  Easter  Sunday. 

In  the  later  legislation,  a  constitution 
of  Clement  XL  ("  Propagandffi  ]ier  uni- 
versum "),  another  of  l?enedlct  XIV. 
("  Postrerao  nieiise  "),  and  an  ejiistle  of 
the  last-named  Pmitlfl',  are  priniiineiitly 
cited.  By  the  fir~t  it  1.-  ]>rnvided  that  if 
a  Jew  become  a  Christian,  the  portion  of 
his  father's  goods  falling  to  him  shall  not 
be  withheld  by  the  family  on  account  of 
his  conversion.  But  he  is  not  allowed  to 
disinherit  his  otlier  brothers,  as  in  the 
case  of  that  infamous  law  of  the  Irish 
Parhament,  according  to  which,  if  the 
younger  son  of  a  Catholic  landowner  be- 
came a  Protestant,  he  could  take  the 
whole  estate,  and  reduce  the  rest  of  the 
family  to  poverty. 

Tiie  following  were  some  of  the  pre- 
scriptions of  the  ancient  law.  The  Jews 
in  Rome  were  bound  to  observe  Church 
holidays  so  far  as  their  public  occupations 
were  concerned.  They  were  required  to 
live  together  in  a  particular  quarter  (the 
Ghetto).  Some  distinction  of  dress, 
sufficient  to  show  that  they  were  not 
Christians,  was  required  from  both  sexes. 
The  word  of  God  was  to  be  preached  to 
them  once  a  week  by  a  master  in  tlieol.igy 
— if  possible,  one  a\1io  was  versed  in 
Hebrew.  The  trilmnals  (if  the  Imjiiisition 
were  allowed  to  proceed  against  .Jews 
only  in  case  of  their  having  made  them- 
selves amenable  to  their  jurisdiction  by 
certain  definite  overt  acts.  It  was  lawful 
for  Cliristian  princes  to  tolerate  Jews, 
their  rites  and  synagogues,  within  their 
dominions;  and  having  been  once  so  re- 
ceived and  assured  of  protection,  they 
could  not,  except  for  some  just  and 
weighty  cause,  be  expelled.. 

The'  children  of  Jews,  not  having  the 
use  of  free-will,  ought  not  to  be  baptised 
against  the  will  of  their  parents.  A 
Jewish  boy  who  asks  to  be  baptised,  not 
having  attained  to  the  use  of  reason,  is 
to  be  given  back  to  his  parents  ;  but  not 
othei-wise.  Infant  children  of  Jews,  bap- 
tised validly,  though  illicitly,  by  a  nurse 
or  some  other  person,  must  be  educated 
by  Christians,  and  when  they  have  come 
to  the  use  of  reason  must  be  compelled  to 
perseverance  in  the  Cathohc  faith.  Under 
the  operation  of  this  rule  arose  the  cele- 
brated Mortara  case, about  twenty-six  years 
ago  [18!)2].  Copies  of  the  Talmud  are  to 
be  searched  for  and  burnt.  In  justification 


r,.30    JEWS,  CTIURCn  LAWS 


JOSEPH,  ST. 


of  this  and  other  severities  the  canonists 
are  wont  to  make  copious  extracts  from 
that  extraordinary  eompihition,  which, 
■with  much  that  is  grave  and  noble,  con- 
tains also  so  many  puerilities,  immoral 
precepts,  and  anti-social  maxims,  that 
Christian  courts  may  well  have  deemed 
it  right  to  resort  to  stringent  measures  to 
prevent  Christians  from  being  seduced 
into  adhesion  to  a  system  so  preposterous. 
For  illustrations — not  to  speak  of  those 
given  by  Ferraris,'  which  may  not  be  en- 
tirely trustworthy — the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  Abb6  Chiarini's  translation,^  and 
to  a  recent  work  by  Oort.'  It  must  not 
be  supposed  that  the  modern  Jews  are 
free  to  reject  any  part  of  the  Talmud  that 
may  displease  them.  If  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  the  written,  the  Talmud  contains 
the  oral,  law  of  Jehovah  ;  a  consistent 
Jew  believes  that  God  speaks  to  liini 
tlirougli  the  Rabbins  as  much  as  through 
tlie  projjhets.''  Even  the  legendary  part, 
the  "  Haggadah,"  according  to  the  Jewish 
editor  of  "  Selections  from  the  Talmud" 
publislied  in  the  "  Chandos  Classics,"  does 
not  >tai;L;er  them.  "The  majority  of  the 
[Jewisli]  people,"  he  says,  "clung  to  it, 
and  regarded  the  Talmud  as  a  complete 
whole  worthy  of  their  reverence." 

"The    Talmud,"    says    the  Abb6 

1  Art  "  llel.rnn.s.'- 

2  Le  T,d,n„d.  l.cipzi-  1831. 

3  Evancielia  en  Tahnud,  Leiden  1881.— 
Oort  lias  heeii  tm-woivd  hv  the  Dutch  Rabbi 
Till,  lu-ii  blik  ill  Talniiieil  en  Evnni^^elie." 
Tlie  l.'.irne.l  w.i  ks  nf  Martini  Pu-io  Ki.lei  "), 
Am-ter(l:iiii.]MSL.  IbeCiUholic wi.rUof Kt.lilins, 

Der  TaliiuiiliiHlc  "  (  1n7/ )^  is  severely  liaiidled 
by  DeliizM-li,  •■  Kohliun's  Tnlmuduule 
beli-Mchiel  "  {  l.ssl).  A  really  scieiititie  acrount 
of  .le\vi-li  tli<-nl;.i;y  will  be  found  ill  Weber's 
pxeelleu!  work,  "  S\-steni  der  Altsvnaf^offalen 
Paliisliiiisi-ben  Tbeob^ie"  (LeipziK,  18H(l). 
Waneiiseil  ("Tela  imiea  Salaiue,"  U'lSl),  ICi.-eu- 
nieii-ei-  ('•  EiitdeeUles  .1  udeiit Iluiii,"'  1777).  are 

'"'^'^  Tl'ie  post-Talmudb-  treatise  Su,,horiL.i  eom- 
pare-  tlie  l'.il>le  to  water,  tlie  -MislLna  to  wine, 
tlietifuiara  to  sjiii'ed  wine.  But  it  would  be 
quite  wruiLt;  to  juilfie  the  more  educated  Jews 
by  the  TaliLiud.  A  reform  was  inaugurated  by 
Moses  Mendelssohn  (d.  nHG).  A  reformed 
synat^ojrue  was  founded  at  Uerlin  in  1814,  in 
London  about  1840,  at  New  York  in  1843. 
The  Reformed  Jews  who  reject  the  divine 
authority  of  the  Talmud,  though  they  ditler 
much  aiiiong  themselves,  many  of  them  being 
mere  Deists,  are  very  numerous  in  Gernianv 
and  AiLieiiea.  Moreover,  the  ReforiLL  bas  had 
Sreat  inllu-.irr   nn   ediLe,-,!,-.!   ,|,.ws  wlio  b.ive 

n..to|».nlv:il.:.,i.|..ii...l  >l  rll.."l...xMmi.v.u:ii-.. 

ior  a  liistorv  of  the  lleloi m,  sjl;  Tin:  Jtu-s,  Ihcr 
Custiimx  and  Cercinouic.s,  \>\  tbe  ALuerieau 
Rabbi  Myers  (New  York,  1877). 


Chiarini,'  "  explains  the  written  law  by 
the  oral  in  the  name  of  the  Eternal,"  and 
the  Jews,  he  declares,  have  ever  valued 
it  highly  as  "  a  wall  raised  between  .Tews 
and  non-Jews  always  and  everywhere." 

TOHN-  OF  COD,  ST.,  ORDER  OF. 
St.  John  of  God  established  his  Order  of 
Charity  for  serving  the  sick  at  Granada 
in  1540.  It  spread  so  rapidly  that  at  the 
close  of  the  last  century,  before  the 
Jacobins  had  shut  the  doors  of  its  hos- 
pitals in  France,  and  the  "  Liberals  "  in 
Spain,  the  two  generalates  of  Spain  and 
Italy,  into  which  the  order  was  divided, 
numbered  2,914  religious,  with  281  hos- 
pitals under  their  care,  in  which  there 
were  more  than  10,000  beds,  and  an 
average  of  85,000  patients  were  received 
and  attended  to  yearly.  The  brothers  of 
this  order  are  said  to  have  been  the  first 
to  establish  the  rule  in  hospitals  that 
every  patient  should  have  a  bed  to  him- 
self. From  a  minute  statement  of  their 
system  of  hospital  management,  printed 
by  the  continuator  of  Helyot,  it  would 
appear  that  they  practised  all  the  regu- 
lations which  the  regime  of  the  best 
modern  hospitals  prescribes  for  the  com- 
fort and  medical  treatment  of  their 
patients,  and  in  addition  were  tenderly 
solicitous  for  their  souls,  urging  those  to 
confession  who  had  long  discontinued  or 
were  disinclined  to  it,  and  facilitating 
the  return  to  God  of  all  the  sufferers  who 
passed  tlirough  their  hands.  There  is  a 
house  of  the  order  at  Scorton,  near  Dar- 
lington. (H(51yot,  continuation  [Migne], 
iv  612.) 

JOHN',  ST.,  OF  ;ervsai.ek, 

ORDER  OP.     [See  IIOSPITALLEES.] 

JOSEPH,  ST.  St.  Joseph  occupies 
a  place  of  his  own  in  the  devotion  of 
modern  Catholics,  such  as  is  given  to  no 
other  saint.  This,  and  the  fact  that  the 
history  of  the  devotion  is  peculiarly 
instructive  on  the  one  hand,  and  specially 
liable  to  misunderstanding  on  the  other, 
are  the  reasons  for  inserting  this  article 
in  a  work  which  does  not  profess  to  give 
Lives  of  the  Saints.  The  devotion  to 
St.  Joseph  is  a  striking  instance  of 
Catholic  usage,  modern  in  itself  and  yet 
based  on  most  ancient  and  Scriptural 
principles. 

The  facts  of  the  gospel  history  con- 
cerning St.  Joseph  need  not  be  repeated 
I'xeept  so  far  as  they  exhibit  his  dignity. 
Uewas  the  true  hu.sband  of  Mary,  and 
as  such  her  head.  Moreover,  Chri.st 
Himself  (Luke  ii.  51)  was  "subject"  to 
>  Op.  cit.  p.  59. 


JOSEPH,  ST. 


JOSEPH,  ST.,  ORDERS  OF  531: 


him.  In  consequence  of  his  authority 
and  his  provident  care,  he  is  honoured 
with  the  title  of  the  "Father"  of  Christ 
(Luke  ii.  48),  although  of  com-se  Christ 
had  no  man  for  His  father  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  word.  To  have  been  choson 
by  God  Himself  as  the  husband  of  the 
Vii-gin  Mother  and  the  foster-father  of 
our  Lord — these  surely  are  solid  grounds 
for  a  singular  devotion  to  St.  Joseph. 
We  may  notice  here  that,  as  he  is  never 
mentioned  after  our  Lord's  public  Hfe  be- 
gan, he  is  supposed  to  have  died  before  our 
Blessed  Lord,  and  is  therefore  reckoned 
among  Old  Testament  saints. 

At  the  same  time,  it  was  long  before 
there  was  any  general  manifestation  of 
this  devotion.  The  Monophysite  Chris- 
tians of  Egypt  ai-e  said  first  to  have 
assigned  a  festival  to  St.  Joseph,  viz.  on 
July  20,  which  is  thus  inscribed  in  a 
Cojitic  almanac :  "  The  rest  of  the  holy 
old  man,  the  just  Joseph,  the  carpenter, 
husband  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  Mother  of 
God,  who  merited  to  be  called  the  Father 
of  Christ"  (quoted  in  Smith's  "Bible 
Dictionary  "  sub  voc).  In  Western  mar- 
tyrologies  of  the  ninth  century  the  name 
of  Joseph  is  found,  and  from  the  same 
time  tlie  Greeks  commemorated  him  along 
with  the  other  saints  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment on  the  Sunday  before  Christmas, 
and  along  with  Mary,  David,  and  James 
the  Less,  on  the  Sunday  in  the  octave  of 
Christmas  (BoUand.  10  Martii,  in  "Com- 
ment, prsev.  ad  S.  Joseph."  §  2).  In  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  several 
orders  in  the  West  celebrated  the  feast 
of  St.  Joseph  on  March  li).  Still  "the 
feast  of  St.  Joseph,"  Thomassin  says 
("Traits  des  Festes,"  p.  439),  was  still 
unknown  {i.e.  as  a  feast  of  the  whole 
Chvurch)  in  the  time  of  Gerson,  who  wrote 
different  letters  to  cause  it  to  be  cele- 
brated— one  to  the  Duke  of  Berry  in 
1413,  another  to  the  cantor  of  the  church 
of  Chartres,  another  to  all  the  churches. 
Gemecius,  who  has  written  the  Life  of 
Cardinal  Ximenes,  testifies  that  that 
cardinal  "  instituted  in  his  church  the 
feast  of  St.  Joseph."  St.  Teresa  and  St. 
Francis  of  Sales  in  modern  times  were 
zealous  in  prop;i gating  the  devotion,  and 
Gregoiy  XV.,  in  1621,  as  well  as  Urban 
VIII.,  in  1642,  made  St.  Joseph's  day 
(i.e.  March  19)  a  holiday  of  obligation. 
Benedict  XIII.,  in  1720,  ordered  his 
name  to  be  inserted  in  the  Litany  of  the 
Saints  and  in  the  Litany  used  in  the 
"  Commendation  of  the  Soul,"  after  that 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist  (Gavant.  torn.  ii. 


i  p.  310).  In  1871  Pius  IX.,  confirming  a 
decree  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  put 
I  the  whole  Church  under  tlie  patronage 
j  of  St.  Joseph,  chose  him  as  the  Church's 
protector,  and  made  his  feast  a  double  of 
the  first  class.  It  was  fitting  that  Chris- 
tians should  apj)eal  to  him  who  once 
protected  the  human  hfe  of  our  Saviour, 
and  ask  his  intercession  in  behalf  of 
Christ's  mystical  body.  The  same  Pope 
had  in  September  1847  extended  the  feast 
and  office  of  St.  Joseph's  Patronage  to 
the  whole  Church.  The  Pojie  required 
it  to  be  celebrated  on  the  tli  -  1  Sunday 
after  Easter  as  a  double  of  the  second 
class  ("Manuale  Decret.  S.  Rit.  Cong." 
jSo.  2168).  In  other  ways  the  Church 
has  marked  her  apjiroval  of  tho  crowing 
devotion  to  St.  .los.pli.  The  ('riMii  is 
now  said  in  the  .Ma.-^  of  both  his  iVasts; 
his  name  is  inserted  after  that  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  in  the  prayer  "  Acuuctis  ;  " 
he  is  commemorated  after  her  in  the 
Sufl'rages  of  the  Saints  ;  and  his  name 
comes  before  that  of  any  other  patron 
e.xcept  the  Angels  and  St.  John  Baptist. 
("  Manuale,"  3709.) 

JOSSPH,  ST.,  ORDERS  OF. 
1.  Josephites.  Two  communities  bear,  or 
have  borne,  this  name.  The  first  was 
founded  by  Jacques  Cretenet  at  Lyons 
about  1(340,  with  the  designation  of 
"Priests  of  the  Mission  of  St.  Joseph  ;  " 
it  was  governed  by  a  director-general; 
its  members  did  not  take  vows ;  and  it 
devoted  itself  chiefly  to  the  foreign  mis- 
sions. At  the  Revolution  it  was  sup- 
pressed. The  second  is  a  teaching  insti- 
tute, founded  in  1817  at  Grammont  in 
Belgium  by  the  Canon  Van  Crombrugghe, 
for  giving  a  good  education  to  the  sons  of 
persons  in  the  commercial  and  industrial 
classes.  Several  houses  of  the  institute, 
which  is  understood  to  be  in  a  flourishing 
condition,  have  since  been  founded  at 
various  places  in  Belgium.  In  England 
there  is  a  flourishing  college  at  Wey- 
bridge. 

2.  Lay  Hospitallers,  Daughters  of  St. 
Joseph.  This  society,  the  chief  employ- 
ment of  which  was  the  education  of 
orphan  girls,  was  founded  at  Bordeaux  in 
1038  under  the  auspices  of  the  arclihishop 
Henri  de  Sourdis,  by  Marie  D-lprch,  who 
afterwards  establislied  a  grenl  house  of 
her  order  at  Paris,  called  i  »e  la.  Provi- 
dence." These  (lau^ihti'rs  of  St.  Joseph 
were  introduced  into  many  large  towns 
in  France,  but  H61yot's  continuator  does 
not  mention  whether  they  survived  the 
Revolution. 

M  M  2 


532  JOSEPH,  ST.,  ORDERS  OF 


JUBILEE 


3.  Xtins  Hospitallers  of  St.  Joseph. 
Founded  in  1643  at  La  Floclie  in  Anjou 
by  Miulmnoiselle  de  la  Ferre.  Besides 
the  tliree  vows  of  religion,  these  nuns 
took  a  fourth  vow,  to  serve  the  poor. 
Before  the  Revolution  they  had  five  or 
six  houses,  one  of  which  was  at  Montreal 
in  Canada. 

4.  Nuns  of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Good 
Shepherd.  This  congreg-ation  was  founded 
by  the  bishop  of  Puy,  Henri  de  Maupas, 
at  the  suggestion  of  the  Jesuit  Father 
M6daille,  in  1650.  Though  dispersed  at 
the  Revolution,  the  religious  retained  the 
sjjirit  and  the  love  of  their  institute,  and 
in  1811  they  were  reorganised  under  an 
imporial  decree,  the  mother  house  being 
settled  at  Clermont  in  Auvergne.  They 
are  noted  for  their  Magdalen  asylums, 
orphanages,  and  schools.  In  1859  the 
number  of  their  houses  was  seventy ;  all 
these,  "  besides  carrying  on  works  of 
charity  and  the  gratuitous  instruction  of 
poor  children,  receive  in  their  vast  build- 
ings thousands  of  young  persons  to  whom 
an  education  suitable  to  their  social 
position  is  given." ' 

5.  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Joseph. 
This  community,  which  devotes  itself 
principally  to  teaching,  was  founded  at 
Mount  St.  Mary  in  the  State  of  Maryland 
(N.  America)  in  1807,  and  had  the  well- 
Icnnwn  Mother  Seton,  a  convert,  for  its 
first  su])i'i'ior. 

tl  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny. 
The  first  efforts  of  this  community, 
founded  by  Anne  Marie  Javouhey,  may  be 
traced  back  to  1807,  but  it  was  first  for- 
mally authorised  in  1819,  being  then 
established  at  Autun.  The  reverend 
mother  Javouhey  was  superior  till  her 
death  in  1851.  She  visited  all  the  French 
colonies  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America, 
besides  several  of  those  belonging  to  Eng- 
land, and  resided  for  a  considerable  time 
in  some  of  them.  A  burning  desire  to 
labour  in  the  conversion  and  civilisation 
of  the  negro  and  other  aboriginal  races 
took  possession  of  her  in  con.sequence  of 
these  visits.  She  established  her  sisters 
in  nearly  all  the  French  colonies ;  they 
never  spared  themselves  when  teaching, 
or  nursing,  or  any  other  good  work  was 
required  of  them,  and  they  have  happily 
paved  the  way  for  the  eventual  reception 
of  Christianity  by  many  an  African  nation 
and  American  tribe.  The  congregation 
was  confirmed  by  the  Holy  See  in  1854. 
In  1859  it  had  135  houses  with  1,323 
members,  including  lay  sisters.  The 
'  H%ot,  Contin.  iv.  670 


\  establishments  abroad  (at  tbe  Senegal, 
French  Guiana,  Madagascar,  Tahiti,  &c.) 
employed  439  sisters,  all  natives  of  France, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  who  came 
from  Reunion,  Martinique,  and  Trinidad. 

7.  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Bourg. 
This  institute,  founded  in  1828  by  Mgr. 
Devie,  bishop  of  Belley,  in  concert  with 
the  reverend  mother  Saint  Benoit  at 
Bourg  in  the  department  of  Ain,  and 
devoting  itself  to  teaching  and  works  of 
charity,  has  spread  itself  in  many  parts 
of  France,  Switzerland,  and  America.  In 
1859  an  average  of  two  hundred  candi- 
dates yearly  presented  themselves  for  the 
noviciate. 

8.  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Appar- 
ition. Of  this  congregation,  founded  in 
the  south  of  France  by  Madame  de  Yialard 
in  1833,  there -v^-ere  thirty  houses  in  1859, 
chiefly  in  Algeria  and  Australia.  The 
mother  house  is  at  Marseilles;  teaching 
and  nursing  the  sick  are  their  chief 
employments. 

9.  Sisters  or  Daiujhters  of  St.  Joseph. 
This  offshoot  of  the  nuns  of  the  Good 
Shepherd  (No.  4)  was  established  by 
Bishop  Charbonnel  at  Toronto  (Upper 
Canada),  in  1850.  They  have  since  pro- 
spered and  multiplied  in  the  colony,  and 
have  ceased  to  have  any  connection  with 
the  mother  house  in  France. 

JITBII.EE.     The   year  of  jubilee 
(^311  n  niC?')  was  an  institution  of  the 
Levitical  Law  (Levit.  xxv.  8  ad  fin.). 
The  Jews  were  to  number  seven  sabbaths 
of  years — i.e.  forty-nine  years,  and  the 
fiftieth  (not  the  forty-ninth,  as  Petavius 
and  many  others  have  maintained  against 
I  the  plain  words  of  the  text  ver.  10,  and 
j  Jewish    tradition    attested    by  Philo, 
I  Josephus,  and  the  Talmud)  was  the  year 
of  jubilee.     The  blast  of  the  trumpet 
proclaimed  the  jubilee  throughout  the 
land  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  seventh 
j  month — i.e.  on  the  day  of  atonement. 
The  land  was  to  rest,  as  in  sabbatical 
I  years ;  land  and  hou.ses  in  the  open  coun- 
'  try  or  in  villages,  without  walls,  reverted 
to  their  original  owners  or  their  heirs : 
all  Hebrew  slaves  were  to  go  free.  The 
law  as  a  whole  has  no  parallel  in  any 
other  code,  and  it  had  a  distinctly  theo- 
cratic character.     The   Hebrews  were 
the  servants  of  God  and  could  not,  there- 
fore, be  the  servants  of  men ;  the  land 
beh>nged  to  God,  and  was  only  lent  to  the 
Hebrew  tribes  and  families,  who  could 
not,  therefore,  be  driven  out  by  any  human 
arrangement.     The  original  position  of 
affairs  was  to  be  restored  after  the  sacred 


JUBILEE 


JUDGMENT,  GENERAL  533 


sabbatical  period  of  years  and  on  the  day 
■of  atonement,  when  Israel's  sins  were 
purged  and  his  communion  with  God  re- 
newed. Various  explanations  are  given  of 
the  word  "jubilee,"  which  is  the  English 
form  of  ^31V  Some  {e.t/.  Gesenius  and 
Knobel)  suppose  that  the  word  means 
^'joyful  sound (from  ^3')  ;  others  make 
it  refer  to  the  lengtliened  blast  of  the 
trumpet  or  the  streaming  crowds  of 
people  (from  ^2),  to  flow.  See  Hitzig 
on  Jer.  xxxiv.  8).  Probably  it  is  an  old 
word  for  a  horn  or  trumpet  (^Ewald, 
"Alterthiim."  pp.417  seq. ;  Dillmann  on 
Levit.,  p.  009 ;  of.  Exod.  xix.  13,  Jos.  vi. 
4-13).  Most  likely  the  "  year  of  setting 
free,"  Ezek.  xlvi.  16-18,  is  the  year  of 
jubilee.  (So  Dillmann,  against  Kuenen, 
"Godsd."  1.9(3:  Wellhauseu,  "Geschichte  ; 
des  Volkes  Israel,"  i.  pp.  122  seq. ;  Smend 
on  Ezek.  pp.  382  seq.,  who  take  it  to  mean 
the  sabbatical  year.) 

The  Church  of  Christ  has  adopted  the 
term  "  jubilee  "  from  the  Jewish  Church, 
and  proclaims  from  time  to  time  a  "year  of 
remission'' — from  the  penal  consequences  j 
of  sin  :  she  oli'ers  to  her  children,  if  they 
repent  and  make  their  peace  with  God 
and  perform  certain  pious  works,  a  plenary 
indulgence,   and   during  this  year  she 
empowers  even  ordinaiy   confessors  to 
absolve  from  many  reserved  cases  and 
censures,  from  vows,  &c.,  &c.     An  ordi-  j 
nary  jubilee  occurs  at  Rome  every  twenty- 
fifth  year,  lasts  from  Christmas  to  Christ- 
mas, and  is  extended  in  the  following  [ 
year  to  the  rest  of  the  Church.    An  ex-  ' 
traordinai-y  jubilee   is  granted  at  any 
time,  either  to  the  whole  Church  or  to  j 
particular  countries  or  cities,  and  not  i 
nece.ssarily,  or  even  usually,  for  a  whole 
year.    If  the  jubilee,  whetlier  ordinary  , 
or  extraoi-dinary,  be  granted  to  the  faith-  j 
ful  generally,  the  conditions  for  gaining 
it  usually  are  to  fast  for  three  days — viz. 
on  a  A\'eduesday,  Friday,  an  1  Saturday;  ' 
to  visit  certain  churches,  and  pray  accord-  i 
ing  to  the  intention  of  the  Pope,  to  give 
alms,  to  confess  and  communicate.  | 

It  was  in  1300  that  the  first  jubilee 
WHS  given.  An  impression  prevailed  at 
that  time  that  a  gi-eat  indulgence  was 
granted  in  Rome  at  the  beginning  of  each 
century,  and  with  this  belief  many  pil- 
grims docked  to  the  city.  No  document 
in  the  Papal  archives  was  found  to  con- 
firm the  tradition,  but  Boniface  VIII. 
granted  on  February  22,  "  and  for  each 
hundredth  year  to  come,  not  only  a  full 
and  more  ample,  but  rather  a  most  full 


pardon  of  all  sins  "  to  those  who  repented 
and  confessed,  and  visited  the  churchp.< 
ot  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  thirty  times  if 
Romans,  fifteen  times  if  strangers.  The 
contemporary  historian  Giovanni  Villani 
reckons  the  number  of  pilgrims  to  Rome 
that  year  at  200,000.  Clement  VI.  in  a 
bull  of  1343  made  the  jubilee  recur  every 
fiftieth  year,  adding  to  the  previous  con- 
ditions a  visit  to  the  Lateran  churcli. 
This  year  the  number  of  pilgrims  is  snid 
to  have  reached  a  million.  Url)an  VI., 
in  1380,  reduced  the  cvcle  of  the  jubilee 
to  thirty-three;  Paul  II.,  in  1470,  to 
twenty-five  years.  (The  chief  works  on 
the  subject  are"Istoriadeg]i  Anni  Santi," 
scritta  da  Alfani,  Napoli,  1725;  "Trac- 
tatus  histoiico-theologicus  de  Jubihw, 
auctore  Fr.  Tbeodoro  a  .^p.  S.,"  Rmna?, 
1750  ;  the  Bull  of  Benedict  XIV.,  "Inter 
prasteritos,"  Dec.  3,  1749.) 

JUDGIUEM'T,  CEKERAI..  The 
fact  tliat  Christ  wQl  judge  all  men  and 
angels  together  at  the  last  day  is  taught 
with  such  clearness  and  iteration  in  the 
New  Testament  and  in  all  the  Creeds 
that  we  need  not  set  about  proving  it 
here.  It  will  be  more  to  the  purpose  if 
we  attempt  to  give  a  summary  of  the 
common  theological  teachin'j-  and  popular 
belief  on  the  matter,  en<li'av'niiiiiir  to 
distinguish  what  is  doubt lul  from  tliat 
which  is  certain.  We  may  remark  by 
way  of  preface  that  tlir  p'lieral  judgment 
is  intended  to  manifest  btd'ore  all  intelli- 
gent creatures  the  juslice  of  God,  to  ex- 
hibit Christ  in  his  majesty  before  their 
eyes,  to  glorify  the  just,  and  to  put  the 
wicked  to  upeu  shame. 

1.  T/te  C  ircumd  a  iices  of  the  Judgment . 
"  As  to  the  way  in  which  that  judgment 
will  take  place,  and  in  which  men  are  to 
be  assembled,  much  cannot  be  known  for 
certain."  So  St.  Thomas  writes  ("  Suppl." 
Ixxxviii.  4),  and  no  sober-minded  person 
will  hesitate  to  agree  with  him.  But  he 
goes  on  to  say  that  there  is  a  probability  in 
the  inference  from  Scripture  that  as  Christ 
ascended  from  Mount  Olivet  to  heaven,  so 
He  will  descend  upon  it  to  judge  tlie 
world.  This  probability  will  not  be  rated 
high  by  those  who  beheve  that  our  Lord 
did  not  ascend  from  the  summit  of  the 
mountain,  but  from  Bethany,  on  its  east- 
ern slopes.'  It  was  most  natural  that  He 
•  See  Luke  xxiv.  50.  The  Empros  Helena 
built,  in  memory  of  the  Ascension,  a  chuivh  nn 
the  top  of  Moun"'  Olivet,  close  to  a  o«ve  in  ivhich 
our  Lord  was  said  to  have  tnunht  (Kiisob.  l'!t. 
Constant,  iii.  43).  The  position  of  the  church 
prohahly  occasioned  the  belief,  of  wliic  h  no 
traces  appear  till  a  much  laier  date,  that  Christ 


534    JUDGMENT,  GENERAL 


JUDGMENT,  GENERAL 


ehould  bid  his  disciples  farewell  in  a  re- 
tired place,  endeared  by  many  sacred 
memories,  but  such  a  spot  offers  no  strik- 
ing fitness  for  his  re-appparaiice  to  judge 
the  world.  At  the  "  sound  of  a  t.rurapet " 
— i.e.  according  to  St.  Thomas  ("  Suppl." 
Ixxvi.  2),  either  the  voice  or  the  mere  ap- 
parition of  Christ — the  dead  will  wake. 
"  The  sign  of  the  Son  of  Man  will  appear 
in  heaven  "  (Matt.  .xxiv.  .".O).  There  is  no- 
thing in  the  context  to  indicat"  the  precise 
nature  of  thi.--  .sign,  hut  as  the  previous 
verse  speaks  of  the  darkening  of  the  hea- 
venly bodies,  tlie  "sign"'  seems  to  con- 
sist in  some  luminous  appearance  follow- 
ing the  darkness  and  ushering  in  the 
Messianic  glory.  The  common  opinion 
of  the  Fathers  since  Cyril  of  Jerusalem 
("Cat."  15),  and  of  the  schoolmen,  is  that 
the  "  sign  "  is  the  sign  of  the  cross,  con- 
spicuous in  the  sky,  and  this  opinion  de- 
veloped in  the  minds  of  some  into  the 
notion  that  the  fragments  of  the  wooden 
cross  on  which  Christ  died  would  be 
united  miraculously  and  exhibited  in  the 
sky.  Scripture  tells  us  that  Christ  will 
a]»pear  in  his  majesty  "in  the  clouds" 
(Matt.  xxvi.  64),  "  with  the  angels  of 
his  might,  in  a  flame  of  fire"  (1  Cor.  iii. 
13,  2  Thess.  i.  7) — fire  which,  according 
to  Suarez  ("  In  III.  P."  disp.  57,  quoted 
by  Jungmann),  "^vill  precede  the  judge 
on  his  way  to  judgment,  in  order  to  strike 
the  damned  with  instant  terror  and  to  bt! 
the  beginning  of  their  torment.  Christ 
will  take  his  seat  on  his  throne,  and  the 
just  will  be  placed  on  the  right,  the 
wicked  on  the  left,  of  Christ  (Matt.  xxv. 
•"31-33).  It  is  impossible  to  say  how  far 
these  expressions  are  to  be  taken  strictly, 
and  great  Catholic  authorities  have  leant, 
some  to  a  literal,  some  to  a  metaphorical 
explanation  (see  e.g.  the  authors  quoted 
by  Maldonatus  on  the  passage  in  Matthew). 
Lastly,  it  has  been  a  popular  behef  among 
Christians,  as  well  as  among  Jews  and 
Moslems,  that  the  judgment  will  take 
place  in  the  valley  of  Josaphat,  which 
has  been  Identified  with  the  narrow  ravine 
of  the  Kidron  on  the  eastern  side  of  Jeru- 
salem. This  belief  arose  from  the  words 
of  Joel  (iv.  1  ;  cf.  v.  12),  "For  behold  in 
those  days,  and  in  that  time,  when  I  will 
turn  again  the  captivity  of  Judah  and 
Jerusalem,  I  will  gather  together  all  the 
nations  and  bring  them  down  to  the 
valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  and  will  contend 
with  them  there  because  of  my  people 
and  my  inheritance  Israel."  It  is  very 
ascended  from  the  summit.  Compare,  however, 
«rt.  Holy  Places. 


doubtful  whether  the  valley  of  Josaphat 
was  a  real  place  at  all;  in  verse  14  it  is- 
called  the  "  valley  of  decision,"  and  the 
name  Jehoshaphat  means  "  the  Lord  has 
judged."    If  the  prophet  had  a  real  place 
in  view  he  may  possibly  have  had  the 
valley  in  the  wilderness  of  Tekoa  (2  Para- 
lip.  XX.),  where  Josaphat  won  a  signal 
victory    over    three    heathen  nations. 
Anyhow,  no  valley  of  Josa])hat  near 
Jerusalem  is  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures 
or  in  Josephus,  or  In  any  document  older 
than  the  "  Onomastlcon "  of  Euseblus. 
^  Remigius,  on  the  strength  of  Joel's  words, 
I  asserted,  in  the  middle  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, that  the  wicked  would  be  placed  for 
I  trial  in  the  valley  of  Josaphat,  while  the 
I  just  were  caught  up  in  the  air  to  meet 
'  their  Judge.    This,  says  Merx,  in  his  re- 
[  cent  commentary  on  Joel  (p.  109),  is  the 
I  earliest  place  in  a  Christian  commentary 
on  Joel  "  where  the  final  judgment  is 
fixed  geograjihically  and  topographically 
at  Jerusalem  in  the  valley  of  Jehosaphat." 
In  the  commentary  to  which  we  have 
just   referred    an   elaborate  account  of 
Christian  and   Jewish  opinion  on  the 
I  matter  will  be  found. 
I       2.  "The  man  Christ  is  the  judge,  but 
1  [He  exercises  this  office]  with  a  power  and 
authority  which  is  not  human  but  divine  " 
(Petav.  "De  Incarnat."  xli.  16).  The 
saints  (1  Cor.  vi.  2)  act  with  Him  in  his 
judicial  functions:  though  probably  this 
only  means  that  they  ajiprove  the  justice 
ot  the  sentence.    It  seems  plain  from 
jMatt.  xlx.  28  that  the  Apostles  are  to 
judge  the  world  in  a  stricter  sense,  though 
it  is  hard  to  imagine  what  this  sense  can 
be.    St.  Thomas  conjectures  ("Suppl." 
Ixxxix.  1)  that  the  Apostles  and  "per- 
,  feet"  men  will  notify  the  sentence  to 
others.    It  is  certain  that  all  men  will  be 
judged  (see  the  Athanasian  Creed),  and  it 
is  commonly  held  that  the  word  "  all "  is 
to  be  taken  quite  literally  so  as  to  include 
unbaptlsed  infants,  while  it  is  at  least  the 
more  approved  opinion  among  theologians 
that  angels  also  will  then  be  tried.  The 
books  will  be  opened  (Apoc.  xx.  12) — 
the  books,  perhaps,  of  conscience  and  of 
God's  remembrance.    The  examination 
made  will  consist  in  this,  that  God  will 
enlighten  the  mind  of  each  concerning  his 
own  thoughts,  words,  and  deeds,  and 
those  of  all  others.  Nearly  all  theologians 
1  hold  (though  the  Master  of  the  Sentences 
was  of  a  dift'erent  mind)  that  the  sins 
even  of  the  just  will  be  openly  declared, 
in  order  that  the  judgment  may  be  com- 
^  plete,  and  that  God's  justice  and  mercy 


JUDGMENT,  PARTICULAR 


JUDGMENT,  PARTICULAR  o35 


may  shine  forth.  In  each  individual 
cufu  sentence  will  he  pronounced.  St. 
Thomas  ("  Suppl."  Ixxxviii.  2)  deems  it 
more  likely  that  no  oral  words  will  be 
u?ed  in  the  sentence.  Many,  however, 
who  are  at  one  with  him  in  thinking  that 
no  oral  words  will  be  used  to  individuals, 
still  believe  that  the  words  in  Matt,  xxv., 
"  Come,  ye  blessed  of  my  Father,"  &c., 
"  Depart,  ye  cursed,"  &c.,  will  be  orally 
addressed  to  the  multitude  of  the  saved 
and  of  the  lost. 

JUDCMSN-T,  PA.RTZCUX.A.R. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Church  on  this  point 
is  clearly  e.xplained  in  the  following 
words  of  the  Roman  Catechism  (P.  I.  a.  7 
of  the  Creed).  There  are  "  two  occasions 
on  which  each  and  every  man  must  ap- 
pear before  God,  and  render  an  account 
of  every  thought,  action  and  word,  under- 
going finally  the  immediate  sentence  of 
the  Judge.  Of  these  occasions  the  first 
happens  when  a  man  departs  this  life; 
for  straightway  he  is  set  before  the 
judgment-seat  of  God,  and  there  a  most 
just  inquiry  is  made  into  all  that  he  has 
ever  done,  said,  or  thought,  this  being 
called  the  private "  (or,  as  we  usually 
say  in  English,  the  particular)  "judg- 
ment." The  essence  of  the  doctrine  lies 
in  the  belief  that  the  eternal  lot  of  the 
soul  is  determined  by  the  judgment  of 
God  immediately  after  its  separation  from 
the  body,  and  so  much  as  this  must  be 
considered  an  article  of  faith,  although 
there  has  been  no  formal  and  explicit 
definition  on  the  point.  The  doctrine, 
however,  is  clearly  implied  in  the  state- 
ment of  the  Coimcil  of  Florence,  that 
souls  which  quit  their  bodies  in  a  state 
of  grace,  but  in  need  of  pmification,  are 
cleansed  in  purgatory,  whereas  souls 
which  are  perfectly  pure  "  are  at  once 
(wio.r)  received  into  heaven,"  and  those 
which  depart  "in  actual  mortal,  or  merely 
with  original,  sin,"  "  at  once  descend  into 
hell  '  '  ("  Decretum  Uniouis").  The 
Fathers  of  Florence  follow  in  this  part 
of  their  decree  the  Constitution  "  Bene- 
dictus  Deus,"  issued  by  Benedict  XII.  in 
the  year  ly36. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  many  testimonies 
can  be  produced  from  Scripture  to  prove 
the  doctrine  as  it  has  just  been  propounded. 
Nor  need  we  wonder  at  this.  The  hooks 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible  for  the  most  part 
speak  obscurely  of  the  life  beyond  the 
grave,  while  those  of  the  New  Testament 
are  chiefly  occupied  with  the  great  truths 

1  "  liifernum."  Hell  must  be  taken  here  in 
k  large  sense  to  include  the  Limbo  of  infants. 


that  Christ  had  risen  and  that  He  would 
come  again  to  judge  the  world.  Still  at 
least  one  passage  from  the  gospel  of  St. 
Luke,  xvi.  2'J  M17.,  justifies  the  belief  of 
the  Church  and  excludes  reasonable  doubt 
on  the  matter.  Our  Lord  represents 
Lazarus  and  Dives  as  reccivinn'  their  re- 
spective rewards  immediately  after  death. 
The  former  goes  to  the  "  bosom  of  Abra- 
ham;" the  latter  lifts  up  "his  eyes  in 
Hades,  being  in  torments."  He  must  of 
course  have  been  sentenced  before  the 
j^eiuMal  judgment,  because  the  rich  mans 
brethren  are  spoken  of  as  still  alive.  It  is 
true  that  we  cannot  draw  dogmatic  infer- 
ences from  all  the  details  of  this  or  any 
other  parable,  and  it  is  often  hard  to  de- 
termine how  much  belongs  to  the  clothing 
of  the  narrative,  how  much  is  meant  to 
teach  a  moral  or  doctrinal  lesson.  Still 
we  may  confidently  regard  the  truth, 
that  judgment  follows  hard  on  death,  as 
part  of  the  main  teaching  which  the  story 
conveys,  and  so,  as  we  shall  jireMiitly  see, 
St.  Augustine  understood  the  pa^su-e. 

Several  other  places  of  Scripture  are 
quoted  in  proof,  but  some,  as  we  cannot 
help  thinking,  are  iirelevant,  none  cogent. 
Eccli.  xi.  27  seq.  may  refer  to  the  judg- 
ment which  God  brings  on  the  wicked 
by  the  very  act  of  cutting  them  oS  in  the 
midst  of  their  prosperity.  Eccles.  xi.  9, 
xii.  1,  is  far  too  vague  to  serve  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  alleged.  Our  English 
Catechism  urges  the  verse  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Ilebrew.s  (ix.  27),  "  It  is  appointed 
unto  all  men  once  to  die,  and  after  that 
thejudgment."  The  whole  passage  scarcely 
encourages  us  to  understand  thejudgment 
as  the  particular  oue.  "  As  it  is  appointed 
unto  all  men  once  to  die,  and  after  this 
the  judgment,  so  also  Christ,  being  once 
ofi'ered  to  bear  away  the  sins  of  many, 
will  be  manifested  a  second  time  without 
sin  to  those  who  wait  for  him  unto  salva- 
tion." The  natural  meaning  seems  to  be 
that  as  men  have  to  die  /once  only  and 
afterwards  to  be  judged,  so  Christ  had  to 
die  once  only  and  afterwards  will  come, 
no  longer  laden  with  the  sins  of  the 
world,  to  judge  mankind.  At  all  events, 
St.  Thomas  and  Plstius  both  think  that 
the  writer  of  the  Epistle  had  the  general, 
not  the  particular,  judgment  in  his  mind.' 

The  tradition  of  the  Church  on  the 
particular  judgment  was  for  a  long  time 

'  Protestant  commentators  are  also  divided 
on  the  meaninj;  of  the  word  "judgment."  .See 
LUnem.'iiiu,  ad  loc.  LUneiiiann  himself  cun- 
siders  that  the  /iera  rovro  leaves  the  time  at 
wliicli  thejudgment  is  to  follow  quite  indetinite. 


536  JUD'iMENT,  PARTICULAH 


JUDICIUM  DEI 


obscured  by  the  Millenuarian  errors  which 
were  held  in  early  times  even  by  many 
Catholics,  otherwise  nrtliodox,  and  by  the 
uncertainty  which  lowj  ]>ii'\ aileil  <<u  the 
state  ofso'ids  in  the  jx.'i  iod  l.rlwe.-ii  death 
and  the  general  ri'siiiTcctiiin.  St.  Augus- 
tine, however,  ^] oralis  clearly  and  em- 
phatically, and  that,  not  fur  himself  only, 
but  for  the  Church  of  his  time.  He  is 
speaking  of  books  on  the  soul  written  by 
A'incentius  Victor,  and  he  insists  that 
there  is  nothing  in  them  except  what  is 
•vain  or  erroneous  or  else  mere  common- 
place familiar  to  all  Catholics.  As  an 
instance  of  the  last,  he  gives  "N'ictor's 
teaching  on  the  meaning  of  the  parable 
from  St.  Luke  about  which  we  have 
already  spoken.  "  For  with  resjiect  to 
that,"  says  St.  Augustine  ("  De  Anima  et 
ejus  Origine,"  lib.  ii.  n.  8),  "which  he 
[Victor]  most  rightly  and  very  soundly 
))elieves,  viz.  that  souls  are  judged  when 
they  quit  the  body,  before  they  come  to 
that  judgment  which  must  be  passed  upon 
them  when  reunited  to  the  body,  and  arr 
tormented  or  glorified  in  that  very  flesh 
which  they  inhabited  here— was  this, 
then,  a  matter  of  m  hicli  you  were  actually 
unaware?  Wlio  is  tlu'ie  with  a  mind 
.so  encrusted  with  obstinacy  against  the 
Gospel  as  not  to  hear,  or  hearing  not  to 
believe,  these  things,  in  the  story  of  the 
poor  man,  taken  after  his  death  to  Abra- 
ham's hnsoni,  and  of  tlie  I'ich  man,  whose 
torment  in  liell  is  set  before  us  ?  " 

Theologians  adduce  various  arguments 
to  show  the  reasonableness  of  beUef  in 
the  particular  judgment.  "The  time," 
says  Suarez,  "  for  n)erit  and  demerit  ends 
with  death;  that,  therefore,  is  the  most 
suitable  time  forjudging  each  man's  acts, 
no  reason  existing  for  further  delay" 
(Suarez,  "In  III.  P."  disp.  52,  §  2, 
quoted  by  Jungmann,  "De  Noviss."  cap. 
i.  art.  2).  St.  Thomas  meets  the  obvious 
objection  that  there  is  no  need  of  two 
judgments,  by  pointing  out  that  it  befits 
each  to  be  judged  both  as  an  individual 
and  as  a  nunilier  of  the  whole  human 
race;  that  God's  justice  must  be  publicly 
as  well  as  privately  manifested ;  and  that 
the  sentence  passed  in  the  particular 
judgment  caimot  be  completely  executed 
till  the  bodv  is  reunited  to  the  soul 
("Suppl."  Ixxxviii.  1). 

The  coninion  n]iinion  is  that  souls  are 
judt.'(d  at  the  monii'iit  and  in  the  place  of 
deatli.  God  manifests  to  the  soul  by 
.sfuiii'interior  illumination  its  state  and  its 
future  lot,  whereupon  the  soul,  to  borrow 
the  illustration  of  St.  Thomas  ("  Suppl."  | 


Ixix.  2),  finds  the  place  which  belongs  to 
it  in  heaven,  or  purgatory,  or  hell,  just  as 
bodies  find  their  place  according  to  the 
law  of  gravity.  Popular  representations 
which  describe  the  soul  as  borne  by 
angels  before  the  tribunal  of  God,  there 
to  be  accused  by  devils  and  defended  by 
the  guardian  angels,  are  innocmt  in 
themselves,  and  are,  indeed,  sanctioned 
by  Scripture.  Still  they  are  popular 
representations,  after  all,  not  intended  as* 
accurate  statements  of  the  literal  truth. 

JVSZCA  PSA.X.M.  Ps.  xlii.  is  said 
— preceded  and  followed  by  the  versicle 
"  Introibo  "  ("  1  will  enter  to  the  altar  of 
God,"  Sec.) — at  the  beginning  of  all  Masses 
excei)t  those  for  the  dead  and  those  said 
during  the  time  of  the  Passion.  On  these 
occasions  the  psalm  is  omitted  because  of 
its  joyful  character.  St.  Ambrose  tells 
us  the  verse  of  the  psalm  already  referi'ed 
to.  "  I  will  enter  to  the  altar  of  God :  of 
God  who  maketh  glad  my  youth,"  was 
recited  l>y  the  neophytes  as  they  walked 
al'trr  ))a])tism  and  confirmation  from  the 
font  to  the  altar  in  order  to  receive  com- 
■  munion.  Since  the  ninth  century,  at 
!  least,  this  psalm  has  been  said  at  the 
I  beginning  of  the  Mass,  and  this  use  was 
ccnumon  to  the  churches  of  Spain,  France, 
Germany,  and  England  from  about  the 
same  time.  Le  Brun,  i.  p.  Ill,  gives 
minute  details  on  the  history  of  the  psalm 
as  used  at  Mass. 

JVBZCATvnx.  [See  Three  Chap- 
ters.] 

JUDZCES     SYia-OI>AX.SS.  The 

judges  to  whom  the  Roman  Cui'ia  com- 
mits the  trial  of  causes  in  diilerent  coun- 
tries are  so  called.  They  must  hold  some 
dignity  in  a.  cathedral  church,  and  must 
be  nominated  by  the  bishop  in  the  diocesan 
synod.  There  should  be  not  less  than  four 
for  each  diocese.  If  a.  judex  si/iiodalis  die 
in  the  interval  between  two  synods,  the 
bishop  nominates  some  one  to  take  his 
place  until  the  next  synod  meets.  All 
nominations,  whether  in  or  out  of  synod, 
must  be  reported  to  the  Pontifical  Secre- 
tary of  Petitions  {nupplicum  libdlonim), 
(Ferraris,  Judex,  §  06.) 

JVQZCZVni  SEZ  (ordeal,  jugement 
de  Uieu).  The  proof  of  facts  by  testi- 
mony being  attended  with  many  diffi- 
culties in  an  unsettled  state  of  society,  it 
has  been  commonly  believed  in  many 
countries  that  for  the  protection  of  inno- 
cence and  the  detection  of  guilt,  the  case 
being  doubtful,  if  the  divine  justice  were 
solemnly  appealed  to,  the  necessary  proof 
would  be  supplied  by  a  direct  exhibition 


J  UHISDICTION 


JURISDICTION 


63: 


of  divine  power.'  All  the  early  barharian 
codes,  the  Salic,  Ripuariiin,  Burgundian 
la-w,  See,  allow  the  appeal  to  the  "  judg- 
Tnent  of  God."  The  modes  were  various : 
among  them  were  walking  over  red-hot 
ploughshares  or  live  coals,  handling  red- 
hot  iron,  eating  hlessed  bread  [Etri-OGiiE], 
the  trial  by  hot  water,  and  the  trial  by 
cold  water.  It  was  beheved  that  a  per- 
jurer could  not  swallow  blessed  bread. 
In  the  trial  by  hot  water  the  person 
whose  innocence  was  in  question  had  to 
plunge  his  arm  into  a  caldron  of  boiling 
water.  In  that  by  cold  water,  he  was 
bound  hand  and  foot  and  thrown  into  a 
pond,  a  cord  being  fastened  to  him  ;  if 
he  floated,  it  was  held  that  the  water 
rejected  him  and  that  he  was  guilty ;  if 
he  sank,  that  he  was  imioeent.  Lastly, 
there  was  the  trial  by  combat ;  it  being 
devoutly  believed  that  the  man  whose 
cause  was  just  would  not  be  permitted  by 
heaven  to  be  vanquished  by  his  adversary. 
To  give  a  few  instances — the  Empress 
Cunegnnde  (about  A.D.  1010)  is  said  to 
liave  walked  unhurt  over  red-hot  plough- 
shares, when  she  appealed  to  the  judg- 
ment of  God  in  disproof  of  her  alleged 
unchastity ;  the  champion  of  the  Empress 
Theutburga  (860)  passed  victoriously 
through  the  trial  of  hot  water;  a  monk, 
Petrus  Igneus,  in  the  eleventh  century, 
to  establish  the  truth  of  his  testimony 
against  the  Bishop  of  Florence,  walked 
between  two  great  fires  placed  close  to- 
gether, and  was  not  scorched.  See  the 
curious  article  by  Kobt-r  in  Wetzer  and 
Welte,  in  which  the  view  is  taken  that 
the  Church  permitted  these  ordeals,  the 
issue  of  paganism,  but  without  approving 
of  them,  and  gradually,  through  the 
decisions  of  Popes  and  the  treatises  of 
doctors,  assisted  to  put  them  down. 
Most  of  the  ordeals  were  abandoned  in 
the  course  of  the  twellth  century.  The 
trial  by  combat  was  abolished  by  St. 
Louis  (about  12o0)  within  his  own  domi- 
nions ;  in  England  it  was  nominally  legal 
down  to  a  much  later  period. 

JirRissxCTZOir.  {Jiis  dicere,  to 
administer  justice,  was  one  of  the  "tria 
verba  "  which  denoted  the  functions  of  a 
Roman  prfetor.)  Jurisdiction  is  defined 
as  "  the  power  of  anyone  who  has  public 
autliority  and  pre-eminence  over  others 
for  their  rule  and  government.'" 

Jurisdiction  is  first  divided  into  eccle- 
siastical and  civil.  The  former  is  that 
which  is  concerned  with  causes  relating 
to  the  worship  of  God  and  the  spiritual 

»  Cp.  Soph.  Ant.  264,  Virg.  ^71.  xi.  787. 


salvation  of  souls  ;  it  is  exercised  either 
in  the  fointm  e.rfernum  or  in  the  forum 
internum.  Civil  or  political  jurisdiction 
is  conversant  with  secular  causes,  and 
lias  in  view  the  temporal  government  of 
the  commonwealth.  It  is  exercised  only 
in  the  forum  externum. 

Jurisdiction  is  again  divided  into  vol- 
untary and  contentious.  The  first  is 
exercised  over  persons  who  voluntarily 
submit  themselves  to  its  operation,  as  in 
the  case  of  manumissions  and  adoptions 
in  the  civil  order,  and  ordinations,  bene- 
dictions, absolutions,  &c.,  in  the  eccle- 
siastical order.  It  must  not  be  supposed 
that  the  validity  of  such  acts  depends 
upon  the  willingness  of  the  parties  inte- 
rested to  submit  to  them  :  as  when  a  club 
emjjowers  a  president  w  hom  it  has  elected 
to  frame  bylaws  for  them,  the  validity  of 
which  depends  upon  the  voluntary  acces- 
sion of  the  members.  The  acts  are  valid, 
firstly  and  cbielly,  because  done  by  a 
power  which  had  the  right  to  do  them — 
i.e.  which  had  jurisdiction.  Contentious 
jurisdiction  is  that  which  is  exercised 
over  persons  even  against  their  will;  it 
implies  a  dispute,  contending  parties,  and 
a  tribunal. 

Thirdly,  jurisdiction  may  be  either 
ordinary  or  delegated.  Ordinary  jurisdic- 
tion is  that  which  belongs  to  anyone 
of  his  own  right,  or  by  reason  of  his 
office,  in  virtue  of  some  law,  canon,  or 
custom.  Delegated  jurisdiction  is  that 
which  a  man  has,  not  of  his  own  riglit, 
but  by  the  commission  of  another,  in 
whose  place  he  officiati  s.  [Delegation.] 

Ordinary  jurisdiction  maybe  acquired 
in  three  wavs:  (1)  by  commission  from 
the  supreme  ruler,  conceded  either  to  the 
dignity  or  to  the  individual ;  (2)  by  law 
or  canon  ;  (3)  by  custom  or  prescription. 
Thus,  by  the  Supreme  Pontiff  are  con- 
stituted as  ordinary  judges,  legates, 
patriarchs,  primates,  archbishops,  bishops, 
the  ofiicials  of  the  Curia,  &c.  By  the 
supreme  lay  power  are  constituted,  in  the 
civil  order,  viceroys,  governors,  prefects, 
magistrates,  &c.,  who  all  enjoy  ordinary 
jurisdiction.  By  law  or  canon  those  are 
constituted  ordinary  judges  who  are 
elected  to  office  by  public  bodies  accord- 
ing to  the  statutes  of  their  foundation, 
and  by  public  functionaries  according  to 
law.  This  is  the  case  with  the  rectors  of 
xmiversities,  the  superiors  of  convents, 
the  provosts  of  chapters,  and  the  vicars- 
general  of  bishops.  The  third  way  is  l)y 
custom ;  a  jurisdiction  which  has  b^-en 
exercised  without  challenge  for  forty  years 


d38 


JUS  sroLii 


JUS  SPOLII 


is  held  to  be  validated  by  prescription, 
and  is  con.--ideied  ordinary. 

All  the  Apostles  received  their  juris- 
diction, which  (except  in  the  case  of  St. 
Peter)  was  personal  and  extraordinary, 
immediately  from  Christ.  This  juiisdic- 
tion  they  did  not  transmit;  the  bishops 
and  their  successors  receive  their  juris- 
dL  tion  from  Christ,  but  through  Peter, 
^uch  at  least  is  the  view  now  generally 
held  ;  but  even  if  the  bishops  be  deemed 
to  derive  their  jurisdiction  immediately 
from  Christ,  all  Catholics  agree  that  it  is 
in  such  manner  subject  to  the  supreme 
pastorate  of  the  Pope,  that  "it  can  be 
restrained  by  his  authority  and  sove- 
reignty, and,  for  a  lawful  cause,  alto- 
gether taken  away." ' 

Confessors  belonging  to  the  regular 
orders  have  jurisdiction  from  the  Pope 
over  the  faithful  generally  in  the  tribunal 
of  penance,  but  must  obtain  the  appro- 
bation of  the  bishop. 

Every  confessor  must  have  jurisdic- 
tion in  foro  interno,  otherwise  he  cannot 
validly  absolve.  An  absolution  given 
by  a  priest  without  jurisdiction  is  void. 
Nevertheless,  if  the  penitent  be  in  articido 
mortis,  or  sincerely  believed  to  be  so,  he 
may  be  validly  absolved,  not  only  from 
sins,  venial  and  mortal,  which  have  been 
before  confessed,  but  irom  all  ecclesiastical 
censures,  even  in  reserved  cases,  by  any 
simple  priest,  even  though  he  be  degraded, 
or  an  apostate,  or  irregular  [lEREGtr- 
laeixy],  or  a  heretic. 

The  jurisdiction  of  the  priest  is  of 
ecclesiastical  right,  so  far  as  its  bestowal, 
enlargement,  and  restriction  are  con- 
cemed,  for  it  is  the  Church  which  confers 
it,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  she  deems  to 
be  expedient  in  the  Lord;  but  it  is  of 
divine  right,  inasmuch  as  the  faculty  of 
remitting  sin,  for  the  sake  of  which  it 
exists,  is  "  conferred  on  the  priest  in  ordi- 
nation through  the  power  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.'"'    (Ferraris,  Jurisdictio.) 

JUS  SFOX.ZZ  (lit.  "  right  of  spoil "). 
By  "  spolium  '  is  meant  the  property  be- 
longing to  a  beneficed  ecclesiastic  at  the 
time  of  his  death  which  he  could  not 
legally  dispose  of  by  will.  According  to 
the  canons  a  bishop  or  other  ecclesiastic 
has  only  a  right  to  such  a  portion  of  the 
diocesan  revenues  as  is  sufficient  to  main- 
tain him  and  enable  him  to  discharge  his 
functions  efficiently.  Whatever  exceeds 
this  is  the  property  of  the  Church.  If 
therefore  an  ecclesiastic  at  his  death  be 
«  Benedict  XIV.,  quoted  by  Ferraris,  §  23. 
*  Cone.  Trid.  Sess.  xiv.  7. 


found  to  be  possessed  of  property,  the 
result  of  savings  from  his  share  of  Church 
emoluments,  that  property  ought  to  re- 
turn to  the  Church;  his  natural  heirs 
have  no  right  to  it.  It  is  recorded  of  a 
great  number  of  saints  that,  penetrated 
by  this  feeling,  they  took  care  to  dispose 
of  their  ecclesiastical  revenues  to  the  last 
farthing  in  almsdeeds  and  other  good 
works,  so  that,  when  death  came,  they 
might  depart  naked  out  of  this  world  as 
they  had  come  naked  into  it.  St.  Thomas 
of  Villanova  on  his  deathbed,  "having 
commanded  all  the  money  then  in  his  pos- 
session (which  amounted  to  four  thousand 
ducats)  to  be  distributed  among  the  poor 
in  all  the  parishes  of  the  city,  then  ordered 
all  his  goods  to  be  given  to  the  rector  of 
his  college,  except  the  bed  on  which  he 
lay.  Being  desirous  to  go  naked  out  of 
the  world,  he  gave  this  bed  also  to  the 
jailer  for  the  use  of  prisoners,  but  bor- 
rowed it  of  him  till  such  time  as  he  should 
ex])ire."'  Warham,  the  last  Catholic 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  rejoiced  to 
hear  as  he  was  dying  that  only  thirty 
pounds  were  left  in  his  coflers.  St. 
Francis  stripped  himself  of  the  very 
clothes  that  he  wore  and  gave  them  back 
to  his  father,  that  neither  he  nor  the 
world  might  henceforth  have  any  claim 
upon  one  another.  Such  examples  might 
be  indefinitely  multiplied.  A  dim  feeling 
in  the  popular  mind,  that  such  was  the 
more  perfect  way  for  the  ministers  of 
Christ,  may  have  had  something  to  do 
with  the  rise  of  this  singular  jm  spoilt 
(or,  as  it  was  also  called,  rapite  capite, 
"  seize  and  take  "),  in  virtue  of  which,  in 
the  rude  ages  following  the  fall  of  the 
Western  Empire,  anyone  who  was  present 
when  a  beneficed  ecclesiastic  expired 
thought  himself  at  liberty  to  seize  and 
carry  off  whatever  property  belonging  to 
the  deceased  he  could  lay  his  hands  on. 
Naturally  the  bulk  of  this  spoil  fell  to 
laymen,  who  were  more  rapacious  and  less 
scrupulous  than  clerks.  The  scandalous 
abuses  to  which  the  custom  led  may  be 
conceived ;  for  ages  councils  denounced 
them  and  legislated  against  them,  but  in 
vain.  If,  however,  we  consider  the  ex- 
treme opposite  to  the  jus  spolii — what  we 
may  call  thejMS  hcereditatis  et  legationis — 
the  right  claimed  by  beneficiaries  in  non- 
Catholic  communions  to  transmit  and 
bequeath  the  savings  of  their  ecclesiastical 
revenues  to  their  children,  we  must  admit 
that,  while  preserving  the  outward  sem- 
blance of  decorum,  this  practice  is  intrin- 
>  Alban  Butler,  Stjit.  18. 


JU-TICE 


JUSTIFICATION  5:50 


eically  far  more  scandalous  than  its  op- 
posite. 

As  the  power  of  sovereigns  increased 
in  Kiiro])o,  they  began  to  restrain  the 
indiscriminate  plunder  just  described,  and 
in  tlie  case  of  bishops,  to  draw  the  jus 
spolii  to  themselves.    Innocent  III.  com- 

?lained  (1207)  tliat  the  servants  of  Philip 
I.  had  stripped  the  house  and  lands  of  a 
deceased  bishop  of  Auxerre  of  property  of 
every  description,  leaving  only  the  bare 
■walls.  The  inferior  feudal  lords  claimed 
the  same  right  over  the  property  of 
deceased  ecclesiastics  on  their  domains. 
The  incessant  efforts  of  councils  gradually 
obtained  the  renunciation  of  the  right  on 
the  part  of  sovereigns  and  lay  lords.  In 
the  thirteenth  century  it  began  to  be 
claimed,  in  a  modified  form,  by  the 
Church  herself;  and  many  Constitutions 
of  later  Popes  confirmed  and  defined  the 
claim.  Thus  it  came  to  be  a  principle 
of  law  that  the  "  spoils  "  of  beneficiaries 
dying  without  the  faculty  of  devising,  or 
in  a  foreign  country,  or  which  were  ac- 
quired by  illicit  trading,  belonged  of 
right  to  the  Camera  Apostolica  or  Papal 
treasury.  This  right,  admitted  in  Italy 
Jor  all  orders  of  clergy,  and  in  Castile  in 
the  case  of  bishops,  was  not  allowed  in 
France,  Gerniany,  Belgium,  or  Portun-al. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  this  jus 
spolii  does  not  extend  to  the  ])atrimonial 
property  of  ecclesiastics,  nor  to  personal 
gifts  and  other  acquisitions  lawfully 
derived  to  them  during  life  from  non- 
ecclesiastical  sources.  The  law  lays  down 
various  rules  for  distinguishing  as  equit- 
ably as  possible  between  the  two  classes 
of  property,  if  an  ecclesiastic  has  died 
possessed  of  both.  From  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century  the  right  of  spoil  was 
compromised  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
for  an  annual  payment  to  the  Camera. 
(Ferraris,  Sprdium;  art.  by  Kober  in 
Wetzer  and  "\^■elte.) 

XirsTZCB,  in  the  widest  sense,  the 
sense  which  concerns  us  here,  is  not  a  special 
virtue,  because  it  includes  all  the  super- 
natural virtues  According  to  St.  Thomas 
(1*  2",  qu.  cxiii.  a.  1),  it  "  implies  a  certain 
rectitude  of  order,  even  in  the  interior 
disposition  of  a  man,  inasmuch,  namely, 
as  the  highest  part  of  man  is  subjected  to 
God  and  the  inferior  powers  of  the  soul 
are  subjected  to  that  which  is  supreme, 
viz.  to  reason.'"  Justice  in  this  sense 
involves  subjection  to  God  and  therefore 
the  absence  of  mortal  sin.  which  is  rebel- 
lion airain.st  Him;  while  perfect  justice 
ie  identical  with  the  perfection  of  everj" 


virtue.  Scripture  constantly  uses  justice 
(PIV  rii^nV)  ^iKotoaivTi)  in  this  large 
acceptation — e.g.  "Abraham  believed  God, 
and  he  reckoned  it  to  him  as  justice" 
(Gen.  XV.  6;  cf.  Galat.  iii.  (i,  James  ii. 
2'{,  and  innumerable  other  ])as>M<;.'s).  The 
"authorised  ver^ion"  renders  the  Greek 
and  Hebrew  words  in  these  cases 
"  righteousness,"  and  this  has  become  the 
familiar  name  anKmg  English  Protestants. 
The  change  of  word  does  not  seem  to 
mark  any  dillerence  of  principle,  though, 
of  course,  the  older  Protestants  held  that 
the  justice  of  Christ  is  imputed  to  us — i.e. 
reckoned  to  our  account — whereas  the 
Catholic  doctrine  is  that  justice  or 
righteousness  does  indeed  come  from  the 
grace  of  God,  but  that  it  inheres  in  the 
soul  and  consists  in  a  real  change  of  the 
moral  character.  "  He  who  doeth  justice 
is  just"  (John,  1  Ep.  iii.  7). 

It  is  this  general  sense  of  the  word 
"justice  "  which  is  important  in  theology, 
and  the  plan  of  this  IJictionary  does  not 
require  that  we  should  treat  at  lenarli  of 
justice  as  a  particular  virtue.  As  such,  it 
is  commonly  defined  in  words  adopted  by 
theologians  from  Ulpian  as  the  "  firm 
and  abiding  resolve  {voluntm)  to  give 
each  his  own  right."  It  is  subdivided 
into  legal  justice — which  orders  a  man's 
actions  to  the  common  good,  in  which,  of 
course,  he  himself  shares — and  particular 
justice,  which  orders  the  duties  of  man  to 
man.  This  latter  again  is  subdivided  into 
distributive  justice — which  inclines  su- 
periors to  a  just  distribution  of  burdens 
and  advantages  among  their  subjects — 
and  commutative  justice,  which  consists 
in  giving  to  each  his  strict  rights — e.g. 
paying  debts,  taxes,  &c.  Commutative, 
uidike  legal,  justice  lies  solely  in  the  per- 
formance of  duties  to  others,  whereas  the 
agent's  own  good  is  part  of  the  common 
good;  unlike  distributive  justice,  it  deals 
only  with  strict  rights  and  is  for  these 
reasons  justice  in  the  most  proper  sense 
of  the  word. 

TTTSTZFZCATZOM'.  The  diflference 
of  belief  on  the  way  by  which  sinners  are 
justified  before  God,  formed  the  main 
subject  of  contention  between  Catholics 
and  Protestants  at  the  time  of  the  Refor- 
mation. "  If  this  doctrine"  {i.e.  the  doc- 
trine of  justification  by  faith  alone)  "falls," 
says  Luther  in  his  "Table  Talk,"  "it  is 
all  over  with  us."  On  this  account  the 
Council  of  Trent  was  at  pains  to  define 
most  clearly  and  explicitly  the  Catholic 
tradition  on  the  matter,  placing  it  in 
sharp  opposition  to  the  contrary  tenets 


640  JUSTIFICATION 


JUSTIFICATION 


of  the  Reformers.  We  confine  ourselves 
here  to  the  process  by  which  adults  are 
elevated  from  a  state  of  death  and  sin  to 
the  favour  and  friendship  of  God ;  for 
with  regard  to  infants  the  Church  of 
course  teaches  that  they  are  justified  in 
baptism  without  any  act  of  their  own. 

Justification,  tlien,  according  to  the 
council  (Sess.  vi.  5,  6),  begins  with  the 
gi-ace  of  God  which  touches  a  sinner's 
heart  and  calls  him  to  repentance.  Tins 
grace  cannot  lie  merited;  it  proceeds 
siiK'ly  rnnn  tlie  love  and  mercy  of  God. 
It  if,  h(i\ve\er,  in  man's  power  to  reject 
or  to  receive  the  inspiration  from  above ; 
it  is  in  his  power  to  turn  to  God  and  to 
virtue  or  to  persevere  in  siu.  And  grace 
does  not  constrain  but  assist  the  free-will 
of  the  creature.  So  assisted,  the  sinner 
is  disposed  or  prepared  and  adapted  for 
jusiificalion;  he  believes  in  the  revelation 
and  promises  of  God,  especially  in  the 
truth  "  that  a  sinner  is  justified  by  God's 
grace,  through  the  redemption  which  is 
in  Christ  Jesus;"  he  fears  the  justice, 
hopes  in  the  mercy,  of  God,  trusts  that 
( iod  will  be  merciful  to  him  for  Christ's 
sake,  begins  "  to  love  God  as  the  fountain 
of  all  justice,  hates  and  detests  his  sins." 
"This  disposition  or  preparation  is  followed 
by  justification  itself,  which  justification 
consists,  not  in  the  mere  remission  of  sins, 
but  in  the  sanctification  and  renewal  of 
the  inner  man  by  the  voluntary  reception 
of  1  God's]  grace  and  gilts,  whence  a  man 
becomes  just  instead  of  unjust,  a  friend 
instead  of  a  foe,  and  so  an  heir  according 
to  hope  of  eternal  life."  .  .  .  "By  the 
merit  of  the  most  holy  Passion  through 
the  Holy  Spirit  the  charity  of  God  is 
shed  abroad  in  the  hearts  of  those  who 
are  justified,"  Sec. 

"We  may  turn  to  the  views  of  Luther- 
ans and  Cai  vinists,  as  they  are  to  be  found 
in  their  authoritative  Confessions.  They 
are  at  one  with  Catholics  in  attributing 
the  beginning  of  justification  to  the  mei-e 
grace  of  God,  and  in  excluding  all  merit 
or  title  on  the  part  of  the  sinner.  But 
Lutherans  maintained  that  man  "  could 
contribute  absolutely  nothiiig  to  his  own 
conversion,"  that  "  faith  in  Christ, 
regeneration,  renewal,"  are  to  be  ascribed 
"  sdlel  V  to  the  working  of  God  and  to  the 
Holy  Spirit"  ("Solid.  Declar.  de  Lib. 
Arbitr."  §  20,  p.  035,  quoted  in  Mohler's 
"  Symbol."  p.  108).  Here  the  Lutherans 
follow  their  master,  who  compared  man 
under  the  action  of  grace  to  "  a  trunk  or 
a  stone  "("In  Gen."  xix. ;  Miihler,  p.  107). 
The  Calvinists,  on  the  other  hand,  did 


admit  that  man  was  active  as  well  a» 
passive  under  the  influence  of  grace 
("  Confess.  Helvet."  cap.  ix.  p.  21 ; 
Mohler,  p.  118);  but  as  they  held  grace 
to  be  irresistible  they  could  not,  of  course, 
allow  the  Trident ine  doctrine  that  man  is 
free  to  accept  or  reject  the  invitation  of 
God.  Both  the  Lutheran  and  Calvinist 
errors  with  regard  to  human  co-operation 
are  excluded  and  condemned  (Sess.  vi.  De 
Justif.  can.  4,  5,  6).  Secondly,  whereas 
Catholics  understand  by  justification  the 
renewal  of  man's  moral  nature  by  divine 
grace,  the  reformers  took  it  to  mean  "  the 

I  remission  of  sins  and  the  imputation  of 
the  justice  of  Christ"  (Calvin.  "Instit." 
cap.  xi.  §  2;  Mohler,  p.  136;  and  so 
"  Solid.  Declar."  iii.De  Fid.  Justif.  §  11 ; 

j  Mohler,  p.  1-35),  faith  being  the  condi- 

I  tion  on  which  these  benefits  are  given. 
Here  is  the  hinge  on  which  the  whole 
controversy  turns.      Catholics  regard 

[  justification  as  an  act  by  which  a  man  is 
reall)-  made  just ;  Protestants,  as  one  in 
which  he  is  merely  declared  and  reputed 
just,  the  merits  of  another — viz.  Christ 
— being  made  over  to  his  account.  AVith 
Catholics  justification  is  effected  by  grace 
inherent  in  the  soul  ;  with  Protestants  it 
is  something  external  to  the  soul  alto- 
gether— a  sentence  which  is  pronoimced 
by  the  divine  judge.  True  (and  we  are 
bound  in  fairness  to  lay  great  stress  on 
this),  Protestants  hold  that  real  and  in- 
terior sanctification  follows  upon  justi- 
fication, so  that  change  in  heart  and  life 
is  the  sure  and  only  test  that  a  man  really 
has  been  justified  by  faith,  or,  in  other 
words,  that  the  merits  of  Christ  have 
been  imputed  to  him.  Still  a  very  im- 
portant difference  between  the  Catholic 
and  Protestant  views  remains.  To  the 
Catholic,  sanctification  and  justification 
are  the  same  thing,  or  at  most  two 
aspects  of  the  same  thing — viz.  of  the  act 
by  which  God  makes  a  soul  just  and  holy 
in  his  sight.  To  the  Lutheran  or  Cal- 
vinist, they  are  distinct,  both  in  themselves 
and  in  the  order  of  time  at  which  they 
take  place.  For  it  was  the  contention  of 
Protestant  theologians  that  a  soul  is  first 
justified — i.e.  accepted  as  just  for  the 
merits  of  Christ  apprehended  throughfalth, 
and  then,  as  a  necessary  consequence, 
sanctified — i.e.  really  made  holy.  Lastly, 
as  Protestants  believed  that  concupiscence 
— i.e.  the  mere  interior  temptation  to  sin, 
unaccompanied  by  wilful  consent — con- 
stituted sin  in  the  strict  sense,  and  since 
all  are  liable  to  such  temptations,  they 
held  very  inadequate  notions  of  sanctifi- 


JUSTIFICATION 

Entioj.  "God,"  Calvin  writes,  "begins 
this  work  of  interior  renewal  in  his  elect, 
and  proceeds  with  it  throughout  the 
whole  course  of  their  lives,  and  that 
sometimes  slowly,  so  that  they  always 
remain  subject  to  the  sentence  of  death 
before  his  tribunal''  ("Instit."  iii.  11; 
Mohler,  p.  144).  Very  ditlerent  is  tlie 
Catholic  belief,  according  to  which  justi- 
fication excUules  all  mortal  sin  from  the 
soul  and  makes  the  love  of  God  and  man 
sovereign  within  it,  so  that  the  just  man 
is  in  no  way  liable  to  the  sentence  of 
death  at  God's  judgment  seat  Sin,  no 
doubt,  remains,  more  in  some,  less  in 
others,  but  it  is  venial  sin,  which  does 
not  incur  the  sentence  of  eternal  woe  or 
forfeit  God's  friendsbip. 

The  Protestant  doctrine  has  only  an 
apparent  foundation  in  Scripture.  Un- 
doubtedly, the  Hebrew  word  pnvn,  the 
Greek  dtKmoon  in  the  Sept.  and  N.T., 
often  mean,  not  to  make,  but  to  pro- 
nounce just  by  a  legal  sentence.  The 
judge  may  in  this  sense  "justify  "  a  man 
because  his  cause  is  good,  or  from  corrupt 
motives  although  his  cause  is  bad.  Thus 
in  Deut.  xxv.  1 ,  the  judges  are  directed  to 
justify  (^-ip'^Vni,  LXX  Sikcioxtoxti)  the 
just  (t.e.  to  pronounce  him  just)  and  to 
make  the  wicked  wicked — i.e.  to  pro- 
nounce him  to  be  so.  Here  the  Vulgate 
has  "justitiifi  palmam  dabunt" — but  in 
Prov.  xvii.  15,  "  he  who  justifies  the 
wicked  and  condemns "  (lit.  "  makes 
wicked,"  or  as  we  might  say  "  makes  out 
to  be  wicked  ")  "  the  just — an  abomina- 
tion to  the  Lord  are  both  the  one  and  the 
other,"  it  represents  pnvn  by  "justifico." 
We  do  not  tlierefore,  for  a  moment, 
dream  of  bringing  any  philological  objec- 
tion to  the  Protestant  view,  nor  do  we 
deny  that  the  Scriptural  idea  of  justifica- 
tion does  imply  legal  acquittal.  But  why 


KINGS  AND  QUEENS  541 

does  God  pronounce  the  siwaer  just  ?  Not 
because  he  comes  to  trial  with  clean 
hands,  for  by  the  hypothesis  he  comes 
laden  with  guilt.  Not  because,  being 
actually  unjust,  he  is  pronounced  just  on 
the  ground  of  a  legal  fiction  by  which  the 
merits  of  another  »re  made  over  to  his 
accfiunt,  for  such  a  procedure  would  be 
luiworthy  of  a  human,  much  more  of 
divine,  justice.  The  true  answer  surely 
is  that  God  puritie-i  the  soul  by  turning 
it  from  love  of  self  to  divine  love,  and 
that  thus  He  at  the  same  moment  renders 
and  pronounces  the  sinner  just. 

Scripture  abundantly  confirms  the  rea- 
sonableness of  the  inference.  It  describes 
God  as  "destroying"  and  taking  away 
iniquity  ;  it  speaks  of  the  blood  of  Christ, 
which  "  cleanses  us  from  all  sin."  If  in 
Ps.  xxxi.  (Ileb.  xxxii.)  we  read  that  the 
man  is  blessed  "  whose  iniquity  is  taken 
away,  whose  sin  is  covered,  to  whom  the 
Lord  doth  not  reckon  or  impute  sin," 
this  blessedness  does  not  consist  in  mere 
forgiveness,  for  the  verse  ends,  "  in  whose 
spirit  there  is  no  guile."  Two  pa.ssages  in 
St.  Paul  show  that  he  knew  nothing  of 
the  spurious  distinction  between  justifica- 
tion and  sanctification.  After  telling  the 
Corinthians  that  great  sinners,  thieves, 
profligates,  slanderers,  &c.,  will  not  inherit 
the  "kingdom  of  God,"  he  continues  "And 
such  were  ^ome  of  you,  but  you  washed 
yourselves "'  ( Vulg.,  "  you  were  washed  "), 
"  but  you  were  sanctified,  but  you  were 
justified,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus,'" 
&c.  (1  Cor.  vi.  11).  Here  sanctification 
is  put  before  justification,  and  Lf  the  Pro- 
testant theory  were  correct,  the  whole 
matter  would  have  been  thrown  into 
obscurity  and  confusion.  Again  in  Ephes. 
iv.  24,  "  Put  on  the  new  man,  who  has 
been  created  according  to  God  injustice 
and  hoUnesa  of  truth." 


K 

Kzurcs  AND  QUEENS,  Eiw-  the  Emperor,  but  to  our  God  and  his." 
PERORS,  ETC.,  PRAYERS  FOR.  I  So  Athanasius  prayed  publicly  for  the 
St.  Paul  (1  Tim.  ii.  1)  commands  prayers  heretical  Emperor  Constantine,  as  we 
to  be  made  for  kings  and  all  in  authority,  ,  know  from  his  own  words.  ("Apol.  ad 
and  there  is  abundance  of  proof  that  the  ]  Constant."  c  11) :  "I  did  but  say,  '  Let 
early  Christians  faithfully  observed  this  us  pray  for  the  most  pious  Enijieror 
duty,  even  if  their  rulers  were  heathen  or  :  (Avyovn-rov)  Constantius,'  and  straight- 
heretical.  Two  instances  out  of  many  :  way  all  the  people  shouted  with  one 
will  suffice.  "We  sacrifice,"  says  Ter- !  voice,  'Christ,  help  Constantius!'  and 
tullian  ("  Ad  Scap."  2),  "  for  the  health  of '  kept  on  praying  thus."    At  a  later  date, 


5i2 


KISS 


KISS 


liowever,  the  names  of  empei  oi  s  who  for- 
mally separated  themselves  from  the 
Church  were  left  out  in  the  diptychs. 

When  the  diptych^  It'll  out  of  use  the 
name  of  the  king  or  emperor  was  put  in 
the  Canon  of  the  .Mass,  iind  it  is  wautinfj 
in  very  few  meiliu'val  missals,    i^ot  only 
did  our  ancient  Enyiish  liturgies  put  the 
names  of  our  sovereigns  in  the  Canon, 
hut  many  editions  of  the  Sarum  Missal 
have  a  votive  Mass  "  pro  Rege ''  ( jMaskell,  ' 
"  Ancient  Liturgy   of   the    Church  of 
England,'"  p.  276).     The  name  of  the 
sovereign,  however,  is  left  out  in  the 
modern  Roman   Missal,  and  Gavantus 
("Thesaur."  P.  II.  tit.  viii.)  says  that  it  j 
cannot  be  added  except  in  virtue  of  an 
Apostolic  privilege  such  as  that  granted 
to  Philip  II.  of  Spain  by  Pius  V.'   Merati  [ 
in  his  note  modifies  the  statement  so  far  j 
as  to  allow  that  the  name  of  the  sove- 
reign may  be  inserted  by  "  old  and  lawful 
custom,"  such  as  prevailed  in  France  and 
"Venice,  when  the  names  of  the  king  and 
the  diige  were  inserted.    At  present,  in 
English  Catholic  churches,  it  is  usual  to 
sing  a  jirayer  after  .-olemn  Mass  for  our  [ 
Queen  anil  the  Royal  Family.    (Le  Brun,  ] 
timi.  ii. ;  Hefele,  "  Beitniije,"  vol.  ii.  pp. 

21)0  srq.) 

KISS.  (A)  Kiss  of  Peace.— Among 
Jews  (Gen.  xxxiii.  4,  2  Kings  xiv.  3.3, 
Job  xxi.  27)  and  heathen  the  ki.ss  was 
used  much  more  frequently  than  among 
ourselves  as  a  mere  >ign  oi'  good  will  and 
charity.  Among  (he  Romans,  indeed, 
the  use  of  the  osciil/nn  was  regulated  by 
custom  and  law.  The  custom  was  natu- 
rally adopted  and  raised  to  a  higher 
signilicance  among  Christians.  Thus  St. 
Paul  tells  those  to  whom  he  wrote  that 
they  are  to  salute  ea<di  other  in  "a  holy 
kiss"  (e'l'  (/«Xi'y/i(iri  riyiM,  Rom.  xvi.  16, 
1  Cor.  xvi.  20,  1  Thews  ' V.  26),  while  St. 
Peter  (1  Fp.  v.  14)  s])eaks  of  a  "kiss  of 
charity"  (eV  (^tX/y^ari  dyarrr]i).  ^!\r]fj.a 
ayiov,  <f>l\rifia  (iyi'n7rji,  haTracrfJios,  (j)'i\ijfici 
fjLva-TiKov — and  in  lituigical  language 
(lf)f]vrf — are  the  Gjeek"  words  nm.sl  used 
by  Christian  writers  lor  the  holy  kiss; 
the  Latins  employ  oaodum  sanctum, 
osculum  pads,  jiacem  dare,  offerre,  &c. 
TertulUan  ("  De  Orat."  18)  si^'aks  of  the 
"kiss  of  peacf!  which  is  lie'  seal  of 
praver,"  and  ("lenient  of  .Mexandria 
("P:edagog."  iii.  1  1 ,  p.  .'iOl,  ed.  Potter) 
says  the  kiss  "  sh  mid  lie  mystical,"  and 
enlarges  (m  the  piinly  of  intention  with 
which  it  should  he  given. 

(a)  At  Mass. — The  kiss  of  peace  was 
'  This  has  been  disputed  by  Binterim. 


given  at  Mass  from  the  earliest  times,  as 
appears  from  Justin,  "  Apol."  i.  65.  To 
avoid  the  dangers  of  abuse  to  which 
Athenagoras  (Legat.  32,  quoting  appa- 
rently an  earlier  writer)  refers,  the  "  Apo- 
stolic Constitutions"  (viii.  11)  order  a 
rigid  separation  of  the  sexes. 

In  two  striking  ways  the  Roman 
practice  with  regard  to  the  kiss  of  peace 
at  Mass  differs  from  that  of  other 
Churches.  In  all  the  Eastern,  as  well  as 
in  the  Mozarabic  and  Ambrosian  liturgies, 
the  kiss  is  given  before  the  offertory  and 
consecration.  This  is  the  order  recog- 
nised by  Justin  {loc.  cit^,  and  probably 
arises  partly  from  a  desire  to  begin  the 
sacred  action  in  peace,  partly  because  the 
exhortation  of  the  Apostle,  at  the  close 
of  some  of  his  ejustles,  led  Christians  to 
salute  each  other  at  the  end  of  the 
lections,  which  came  in  the  Mass  of  the 
Catechumens  (i.e.  in  the  earUer  part  of 
the  service).  In  the  Roman  Mass,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  kiss  of  peace  follows 
the  consecration,  and  is  closely  connected 
with  the  communion ;  an  order  which 
Innocent  I.  defends  in  his  celebrated 
letter  to  Decent ius,  on  the  ground  that 
the  kiss  of  peace  is  set  as  a  "  seal "  on 
the  whole  of  the  sacred  action.  Again, 
among  the  Orientals  (see  Concil.  Laodic. 
can.  1!))  the  priests  gave  the  kiss  of  peace 
to  the  bishop,  then  the  laity  to  each 
other ;  and  so,  e.g.,  in  the  liturgy  of  St. 
James,  and  in  that  of  St.  Chrysostom  as 
used  at  this  day  in  the  ;^reek  Church,  the 
celebrant  simply  wishes  "  peace  to  all," 
whereupon  the  deacon  says,  "  Let  us  kiss 

each  other  {dyairr^acofiev  dXXi;\ous)that  we 

may  agree  in  oneness  of  mind."  In  the 
Roman  Mass  the  kiss  of  peace,  as  it  were, 
down  from  the  bishop  to  the  priests. 
It  is  plain  from  the  deci-ees  of  the 
Councils  of  Frankfort  (704,  can.  50)  and 
Mayeuce  (813,  can.  44)  that  the  kiss  of 
peace  long  continued  to  he  gi\  en  in  the 
West.  It  was  only  at  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  century  that  it  gave  way  to 
the  use  of  the  "  osculatorium  " — called 
also  "  instrumentum  "  or  "  tahella  pacis," 
'■pax,"  "pacificale,"  "freda"  (from 
Frirdc),  &c. — a  plate  with  a  figure  of 
Christ  on  the  cross  stamjied  upon  it. 
kissed  first  by  the  priest,  then  by  the 
clerics  and  congregation.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  England  by  Archbishop 
Walter  of  Yoi'k,  in  1250.  Usually  now 
the  Pax  is  not  given  at  all  in  low  Masses, 
and  in  high  Mass  an  embrace  is  substi- 
tuted for  the  old  kiss  and  given  only  to 
those  in  the  sanctuary.    The  Pax  is  not 


KISS 


KISS 


54S 


^ven  on  the  three  last  days  of  Holy 
Week.    (Cr.  Tertull.  «  De  Orat."  14.) 

(3)  At  other  Sacraments. — The  kiss  of 
peace  was  also  given  at  baptism  (Cyprian, 
Ep.  64,  §  4,  "  Ad  Fidum  '),  of  which 
custom  the  "  Pax  tecum  '  in  our  ritual  is 
a  relic;  and  at  absolution  of  penitents 
(see  Euseb.  "  H.  E."  iii.  23,  and  Martene, 
"  Ord."  13).  The  kiss  given  by  the  other 
bishops  present  to  a  bishop  just  conse- 
crated is  mentioned  "Coustit.  Apost." 
viii.  5.  This  custom  is  still  prescribed  in 
the  Roman  Pontifical.  So,  too,  is  an- 
other ancient  rite,  according  to  which  the 
bishop  gives  the  kiss  of  peace  to  a  priest 
at  his  ordination.  In  the  Greek  Ordinal 
(Goar,  "  Euchol."  p.  298)  it  is  the  new- 
priest  who  kisses  the  bishop  and  other  | 
priests.  | 

(y)  The  kiss  at  betrothal,  in  the 
Roman  law,  gave  the  betrothed  woman 
certain  rights  of  inheritance  and  mu  le 
her  a  quasi-uxor.  This  rite  is  mentioned 
by  Tertulliaii  ("  De  Yeland.  Virg."6  and 
11)  and  bv  Greek  canonists. 

(5)  The  habit  of  giving  communion  j 
and  the  kiss  of  peace  to  the  dead  was  for-  ' 
hidden  by  the  Council  of  Auxene  (anno 
585,  alias  578),  canon  12,  but  the  Greeks 
still  give  the  kiss  to  the  dead.  j 

{B)  The  Kiss  as  a  Mark  of  Homur. —  I 
The  "  woman  who  was  a  sinner  "  kissed  ! 
{KaTf(})lXft)  Christ's  feet  (Luke  vii.  38),  i 
and  the  same  mark  of  affectionate  reve-  j 
rence  is  in  common  use  anmng  Catholics. 

(a)  In  early  times  the  Christians  used 
to  lass  the  altar  as  a  mark  of  reverence 
to  the  place  on  which  the  luicharist  is 
offered.  The  priest  still  dues  so  repeatedly 
in  the  Roman  Mass,  out  of  reverence  for 
the  altar  and  for  the  reUcs  of  saints 
enclosed  there.     So   the   celebrant  at 
Mass  signifies  his  love  for  the  teaching 
of  Christ  by  kissing  the  Gospel.  This 
practice  is  also  ancient,  being  mentioned 
in  the  first  of  the  Roman  Ordines.  Jonas,  , 
bishop  of  Orleans,  in  the  ninth  century  , 
recognises  the  antiquity  of  the  custom. 
(Le  Brun,  i.  p.  231 ;  and  see  under  j 
Gospel.)  i 

(^J)  The  Pope's  feet  are  kissed  as  a 
mark  of  homage  immediately  after  he 
has  accepted  olKce ;  by  cardinals  newly 
created ;  by  those  to  whom  audiences  are 
granted ;  &c.,  &c.  The  kiss  is  given  on 
the  golden  cross  of  tlie  >andal  which  the 
Pope  wears  on  his  ri;;hl  foot. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  this 
mark  of  honour  was  not  originally  re- 
served to  the  Pope.  It  was  given,  as 
Oriental  customs  spread  throughout  the 


empire,  to  the  emperors,  as  well  as  to 
patriarchs  and  bishops.  "  In  the  Liturgy," 
says  Kraus  (art.  Fusskuss,  in  the  "  Kn- 
cyclopsedia  of  Archaeology  "),  "  the  ritual 
ascribed  to  Gelasius  directs  the  deacon 
before  reading  the  Gospel  to  kiss  the 
Pope's  feet.  The  same  mark  of  honour 
was  given  occasionally  to  the  Popes  even 
by  the  highest  personages  on  earth — e.y. 
by  the  emperors  Justin  and  Justinian, 
by  the  kings  Luitprand,  Pepin,  by  Char- 
lemagne, &c. ;  but  it  is  also  to  be  ob- 
served that  the  Popes,  on  the  other  side, 
also  gave  the  act  of  adoration  to  the 
emperors.  Only  late  in  the  middle  ages 
the  adoration  by  kissing  the  feet  of  sove- 
reigns and  bishops  fell  more  and  more 
into  disuse,  and  was  confined  to  the 
Vicar  of  Christ,  and  then  a  cross  was 
worked  on  the  slipper  to  show  that  this 
honour  was  done  not  to  the  mortal,  but 
to  the  Son  of  God."  Charles  V.  is  said 
to  have  been  the  last  royal  personage 
who  did  obeisance  in  this  way,  for  al- 
though Benedict  XIV.  received  it  from 
the  King  of  Naples,  this  is  explained  by 
the  peculiar  relations  of  the  Neapolitan 
crown  to  the  Pope. 

According  to  present  custom,  the 
Pope  immediately  after  his  election  is 
divested  of  his  cardinals  dress,  puts  on 
the  house-dress  of  the  Pope  and  is  led  to 
the  altar,  whereupon  the  cardinals  kiss 
his  foot  and  right  hand,  receiving  the 
kiss  of  peace  in  return.  Nest,  when  the 
Pope's  name  has  been  proclaimed  to  the 
people,  his  foot  is  kissed  by  the  Governa- 
tore  of  Rome  and  by  all  the  "  Concla- 
vists "  who  have  accompanied  the  cardi- 
nals. Both  of  these  "  adorations  "  take 
place  in  the  conclave  itself.  The  third 
"adoration"  is  made  by  the  cardinals  in 
the  Sixtine  chapel,  on  the  altar  of  which 
the  Pope  is  placed  in  Pontifical  vestments. 
The  Pope  is  then  carried  on  a  litter  to 
St.  Peter's,  placed  on  the  high  altar,  and 
again  receives  solemn  "  adoration."  .V 
newly-created  cardinal  kisses  the  Pope's 
foot  and  then  his  hand.  Patriarchs, 
archbishops,  and  bishops  kiss  the  Pope's 
foot  and  then  his  knee.  Other  ecclesiastics 
and  laymen  (except  sovereigns)  merely 
kiss  the  foot. 

(A  full  accoimt  of  the  literature  on 
the  "kiss  of  peace"  will  be  found  in 
Kraus,  art.  Friedou-^kuss  There  is  a 
modern  book  on  the  >ubji  ct  by  Kahle, 
"De  Osculo  Sancto,"  Regimont.  1867. 
On  the  kissing  of  the  Pope's  foot  there 
are  treatises  by  Valentini,  "  De  Oscula- 
tione  Pedum  Romani  Pontificis,"  Romse. 


544        KTETE  ri.ETSON 


LACTICTNIA 


loSS  :  liv  P  'ugard,  "  Del  Bacio  de'  Piedi 
de'  Sonimi  Poutetici,"  Roma,  1807.) 

ZCYRIE      EXiEZSOM-,  CHRZSTE 

SXiEZSOir,  etc.  Greek  words,  meaning 
"  Lord,  have  mercy  on  us,"  "  Christ,  have 
mercy  on  us,"  &c.,  retained  by  the  Latin 
Church,  and  used  in  the  breviary  offices, 
the  jirayers  of  the  Pvituale,  the  Litany  of 
the  Saints,  &c.,  and  in  the  Mass.  Imme- 
diately after  the  introit,  the  celebrating 
priest  and  the  server  say  alternately 
"  Kyrie  Eleison  "  three  times,  "  Christe 
Eleison"  three  time.«,  and  then  once 
more  "  Kyrie  Eleison  "  three  time.-;.  Mar- 
tene  ("T)e  Antiq.  Eccles.  Rlt.")  and 
IMaljillon  (in  "  Ord.  Rom.'')  show  that 
the  number  of  Kyries  to  be  sung  by  the 
choir  used  to  be  left  to  the  discretion  of 
the  celebrant,  and  also  that  the  Kyrie 
was  left  out  altogether  in  Masses  which 
were  to  be  followed  by  the  Litanies. 
St.  Thomas  (lU.  q.  83,  a.  4)  supposes 


that  the  first  triplet  (Kyrie  Eleison,  &c.) 
is  addressc  I  to  the  Father;  the  second 
(Christe  Eleison,  &c.)  to  the  Son:  the 
third  (Kyrie  Eleison,  &c.)  to  the  Holy 
Ghost. 

The  use  of  the  words  at  Mass  is  un- 
doubtedly very  ancient.  Kvpie  i\er)aov 
occurs  in  the  Clementine  liturgy  as  pan  of 
the  prayer  for  the  Catechumens  ("Oon- 
stit.  Apost."  viii.  6),  and  also  as  a  part  of 
the  Mass  of  Catechumens  in  the  ancient 
liturgy  of  St.  .James.  It  is  certain  also 
that  these  Greek  words  have  been  kept 
from  ancient  times  in  the  Latin  liturgy. 
The  Second  Council  of  Vaison,  in  the 
province  of  Aries,  wliich  met  in  529, 
ordered  the  Kyrie  Eleison  to  be  said  at 
Mass  and  other  service^,  appiniling  to  the 
custom  of  the  "  Apostolic  See,  and  of  aU 
the  Italian  and  Ea.<tern  provinces."  (Le 
Bruu,  "  Isxplication  de  la  Messe,"  torn,  ii.;, 
i  Benedict  XIV.  "  De  Missa.") 


XABARTTM  (derivation  uncertain),  i 

The  banner  of  the  cross,  used  by  Con- 
stantino in  his  campaigns.  Eusebius,  a 
contemporary  writer,  in  his  "Life  of 
Constantine,"  gives  the  following  account 
of  it :  "  He  [Constantine]  kept  invoking 
God  in  his  prayers,  beseeching  and  im- 
ploring that  He  would  declare  Himself  to 
liim,  who  He  was,  and  stretch  forth  his 
right  hand  over  events.  While  the  king 
was  thus  praying  and  perseveringly  en- 
treating, a  most  extraordinai-y  sign  from 
Heaven  appears  to  him,  which  perhaps  it 
were  not  easy  to  receive  on  the  report  of 
anyone  else,  but  since  the  victorious  king 
himself,  a  long  time  afterwards,  when  we 
were  lionoured  with  hi-;  acquaintance  and 
friendly  intercourse,  repeated  the  story  to 
us  who  are  compiling  the  record,  and  con- 
firmed it  with  an  oath,  who  would  hesitate 
to  believe  the  recital?  especially  as  the 
ensuing  period  furnished  unerring  testi- 
mony to  the  tale.  About  midday,  when 
the  "day  was  now  on  the  turn,  he  said 
that  he  saw  with  his  own  eyes  in  the 
sky,  above  the  sun,  the  trophy-like  figure 
of  a  cross  {a-ravpov  rpoTTaiov)  composed  of 
light,  and  that  a  writing  was  attached  to 
it,  wliifh  said,  'By  this  conquer.'  That 
astonishment  at  the  sight  seized  upon 
both  himself  and  all  the  troops  whom  he 
was  then  leading  on  some  expedition,  and 


who  became  spectators  of  the  portent." 
That  same  night,  Constantine  went  on  to 
say,  "  the  Christ  of  God  "  appeared  to  him 
in  a  dream  with  tlie  same  sign  which  he 
had  seen  in  the  sky,  and  bade  him  have 
an  imitation  of  it  made,  and  use  it  in  war. 
Constantine  sent  for  goldworkers  and 
jewellers,  and  had  a  costly  banner  made 
[see  Bannek],  surmounted  by  a  crown, 
on  which  was  the  monogram  formed  of 
the  first  two  letters  of  the  name  of  Christ. 
With  this  borne  at  the  head  of  his  army, 
he  crossed  into  Italy,  defeated  Maxentius 
in  several  battles,  and  became  master  of 
Rome.  Fifty  men  of  his  guards  were 
selected  to  have  charge  of  the  Labarum, 
and  victory  was  the  unfaiUng  attendant 
of  its  display.* 

IiACTXCXM'ZA.  A  late  Latin  word 
meaning  milk,  or  food  made  of  milk.  St. 
Thomas  (2*  2^,  cxlvii.  a.  8)  distingui-shes 
lacticinia  from  flesh  and  from  eggs.  The 
Greek  Church  (Council  in  Trullo,  can.  56) 
forbade  the  use  of  eggs  and  lacticinia  on 
all  fast  days,  even  at  the  one  permitted 
meal.  The  Latin  Cluirch  forbade  their 
use  on  the  fasting  days  of  Lent;  and 
Alexander  VII.  condemned  the  proposi- 
tion that  the  obligation  of  abstaining 
from  eggs  and  lacticinia  in  Lent  waa 
doubtful.    With  regard  to  other  fasts, 

>  EusebiiLS,  Vit.  Const,  i.  -IS-Sl,  ii.  7-9. 


LADY -DAY 


LANCE 


St.  Thomas  {he.  cit.)  says  the  obligation  of  | 
abstaining  from  eggs  and  lacticinia  varies  | 
in  different  places,  and  that  individuals 
are  bound  to  confoim  to  the  custom  of  the* 
country.    St.  Liguori  ("Theol.  Moral.'' 
iv.  1009)  lays  down  the  same  principle. 
Even  in  Lent  the  use  of  eggs  anA  lacticima  , 
has  been  allowed,  especially  in  Northern 
countries,  by  Papal  dispensation,  or  else 
by  custom,  which  the  Popes  have  tole- 
rated till  in  course  of  time  it  became  a 
perpetual  privilege.  Moreover,  the  bishops 
in  their  quinquennial   faculties  receive 
power  to  dispense  on  this  point.  In 
England,  as  in  other  countries,  the  extent 
to  which  lacticinia  may  be  used  in  Lent  ^ 
is  determined  by  the  iudnlt  published  in 
each  year.    A  recent  Papal  dispensation 
made  it  lawful  to  take  lacticinia  on  most 
fasting  days,  even  at  collation. 

x.A.s-r.BAT.   The  feast  of  the  Ax- 

XO-CIATIOX  (q.  v.). 

x.m-TA.'a.-E  STTWDA-r.  The  fourth 
Sunday  in  Lent,  so  called  from  the  first 
word  in  the  antiphon  of  the  introit,  "  Re- 
joice, 0  Jerusalem,  and  gather  together, 
all  ye  who  love  her,"  &c.  This  day  is 
also  known  as  Mid-Lent  or  Refreshment 
Sunday.  On  that  one  Sunday  in  Lent 
the  altar  is  decked  with  flowers,  the  organ 
is  played,  and  at  the  principal  Mass  rose- 
coloured  vestments  are  worn  instead  of 
violet  ones. 

i.AiaMia.s  -  DAT.  [See  Feteb'b 
Ch.uxs." 

KAIHCPS  have  been  from  very  early 
times  used  in  Christian  churches,  and 
have  had  a  sacred  character  attributed  to 
them.  Thus  the  fourth  Apostolic  Canon 
forbids  anything  to  be  offered  at  the  altar 
except  "  oil  for  the  lamp,  and  incense  at 
the  time  of  the  holy  oblation.'"  The  con- 
troversy of  Jerome  with  Vigilantius,  who 
objected  to  the  practice,  shows  that  lamps 
were  not  only  used  to  give  light,  but 
were  burned  before  the  tombs  of  the 
martyrs  in  their  honour.  Again,  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem  (referred  to  in  Wetzer  and 
Welte,  Art.  Lampe)  notices  the  practice, 
which  still  continues  among  us,  of  re- 
lighting the  lamps  on  Holy  Saturday  in 
token  of  joy.  The  Cffirimoniale  Episco- 
porum  favours  [suadet)  the  practice  of 
burning  a  lamp  before  each  altar,  several 
before  the  high  altar.  (Gavant.  Par.  I., 
tit.  XX.) 

L'niversal  custom  requires  that  a  lamp 
should  be  kept  burning  before  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  wherever  it  is  reserved.  The 
oil  in  tlie  lamp  must  be  made  of  olives,  or 
if  it  cannot  be  had,  the  bishop  may  per- 


mit the  use  of  other  oils,  not,  however, 
of  mineral  oils,  except  in  case  of  abso- 
lute necessity  (Decret.  S.  R.  C.  9  Julii, 
1SG4).  Authors  speak  of  the  practice  of 
burning  a  perpetual  light  before  the 
tabernacle  as  very  ancient,  but  do  not,  so 
far  as  we  can  find,  furnish  early  evidence 
of  it. 

XiAnrci:,  the  hox.t.  In  1003, 
when  the  Chri^tian  army,  after  having 
taken  Antioch  and  driven  the  Turks  into 
the  citadel,  were  besieged  in  the  city  by 
a  great  host  of  infidels  under  Kerb  jga,  a 
Provencal  clerk  (named  by  some  writers 
Peter  Bartholomew,  by  others  Peter 
Abraham)  came  to  Raymond  Count  of 
Toulouse,  his  liege  lord,  and  to  the  Bishop 
of  Puy,  the  Papal  legate,  and  declared 
that  St.  Andrew  had  revealed  to  him  in 
a  vision  the  existence  in  the  Church  of 
St.  Peter,  in  Antioch,  near  the  altar,  of 
the  head  of  the  spear  with  which  our 
Saviour's  side  was  pierced  during  the 
Passion.  Search  was  made,  and  the  earth 
excavated  to  a  great  depth  without  result ; 
Peter  then  went  down  himself,  and  found, 
or  professed  to  find,  the  head  of  a  lance. 
The  Christians,  who  had  been  reduced  to 
great  straits,  now  took  courage  to  attack 
the  Moslems,  and  defeated  them,  the 
holy  lance  being  carried  before  them  in 
the  battle.  But  Bohemoud  and  others 
threw  doubt  upon  Peter's  good  faith,  and 
it  was  arranged  that  he  should  undergo 
the  ordeal  of  walking  through  a  fire; 
he  did  so,  but  died  shortly  afterwards, 
apparently  from  the  injuries  that  he 
received.  The  lance  was  taken  by  Count 
Raymond  to  Constantinople,  and  remained 
there  till  Bajazet  IL  (14!)2)  made  a  pre- 
sent of  it  to  Innocent  VIII. ;  it  is  now  in 
the  Vatican  basilica. 

XiANCi:  {ay'ui  \6yxr)).  A  Small  knife 
used  in  the  Prothesis  or  early  part  of 
the  present  Greek  liturgy  to  divide  the 
Host  from  the  holy  loaf  The  action 
commemorates  the  piercing  of  our  Lord's 
side.  The  priest  makes  four  cuts  in  the 
loaf  and  stabs  it  more  than  once,  accom- 
panying each  action  with  texts  of  Scrip- 
ture— "He  was  led  as  a  lamb  to  the 
slausrhter,"  &c. 

The  rite  is  probably  not  a  very  ancient 
one.  It  is  wanting,  not  only  in  theOriental 
liturgies  of  other  famihes,  but  also  in 
that  of  St.  James,  and  is  not  mentioned 
by  St.  Germanus.  It  is  observed,  how- 
ever, in  the  monastery  of  Mount  Sinni, 
where  all  the  new  rites  of  the  present 
Greek  Church  have  not  been  admitted. 
Martigny  gives  a  drawing  of  a  "Cultei 


54G  LANGUAGE  OF  THE  CHURCH     LANGUAGE  OF  THE  CHITECH 


Eucharisticus,"  said  to  have  belonged  to 
St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury,  and  to  have 
been  used  for  a  similar  purpose.  (See 
Gear,  who  gives  a  drawing  of  the  litur- 
gical lance;  and  Le  Brun,  Tom,  lU. 
vi.  4.) 

X.A.TTCU.a.CS  OF  THE  CHTTRCH. 

This  title  is  used  for  want  of  a  better 
to  denote  the  Church's  practice  of  cele- 
brating' Mass,  administering  the  sacra- 
ments, and  generally  of  performing  her 
more  solemn  services  in  dead  languages. 
For  the  C!hin-ch  cannot  be  said  to  use,  or 
even  to  prefer,  any  one  language.  She 
requires  some  of  ber  clergy  to  use  Greek, 
Syriue,  Coptic,  Armenian,  Slavonic,  in 
M  ass,  just  as  st  rictly  as  she  requires  others 
to  employ  Latin.  Latin  no  doubt  is  far 
more  widely  used  than  other  ancient 
languages  in  the  offices  of  the  Church, 
but  this  has  arisen  chiefly  from  the  fact 
that  those  who  would  naturally  use  Greek, 
&c.,  in  their  ofiices  have  fallen  away  from 
Catholic  communion.  We  will  begin 
with  an  historical  account  of  the  disci- 
pline observed,  and  then  give  the  principal 
reasons  addueed  to  justifv  it. 

Benedict  XIV.  ("  De  Missa,"  lib.  ii. 
cap.  2)  mentions  the  opinion  of  those 
who  held  that  the  Apostles  said  Mass  in 
Hebrew,  or  that  originally  Mass  was  said 
only  in  llehrew,  Greek,  and  Latin,  the 
three  knuuag(!S  on  the  title  of  the  cross  ; 
and  he  continues,  "  Those  \\  ho  are  skilled 
in  ecclesiastical  history  have  shown 
sufficiently  tliat  the  Apostles  and  their 
successors  <lld,  not  only  preach,  but  also 
celebrate  tin;  divine  oliices  in  the  vulgar 
tongue  of  the  people  in  whose  land  they 
preached  the  Gospel."  He  quotes  Bona, 
Le  Brun,  and  Martene  in  support  of  his 
own  statement,  which  surely  does  not 
need  su])port.  Mass,  then,  and  the  other 
offices,  were  said  originally  in  the  ver- 
nacular, because  it  was  the  vernacular, 
but  the  Church,  so  far  as  we  know,  has 
never  once  allowed  a  change  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  liturgy  when  the  language 
in  which  it  had  been  originally  written 
had  become  unintelligible  to  the  people. 
Nor  at  present  is  Mass  ever  said  in  a 
tongue  still  generally  spoken  and  under- 
stood. Latin,  Coptic,  and  yEthiopic,  are, 
and  have  long  been,  dead  languages, 
while  the  ancient  Greek,  Syriac,  Arme- 
nian, and  Slavonic,  used  in  the  liturgies, 
are  quite  distinct  from  the  modern  lan- 
guages which  bear  the  same  names. 
Even  schisraatical  and  heretical  bodies 
which  have  jireserved  the  i  rue  priesthood, 
and  therefore  the  true  Mass,  have  not 


ventured  to  substitute  translations  Into 
the  vulgar  tongue  for  the  ancient  lan- 
guage of  their  liturgies.  Indeed,  Mass 
said  in  such  a  language  as  Coptic  is 
much  less  understood  than  Mass  in  Latin, 
not  only  because  Coptic  has  no  affinity 
with  the  Arabic  spoken  by  the  people, 
but  also  because  many  of  the  Coptic 
priests  can  hardly  read  the  Coptic  words 
of  their  church  books,  and  do  not  under- 
stand the  meaning  of  a  single  sentence. 
One  exception  may  here  be  mentioned, 
the  only  one  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted, to  the  general  rule,  that  all 
seliismatical  and  heretical  bodies  preserve 
the  ancient  language  of  their  liturgies, 
and  clearly  it  is  an  exception  wliich 
jiroves  the  rule.  Le  Brun  (Tom.  IH. 
diss.  vi.  a.  6)  notices  that  the  Melchites 
— i.e.  schismatic  Greeks  in  the  Patri- 
archates of  Ale.\;andria,  Antioch,  and 
Jerusalem,  who  are  in  communion  with 
the  "orthodox"  Greek  Church  of  Con- 
stantinople— sometimes  say  Mass  in 
Arabic,  because  it  is  often  hard  to  find 
deacons  and  other  assistants  who  can 
even  read  Greek.  A  friend  versed  in 
liturgical  science  and  in  the  Oriental 
languages  informs  us  that  this  excep- 
tional usage  still  occurs,  e.ff.  at  Jeru- 
salem. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Church  has 
not  pursued  the  same  uniform  policy  in 
dealing  with  nations  newly  converted  to 
the  Christian  religion,  and  therefore 
destitute  of  a  liturgy.  In  the  middle  of 
the  ninth  century  the  Oriental  monks 
St.  Cyril  and  St.  Methodius  introduced, 
not  a  Latin  or  Greek,  but  a  Slavonic  or 
vernacular  liturgy  among  their  Moravian 
converts.  This  measure  of  theirs  was 
approved  by  Pope  Hadrian  II.,  and 
tolerated  by  John  VIII.  on  condition 
that  the  translation  was  faithful,  and 
the  Gospel  read  first  in  Latin,  then  in 
Slavonic.  But  in  1061  the  legate  of 
Alexander  II.  in  a  council  of  C'roatian 
and  Dalmatian  bishops  prohibited  the 
use  of  the  Slavonic  liturgy — which  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  Slavonic 
versions  of  the  Greek  liturgies  stiU  used 
— and  the  prohibition  was  repeated  by 
Gregory  VII.  in  a  letter  of  the  year  1080 
to  Ladislaus,  King  of  Bohemia.  How- 
ever, even  as  late  as  1248  Innocent  IV. 
allowed  a  Slav  bishop  to  use  it  by  special 
dispensation.  In  1615  Paul  V.  gave  the 
Jesuit  missionaries  leave  to  celebrate 
Mass  and  the  divine  offices  in  Chinese, 
))ut  the  b  ■  ef  never  reached  those  to 
whom  it  was  addi-essed.    The  Jesuits 


LANGUAGE  OF  TIIE  CHURCH 

renewed  their  petition,  and  a  CLinese 
rersion  of  the  Missal  was  presented  to 
innocent  XI.,'  but  nothing  came  of  the 
negotiation.  In  the  "  Propylseum  "  of 
the  BoUandist  Lives  for  May  a  summary 
is  given  of  the  reasons  urged  for  a 
vernacular  Chinese  liturgy  by  Father 
Couplet,  Procurator-Genera!  of  the  Jesuit 
mis.^ions. 

Such,  then,  is  the  rule  of  the  Church. 
She  never  allows  an  ancient  liturgy  to 
be  altered  because  the  language  in  which 
it  is  written  has  been  altered  or  displaced 
by  a  modern  one,  and  she  is  unwilling, 
though  s-he  does  not  always  absolutely 
refuse,  to  allow  the  use  of  vernacular 
liturgies  among  nations  newly  converted. 
The  Council  of  Trent  declares  (Sess.  xxii. 
cap.  8,  De  Sacrific.  Missae)  that  the 
Fathers  of  the  council  thought  it  inex- 
pedient to  have  Mass  "  celebrated  every- 
where in  the  vulgar  tongue,"'  and  con- 
demns those  who  alBrm  "  that  Mass 
ought  only  to  be  celebrated  in  the  vulgar 
tongue  "  {lb.  can.  9).  We  must  beware, 
however,  of  pressing  these  statements 
too  far.  Benedict  XIV.  defends  Colbert, 
bishop  of  Rouen,  who  taught  in  a  pas- 
toral that  the  ancient  mode  of  celebrating 
Mass  in  the  language  of  the  people  was 
the  fittest  means  to  prepare  the  minds  of 
the  congregation  for  participation  in  the 
sacrifice  ;  or  at  least  argues  that  this  con- 
viction is  not  condemned  by  the  Council 
of  Trent.  The  Church  may  have  bad 
good  and  weighty  grounds  for  foregoing 
a  usage  which  in  itself  would  tend  to  the 
greatest  spiritual  edification. 

These  reasons  seem  to  consist,  first  of 
all,  in  the  jealousy  with  which  the  Church 
guards  her  ancient  rites,  and  her  un- 
willingness to  face  the  danger  of  constant 
change  in  them  to  meet  the  changes  in 
modern  language^.  Such  changes  might 
seriously  endanger  the  purity  of  doctrine, 
or  at  least  the  reverence  of  the  faithful 
for  the  rites  of  the  Churcb.  Let  the 
reader  only  consider  how  much  of  the 
reverence  which  Protestants  feel  for  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  its  pure  and  noble  language  has 
been  preserved  unchanged  for  centuries. 
A  new  edition  in  modern  English  would 
certainly  be  better  understood,  but  how 
much  of  its  power  to  soothe  the  heart 
and  to  inspire  a  sober  and  rational  de- 
votion would  be  lost  in  the  process? 

'  So  Benedict  XIV.  in  the  edition  before 
us;  but  he  >a_vs  this  was  done  in  1631,  long 
before  Innocenr  XI.  befran  to  rei<cn.  Possibly 
1631  is  a  misprint  for  16»1. 


LANGUAGE  OF  THE  CHURCH  547 

Again,  the  preservation  of  the  ancient 
forms  enables  priests  to  celebrate  and  the 
faithful  to  follow  Mass  in  all  lands,  and 
thus  impresses  upon  us,  in  a  way  wliich 
no  one  who  has  experienced  it  can  forget, 
the  unity  of  the  Church.  Lastly,  the 
words  of  the  Missal,  admirably  fitted  as 
they  are  for  the  use  of  the  priest,  are  by 
no  means  fitted  for  the  use  of  uneducated 
persons,  and  this  difficulty  would  not  be 
met  by  a  translation. 

Protestant  objections  arise  to  some 
extent  from  mi-understanding  the  nature 
of  Catholic  worship.  The  Mass  is  a  great 
action  in  which  Christ's  sacrifice  is  con- 
tinued and  applied.  Those  who  are 
present  bow  their  heads  at  the  conse- 
cration, and  unite  themselves  in  spirit,  if 
they  do  not  actually  communicate,  with 
the  communion  of  the  priest.  Christ 
crucified  is  set  forth  in  their  midst,  and 
they  know  that  they,  on  their  part,  must 
offer  their  souls  and  bodies  in  constant 
sacrifice  to  God  by  a  life  of  purity,  labour, 
and  self-denial.  It  is  the  expressed  wish 
of  the  Tridentine  Fathers  that  the  mean- 
ing of  the  Mass  and  its  rites  should  be 
constantly  explained  to  the  people  by 
their  pastors;  and  surely  the  most  igno- 
rant pea,>ant  who  follows  Mass  in  the 
way  just  described,  and  accompanies  the 
priests  action  with  prayers  which  come 
from  his  own  ht-art,  offers  to  God  a 
reasonable  service.  A  life  of  self-sacrifice 
and  devotion — that  is  the  great  lesson 
taught  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  aud 
it  is  a  lesson  independent  of  the  language 
in  which  Mass  is  Siiid. 

The  texts  quoted  from  I  Cor.  xiv. 
against  the  Catholic  usage  are  not  to  the 
point.  "  I  would  rather,"  says  St.  Paul, 
"  speak  five  words  in  the  church  through 
my  intelligence,  that  I  may  instruct 
others,  than  ten  thousand  words  in  a 
tongue."  We  believe  St.  Paul  is  referring 
to  ecstatic  utterances — sighs,  exclama- 
tions, broken  sentences  which  were  uu- 
intelligible  to  others,  and  in  which  the 
tongue  of  the  speaker  was  not  controlled 
even  by  his  own  intelligence.  Be  this  as 
it  may,  no  parallel  can  be  drawn  between 
"  speiikiug  in  tongues "  and  the  use  ot 
Latin  in  the  Mass.  Strangers  would  not 
think  a  priest  "  mad  "  (v.  23)  if  they  heard 
I  him  reading  the  Latin  Missal.  The  priest 
prays  with  "his  understanding"  (v.  14), 
I  for  he  knows  Latin  :  others  are  "  edified  " 
I  (v.  17);  and  no  extraordinary  gift  of 
interpretation  (v.  13)  is  needed,  for  our 
English  prayer-books  give  translations 
of  the  Mass.  Moreover,  St.  Paul  was 
K  X  2 


548         LAPSED  (LAPSI) 


LAST  DAY 


familiar  with  a  custom  closely  analogous 
to  ours,  and  with  this  neither  he  nor  any 
other  Apostle  finds  fault.  The  services 
of  the  temple  and  the  synagogue,  like 
those  of  the  synagogue  at  this  day,  were 
in  a  dead  language,  with  the  difference 
only  that  moie  pains  are  taken  to  diffuse 
the  knowledge  of  Hebrew  among  poor 
Jews  than  of  Latin  among  poor  Catholics. 

XiAPSED  (liAPSl).  A  name  given 
to  those  who  fell  away  from  the  faith 
under  heathen  persecution.  The  name 
comes  into  special  prominence  in  the  per- 
secution of  Decius  (249-251),  which  ex- 
ceeded all  previous  ones  in  method  and 
severity.  Some  Christians  fell  away  by 
actually  offering  sacrifice  to  the  false  gods 
(thurijicati,  sacrificati) ;  others  bought  a 
certificate  that  they  had  sacrificed  {libel- 
latici) ;  others  allowed  their  names  to  be 
enrolled  on  the  official  lists  as  having 
obeyed  the  imperial  edict  {acta  facientes). 
Dr.  Benson  (in  Smith  and  Cheetham) 
ai-gues  that  the  "  libellus,"  or  certificate, 
was  of  two  kinds — either  a  document 
coming  from  the  Christian  himself  to  the 
effect  that  he  had  recanted  his  religion, 
or  from  the  magistrate,  who  certified  that 
the  Christian  had  recanted,  the  Christian 
himself  remaining  passive  and  merely 
acceptiiig  this  means  of  escape. 

The  "  Lapsi  "  were  subjected  to  long 
■ — sometimes  life-long — penance,  varying 
according  to  the  degree  of  their  guilt, 
and,  if  priests,  were  reduced  to  lay  com- 
munion. But  great  weight  was  given  to 
the  "libelli  pacis" — i.e.  documents  from 
confessors  or  martyrs  in  prison,  begging 
the  restoration,  of  those  who  had  fallen 
and  repented,  to  the  peace  of  the  Church. 
(See  under  Indulgences.  Cyprian's 
"Letters  "and  his  treatise  "De  Lapsis" 
are  the  chief  authorities  on  the  subject.) 

XiAST  DAY.  We  have  already  had 
to  speak  of  tlie  Last  Day,  under  the  articles 
ANTicHtnsT  and  Judgmjjnt,  General 
AND  P.\EiicuLAR.  In  this  place  we  pro- 
ceed to  note  certain  points  in  ordinary 
Catholic  belief  not  included  under  these 
previous  articles. 

Scripture  teUs  us  of  certain  signs 
which  will  precede  the  Last  Day.  The 
fiospel  will  first  be  preached  all  over  the 
world  (Matt.  xxiv.  14),  which,  as  St. 
Augustine  warns  us  (Ep.  99),  does  not 
mean  that  all  men  will  be  converted,  but 
that  the  Church  will  exist  in  all  nations. 
When  the  fulness  of  tlie  Gentiles  has 
come  in,  then — ibr  the  words  need  not 
imply  more  than  this  (see  Estius,  ad  loc.) 
— the  great  mass  of  the  JewB  will  em- 


brace the  Christian  belief  (Rom.  xi.  25). 
Enoch  and  Elias,  according  to  the  common 
belief,  will  appear  to  preach  penance. 
This  idea  has  an  interesting  history,  which 
deserves  more  special  mention,  but  we 
will  begin  by  introducing  the  current  be- 
lief itself  in  the  words  of  St.  Augustine  : 
"  Enoch  and  Elias,"  he  says  (Serm.  299), 
"  live ;  they  have  been  translated ;  wher- 
ever they  are,  they  live.  And  if  a  certain 
conjecture  of  faith  made  from  the  Scrip- 
ture of  God  is  not  wrong,  they  will  die. 
For  the  Apocalypse  relates  that  at  a 
future  time  two  wonderful  prophets  will 
both  die  and  rise  again,  in  the  sight  of 
men,  and  go  up  to  tlie  Lord;  and  they 
are  understood  to  be  Enoch  and  Elias, 
although  in  that  passage  their  names  are 
not  given."  Let  us  trace  the  origin  of 
that  behef.  Genesis  and  the  Book  of 
Kings  tell  us  that  Enoch  and  Elias  were 
removed  from  the  earth  in  an  extraordi- 
nary way.  From  Malachias  iv.  5,  and 
from  Matt.  xvii.  11 — though  the  inference 
is  precarious — it  was  inferred  that  Elias, 
not  only  in  spirit  and  power,  but  in  his 
proper  person,  would  reappear  before  the 
end  of  the  world.  From  the  words  of 
Ecclus.  xliv.  16,  "  Enoch  pleased  God, 
and  was  translated  into  Paradise,  that  he 
may  give  penance  to  the  nations,"  the 
same  conclusion  was  drawn  with  regard 
to  Enoch,  though  in  the  Greek  the  \\  ords 
simply  are,  "  Enoch  pleased  God,  and  was 
translated,  [being]  an  example  of  rej  ent- 
ance  to  the  nations."  This  behef  in  the 
reappearance  of  Enoch  and  Elias  was  con- 
nected with,  and,  as  it  was  thought,  sup- 
ported by,  that  remarkable  section  of  the 
Apocalypse,  xi.  l-LS.  The  holy  city — 
i.e.  Jerusalem  (see  v.  8) — with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  moy,  or  temple  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  word,  is  to  be  trodden  under 
foot  by  the  heathen.  Two  witnesses  of 
Christ,  who  are  compared  with  the  lamps 
and  olive-trees  in  Zacharins,  are  to  pro- 
phesy for  about  three  years  and  a  half, 
and  to  show  miraculous  power,  but  at  last 
they  are  to  be  killed  by  *'  the  beast." 
However,  after  three  days  and  a  half,  they 
are  to  live  again  and  go  up  "  to  heaven 
in  the  cloud."  The  fate  of  Jerusalem  here 
depicted  was  taken  as  an  allegory  of  the 
fortunes  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  it 
was  commonly  supposed  that  Enoch  and 
Elias  were  the  two  witnesses.  This  be- 
lief is  expressed  clearly  by  Tertulli:m 
("De  An."  50),  and  was  undouljledly  the 
prevalent  and,  indeed,  all  but  universal 
opinion  of  the  ancients.  Thilo,  on  the 
"Evangelitun  Nicodeuii,"c.      has  treated 


LAST  DAY 


LATERAN  CIimCH  549 


the  whole  question  elaborately.  Bede.' 
however,  is  said  (by  Diisterdieck,  on  the 
Apocalypse,  ad  loc.)  to  have  rejected  this 
intei-pretation ;  and  we  are  able  to  quote 
Maldonatus  (on  Matt.  xvii.  11)  for  what 
is,  as  we  venture  to  think,  a  far  more 
likely  interpretation — viz.  that  St.  John 
refers  to  Moses  and  Elias,  who  represented 
the  law  and  the  prophets,  and  had  already 
•witnessed  to  Christ  in  his  transfiguration. 

Another  sign  of  the  nearness  of  the 
last  dav  is  "  the  Apostasv "'  of  2  Thess. 
ii.  3,  which  St.  Thomas  and  Estius, 
against  many  other  intei-preters,  take  to 
mean  "  a  defection  from  the  Catholic 
faith,  and  that  a  universal  one,  by  which 
not  only  persons,  however  many  (a  thing 
that  has  often  hajipened  in  former  ages), 
but  also  the  kingdoms  and  all,  or  all  but 
all,  provinces  will  withdraw  from  the 
Catholic  Church."  Signs,  too,  are  the 
natural  portents,  famine,  pestilence, 
earthquakes,  darkening  of  the  sun,  &c., 
mentioned  in  Matt.  xxiv.  and  Luke  xxi. 
But,  after  all,  "  concerning  that  day  or 
hour  no  man  knoweth,  not  even  the 
angels  in  heaven,  nor  the  Son,  but  the 
Father"  (Mark  xiii.  32).  The  mistakes 
which  even  able  and  pious  men  have 
made  on  this  point  are  well  known. 
■"  Even  some  of  the  Fathers,"  Jungmaun 
-writes  ("  De  Noviss."  p.  208),  "  as 
St.  Cyprian,  St.  Ambrose,  St.  Basil,  St. 
Gregory,  St.  Bernard,  and  distinguished 
preachers  of  the  divine  word,  like  St. 
Korbert  and  St.  Vincent  Ferrer,  have 
sometimes  expressed  the  opinion  that  the 
•day  of  the  Lord  was  at  hand,  because  of 
the  signs  which  seemed  to  them  to  be 
present."  The  persons  who  have  been 
led  away  after  this  fashion  in  our  own 
time  have  been  of  very  dillerent  intel- 
lectual and  spiritual  calibre,  and  their 
■warnings  have  occasioned  some  amuse- 
ment but  very  little  panic. 

The  order  of  events  on  the  last  day 
is  quite  uncertain.  St.  Augustine  con- 
jectures ("De  Civit.  Dei,"  xx.  30),  but 
merely  conjectures,  that  the  appearance  of 
Elia.s  will  come  first,  then  the  conversion 
of  the  Jews,  the  persecution  of  Antichrist, 
Christ's  advent,  the  resurrection,  the 
separation  of  the  good  and  the  wicked, 
the  conflagration  and  finally  the  renova- 
tion of  the  world.  On  the  other  hand, 
St.  Thomas  ("  In  Sentent.  lY."  dist.  xlvii. 
qu.  2.  a.  ;3),  whose  oj)inion  is  most  com- 
monly followed,  argui^s  that  the  action 
of  fire  will  begin  before  the  judgment. 
It  wiU,  he  thinks,  kill  and  destroy  the 
bodies  of  all  upon  the  earth,  torturing 


I  the  evil,  .serving  as  purgatorial  torment 
I  to  the  imperfect,  and  inflicting  God's 
[  vengeance  on  the  wicked.  Further,  it 
will  cleanse  and  renew  the  earth,  not 
after  the  judgment,  as  St.  .Vugustine 
thought,  but  before  it.  This  St.  Thomas 
gathers  from  Rom.  viii.  21.  which,  as  he 
considers,  makes  the  renovation  of  the 
■world  synchronous  with  the  resurrection 
of  the  just. 

XiAST  THZNGS.  The  four  last 
things  are  generally  said  to  be  Death, 
Judgment,  Heaven,  Hell.  These  are  not 
all,  but  the  most  important,  things  which 
happen  to  meu  as  they  leave  and  after 
they  leave  this  world.  The  Germans 
speak  of  Eschatology  (6  tcov  eaxaTosv 
\6yos)  as  a  special  department  of  theology, 
and  the  name  has  been  adopted  by  some 
English  w^riters.  It  includes  the  con- 
sideration of  purgatory,  the  resurrection, 
the  eternal  reign  of  Christ,  the  destruc- 
tion and  renovation  of  the  world.  A 
very  useful  treatise  "De  Xovissimis"  has 
been  published  by  Jungmann  (Ratisbonse, 
1874).  Most  of  the  subjects  which  fall 
under  this  head  are  discussed  in  separate 
articles. 

^tATERAXr  CHURCH  ANS 
COVN-CXI.S.  The  family  of  the  Plautii 
Laterani  had  a  magnificent  house  on  the 
Coelian  hill — "  egn-giiB  Lateranorum 
sedes,"  as  Juvenal  calls  it.  This  house, 
or  a  house  on  the  same  site,  was  known 
as  the  Lateran  palace,  and  belonged  to 
the  Empress  Fausta  ^Fleurv,  "  H.  E."  x. 
11).  Her  husband,  Constantine,  built 
close  to  it  the  Church  of  "  the  Saviour," 
Imown  as  the  Basilica  Constantiniana, 
and  also — because  the  Emperor  built  a 
Baptistery  there,  and  Baptisteries  are 
associated  with  St.  John  Baptist — as  the 
Church  of  St.  .John  Lateran.  It  is  the 
chief  or  Cathedral  Church  of  Rome,  and 
there  the  "Stations"  are  held  on  many 
solemn  days  (ib.  xi.  36).'  Bulls  of 
Gregory  XI.,  in  l.'?72,  and  of  Pius  Y.,  in 
luGSt,  have  confirmed  its  pre-eminence 
over  all  other  churches,  even  St.  I'eter's, 
and  justified  the  proud  inscription  which 
meets  the  eye  at  the  entrance,  '■  Omnium 
urbis  et  orbis  ecclesiarum  mater  et  caput," 
In  this  cluu-ch,  besides  an  important 
council  in  049  against  the  Monothelites, 
five  general  councils  have  been  held. 

(1)  Under  Calixtus  II.,  in  1123. 
More  than  300  bishops  and  600  abbots 
were  present.    This  was  the  Ninth  Gene- 

'  '•  Oil  est  m.nrqu^e  la  station  des  jours  lea 
I  plus  solennels."  But  this  is  not  borne  out,  at 
I  least  by  the.  present  Missal. 


550 


LATERAN  CHURCH 


L ATRIA 


ral  Council,  and  the  first  ever  held  in  the 
"West.  The  chief  object  was  to  end  the 
strife  on  Investiture  between  the  Emperor 
Henry  V.  and  the  Holy  See.  The  ar- 
rangement made  at  the  Concordat  of 
Worms  was  confirmed.  Henry  agreed 
to  leave  the  choice  and  consecration  of 
prelates  free,  to  resign  all  claims  to  invest 
with  ring  and  staff,  and  to  restore  Church 
goods,  while  the  Pope  allowed  the  elections 
to  take  place  in  the  Emperor's  presence, 
gave  him  the  riglit  to  decide  in  contested 
elections  after  taking  counsel  from  the 
metropolitans  and  provincial  bishops,  and 
to  confer  the  regalia  with  the  sceptre. 

(2)  The  Second  Lateran  Council 
(Tenth  General  Council),  held  in  1139 
under  Innocent  II.,  and  attended  by  about 
1,000  prelates,  excommunicated  Roger  of 
Sicily  (cliampion  of  Anacletus  II.,  the 
Antipope),  suspended  clerics  promoted  by 
Anacletus,  and  imposed  silence  on  Arnold 
of  Brescia,  the  great  ecclesiastical  dema- 
gogue of  the  day.  Thirty  canons  were 
passed  on  simony,  incontinence,  clerical 
dress,  breaking  the  "  Peace  of  God,"  and 
contests  dangerous  to  life. 

(3)  The  Third  Lateran  and  Eleventh 
General  Council  was  convoked  in  1179, 
by  Alexander  III.,  was  attended  by  more 
than  300  bishops,  and  numbered  about  a 
thousand  members  in  all.  It  ordered 
that  future  Popes  should  be  elected  by  a 
majority  of  two  thirds,  and  passed  sen- 
tence of  excommunication  on  anyone  who 
accepted  the  Papacy  on  other  conditions, 
as  well  as  upon  those  who  supported  him. 
Disciplinary  enactments  were  also  made 
against  simony,  clerical  incontinence,  in- 
tercourse with  Saracens  and  Jews. 

(4)  Innocent  III.  opened  the  Fourth 
Lateran  and  Twelfth  General  Synod,  the 
most  imposing  probably  of  all  councils 
ever  held,  in  1215,  for  the  recovery  of  the 
Holy  Land  and  the  reform  of  the  Church. 
The  representatives  of  Frederic  II.,  of 
Henry,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  of 
the  Kings  of  England,  France,  Aragon, 
Hungary,  Cyprus,  Jerusalem,  and  of 
other  princes,  412  bishops,  800  abbots, 
many  representatives  of  absent  bishops 
and  chapters,  were  present.  The  seventy 
decrees  of  the  council  concern  most  im- 
portant points  of  discipline  and  doctrine. 
The  Bishop  of  Constantinople  was  made 
the  first  of  the  Eastern  patriarchs;  the 
Greek  rites,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  other 
patriarch^,  were  fully  acknowledged; 
wliile  at  llie  same  time  the  Greek  prac- 
tice of  rel)a]itising  children  already  bap- 
tised by  Latins,  and  of  washing  altars  to 


mark  their  defilement  if  they  had  been 
used  by  Latin  priests,  was  reprobated, 
and  the  supremacy  of  Rome  insisted  on. 
Regulations  were  made  and  indulgences 
oll'ered  for  the  coming  crusade.  The 
duty  of  annual  confession  "proprio  sacer- 
doti"  was  enforced.  Definitions  were 
issued  on  the  absolute  unity  of  God. 
Abbot  Joachim  had  maintained  that  the 
three  divine  Persons  were  one  God  only 
in  the  same  sense  as  many  human  persons 
are  all  men  or  Christians  one  with  eaeh 
other  and  with  Christ.  In  otlier  wdids 
he  substituted  a  specific  or  moral  for  that 
numerical  unity  in  which,  with  the  real 
distinction  of  the  three  I'ersons,  the  mys- 
tery of  the  Trinity  consists.  The  council, 
on  the  contrary,  defined  that  each  of  the 
tliree  Persons  is  identical  with  the  one 
divine  substance.  It  also  defined  the 
Catholic  doctrine  on  the  sacraments,  .'^•c, 
against  the  Albigenses,  and  in  particular 
that  the  bread  and  wine  in  the  Mass  are 
"transubstantiated"  into  Christ's  body 
and  blood. 

(5)  The  Fifth  Lateran  Council  (Eigh- 
teenth General)  was  opened  by  Julius  II.,. 
in  1512,  and  closed  by  Leo  X.,  in  1517. 
The  Church  was  distracted  at  the  time 
by  the  schismatic  Council  of  Pisa.  The 
Fifth  Lateran  was  attended  by  15  cardi- 
nals and  79  (afterwards  120)  bishops, 
mostly  Italian.  The  decrees  of  Pisa 
were  declared  null,  the  "  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion "  condemned,  and  the  French  Con- 
cordat was  approved,  canons  passed  on 
preaching,  exemption  of  regulars,  monts 
de  piit6,  &c.,  Sec.  Two  decrees  of  the 
council  are  of  wider  interest.  It  defined 
(Bull  "Pastor  ajtenins")  the  Pope's 
"  authority  over  all  councils,"  and  (BuU 
"  Apostolici  regiminis  ")  condemned  those 
who  held  that  the  intellectual  soul  is 
mortal,  or  only  one  in  all  men,  or  that 
those  propositions  were  true  at  least 
philosophically.  For  the  French  objec- 
tions to  the  oecumenical  character  of  the 
council,  see  Hefele,  "Concil."  i.  p.  68, 
and  the  article  CotrNOlLS. 

XATZir.  [See  Language  of  the 
Church.] 

IiATRXA  (XaTptla)  in  itself  simply 
means  "service,"  whether  rendered  to 
God  or  man ;  but  the  usage  of  the  Church 
has  made  it  a  technical  term  for  that 
sujjreme  worship  which  can  lawfully  be 
offered  to  God  alone.  The  word  is  so 
used  by  the  Greek  Fathers  and  the 
Seventh  General  Council ;  and  St.  Augus- 
tine ("  Contr.  Faust."  xx.  21)  adopts  it 
on  the  ground  that  no  one  Latin  word 


LATIIOCINIUM 


LAW 


551 


■will  do  instead.  It  was  probably  St. 
Augustine's  influence  ■wLioh  made  it  a 
familiar  term  in  Latin  tliodlogy.  The 
sacritice  of  the  jMass  is  the  principal  act 
of  latria,  hence  it  is  called  in  patristic 
literature  Xarpeiar^s  oiKovofxias  (Petavius, 
"De  Incarnat."  xv.  2). 

KATROCZNIUAI  (avvoSosXT/a-TpiKri: 
"Council  of  Bandits").  A  name  given 
by  Pope  Leo  (and  current  ever  since)  to 
the  heretical  council  which  met  at  Lphe- 
sus  in  449.  Dioscorus,  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria,  had  come  forward  in  defence 
of  the  doctrine  that  there  is  but  one 
nature  of  the  Licarnate  Word,  and  being 
discontented  with  the  decision  of  the 
bishops  who  met  at  Constantinople  and 
affirmed  that  Christ  was  one  Person  in 
two  natures,  he  used  his  influence  with 
the  Euipress  Eudocia  to  have  a  general 
council  convoked  at  Lphesus.  Pope  Leo 
did  not  oppose  the  meeting  of  the  coun- 
cil, although  he  had  clearly  laid  down 
the  doctrine  of  the  two  natures  in  his 
letter  to  Flavian,  bishop  of  Constanti- 
nople. Dioscorus  presided  at  the  council, 
the  Papal  legates,  Juvenal  of  Jerusalem, 
Domnus  of  Antioch,  and  Flavian  of  Oon- 
etantinople,  being  present.  Dioscorus 
tore  their  papers  from  all  notaries  except 
his  own,  and  is  accused  of  having  falsified 
the  Acts  ;  he  called  in  soldiers  and  fana- 
tical monks,  armed  with  cudgels,  Flavian 
was  trodden  under  foot  and  imprisoned, 
and  the  other  bishops,  with  few  excep- 
tions, were  forced  by  violence  and  star- 
vation to  sign  a  blank  paper  on  which 
Dioscorus  afterwards  set  the  condemna- 
tion of  Flavian.  The  Papal  legates, 
however,  protested  at  once.  Flavian  died 
shortly  afterwards  on  his  way  to  exile. 
Tlieodosius  confirmed  the  decrees  of  this 
synod,  but  it  was  rejected  by  the 
churches  of  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Pontus, 
and  the  West.  Pope  Leo  of  course 
absolutely  refused  to  acknowledge  it. 
[See  Chalcedoij,  Council  of.] 

Z.AUSA,  SZON.    [See  Hymns.] 
X.AT7DS.    [See  Beeviaey.] 
KAXTRA.    (Gr.  \avpa,  properly,  an 
alley  or  lane.)    An  aggregation  of  sepa- 
rate cells,  tenanted  by  monks,  "  under 
the  not  very  strongly  defined  control  of 
a  superior." '    Usually  each  monk  had  a 
cell  to  himself,  but   in   the   laura  of 
Pachomius   one   cell  was   assigned  to 
three  monks.    For  five  days  in  tiie  week 
the  tenants  ol  the  laura  remained  in  their 
cells,  living  on  bread  and  water,  and 
working  at  basket-making,  or  some  simi- 
1  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiq. 


lar  employment;  on  the  Saturday  and 
Sunday  they  took  their  meals  together 
in  the  common  refectory,  and  worshipped 
God  in  the  common  church.  The  disci- 
pline of  the  laura  was  a  kind  of  inter- 
mediate stage  between  the  eremitical  life 
ol  St.  Antony  and  the  monasticism 
founded  by  St.  Basil  and  St.  Benedict. 
It  flourished  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries  in  the  desert  country  near  the 
Jordan  ;  St.  Euthymius,  St.  Sabljas,  and 
the  abbot  Gerasimus  were  its  chief  types 
and  promoters.  St.  Euthymius  lived  ) 
be  ninety-six  years  old;  just  before  he 
died  he  told  the  person  whom  the  monks 
had  designated  as  his  successor,  that  it 
was  the  will  of  God  that  the  laura 
should  be  turned  into  a  monastery,  as  it 
foreseeing  that  this  was  the  discipline  of 
the  future  for  the  more  perfect  souls. 
(Fleury,  litr.  xxviii.,  xxix.,  xxx. ;  Smith 
and  Oheetham.) 

J.A.VS     TXBZ,     CHRXSTS.  [See 

Gospel.] 

itAVASO.  The  first  word  of  Ps. 
XXV.,  which  the  priest  recites  while  the 
acolytes  pour  water  on  his  hands  shortly 
before  he  begins  the  Canon  of  the  Mass. 
The  rite  indicates  the  perfect  purity  of 
heart  with  which  the  priest  should  cele- 
brate those  holy  mysteries.  This  wash- 
ing of  the  hands  (by  the  deacon,  how- 
ever) is  mentioned  by  St.  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem.  The  psalm  is  also  recited 
during  the  washing  of  the  hands  in  the 
liturgies  of  St.  Chrysostom  and  St.  Basil. 
It  is  not  said  in  the  Ambrosian  Mass,  in 
which  the  priest  purifies  his  hands 
silently  just  before  the  consecration. 
There  is  great  variety  on  this  point  in 
our  old  English  rites.  In  that  of  York 
the  washing  is  accompanied  by  a  verse 
of  Ps.  XXV.,  the  "  Veni,  Creator,"  and  a 
prayer;  in  that  of  Hereford,  by  the 
"  Veni,  Creator,"  and  a  prayer ;  in  those 
of  Sarum  and  Bangor  (?),  simply  by  a 
prayer.  (Le  Brun,  Benedict  XIV., 
Maskell.) 

JiAXir.  The  word  is  used  in  two 
widely  diflerent  senses.  When  we  speak 
of  the  "law  of  gravitation,"  we  mean  an 
observed  invariable  uniformity  of  co- 
existence and  succession  connecting  cer- 
tain efl'ects  with  certain  conditions  or 
causes,  so  that  when  the  conditions  are 
present  the  eflfect  invariably  follows. 
The  necessity  which  links  the  cause  tO' 
the  effect  we  do  not  understand,  nor  can 
account  for:  we  only  know  by  an  unfail- 
ing experience  that  it  exists:  and  as  it 
forms  an  element  in   the  phenomenal 


5-52 


LAW 


LAY  COMMUNION 


system  of  motions  and  changes  in  the 
midst  of  which  we  live,  we  call  it  a 
physical  necessitj-,  and  tlie  resulting  uni- 
formity we  term  a  laiv  of  nature.  But 
when  we  speak  of  the  law  of  the  Twelve 
Tables,  or  of  the  laws  of  Lycurgus,  or 
the  Mosaic,  or  the  Gospel  law,  we  mean 
a  uuiformity  which  ought  to  be  imposed 
(assuming  the  law  to  be  just)  on  the 
actions  of  those  subject  to  it,  but  which 
is  not  always  imposed  in  fact,  because 
the  subjects  of  the  law  are  free  agents 
and  can  refuse  to  obey  it.  The  necessity 
\vhich  should,  but  does  not  always,  make 
the  conduct  conformal)le  to  the  precept, 
we  call  a  moral  necessity,  or  oUigation  ; 
and  the  precepts  which,  being  addressed 
to  free  agents,  enjoin  but  do  not  compel 
their  own  fulfilment,  we  term  moral 
laws,  and  divide  into  civil,  criminal, 
natural,  positive,  &c.  Of  laws  in  this 
second  sense,  the  first  is  the  natural  law, 
which  we  must  carefully  distinguish  from 
"  laws  of  nature  "  orphysical  laws.  This 
natural  law  is  implanted  by  God  in  the 
mind  of  every  one  of  his  reasonable 
creatures,  distinguishing  for  them  good 
from  evil,  and  bidding  them  follow  the 
one  and  shun  the  other.  But  since  the 
will  of  man  has  been  weakened  by  the 
fall,  he  is  not  able  to  obey  the  dictates  of 
this  natural  law  without  some  kind  of 
assistance  or  reinforcement.  This  assis- 
tance is  given,  partly  by  human  ordi- 
nances, directing,  forbidding,  rewarding, 
and  punishing,  partly  by  the  revealed  law 
of  God  ;  through  the  operation  of  which 
it  appears  to  have  been  his  will,  first,  to 
educate  a  single  people  to  a  more  perfect 
knowledge  and  obedience;  next,  gradually 
to  leaven  and  transform  all  the  tribes  of 
mankind,  as  they  become  one  by  one  in- 
corporated in  the  Catholic  Church.  Ac- 
cordingly the  revealed  law  is  divided, 
historicallj',  into  the  law  of  the  Old  and 
that  of  the  New  covenant.  The  law  of 
the  Old  covenant,  given  on  Mount  Sinai, 
prepared  the  way  for  the  kingdom  of 
Christ,  and — except  as  to  that  portion  of 
it  which  was  a  restoration  of  the  natural 
Jaw  and  is  perjjetually  binding — lost  its 
divine  authority  on  the  establishment  of 
the  Church.  The  law  of  the  New  cove- 
nant is  that  which  Christ  the  king  pro- 
poses through  tlie  Church  [see  CnuKCH 
OF  Christ,  Gkack,  Sacraments]  to  the 
human  race.  Thus  every  man,  besides 
being  subject  to  the  internal  or  natural 
law  seated  in  the  conscience,  is  under  two 
external  laws.  lie  is  first — if  not  actually 
and  de  facto,  yet  potentially  and  de  jure 


— under  the  divine  law  as  interpreted 
and  administered  by  the  Catholic  Church. 
Secondly,  he  is  under  the  lex  loci,  the 
system  of  human  law  belonging  to  the 
country  of  his  birth  or  domicile.  If  a 
conflict  arise  between  the  two  external 
laws — as  when  the  law  of  the  land  en- 
joins idolatry,  or  forbids  the  frequentatinn 
of  the  sacraments — it  is  manifest  that  the 
lower  law  ought  to  yield  to  the  hiirlier, 
and  that  individual  Christians  are  bound, 
whatever  may  be  the  consequences,  to 
"  hear  the  Church,''  and  disobey  any  con- 
trary injunction,  (^^'etzer  and  Weltf', 
art.  by  Aberle.) 

liAX.    [See  MoEAL  Theology."! 

I.AY  BROTHERS  Airs  SXSTBRS. 
Persous  who  take  the  habit  and  vows  of 
religion,  but  are  employed  mostly  in 
manual  labour,  and  are  exempt  therefore 
from  the  duties  of  choir,  when  they  exist, 
or  from  the  studies,  kc,  incumljent  on 
the  other  members  of  religious  orders, 
where  there  is  no  choir. 

The  first  instance  of  a  distinction  be- 
tween lay  brothers  (fratres  co^iversi,  frcT&s 
convei-s)  occurred  in  the  monastery  of  Val- 
lombrosa,  founded  in  the  earlier  part  of 
the  eleventh  century  by  St.  John  Gual- 
bert.  Afterwards  we  find  lay  brothers 
among  the  monks  of  Hirsau,  and  the 
Abbot  William  is  said  in  his  Life  to  have 
instituted  this  kind  of  reUgious.  The 
Carthusians  adopted  the  new  practice, 
and  now  lay  brotliers  and  sisters  are  to 
be  found  in  most  religious  orders,  even 
among  the  Benedictines,  who  knew  no- 
thing of  such  a  distinction  at  first. 

Two  causes,  according  to  Fleury,  con- 
tributed to  the  change.  The  greater  part 
of  the  monks  (contrary  to  the  old  usage) 
in  the  eleventh  century  were  ecclesiastics, 
and  it  was  necessary  to  provide  for  thosp 
who  had  the  religious  but  no  ecclesiastical 
vocation.  Next,  in  the  eleventh  century, 
Latin  was  no  longer  a  vulgar  tongue,  and 
hence  many  of  the  religious,  ignorant  of 
Latin  and  often  unable  to  read,  were 
unfit  for  the  duties  of  the  choir.  (Fleury, 
"H.  E."  Ixi.  4,  Ixiii.  68;  Discours  viii. 
a.  5.) 

XiAY  coninxvirzoia'  is  a  phrase 
scarcely  used  at  present  among  Catholics. 
But  in  the  language  of  the  early  Church 
it  often  occurs  to  describe  the  state  to 
which  a  cleric  was  reduced  by  forfeiting 
the  right  to  exercise  his  functions  with- 
out being  excommunicated  and  losing  the 
ordinary  privileges  of  a  Christian.  Thus 
the  Council  of  Agde  (anno  506),  canon 
50,  orders  that  bishops,  priests,  and 


LAYMAN 


LAZARISTS 


553 


<V.icons,  guilty  of  certain  great  crimes,  [ 
sliould  for  the  rest  of  their  lives  only  [ 
receive  lay  communion  {communionem  i 
laicam). 

A  cleric  may  be  reduced  to  lay  commu- 
nion in  three  ways,  (n)  A  cleric  in  minor 
orders  may  lawfully  marry,  but  in  this 
case  the  canon  law  deprives  him  of  office, 
benefice,  and  the  privileges  of  his  state. 
The  Council  of  Trent,  however  (Sess. 
xxiii.  c.  17,  De  Reform.),  aUows  the  pro- 
motion of  men  already  married  to  minor 
orders,  provided  they  are  not  "bigami" 
and  there  is  a  lack  of  other  candidates. 
They  have  the  privileges  canonis  et  fori  if 
they  wear  tonsure  and  cassock.  (3)  A 
cleric  in  holy  orders  may  be  dispensed 
Irom  his  obligations — e.g.,  of  wearing  the 
clerical  dress,  reciting  his  breviary,  of 
celibacy,  &c. — by  the  Pope.  In  that  case 
the  cleric  in  question  is  usually  prohibited 
from  exercising  the  functions  of  his  office, 
(y)  The  old  law  of  the  Church  reduced 
to  lay  communion  clerics  who  were  de- 
posed" or  removed  from  their  office.  But, 
according  to  the  more  modern  canon  law, 
the  loss  of  clerical  privileges  is  only  en- 
tailed by  degradation. 

x.A.TMAM'.  One  of  the  people  (Xaos-), 
as  distinguished  from  the  clergy.  The 
Septuagint  (Exodus  xix.  24,  Isai.  xxiv.  2) 
used  the  word  Xaoy  in  contradistinction 
to  the  priests.  The  other  Greek  versions 
have  the  words  Xnocoy,  "laic, "  and  \ai.Kovv 
"  to  profane;"  and  so  the  Vulgate  (1  Reg. 
xxi.  -1)  has  the  expression  "  laicos  panes.'' 
Clem.  Rom.,  Ep.  i.  40,  uses  laic  or  layman 
(XaiKor)  for  the  tii-st  time  in  Christian 
literature,  but  he  means  by  it  a  Jewish 
and  not  a  Christian  layman.  But  in  the 
Clementine  Homilies,  Epist.  CL  §  5;  in 
Clem.  Al.  "Strom."  iii.  12,  p.  552,  ed. 
Potter;  in  TertuUian,  "Praescr."  41,  we 
find  the  modern  use  of  Xaocor  and  laicus 
for  Christian  lavman. 

XiAZ.a.BXSTS.  This  is  the  popular 
name  for  the  "Congregation  of  the  Priests 
of  the  Mission,"  founded  by  St.  Vincent 
of  Paul  in  1624,  and  established  a  few 
years  later  in  the  College  of  St.  Lazare  at 
i'aris.  St.  Vincent,  being  engaged  as  a 
tutor  in  the  family  of  the  Countess  de 
Joigny,  was  summoned  one  day  to  the 
sick-bed  of  one  of  her  vassals,  a  well-to- 
do  peasant  held  in  general  e.steem,  who 
desired  to  make  bis  confession  to  him. 
Pressing  the  inquiry  firmly  into  the  state 
of  the  man's  soul,  St.  Vincent  discovered 
with  consternation  that  he  bad  the  burden 
of  several  unconfes^ed  mortal  sins  on  his 
con.science,  in  spite  of  which  he  had  been 


going  on  for  many  years  making  sacri- 
legious confessions  and  communicating. 
Being  brought  by  the  saint  to  a  proper 
sense  of  the  enormity  of  his  conduct  the 
man  was  very  grateful,  and  declared  with- 
out scruple  his  conviction  that  he  owed 
more  than  his  hfe  to  St.  Vincent.  The 
countess,  hearing  what  had  happened, 
entreated  the  holy  man  to  preach  in  the 
church  of  ToUeville  (near  Amiens),  where 
most  of  the  congregation  were  her  vassals, 
on  the  sin  and  danger  incurred  by  making 
bad  confessions.  The  consciences  of  the 
hearers  werearo  used, and  numbers  crowded 
to  the  confessional  who  had  hitherto  made 
no  use,  or  a  bad  use,  of  it.  The  countess 
now  conceived  the  idea  of  founding  and 
endowing  an  institute  for  the  purpose  of 
preaching  missions  in  country  districts. 
She  desired  Vincent  to  obtain  if  possible 
the  services  of  Jesuits  or  French  Ora- 
torians ;  but  neither  society  was  able  to 
undertalie  the  work  at  the  time.  Finally 
it  was  arranged  that  Vincent,  aided  by 
several  pious  secular  priests,  who  had  for 
some  years  been  associated  with  him  in  his 
various  works  of  mercy  and  instruction, 
should  commence  the  missions ;  that  the 
institute  should  be  established  in  the 
College  des  Bons  Enfans,  ottered  for  the 
purpose  by  the  Archbishop  of  Paris :  that 
the  countess  should  endow  it  with  forty 
thousand  livres ;  but  that  Vincent  should 
not  leave  her  house  while  she  lived.  Thus 
was  the  institute  founded  in  the  March  of 
1624;  the  countess  died  the  same  year. 
The  congreffation  (which  was  coufii-med 
by  a  bull  of  Urban  VIII.  in  1632)  had  a 
threefold  end — the  sanctification  of  its 
own  members,  the  work  of  the  missions, 
and  the  training  of  an  exemplary  clergy. 
As  a  rule,  eight  months  in  the  year  were 
devoted  to  missions,  which  were  conducted 
nearly  on  the  same  plan  on  which  Re- 
demptorist  and  Pas.>ionist  missions  are 
conducted  at  the  present  day.  St.  Vin- 
cent, having  lived  to  see  twenty-five 
houses  of  the  new  institute  established— 
in  France,  Italy,  and  Poland — died  in 
1660,  being  eighty-five  years  old.  It  has 
been  already  stated  that  the  congregation 
removed  to  the  College  of  St.  Lazare 
(which  had  belonged  to  the  regular 
canons  of  St.  Victor)  in  1632.  It  was  a 
spacious  site,  and  the  third  superior- 
general,  Edmond  Joly,  erected  on  it  the 
vast  range  of  buildings  still  seen  there. 
St.  Vincent  of  Paul  was  beatified  in  1729. 
and  canonised  in  1737.  In  the  time  of 
H61yot — that  is,  early  in  the  last  cent  ury — 
there  were  eighty-four  Louses  of  the  in- 


554   LEAGUE  OF  THE  CROSS 


LECTION  OR  LESSON 


stitute  in  nine  provinces,  whereof  six  were 
in  France,  two  in  Italy,  and  one  in  Poland. 
Some  of  the  fathers  showed  an  inclination 
towards  Jim.senism  and  refused  to  accept 
the  bull  "  Unigeuitus  ;  "  but  the  firm  and 
prudent  government  of  the  general  of 
that  day,  M.  Bonnet,  checked  in  time  the 
evil  tendency.  At  the  Revolution  St. 
Lazare  was  twice  plundered  by  the  mob ; 
several  of  the  fathers  were  massacred  in 
September  1792;  and  those  who  would 
not  take  the  condemned  oath  were  driven 
out  of  France,  their  property  being  con- 
iiscated.  The  maison  St.  Lazare  was 
turned  into,  and  still  remains,  a  prison  for 
women.  Under  the  first  Napoleon  the  con- 
gregation was  allowed  to  re-enter  France, 
and  under  the  Restoration  the  grant  was 
made  to  it  of  a  house  in  the  Rue  de 
Sevres  in  lieu  of  St.  Lazare.  The  mis- 
sions left  vacant  in  China  and  the  Levant 
on  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  in  1773 
were  transferred  to  the  Lazarists.  Twenty 
or  thirty  years  ago  the  congregation  num- 
bered about  700  members ;  at  the  present 
day  it  is  probably  much  more  numerous. 
There  are  seven  houses  in  the  British 
isles — one  in  England,  one  in  Scotland, 
and  five  in  Ireland. 

IiEACVZ:  OF  THS  CROSS.  The 
Catholic  Total  Abstinence  League  of  the 
Cross  was  founded  in  1873,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  uniting  Catholics,  both  clergy  and 
laity,  in  a  holy  warfare  against  intemper- 
ance, and  of  thereby  raising  the  religious, 
social,  and  domestic  state  of  our  Catholic 
people,  especially  of  the  working  classes. 
"Total  abstinence  from  intoxicating  drinks 
is  for  all  persons  the  surest  safeguard,  and 
for  vast  numbers  the  only  safeguard,  from 
intemperance.  Those,  therefore,  who  ab- 
stain i'rom  intoxicating  drinks  for  the 
sake  of  Christian  prudence  towards  them- 
selves, or  of  Christian  charity  towards 
others,  by  so  doing  please  Almighty  God." 
The  fundamental  rules  of  the  League 
are : — 

1.  The  pledge  is  of  total  abstinence, 
and  is  taken  without  limit  as  to  time. 

2.  Only  Catholics  can  become  mem- 
bers of  the  League. 

3.  All  members,  after  they  have  joined 
the  League,  must  live  as  good,  practical 
Catholics. 

4.  No  one  who  is  not  a  practical 
Catholic  can,  as  long  as  he  fails  to  prac- 
tise his  religion,  hold  any  office  in  the 
League. 

The  form  of  the  pledge  is:  "I  promise 
to  you.  Rev.  Father,  and  to  the  League 
of  the  Holy  Cross,  by  the  help  of  God's 


grace,  to  abstain  from  all  intoxicating- 
drinks."  To  this  is  usually  added :  "  And 
I  also  promise  to  be  faithful  in  the  prac- 
tices 01  my  holy  religion."  The  pledge  is 
not  an  oath  or  a  vow,  and  is  not  of  itself 
binding  under  sin.  But  it  would  be  a  ,sin 
for  those  to  break  the  pledge  who  know- 
that  they  would  thereby  expose  them- 
selves to  the  danger  of  intemperance. 
Many  indulgences  have  been  granted  to 
members  by  the  Holy  See.  (From  the 
abstract  of  the  Constitution  and  Rules  of 
the  League  of  the  Cross.)  [See  also  the 
art.  Temperance.] 

IiECTBRN-,  ZiSCTUBXr,  OR 
liETTERN.  The  reading-desk,  called 
also  pulpitum  or  amho  (q.  v.),  but  most 
frequently  lectorum.  It  is  made  of 
wood,  stone,  or  metal,  often  in  the  shape 
of  an  eagle,  whose  outspread  wings 
formed  the  stand  for  the  volume  to  rest 
upon. 

IiSCTZOir  OR  XiESSON  {Lectio, 
avayvwdis).  Some  details  on  this  subject 
have  been  given  under  Epistle,  Gos- 
pel, Beeviaky.  But  something  remains 
to  be  said  now  on  the  history  of  lections 
in  general,  and  on  the  variety  of  practice 
which  separates  the  ancient  from  the 
modern,  and  again  the  Eastern  from  the 
Western  Church. 

There  was  a  far  more  extensive  and 
continuous  use  of  Scripture  in  the  public 
services  of  the  early  Church  than  there 
is  among  us.  Usually  speaking,  our 
people  only  hear  the  Gospel  and  Epistle 
read  in  the  Mass,  with  the  psalms  and 
the  little  chapter  (scarcely  more  than  a 
verse  or  two),  usually  from  the  Epistle, 
at  vespers  and  compline  on  Sundays  or 
great  leasts.  In  the  primitive  Chui-ch  it 
was  very  different.  Thus  St.  Augustine 
("Praef.  Exposit.  in  1  Joann.")  says  that 
he  "  was  accustomed  to  handle  (tractare) 
the  Gospel  according  to  John  in  the 
order  of  the  lessons  ;  "  and  that,  although 
this  order  had  been  necessarily  interrupted 
by  lessons  for  special  solemnities,  the  con- 
tinuous reading  had  only  been  "  inter- 
mitted, not  omitted."  In  this  way 
Genesis  was  read  in  Lent,  Job  in  Holy 
Week,  Acts  between  Easter  and  Pente- 
cost, &c.,  &c.  Our  Breviary  lessons  for 
the  first  nocturn  are  no  doubt  a  relic  of 
this  custom.  But  they  are  only  a  relic, 
partly  because  they  are  very  incomplete, 
partly  because  the  multiplication  of  festi- 
vals causes  many  even  of  the  portions 
given  in  the  office  to  be  left  out  altogether; 
above  all  because  the  laity,  as  a  rule, 
cannot  assist  at  those  Breviary  offices.. 


LECTIONARY 


LECTOR 


555 


Chrysostom,  says  Mr.  Scrivener,  referring 
to  "  Horn.  X.  in  Joann.,"  exhorts  his 
hearers  to  peruse  and  mark  the  passages 
{rreptKOTrai)  of  the  Gospels  which  were  to 
he  publicly  read  to  them  the  ensuing 
Saturday  and  Sunday.  (See  his  "Intro- 
duction to  the  Criticism  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment," 2nd  ed.  p.  60seq.)  These  sections, 
still  preserved  with  little  alteration  in 
the  modern  Greelv  Church,  are  very  dif- 
ferent from  our  Gospels  and  Epistles. 
They  contain  the  whole  text  of  the 
Gospels,  and  at  least  nearly  the  whole 
text  of  the  Acts  and  St.  Paul's  Epistles. 
On  the  other  hand,  while  the  Greeks  read 
the  Gospel  on  Sunday  mornings  in  the 
office  as  well  as  in  the  liturgy,  their  daily 
offices  contain  no  lessons  from  Scripture. 

It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  cus- 
tom of  introducing  lections  in  the  Breviary 
office,  still  maintained  in  the  West,  was 
at  one  time  fiimiliar  to  the  Eastern 
churches.  The  Council  of  Laodicea,  canon 
17,  requires  a  lesson  to  be  read  alter  each 
psalm,  and  Ca>sian  ("  Ccenob.  Inst."  ii.  4) 
mentions  that  the  Egyptian  monks  read 
two  lections,  one  from  the  New,  one  from 
the  Old,  Testament,  after  each  series  of 
twelve  psalms.  This  practice  was  already 
very  ancient  even  in  his  time.  At  the  end 
of  the  sixth  century  Ht  late,'<t,  as  appears 
from  Gregory  tlie  Great  (Epist.  xii.  24) 
and  from  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  not 
only  Scripture  but  also  homilies  upon  it 
by  Fathers  and  Doctors  of  the  Church 
were  read  in  the  office.  Charlemagne,  in 
a  "Constitutio  de  Emendatione  Librorum 
et  Officiorum,"  of  788,  caused  these  lec- 
tions from  the  Fathers  to  be  revised  and 
altered  by  Paul  the  Deacon.  We  have 
earlier  evidence  for  tlie  custom  of  reading 
the  Acts  of  the  Martyrs,  which  had  begun 
before  St.  Augustine's  time  (Serm.  cccxv. 
c.  1). 

XiECXXOXTARV.  The  oldest  Latin 
Lectiouary  was  known  as  tbe  "Comes" 
(i.e.  the  cleric's  "companion") — the 
"  Comes  Major"  if  it  contained  theEpistles 
and  Gospels  for  the  year  in  full,  the 
"Comes  Minor"  if  it  merely  noted  the 
beginning  and  end  of  the  portions  read. 
The  authorship  was  attributed  to  St. 
Jerome,  and  although  there  is  no  sufficient 
evidence  for  this  belief,  the  Comes  must 
have  been  compiled  about  St.  Jerome's 
time,  for  it  is  mentioned  by  name  in  a 
document  dated  471  (Mahillon,  "  De  Re 
Diplomat."  1.  vi.  4S2  scq.,  edit.  .3  Neapoli). 
It  has,  however,  undergone  serious  alter- 
ations. A  Gallicau  Lectionary  contain- 
ing sections  from  the  Prophets,  Epistles, 


and  Gospels,  was  discovered  by  Mahillon, 
and  edited  by  him  ("De  Liturg.  GaU." 
torn.  ii.).  It  is  written  in  Merovingian 
characters,  recognises  among  the  few 
feasts  which  it  names  tliat  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve, and  usually  assigns  three  lections 
to  each  Mass,  after  the  manner  of  the 
ancient  Galilean  Liturgy. 

In  the  Greek  church  the  Lectionaries 
consist  of  lessons  from  the  Gospels 
{(vayyeXiaTupui) ;  from  the  Acts  and  Epi.s- 
tles  (7rpa|u7roo-roXoi) ;  while  a  few  books 
known  as  aTroo-ToXofuay-ytXia  have  les.^ons 
taken  both  from  the  Gospels  and  Apo- 
stolic writings.  Traces  of  Church  lessons 
occur  in  MSS.  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies— viz.  in  the  Alexandrine  MS  and 
in  the  Codex  Rezse.  Of  Greek  Lection- 
aries in  separate  volumes,  none  perhaps 
are  older  than  the  eighth  century.  The 
general  name  for  tables  of  lessons,  corre- 
sponding to  the  "  Comes  Minor  "  in  Latin, 
is  (Tvva^dpiov ;  for  tables  of  week-day 
lessons  e'fcXoydSia  (rcoi'  8' eunyyeXurTuiv  or 
Tov  cnroa-ToXov)  while  tables  of  lessons  for 
Saints'  days  are  called  pTjvoXoyia.  The 
oldest  known  Synaxarion  is  prefixed  to  the 
Codex  Cyprius  (K),of  the  eighth  or  ninth 
century;  another  is  found  in  the  Codex 
Campensis  (M),  which  is  perhaps  a  little 
later.  An  elaborate  account  of  the  Greek 
lessons  will  be  found  in  Scrivener 
("  Plain  Introduction  to  the  Criticism  of 
the  N.T."),  from  whom  the  latter  part  of 
this  article  has  been  taken. 

XiECTOR  (di/ayi/oJOTijs).  A  cleric, 
in  minor  orders,  whose  duty  originally 
consisted  in  reading  the  Church  lessons. 
The  great  antiquity  of  the  order — the 
second  of  the  minor  orders  among  the 
Latins,  the  first  among  the  Greeks — is 
proved  by  the  facts  that  it  is  mentioned 
by  Cornelias,  Bishop  of  Rome,  in  the 
middle  of  the  third  century  (apud  Euseb. 
"H.E."  vi.  4.'3),  and  that  it  is  common  to 
sects  who  differ  from  each  other,  and 
who  separated  from  the  Catholic  Church 
in  the  fifth  century — viz.  Copts,  Syrian 
Jacobites  and  Nestorians,  not  to  speak  of 
the  schismatic  Greeks.  The  Ethiopians, 
indeed,  ignore  this  order,  but  it  is  men- 
tioned in  their  ancient  canons  and  coun- 
cils. (Deuzinger,  "  Ritus  Orientalium," 
torn.  i.  p.  118.) 

The  very  form  of  ordination,  as  it 
still  exists  with  very  slight  alteration 
among  us  at  the  present  day,  is  given  in 
canon  8  of  the  so-called  Fourth  Council  of 
Carthage,  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. The  bishop  is  to  give  the  book 
(codicem)  from  which  the  Lector  is  to 


636 


LEGATE 


LEGEND,  THE  GOLDEN 


read,  with  the  words  "  Take  it,  and  be  a 
reader  of  the  word  of  God,  to  have,  if 
thou  fulfil  thy  office  faithfullj-  and  use- 
fully, part  with  those  who  have  ministered 
the'word  of  God." 

The  Greeks,  according  to  Chardon 
("  Histoire  des  Sacraments,"  torn.  iv.  ch. 
2),  have  from  ancient  times  ordained 
their  Readers  by  imposition  of  hands, 
the  handing  of  the  book  after  ordination 
being  among  them  comparatively  modern. 
As  to  the  other  Oriental  rites,  the  Jacob- 
ites, Copts  and  Syrians  do  not,  the 
Xestorians  do,  confer  this  order  by  laying 
on  of  hands  :  all  of  them  hand  the  book 
at  the  end  of  the  ordination  rite,  but 
without  any  form  of  words.  (Denzinger, 
torn.  i.  p.  134.) 

Besides  reading  in  church,  the  Lec- 
tors were  also  employed  as  secretaries  to 
bishops  and  priests.  They  were  often 
younger  than  the  Ostiarii  or  Porters,  for 
the  Lectorate  was  the  first  order  con- 
erred  on  young  clerics  (Chardon,  loc.  cit.) 
The  Roman  Pontifical  also  assigns  to 
them  the  office  of  blessing  bread  and  the 
new  fruits,  a  duty  first  mentioned  in 
Pontificals  of  the  years  600  and  700. 
(Art.  Lector  in  Wetzer  and  Welte.)  At 
present  this  order  is  regarded  chiefly  as  a 
step  to  the  priesthood,  and  it  is  only  in 
the  office  of  Good  Friday  that  the  Missal 
recognises  their  functions. 

Altogether  distinct  from  the  Lectors 
just  described  are  the  "  Lector  MensEe," 
or  reader  at  table  in  religious  houses  ;  the 
"  Lector  dignitarius,"  who  regulated  the 
reading  of  the  lessons  in  some  cathedral 
churches  ;  and  theLectores — i.e.  lecturers 
or  professors — in  monasteries  and  uni- 
versities. 

LEGATE.  Among  the  Romans 
legati  were  either  ambassadors,  or  officers 
of  high  rank  appointed  with  the  sanction 
of  the  senate  to  assist  a  dictator,  consul, 
or  proconsul  in  the  performance  of  his 
duties,  military  or  civil.  In  modern 
acceptation  the  term  is  confined  to  ec- 
clesiastics representing  the  Holy  See  and 
armed  with  its  authority.  Legates  are 
of  three  kinds — legates  a  latere,  emis- 
saries or  nuncios  {legati  missi,  nuntii,  in- 
ternuntii),  and  legates  by  virtue  of  their 
office  {legati  nati).  Tlie  dignity  of  a 
legate  a  latere  is,  and  has  long  been,  con- 
fined to  cardinals,  though  in  former  times 
it  was  not  so :  e.g.  Pandulf,  the  legate 
sent  by  Innocent  III.  to  receive  the  sub- 
mission of  King  John,  was  OJily  a  sub- 
deacon.  Legates  a  Int.ere  are  either 
ordinary  or  extraordinary :  the  first  govern 


provinces  belonging  to  the  Ecclesiastical 
State — such  as  were  (before  1860)  the 
Romagna  and  the  March  of  Ancona — in 
the  Pope's  name  ;  the  second  class  are 
deputed  to  visit  foreign  Courts  on  extra- 
ordinary occasions,  such  as  a  negotiation 
for  a  peace,  or  arrangements  for  a  general 
council,  &c.  Legati  missi  correspond  to 
the  ambassadors  and  ministers  maintained 
by  secular  States  at  foreign  capitals. 
Formerly  they  were  called  apocrisiarii 
[Apoceisiaeitjs]  :  now,  nuncios  or  in- 
ternuncios— the  latter  being  of  inferior 
rank.  Legati  nati  are,  or  were,  arch- 
bishops to  whose  sees  by  an  ancient  Papal 
concession  the  legatine  authority  was  per- 
manently attached  :  as  was  the  case  with 
Canterbury  in  England,  and  Salzburg  and 
Prague  in  Germany. 

All  three  classes  of  legates  above 
mentioned  formerly  enjoyed  an  ample, 
and  even  an  immediate,  jurisdiction,  as 
representing  the  Holy  See,  in  the  pro- 
vinces where  they  resided.  Hence  fre- 
quent collisions  with  episcopal  authority 
arose.  To  put  an  end  to  these  conflicts, 
the  Council  of  Trent  ^  decreed  that  legates, 
even  those  de  latere,  nuncios,  ecclesiasti- 
cal governors,  or  others,  v\  ere  not  to  pre- 
sume, on  the  strength  of  any  faculties 
whatsoever,  to  impede  the  bishops  in 
matrimonial  causes  or  in  those  of  ciimi- 
nous  clerks,  nor  in  any  way  to  curtail  or 
disturb  their  jurisdiction ;  nor,  on  the 
other  hand,  were  they  to  take  proceedings 
against  clerks  or  other  ecclesiastical  per- 
sons, unless  after  recourse  had  been  had 
to  the  bishop  and  he  had  neglected  to  act. 
The  jurisdiction  of  legates  is  now,  there- 
fore, chiefly  appellate.  (Ferraris,  Legatus ; 
article  by  Phillips  in  Wetzer  and  Welte.) 

X.ECEII'D,  THE  GOXiOEXr.  By 
this  name  is  known  the  earliest  collection 
made  in  the  West  cf  the  Lives  of  Saints, 
as  the  work  of  Metaphrastes  was  the 
earliest  Greek  collection  of  the  same  kind. 
The  compiler  was  Jacobus  de  Voragine 
(so  named  from  his  birthplace,  Varaggia, 
near  Genoa),  archbishop  of  Genoa  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  "  Legenda  " 
contains  177  chapters,  each  of  which 
treats  of  a  saint  or  a  festival,  according 
to  the  order  of  the  ecclesiastical  calendar. 
There  is  an  entire  absence  of  critical  dis- 
crimination in  the  use  of  materials.  The 
work  became  very  popular,  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages,  and  is  said 
to  have  passed  through  more  than  a 
hundred  editions.  Capgrave's  "  Legenda 
Anglise,"  a  work  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
1  Sess.  xxiv.  cap.  20,  De  Ret. 


LEGITIMATION 


LEGITIMATION  557 


printed  by  Caxton,  was  doubtless  modelled  j 
upon  the  "  Golden  Legend,"  the  success  of 
which  must  have  encouraged  Lipomani 
and  Surius  in  their  labours,  and  prepared 
the  ground  for  the  great  compilation  of 
the  IBollandists. 

X.SCXTZnXA.TZOK'    BT  SITBSS- 
QVEXTT  MARRIAGE.   The  Civil  Law  , 
and  the  Law  of  the  Church  agree  in 
ascribing  so  great  efficacy  to  the  marriage 
tie  that  it  is  held  to  spread  itself  over, 
reach  back  to,  and  legitimate  the  birth  of 
children  to  the  same  parties  before  the 
marria^'e.    The  Civil  Law  recognised  this 
principle  somewhat  less  unreservedly  than 
the  Canon,  inasmuch  as  it  ascribed  a  cer-  j 
tain  measure  of  relative  lawfulness  to  the 
relation  of  concubinage.   Against  this  the  , 
Church  set  its  face,  refusing  to  allow  that  , 
there  could  be  any  lawful  union  between 
persons  of  opposite  sex  except  by  the  way  i 
of  marriage,  and  treating  the  child  of  a  ! 
concubine   as  in   no   superior  position, 
legally,  to  the   child   of  a  courtesan. 
However  long  a  time  may  have  passed, 
even  though  the  father  may  have  had  a 
lawful  wife  and  children  in  the  interval, 
nevertheless,  the  first  wife  being  dead, 
marriage  with  the  mother  of  his  natm-al  , 
children,  even  although  he  may  be  no 
longer  capable  of  being  a  father,  or  be  on 
the  bed  of  death,  legitimates  the  children  ^ 
of  the  illicit  union,  and  makes  them  as 
capable  of  inheriting  as  if  they  had  been 
born  in  wedlock.    The  reason  is  that  the 
Church,  like  Christ,  wliom  she  represents 
in  the  world,  yearns  over  her  erring 
children,  and  desires  to  leave  open  for  : 
them  a  locus  poenitmtia :  and  this  all  the 
more  because  the  temporal  interests  and 
natural  feelings  of  the  innocent  children 
are   promoted   and  consulted  by  such  , 
lenity.  | 

All  that  has  been  said,  however,  pro-  | 
ceeds  upon  the  assumption  that  at  the  [ 
time  when  the  natural  children  were  con- 
ceived or  born  the  parties  were  free  to 
marry.  It  is  only  in  that  case  that  the 
efficacy  of  the  subsequent  marriage  can 
be  held  to  reach  back  to  the  illicit  union. 
If  either  the  father  or  the  mother  was 
married  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of  the 
child,  it  is  the  otispring  of  adultery,  and 
no  subsequent  man-iage  can  legitimate  it. 
It  has  been  strenuously  maintained  by 
many  canonists  that  if  one  of  the  parties 
was  not  free  to  marry  at  the  time  of  the 
conception  of  the  cliiid,  even  though  such 
freedom  existed  at  the  date  of  birth,  the 
child  is  adulterine,  and  cannot  be  legiti- 
mated by  subsequent  marriage.    The  | 


tendency  of  opinion,  however,  has  for  a 
long  time  past  been  towards  the  doctrine 
that  the  question  should  be  decided  simply 
by  the  date  of  birth ;  and  that  if  at  that 
time  either  party  were  so  circumstanced 
that  he  or  she  could  not  possibly,  even 
with  the  aid  of  a  dispensation,  have 
married  the  other,  the  child  cannot  be 
afterwards  legitimated ;  but  not  other- 
wise. 

A  letter  addressed  by  Benedict  XIV., 
writing  as  a  private  doctor,  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  St.  Domingo,  in  1744,  discusses 
this  important  subject  in  all  its  bearings 
with  the  utmost  lucidity  and  force. 

The  Common  Law  of  England  follow- 
ing, it  may  be  supposed,  some  ancient 
Teutonic  custom,  does  not  all  w  that 
children  born  out  of  wedlock  can  be 
legitimated,  or  am  inherit,  through  a 
subsequent  marriage  between  the  parties. 
This  was  decided  so  far  back  as  1 23(').  At 
a  council  of  the  great  men  of  the  king- 
dom held  at  Merton,  the  bishops,  who  had 
found  that  collisions  were  of  frequent 
occurrence  between  the  spiritual  and 
secular  jurisdictions  on  account  of  their 
different  views  on  this  question — persons 
being  bastardised  by  the  one  who  were 
legitimated  and  held  capable  of  inheriting 
by  the  other — "requested  that  the  king's 
writs  should  no  longer  direct  them  to  in- 
quire specially  whether  the  individual  in 
question  were  born  before  or  after  mar- 
riage, but  generally  whether  he  were 
legitimate  or  not.  They  objected  to  the 
practice  of  the  other  courts :  (1)  that  it 
was  contrary  to  the  Roman  and  Canon 
Law  ;  (2)  that  it  was  unjust,  because  it 
deprived  of  the  right  of  inheritance  the 
issue  of  clandestine  marriages,  though 
such  marriages  were  not  annulled  by  any 
law;  and  (3)  that  it  was  inconsistent 
with  itself,  because,  while  it  bastardised 
the  child  bom,  it  legitimated  the  child 
that  was  only  conceived  before  marriage, 
though  in  both  cases  the  moral  guilt"  of 
the  parents  was  exactly  the  same.  But 
their  arguments  were  fruitless.  The  earls 
and  barons  unanimously  returned  the 
answer  '  which  has  been  so  often  repeated 
and  applauded :  '  We  will  not  change  the 
old  and  approved  laws  of  England.' "  ^ 

This  difference  continues  to  exist ;  and 
since  the  marriage  law  of  all  countries  in 
continental  Europe,  Protestant  as  well 
as  Catholic,  is  based  either  on  the  Roman 
or  the  Canon  Law,  it  is  a  common  prac- 
tice for  English  parents  of  natural  children 
1  "  X.  liiuius  lejjes  Ani;liae  mutare." 
"  Lingard,  UUt.  of  Eng.  ii,  245. 


56^ 


LENT 


LENT 


to  settle,  marry,  and  become  naturalised 
abroad,  so  that  their  offspring-,  under  the 
milder  sway  of  the  Canon  Law,  may 
cease  to  suffer  from  that  slur  of  bastardy 
from  which  in  England  nothing  can  ever 
deliver  them.    (Ferraris,  Legitimntio) 

IiCirT.  A  fast  of  forty  days  pre- 
ceding Easter,  kept,  after  the  example  of 
Moses,  Elias,  and,  above  all,  of  Christ 
Himself,  in  order  to  prepare  the  faithful 
for  the  Easter  feast,  and  also  of  course  on 
account  of  the  general  advantages  to  be 
derived  from  a  long-  period  of  penance. 
Tlie  Greek  and  Latin  names  for  the  fast 
(^ea-aaftaKooTTi,  Quadrar/i'simd)  indicate  the 
number  of  days.  The  Italian  Qnaresima 
and  the  French  Careme  come  from  the 
Latin ;  the  German  Fastenzeit  and  the 
Dutch  Vasten  denote  the  fast  by  pre- 
eminence, like  17  vrjo-Tdci  in  the  Greek 
calendar ;  our  own  word  Lent  comes 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon  Lcncten,  i.e.  spring 
{cf.  German  Lenz,  Dutch  Levfe,  spring). 

There  is  no  mention  in  Scripture  of 
the  ob.-^ervance  of  Lent,  or,  indeed,  of  any 
determined  time  for  fasting  among  Chris- 
tians. In  Acts  xxvii.  9,  St.  Paul  and  his 
companions  are  said  to  have  put  to  sea  at 
a  dangerous  time,  viz.  "  when  the  fast 
was  already  over."  But  the  fast  in  view 
was  evidently  the  one  Jewish  fast  com- 
manded in  the  law,  that  on  the  Day  of 
Atouement,  the  tenth  of  Tisri.  At  that 
time  the  autumnal  equinox  was  past,  and, 
as  a  rule,  no  more  voyages  were  under- 
taken for  the  seas  m. 

There  is,  h  uvever,  proof  that  Lent,  in 
the  general  sense  of  a  fast  preceding 
Easter,  has  been  known  fi'om,  or  nearly 
from.  Apostolic  times.  ThusTertullian,  in 
his  Montanist  treatise  on  fasting,  tells  us 
that  according  to  his  Catholic  adverearies 
those  days  were  ."Jet  a])art  f)r  fasting 
"under  "the  Gospel  dispensation  {in 
Eianf/<^'lio)\a  which  the  Spouse  was  taken 
away  "  ("  De  Jejun."  2;  cf.  13),  wheieas 
the  Montanists  kept  additional  fasts.  An 
earlier  writer,  Irenffius  (apud  Euseb. 
"  H.  E."  V.  24),  si)eaks  of  the  fast  before 
Easter,  and  the  dilierent  modes  of  observ- 
ance which  prevailed  in  dillerent  places. 
The  words  occur  in  a  letter  to  Victor,  who 
was  Bishop  of  Rome  from  about  190  till 
202;  and  it  is  iu)portant  to  notice  that 
TriMi.-eus  says  the  difference  of  ohservance 
was  no  new  thing,  but  had  arisen  "  even 
long  before,  in  a  past  gniieration"  {k<u 
noXv  TTfiOTfpov  eVi  tcov  tt/ju  rjUMv).  It  is 
plain  also  that  from  very  early  times  the 
Lenten  fast,  whatever  its  duraiiou  may 
have  been,  was  considered  obligatory. 


This  is  clearly  implied  in  the  language 
of  Tertullian  in  the  passages  quoted  above: 
"  dies  jejuniis  determinatos ;  '  "coustituta 
esse  solemnia  hide  fidei  scripturis  vel 
traditione  majorum."  Passages  to  the 
same  effect  abound  in  the  later  literature 
of  the  Church.  The  Coimcil  of  Gangra, 
in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  ana- 
thematises (Can.  19)  those  who  neglected 
to  keep  the  fasts  "  observed  by  the 
Church."  Jerome,  Ep.  41,  lays  down  the 
strict  obligation  of  keeping  the  Lenten 
fast  (see  also  Ambrose :  e.g.  "  De  Noe  et 
Area,"  13).  A  number  of  similar  state- 
ments may  be  seen  in  Thomassm,  "Traits 
des  Jennes,"'  Part  L  ch.  v.  A  famous 
incident,  mentioned  by  Sozomen  ("  H.  E." 
i.  11),  and  often  alleged  against  the 
Catholic  practice,  is  really  an  exception 
which  proves  the  rule.  There  the  story 
is  told  of  a  Bishop  Spyridon,  who,  having 
no  other  food,  not  even  bread  or  floui-,  in 
the  house,  gave  an  exhausted  traveller 
swine's  flesh  at  the  beginning  of  Lent, 
and  bade  him  eat  it  without  scruple. 
But  the  stranger  at  first  refused  to  eat  it, 
on  the  ground  that  he  was  a  Christian; 
and  the  bishop  before  furnishing  this  food 
"  prayed  and  begged  pardon  "  of  Heaven. 
All  things,  as  the  bishop  argued,  are  pure 
to  the  pure,  and  then,  as  now,  the  Leuten 
ride  yielded  to  charity  and  uece.'-sity. 

We  have  taken  Lent  hitherto  in  its 
widest  acceptation,  as  meaning  a  fast  of 
some  sort  before  Easter,  and  in  Ante- 
Nicene  Fathers,  so  far  as  we  are  aware, 
no  clear  notice  occurs  of  a  fast  consisting 
even  approximately  of  forty  days.  In  a 
very  obscure  and  possibly  corrupt  passage 
of  Irenieus  (apud  Euseb.  v.  24)  the  Bene- 
dictine editor  Massuet  (Diss.  ii.  23  seq.) 
sees  an  allusion  to  the  forty  days  with 
which  we  are  now  familiar.  He  under- 
stands the  saint  to  say  that  some  kept 
the  fast  of  extraordinary  strictness  known 
as  xeropliagy  for  one  day,  others  for  two 
or  more,  others  for  all  the  forty  days  of 
Lent.  This  is  a  possible  and  even  plau- 
sible explanation,  but  it  cannot  be  con- 
sidered certain,  and  many  scholars.  Ca- 
tholic and  Protestant,  believe  that  Irenreus 
refers  to  an  absolute  fist  from  all  food 
during  two  or  more  days,  or  for  forty 
hours.  However,  from  the  early  part  of 
the  fourth  century  onwards,  there  are 
many  references  to  Lent  as  a  period  of 
about  forty  days.  The  word  retro-aparao-ri; 
is  found  in  Can.  5  of  the  Nicene,  and 
Can.  50  of  the  Laodicean,  Council,  the 
latter  being  held,  according  to  llel'ele, 
somewhere  between  343  and  881.  Eveu 


LENT 

if  the  word  was  originally  connected 
with  the  forty  hours  during  which  Christ 
lay  in  the  tomb,  it  was  taken  in  the 
fourth  centurj-  at  least  to  mean  a  period 
of  forty  days.    St.  Gregory  Nyssen  (torn, 
ii.  p.  253)  reckons  Lent  as  a  time  of 
rather  less  than  two  months;  while,  in 
the  West,  St.  Augustine  (Ep.  Iv.  c.  15, 
"Ad   Januar.")  connects  the  fast  of 
Quadrageilma  with  the  forty  days'  fast  of 
Moses  and  Elias.    Still  in  this  century, 
and  the  next  also,  the  duration  of  Lent 
varied   very   con.^iderably   in    different  , 
ohurches.    Socrates  ("H.  E."  v.  22)  ex- 
presses his  surprise  that  all  used  the 
same  name  TeaaapaKoarf)  to  describe  a 
fast  which  lasted  in  different  places  for 
seven,  six,  or  only  three  weeks.  There 
are  no  doubt  inaccuracies  in  the  state- 
ment as  Socrates  makes  it,  but  we  see  no 
ground  for  questioning  its  correctness  as 
to  the  main  fact.    From  Sozomen,  also  a 
writer  of  the  fifth  century,  we  get  more 
trustworthy   information.     All  Africa, 
Egypt,  Palestine  and  the  Westerns  geue- 
raliy,  he  says  ("  H.  £."  \u.  19),  kept  Lent 
for  six  weeks,  the  church  of  Constantinople 
and  the  neighbouring  provinces  for  seven,  i 
Cassian  ("  Collat.'"  xxi.  c.  24-27)  says  in  j 
general  terms  that  some  fasted  seven,  [ 
Others  six,  weeks,  but  he  gives  the  rea-son 
— viz.  that  some  excepted  Sundays  and 
Saturdays,   others  Sundays  only,  from  i 
the  fast.    St.  Ambrose  (•'  De  Ella  et 
Jejuuio,''  c.  10)  recognises  the  exemption 
from  fasting  on  both  days.    The  practice,  •> 
however,  of  the  Roman  Church  and  of  [ 
most  Latins  was  to  fast  six  weeks  ex-  | 
cepting  Sundays — i.e.  for  thirty-six  days.  I 
The  usage  of  Constantinople,  on  the  other  j 
hand,  prevailed  in   the  East,  and  the  ' 
Council  in  Trullo,  in  6'J2,  ordered  ( Can. 
55)  that  there  should  be  no  fasting  on  , 
Saturdays  in  Lent,  and  no  Mass  said  ex-  i 
cept  on  Saturdays,  Sundays,  and  the  feast  ', 
of  the  Annunciation  (Can.  52).  Mass 
and  fasting  are  in  tlie  minds   of  the 
Greeks  incompatible,  so  that  they  ob- 
served seven  weeks  or  thirty-five  days  of 
fastine — all  Saturdays  except  Holy  Satur- 
day, the  feast  of  the  Annunciation,  and 
all  Sundays,  being  deducted. 

However,  more  than  a  century  before 
the  Council  in  Trullo  the  Greeks  could  j 
fairly  claim  lo  count  forty  days  in  tlieir 
Lent.  True,  it  is  only  on  the  Monday  in 
(Juinquagesima  week  that  they  enter  on 
the  strict  abstinence  both  from  flesh  meat 
and  ladicinin,  and  so  Quinquagesima  is 
called  by  them  t^s  Tvpo(f>ayov.  because, 
according  to  their  way  of  calculating,  it  [ 


LENT  559 

ends  the  week  in  which  cheese,  &c.,  may 
be  eaten.  But  after  Sexagesima  Sunday 
(hence  named  rrjs  dn-oxpfo))  no  meat  is 
eaten,  and  this  their  present  custom  was 
already  in  force  under  the  Emperor 
Justinian  in  546  (see  Fleury,  "  Ilist." 
livr.  xxxiii.  No.  23,  and  cf.  Thomassin, 
Part  IL  ch.  i.). 

Various  attempts  were  made  in  the 
West  to  complete  the  number  of  forty 
days.  St.  Ambrose  ;Serm.  34)  blames 
the  custom  of  those  who  began  the  fast 
in  Quinquagesima  week,  and  the  Fourth 
Council  of  Orleans  (anno  541 ;  Can.  2) 
hkewise  enforces  uniformity  and  censures 
those  who  began  Lent  with  Sexagesima 
or  Quinquagesima.  The  Eighth  Council 
of  Toledo  (Canon  9:  anno  653)  expresses 
a  feeling  then  and  earlier  very  common 
in  the  Church,  when  it  describes  the 
thirty-six  days  of  Lent  as  a  tithe  of  the 
year  which  Christians  dedicated  to  God. 
But  the  monks  aimed  at  greater  strict- 
ness, for  the  "Eegula  Magistri''  which 
Thomassin  places  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventh  century,  enjoins  religious  to  fast 
three  days  Ln  Sexagn-sima  and  three  in 
Quinquagesima  week,  in  order  to  supply 
for  the  six  Sundays  of  Lent  which  were 
not  fast-days. 

At  last  the  Latin  Chtirch  added  the 
four  days  of  fasting  before  the  first 
Sunday  in  Lent,  which  now  began  with 
Ash  Wednesday.  This  new  discipline  is 
recognised  in  Canon  76  of  the  Council  of 
Meaux  (anno  846),  and  it  appears  from 
the  words  of  the  monk  Ratramnus,  who 
wrote  about  the  same  time,  that  these 
additional  days  were  observed  by  the 
Roman  Church  and  in  the  West  gene- 
rally. Still  in  the  eleventh  century  St. 
Martjaret  of  Scotland  (Surius,  Junii  die 
10)  had  to  introduce  the  habit  of  begin- 
ning Lent  with  Ash  Wednesday  among 
her  subjects  ;  and  St.  Charles  Boiromeo, 
in  the  first  council  which  he  held,  fully 
acknowledged  the  right  by  which  the 
churches  in  the  city  of  Milan  and  in 
other  parts  of  the  diocese  which  had  re- 
tained the  Ambrosian  rite  began  Lent 
with  the  first  Sunday  and  thus  main- 
tained their  ancient  usage. 

We  can  only  touch  lightly  on  the 
other  acts  of  piety  by  which  Lent  has 
been  sanctified  from  early  times.  It  was 
a  season  in  which  the  faithful  begged 
God's  mercy  for  themselves,  and  were 
therefore  expected  to  show  mercy  to 
others.  The  money  spared  by  fasting 
was  given  in  alms ;  the  Imperial  laws 
(see  the  references  in  Thomassin,  Part  I. 


560  LIBELLATICl 


LIBERA  NOS 


cb.  xxvjii.)  forbade  criminal  processes, 
and  wliile  the  Church  reconciled  peni- 
tents at  the  altar,  the  emperors  released 
prisoners,  masters  pardoned  their  slaves, 
and  enemies  became  friends.  It  was  a 
season  of  mourning-,  and  hence  the 
Ciiiu'ch  has  always  strono-ly  discounte- 
nanced festivities  of  all  kinds  during 
L-nt.  Lastly,  the  body  is  mortified,  in 
order  that  the  soul  may  be  invigorated, 
and  so  from  early  times  communions, 
sermons  and  spiritual  exercises  generally 
have  been  multiplied  in  Lent.  (Thomas- 
sin,  "Traits  des  Jeunes,"  Paris,  1685. 
Liemke,  "Die  Quadragesimalfasten  der 
Kirclie,"  Muiichen,  1853.) 

x.ZBEi.i,ATZcz.    [See  Lapsed.] 
X.XB1BX.Z.Z  Piiczs.    [See  Lapses  ' 
and  Indulgences.] 

X.zbz:r  BZURSTVS.  An  ancient 
collection  of  formularies  used  in  the 
Roman  church.  The  learned  Jesuit 
Garnier  supposes  that  it  was  compiled 
shortly  after  714.  It  has  been  divided 
by  Garnier  into  seven  chapters,  which 
are  subdivided  into  "  titles."  The  seven 
chapters  treat  of  the  following  subjects  : 

(1)  formularies  used  by  the  Pope  in 
writing  to  the  Emperor,  Exarch,  Consul, 
Patriarchs,  Archbishop  of  Ravenna,  &c. ; 

(2)  formularies  for  the  election  and  con- 
secration of  the  Pope,  with  the  accom- 
panying notice  to  the  Emperor,  Exarch, 
&c. ;  {•i)  for  the  election  and  consecration 
of  the  episcopi  suburbicarii ;  (4)  four 
fornudaries  for  giving  the  Pallium ;  (5) 
twenty-one  formularies  for  despatch  of 
business  with  Italian  bishops  consecrated 
by  tlie  Pope ;  (6)  on  the  administration 
and  alienation  of  the  property  of  the 
Roman  church  ;  (7)  on  privileges  granted 
by  the  Popes  to  monasteries  and  other 
ecclesiastical  institutes. 

Fragments  of  the  "  Liber  Diurnus " 
occur  in  the  mediaeval  canonists,  but  the 
book  in  its  entirety  was  long  unknown. 
An  edition  was  prepared  at  Rome  in 
1660  by  Lucas  Holstenius,  but  prohibited 
by  the  Roman  censors;  and  the  first 
edition  which  actually  appeared  was  that 
of  Garnier  (Paris,  1680),  with  learned 
introduction,  notes,  and  dissertations. 
Additions  were  made  by  Mabillon  in  his 
"  Museum  Italicum."  These  additions 
and  various  readings  were  used  by  Ilolf- 
mann  for  the  edition  in  his  "  Nova 
CoUectio,"  torn.  ii.  Garnier's  edition 
with  Mabillon's  additions  has  been  re- 
printed by  Migne  in  his  "  Patrologia." 

XiZBZIR  PEM'ZTEN'TZil.I.ZS.  [See 

Penitential  Books.] 


X.ZBER  POKTTZFZCAXiZS.  [See- 
Ohubch  History.] 

IiZBER     SEPTXJVZVS.       Bj  this 

name  are  known  two  different  collections, 
neither  of  which  is  of  authority.  I. 
Pierre  ^lattliieu,  of  Lyons,  made  a  collec- 
tion of  Dt  crctals  from  the  pontificate  of 
Gregory  XI.  to  tliat  of  Sixtus  V.,  arranged 
them  in  five  books  and  a  certain  number 
of  titles,  according  to  the  classification 
prevailing  in  the  "  Corpus  Juris,"  and 
printed  them  in  1590.  They  have  been 
included  in  two  or  three  editions  of  the 
"Coi-pus,"  but  are  generally  held  to  have 
no  validity  as  a  collection  ;  the  separate 
Decretals  have  whatever  authority  they 
may  possess  apart  from  their  inclusion  in 
this  "  Liber  Septimus."  2.  It  was  under 
contemplation  in  the  time  of  Clement 
VIII.  (151)2-1605)  to  publish  under  this 
name  a  collection  of  recent  Papal  Consti- 
tutions and  conciliar  decrees,  including 
those  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  book 
was  actually  printed  in  1598,  but  was 
suppressed  through  the  well-grounded 
fear  that  as  soon  as  it  appeared  it  would 
be  glossed  and  commented  for  use  in  the 
courts,  and  that  in  this  way  the  order  of 
Pius  IV.  (1564),  reserving  to  the  Holy 
See  the  interpretation  of  the  Tridentiue 
decrees  would  be  nullified.  (Wetzer  and 
WelLe,  art.  by  Kober.) 

X.ZBER  SEXTXTS.  The  Sext  ("Liber 
Sextus  Decretalium  ;  "  see  art.  on  Canon 
Law)  was  compiled  by  order  of  Boniface 
VIII.  and  published  in  1298.  It  received 
its  name  with  reference  to  the  five  books 
of  Decretals  published  by  order  of  Gre- 
gory IX.,  but  is  itself  divided,  like  that 
earlier  collection,  into  five  books  and  a. 
certain  number  of  titles. 

ZtZBERii.  WOS,  &.C.  A  responsory 
sung  by  the  choir  after  the  Mass  of  tlie 
dead  and  before  the  absolution  of  the 
corpse.  [See  Absolution  and  Fune- 
rals.] 

XiZBERA  sros,  &.C.  The  embolis- 
mus  or  continuation  of  the  Lord's  Prayer 
in  the  Roman  Mass.  The  prayer  with 
slight  variation  is  found  in  the  Gelasiau 
and  Gregorian  Canons.  The  principal 
changes  that  have  been  made  are  in  the 
mention  of  the  saints  At  present  only 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul  (the  founders  of  the  Roman  church),, 
and  St.  Andrew,  who  was  first  called  tO' 
the  Apostolate,  are  mentioned  by  name. 
But  other  names  occur  in  the  Gregorian 
canon — viz.  Dionysius  with  Rusticus  and 
Eleutlierins  and  Cldodoaldus.  Even  in 
the  middle  ages,  as  appears  from  th& 


LLBERIUS 


LIBERIUS  561 


"  Microlofrus,"  the  officiating  priest  could 
iidd  names  of  saiuts  here  at  discretion. 

All  the  Western  liturgies  have  a 
prayer,  not  only  correspouding  to,  but 
resembling  our  "  Libera  nos."  The  prayer 
in  the  Ambrosian  Mass  is  merely  a  form 
of  our  prayer  with  slight  variations.  The 
Mozarabic  prayer  "  Liberati  a  uialo  "  has 
at  le;xst  a  general  reseiublance.  The  old 
Galilean  lituigy  is  furthest  removed  from 
the  Roman  standard.  There  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  Lord's  Prayer  varies 
■with  the  Mass.  That  for  Christmas  be- 
gins "Libera  nos,  ouinipotens  Deus,  ab 
omoi  malo,"  &c.  (Benedict  XIV.  "  De 
Missa."  Hammond's  "  Liturgies,  Eastern 
and  Western.") 

ibZBSRZVS  was  Bishop  of  Rome 
from  362  to  366.  Because  of  the  firm 
support  he  gave  to  the  Nicene  faith,  and 
to  Athanasius,  its  champion,  he  was 
banished  to  Beroea  by  the  Arian  Em- 
peror Constantius,  some  time  after  the 
Synod  of  Milan  in  355,  the  Arian  Felix 
being  put  in  his  place  at  Rome.  Liberius 
■was  separated  even  from  his  companions 
in  exile  in  order  to  increase  the  rigour  of 
his  punishment  and  break  his  constancy. 
In  357  Constantius  was  in  Rome,  and 
found  that  scarcely  anyone  communicated 
with  the  usurper  Felix,  and  that  the 
populace  were  clamouring  for  the  recall 
of  Liberius.  At  last,  nearly  a  year  later, 
the  Emperor  consented  to  restore  Libe- 
rius to  his  see.  But  on  what  conditions? 
Many  ancient  documents  (we  shall  have 
fo  examine  their  real  value  further  on) 
testify  that  Liberius  bought  his  pardon 
dear — viz.  by  condemning  Athanasius, 
communicating  with  heretical  bishops,  j 
and  subscribing  a  formula  which  denied,  i 
or  at  least  betrayed,  the  Nicene  faith. 
This  is  the  view,  not  only  of  Protestant, 
but  also  of  many  Catholic  historians.  It 
is  held,  e.g.,  bv  Baronius  ;  Petavius,  "  De 
Trin."  i.  9;  Bossuet,  "Def.  Cler.  Gall."  j 
p.  iii.  lib.  ix.  c.  33 ;  Fleury,  Hist."  livr.  j 
xiii.  46;  Dollinger,  "  Papst-Fabelu" ;  He- 
fele,  "Concil."  (i.  681  sey.) ;  and  many  j 
otliers.  On  the  other  hand,  the  BollandLst 
Stilting,  "  Acta  SS."  torn.  vi.  Sept.  ; 
Zaccaria,  "  De  Commentitio  Liberii 
Lapsu";  Palma,  "  Praelect."  tom.  i.  par. 
2:  and  recently  Reinerding,  "Beitriige 
zur  Ilonorius-  und  Liberiusfrage,"  1865  ; 
and  Cardinal  Ilergeurotlier,  "  Kirchen- 
geschichte"  (vol.  iii.,  1880,  p.  106  sey.),  ! 
treat  the  "fall  of  Liberius"  as  an  Arian  j 
fiction.  The  question  has  naturally  as- 
sumed great  prominence  from  its  bearing  | 
on  the  Pfvpal  infallibility.    In  this  article  | 


we  treat  of  the  historical  fact  and  of  its 
dogmatic  import  separately. 

Theodoret,  Socrates,  and  Sulpicius 
Severus  are  altogether  silent  on  the  fall 
of  Liberius,  and  we  may  fairly  take  their 
silence  as  proof  either  that  they  had  not 
heard  of  or  else  did  not  believe  it.  But 
we  have,  on  the  other  hand,  the  distinct 
and  contemporary  evidence  of  Athanasius 
twice  repeated  :  "  Liberius,  being  exiled, 
later  on,  after  a  period  of  two  years,  gave 
way  (SiKKaae)  and,  in  fear  of  the  death 
with  which  he  was  threatened,  subscribed 
{(pojSqdAs  Tov  aneiXovfifvov  Bdmrov  vn- 
typayj/ev).  But  even  this  shows  their  vio- 
lence, and  the  hatred  of  Liberius  against 
the  heresy,  and  his  decision  {\p-ri<f)ov)  for 
Athanasius  when  his  will  was  free.  For 
things  done  through  torments  contrary 
to  the  original  judgment — these  are  not 
acts  of  will  on  the  part  of  those  who  have 
been  put  to  fear,  but  of  those  who  inflict 
the  torture "  ("  Eplst.  ad  Monach.  et 
Hist.  Arian."  41).  He  speaks  to  much 
the  same  efi'ect  in  the  ''  Apol.  contr. 
Arian."  89.  "  0  -wretched  man  that  you 
are,"  says  another  contemporary,  St. 
Hilary,  addressing  Constantius  ("Contr. 
Constant.  Imper."  c.  11);  "I  know  not 
whether  there  was  greater  wickedness  in 
your  banishing  him  [Liberius]  than  iu 
your  sending  him  back  "  ("  nescio  utrum 
majore  impietate  relegaveris  quam  re- 
miseris  ").  This  looks  like  an  allusion  to 
the  price  Liberius  had  to  pay  for  his 
recall.  Sozomen  ("  H.  E."  iv.  15)  gives 
us  the  details.  "  Constantius,"  he  says, 
"united  the  delegates  from  the  bishops 
of  the  East  [i.e.  from  the  Semi-Aiian 
Council  of  Ancyra]  to  the  prelates  who 
happened  to  be  present  with  him  iu  the 
Court  at  Sirmium.  They  combined  the 
definitions  of  the  Antiochene  Council  in 
209  against  Paul  of  Samosata  and  those 
of  Sirmium  against  Photinus  with  the 
symbol  of  the  Antiochene  Council  of 
341 "  (probably  Sozomen  refers  to  the 
fourth  of  their  symbols),  "  and  persuaded 
Liberius  to  subscribe  the  new  formula  or 
collection  of  old  formulas  in  which  the 
word  '  consubstantial '  was  abandoned. 
They  brought  him  to  take  this  step  by 
telling  him  that  the  ofiiwva-ws  was  a  mere 
cloak  for  Sabellianism.  Liberius,  how- 
ever, insisted  that  he  who  did  not  confess 
the  Son  to  be  in  essence  and  in  all  things 
like  the  Father  was  to  be  excommuni- 
cate." Lastly,  Jerome,  in  his  Chronicle, 
says  of  Liberius,  "  overcome  by  the  weari- 
ness of  exile,  setting  his  name  to  heretical 
error,  he  entered  Rome  as  a  conqueror." 

0  o 


562  LIBERIUS 


LIBERIUS 


And  again,  "  Catal.  Script."  97,  he  charges 
Fortunatianus  of  Aquileia  with  compel- 
ling Liberius  to  subscribe  heresy. 

This  surely  is  a  fourfold  cord  of 
evidence  not  easily  broken.  All  the 
witnesses  are  of  great,  two  (Athanasius 
and  Hilary)  of  the  greatest  conceivable 
weight.  And  all  the  accounts  are  at  once 
independent  of  and  consistent  with  each 
other.  Liberius  would  make  no  terms 
with  the  Auomceans,  or  extreme  Arians, 
but  he  did  communicate  with  the  semi- 
Arians,  who  condemned  Athanasius,  and 
abandoned  the  touch-stone  of  orthodoxy 
— viz.  the  Nicene  term  ofioovcrios.  He 
subscribed  the  Semi-Arian  formula  which 
was  compiled  from  older  documents  and 
is  known  as  the  third  formula  of  Sir- 
mium.'  But  he  did  all  this  under  fear, 
consented  to  omit  the  ofioovcrtos  only 
when  persuaded  that  it  was  understood 
in  an  heretical  {i.e.  Sabellian)  sense,  and 
he  accompanied  his  subscription  with  a 
protest  against  pronounced  Arianism.  We 
can  easily  understand  why  Athanasius 
speaks  with  such  touching  gentleness  of 
Liberius  in  the  moment  of  his  infirmity. 
Moreover,  Liberius  soon  recovered  himself 
from  his  full,  for  we  find  him  confirming 
the  orthodox  Council  of  Alexandria  in 
36-2. 

Stilting  and  his  numerous  followers, 
who  exculpate  Liberius  altogether,  are 
driven  to  expedients  which  we  cannot 
help  regarding  as  desperate.  They  ex- 
plain away  the  words  of  Hilary,  regard 
Jerome  and  Sozomen  as  deceived  by 
Arian  rumours,  and  try  to  show  that  the 
deci.^i\  e  words  of  Athanasius  are  interpo- 
lations. "  Hilary's  words,"  says  Cardinal 
Hergeiiriither,  "  may  only  mean  that  on 
this  occasion  also  [i.e.  in  the  recall  of 
Liljerius]  Gonstantius  displayed  his  im- 
piety."  But  how  could  he  display  in  re- 
calling Liberius  impiety  greater  or  equal 
to  that  which  he  had  shown  in  driving 
him  from  his  see  if  he  allowed  him  to 
return  to  it  without  dishonourable  con- 
ditions? Next,  as  to  the  places  in  St. 
Athanasius.  Undoubtedly  it  is  true  that 
the  passage  in  the  "  Hist.  Ar.  ad  Mon." 
did  not  belong  to  the  original  draft  sent 
to  the  monks,  for  it  was  written  before 
the  supposed  fall  of  Liberius;  but  then 
Athanasius  begged  them  (see  the  intro- 
ductory epistle,  c.  3)  to  send  the  letter 
back,  and  afterwards  ("  Epist.  ad  Serap." 

I  This  is  f;iven  as  hlLrhly  probable,  for  his- 
torians (lifter  much  a.s  to  the  particular  formuhi 
figneil  by  Liberius.  See  Newman's  Arians, 
2r.d  ed.  p'  332,  and  Hossuet,  loc.  cil. 


i.  1)  he  forwarded  it  to  Ms  friend  th.' 

Bishop  Serapion,  and  there  is  not  thi' 
least  difficulty  in  supposing  that  Athana- 
sius completed  his  history  by  adding  to 
it  the  account  of  an  event  which  had 
happened  in  the  interval.  The  same 
chronological  objection  is  made  to  the 
second  passage  from  Athanasius,  and  is 
disposed  of  by  Hefele  just  in  the  same 
way.  Besides,  it  is  hard  even  to  imagine 
what  could  have  led  to  the  interpolation 
of  the  passages.  Certainly  they  were  not 
forged  in  the  interests  of  Arianism.  In 
style  and  tone  they  are  every  way  worthy 
of  St.  Athanasius,  while  the  statement 
they  make  explains,  and  at  the  same  time 
is  confirmed  by,  the  words  of  Hilary. 

We  should  have  to  think  much  more 
severely  of  Liberius  if  certain  Fragments 
attributed  to  Hilary  (particularly  Frag- 
ments iv.-vi.)  and  the  letter  of  the 
Pope  incorporated  in  Fragment  vi.  were 
genuine.  In  Fragment  vi.  Liberius  is 
called  an  "  apostate "  and  a  "  traitor  " 
{prfBvarirafor)  and  anathematised  three 
times;  while  Liberius  himself  makes  a 
formal  and  deliberate  confession  of  Arian 
belief.  The  Fragment  containing  these 
letters  was  supposed  by  the  Benedictine 
editor  Constant  to  belong  to  a  lost  work 
of  Hilary  against  Ursaeius  and  Valens. 
There  is  nothing  to  allege  in  favour  of 
this  supposition  except  a  note  in  the 
margin  of  the  MS.,  "  Sanctus  Hilarius  illi 
[sc.  Liberio]  anathema  dicit."  And  there 
are  the  strongest  reasons  for  rejecting  the 
Fragment  as  none  of  Hilary's,  and  regard- 
ing the  letters  of  Liberius  as  suppositi- 
tious. We  must  refer  the  reader  for  the 
arguments  drawn  from  chronological 
errors,  the  barbarism  of  the  style,  the 
clumsiness  and  unnatm-alness  of  the  for- 
gery, to  Hefele.  He  thinks  the  letters 
were  forged  in  the  name  of  Liberius  and 
in  the  Anomoean  interest  by  a  "  Graecu- 
lus  "  who  had  but  a  very  slight  know- 
ledge of  I^atin.  Even  Mr.  Renouf, 
though  opposed  to  Ilefele's  view,  and 
much  more  hostile  to  Liberius,  is  obliged 
to  give  up  part  at  least  of  Fragment  vi. 
as  spurious.' 

It  is  amazing  that  anyone  after  an 
impartial  consideration  of  the  facts  should 
have  pressed  them  into  the  service  of 
Gallicanism.  Liberius,  at  the  time  of 
his  fall,  taught  nothing  and  imposed  no 

'  The  writer  of  tliis  article,  thouph  he  has 
rend  Mr.  Renours pamphlets,  h>is  not  a  copy  at 
his  ciimmand,  and  taljes  the  reference  (Cnnrfem- 
nalinn  of  Pope  Hnnorius,  p.  41)  from  Hergea- 
rolhcr. 


LIBRARIES 


LIBRARIES  663 


belief.  Resides,  if  the  Pope  is  to  teach 
e.i  cathedra,  common  sense  requires  that 
be  should  be  free.  Liberius,  on  the  con- 
trary, subscribed  the  Semi-Ariau  formula 
separated  from  his  friends  and  counsellors 
and  in  terror  of  death.  It  is  as  if,  to 
borrow  an  illustration  of  Cardinal  New- 
man, an  English  Chief  Justice  were 
hurried  away  by  bandits,  kept  without 
notes,  books,  or  counsel,  and  forced  under 
terror  of  death  to  decide  a  legal  case  in 
one  particular  way.  Nobody,  save  from 
rejudice,  would  pretend  that  such  a 
ecision  was  valid.  What  the  case  does 
prove  is  the  extreme  importance  attached 
to  the  judgment  of  Liberius.  They  knew 
his  zeal  and  energy,  and  "  the  impious," 
^^Tites  Athanasius,  "  said  to  themselves, 
'  If  we  persuade  Liberius,  we  shall  quickly 
master  all' ''  ("  Hist.  Ar.  ad  Mon.''^c.  35). 

(The  literature  has  been  given  with 
tolerable  fulness  in  the  body  of  the 
article.  We  ought  to  add  that  Cardinal 
Newman,  even  in  the  second  edition  of  his 
"Arians"  (lf<71),  assumed  the  authen- 
ticity of  "  Hilary  "  Frag.  iv.  and  vi.  and 
consequently  of  the  letters  attributed  to 
Liberius,  but  he  afterwards  (1886,  ed.  6^ 
accepted  Hefele's  view.  See  "  Arians, 
p.  323.) 

KZBRARZES.  The  two  captures  of 
Rome  m  the  fifth  century,  first  by  Alaric 
and  afterwards  by  Genseric,  must  have 
been  fatal  to  any  large  accumulation  of 
books  in  the  Eternal  City ;  but  mention  is 
made  of  a  Vatican  library  in  the  time  of 
Pope  Yigilius  (too5),  and  under  Leo  IV. 
(t85o;,  the  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Ostia  was 
its  librarian  (Thomassin,  II.  i.  95). 
Gregoi-y  the  Great  had  certainly  the  com- 
mand of  a  large  library.  The  famous 
Alexandrian  library — amonument  at  once 
of  the  enlightenment  of  the  Ptolemaic 
dynasty,  and  of  the  high  grade  of  culture 
which  "the  confluence  of  the  Semitic  with 
the  Aryan  intellect  at  that  city  rendered 
possible — perished,  if  we  accept  the  com- 
•non  story,  through  the  bigotry  of  Omar ; ' 
but  a  few  years  later  new  libraries  began 
to  be  formed  on  northern  shores  and 
islands,  where  barbarism  had  hitherto 
reigned  supi-eme.  Beda  -  tells  us  that 
the  abbot  Benedict  Biscop  conveyed  to 
his  monastery  of  Wearmouth,  on  returning 
from  his  numerous  Roman  journeys,  a 
large  and  splendid  library  {bibliothecam 

1  But,  as  Gibbon  says  (ch.  li.),  the  common 
story  is  more  than  doubtful ;  it  rests  on  the 
sole  "authority  of  Abulpharagius,  a  writer  of  the 
thirteenth  century. 

«  Hist.  Abbutum,  §  9. 


nobilisstmam  copiosisgiiuauique),  which, 
"  as  necessary  for  a  completely  furnished 
church,  he  ordered  should  be  kept  entire, 
and  neither  damaged  through  neglect,  nor 
dispersed "  in  the  hands  of  borrowers. 
This  was  about  a.d.  680.  Archbishop 
Egbert  founded  at  York  a  "  nobilissima 
bibliotheca  "  about  750 ;  the  fact  is  men- 
tioned in  one  of  Alcuin's  letters.'  The 
library  of  Glastonbury,  for  some  time 
after  St.  Dunstan  had  been  abbot  there, 
was  the  best  in  England.  William  of 
Malmesbury,  to  whose  sterling  literarj' 
qualities  the  student  of  English  history 
is  under  such  deep  obligation,  himself 
actively  aided  abbot  Godfrey  in  forming 
a  large  and  well-chosen  library  at  Mal- 
mesbury Abbey.'^  That  every  large 
Anglo-Saxon  monastery  had  its  library 
there  can  be  no  doubt.  In  Ireland,  at 
all  the  great  monastic  centres,  such  as 
Armagh,  Clonmacnoise,  Inisfallen,  Boyle, 
Kells,  iSrc,  there  were  large  collections  of 
books ;  a  fact  which  the  number  of  Irish 
MSS.  still  surviving,  in  spite  of  the  havoc 
made  by  war  and  rapine,  and  the  efi'ects 
of  a  damp  climate,  amply  attests.  Gene- 
rally it  is  true  of  Europe  that  all  through 
the  mediaeval  period  a  threelbld  process, 
of  accumulation,  loss  or  dispersion,  and 
re-accumulation  of  books  was  going  on. 
Barbarians  from  Scandinavia  ruined  most 
of  the  libraries  of  Anglo-Saxon  monas- 
teries, and  a  large  number  of  those  in 
Ireland.  Under  St.  Dunstan  books  were 
again  copied  and  collected ;  a  second  dark 
period  ensued  till  about  1050 ;  after  the 
Conquest  a  long  era  of  comparative  peace 
and  progress  began.  A  glance  at  the 
"  Philobiblon  "  of  Richard  of  Bury  (t  1 345), 
the  learned  and  politic  bishop  of  Durham, 
shows  that  the  collection,  binding,  con- 
servation, and  utilisation  of  books,  evei-y- 
thing  in  short  that  appertains  to  the  office 
of  a  librarian,  was  already  well  under- 
stood in  the  fourteenth  century.  The 
Kings  of  France  began  from  about  1370 
to  form  the  library  of  the  Louvre.  In 
the  fifteenth  century,  the  printing-press 
having  come  into  use,  and  ancient  learning, 
especially  Greek  learning,  being  held  ir 
greater  esteem  than  ever  before,  new  books 
and  editions  were  multiplied  and  libraries 
extended.  In  this  work  Italy  took  the 
lead.  The  Vatican  library,  founded  by 
Nicholas  V.  (1447-1455)  and  enriched  by 
later  gifts  and  collections,  soon  became 
the  best  library  in  Europe.  Even  at  this 
day,  although  in  the  dcjiartment  of  printed. 

>  Will.  Malm.  Gtst.  Funlif.  p.  24G. 

>  lb.  p.  431. 

0  0  2 


c6i        LIGHT  OF  GLORY 


LIMBO 


books  it  is  probably  surpassed  by  many, 
there  can  be  few,  if  any,  that  can  point 
to  so  superb  a  collection  of  MSS.  The 
Medici  family  founded  the  Laurentian 
library  at  Florence,  which  could  also 
boast  of  the  public  library  of  St.  Mark, 
established  in  1437.  Venice  and  Ferrara 
laboured  in  the  same  field.  Out  of  Italy, 
Matthias  Corvinus  founded,  about  1480,  a 
celebrated  library  at  Buda,  and  stored  up 
in  it  a  large  number  of  Greek  MSS.  which 
he  had  rescued  from  the  Turkish  con- 
querors of  Constantinople.  Unfortunately, 
bis  capital  was  too  near  to  the  still  ex- 
panding power  of  the  Ottoman,  and  his 
literary  treasures  were  in  great  part  dis- 

E;rsed  or  lost.  Heidelberg,  Vienna,  and 
eyden,  all  founded  libraries  in  the  fif- 
teenth century.  The  great  Cardinal 
Ximenes  added  a  well-stocked  library  to 
the  university  which  he  founded  (about 
1500)  at  Alcala.  In  England  the  views 
of  the  early  Reformers  were  not  favour- 
able to  the  interests  of  learning.  It  is 
well  known  that  the  commissioners  of 
Edward  VI.  ordered  a  large  collection  of 
MSS.,  which  had  been  given  to  the 
University  of  O.vford  by  the  good  Duke 
Humphrey,  to  be  burnt,  on  the  suspicion 
that  they  contained  matter  of  Papistry. 
Sir  Thomas  Bodley,  about  the  end  of 
Elizabeth's  reign,  repaired  this  havoc, 
built  a  large  portion  of  the  present  library, 
brought  into  it  a  fine  collection  both  of 
books  and  MSS.,  and  endowed  it  with 
ample  estates.  The  library  of  the  British 
Museum,  originating  in  the  purchase  from 
Sir  Hans  Sloaue  iu  1753,  lavishly  aided 
ever  since  by  public  money,  and  enriched 
by  the  grant  of  the  library  of  the  Kings 
of  England,  and  the  purchase  of  George 
III.'s  collections  from  George  IV.,  takes 
the  lead  of  all  similar  institutions  in 
England  in  the  number  both  of  books  and 
MSS.  The  Bodleian,  with  its  200,000 
volumes  and  25,000  JISS.  occupies  the 
next  place.  (Hallam's  "  Literature  of 
Europe.") 

XiZCRT  OF  GI.ORT.  [See  Bea- 
tific Vision.] 

XiiGUORZ.  [See  MoEAL  Theology.] 
XiXnZBO.  The  Latin  word  Livibiis 
(or  "  fringe  ")  was  used  in  the  middle  ages 
for  that  place  on  the  fringe  or  outskirts  of 
hell  in  which  the  just  who  died  before 
Christ  were  detained  till  our  Lord's  re- 
surrection from  the  dead.  It  likewise 
signifies  a  place  (also  supposed  to  be  be- 
neath the  earth  and  on  the  outskirts  of 
hell)  inhabited  by  infants  who  die  in 
original  sin. 


{A)  The  Limbus  Tatrum  is  the  Para- 
dise of  Luke  xxiii.  43,  so  called  because  it 
was  a  place  of  rest  and  joy,  though  the 
joy  was  imperfect.  In  Luke  xvi.  23,  it  is 
called  by  the  Rabbinical  name  "  Abra- 
ham's bosom"  (Dn^?N  ip'D?).  be- 
cause there  the  just  remained  in  loving 
intercourse  with  Abraham,  the  father  of 
the  faithful.  Estius  thinks  it  was  to  the 
spirits  in  the  Limbo  of  the  Fathers  as  well 
as  to  those  in  Purgatory  that  Christ  is 
said  to  have  preached  (1  Pet.  iii.  19,  20). 
The  passage,  however,  is  very  difficult, 
and  very  difierent  interpretations  are 
given  by  Fathers  and  other  Catholic 
commentators. 

{B)  Limbus  Infantium. — It  is  an  article 
of  faith  that  those  who  die  without  bap- 
tism, and  in  whose  case  the  want  of 
baptism  has  not  been  supplied  in  some 
other  way,  cannot  enter  heaven.  This  is 
plainly  stated,  e.g.,  by  the  Council  of 
Florence  in  the  Decree  of  Union.  But 
there  was  a  natural  repugnance  to  the 
belief  that  those  who  had  committed  no 
sin  should  be  tortured  in  hell,  and  this 
difficulty  led  theologians  to  adopt  various 
theories  as  by  way  of  escape. 

1 .  Some  few  theologians  thought  that 
God  might  be  pleased  t  o  supply  the  want 
of  baptism  in  infants  by  other  means. 
Thus  St.  Bernard  ("  De  Baptismo,"  c.  i. 
n.  4,  c.  ii.  n.  1)  thought  that  possibly  such 
infants  might  be  saved  by  the  faith  of 
their  parents.  A  similar  opinion  is  at- 
tributed to  Gerson,  Cardinal  Cajetan  and 
others — ^viz.  that  the  lack  of  baptism 
might  be  supplied  by  the  wish  for  the 
sacrament  on  the  part  of  their  parents  or 
others;  Cajetan  requiring  in  addition  the 
use  of  some  external  sign  with  the  invo- 
cation of  the  Trinity.  (See  Billuart, 
"  De  Baptism."  diss.  iii.  a.  1.) 

Another  theologian,  Albertus  a  Bal- 
sano  ("Compend.  Theol."  vol.  ii.  §  325, 
quoted  by  Jungmaiin,  "  De  Noviss."),  be- 
lieved that  God  might  commission  angels 
to  confer  baptism  on  infants  who  might 
otherwise  perish  without  it. 

2.  The  theologians  of  the  Augiistinian 
order  {e.g.  Cardinal  Noris  and  Berti)  held 
an  opinion  at  the  opposite  pole — viz.  that 
the  infants  in  question  were  punished  both 
by  exclusion  from  heaven  and  by  positive 
pain,  though  much  less  pain  than  is  in- 
flicted on  those  who  die  in  actual  mortal 
sin.  This  undoubtedly  is  the  opinion  of 
St.  Augustine  (Serm.  294,  where  he 
teaches  that  unbaptised  infants  were 
consigned  to  eternal  fire),  though  their 


LITANIES 


LITANIES 


565 


-damnation  will  be  "the  lightest  of  all" 
("De  Peccat.  Meritis  et  Remiss."  i.  20). 

3.  The  great  majority  of  theologians — 
the  Master  of  the  Sentences,  St.  Buona- 
venture,  St.  Thomas,  Scotus,  &c. — teach 
that  infants  dying  in  original  sin  sutler  no 
"pain  of  sense,"  but  are  simply  excluded 
from  heaven.  This  opinion  is  no  modern 
invention,  for  it  is  found  in  St.  Gregory 
Nazianzen  ("  Or.  in  Sanct.  Baptism."  23).' 
But  do  they  grieve  because  they  are  shut 
•out  of  Heaven  ?  Bellarmine  ("  De  Amiss. 
GratiiP,"  vi.  6,  apud  Jungmann)  answers 
Yes.  St.  Thomas  answers  that  tliey  do 
not,  because  pain  of  punishment  is  pro- 
portioned to  personal  guilt,  which  does 
not  exist  here.  He  says  they  do  not 
grieve  because  they  cannot  see  God,  any 
more  than  a  bird  is  grieved  because  it 
■cannot  be  emperor  or  king :  "  nay,  they  I 
rejoice,  because  they  share  in  God's  good- 
ness and  in  many  natural  perfections." 
The  opinion  of  St.  Thomas  is  the  common 
one  in  the  Church.  It  is  believed  that 
unbaptised  infants  in  Limbo  know  and 
loTe  God  by  the  use  of  their  natural 
powers,  and  liave  full  natural  happiness. 

The  existence  of  the  Limbo  of  Infants 
has  never  been  defined  by  the  Church, 
although  the  Jansenist  Council  of  Pistoia 
was  censured  by  Pius  VI.  for  scoffing  at 
it  as  a  Pelagian  fable.  The  doctrine  of 
the  Pelagians  was  widely  ditierent.  They 
denied  original  sin  and  obliterated  the 
distinction  between  grace  and  nature, 
and  when  pressed  to  e.xplain  the  need  of 
baptism  replied  that  it  was  necessary  to 
secure  admittance  to  the  kingdom  of 
heaven,  but  not  to  obtaui  eternal  life. 
"Eternal  life,"  to  which  the  Pelagians 
admitted  unbaptised  infants,  was  of  the 
same  order  as  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven. 
The  happiness  obtained  in  the  Limbo  of 
Infants  is  of  wholly  different  order,  being 
natural  instead  of  supernatural. 

XZTANZES  (Ktravela,  esmest  Sup- 
plication). A  form  of  united  prayer  by 
alternate  sentences,  in  which  the  clergy 
lead  and  the  people  respond  :  usually  of  a 
penitential  character.  A  litany  may  thus 
be  distinguished  from  other  modem  de- 
votions, such  as  that  of  the  Stations,  in 
which,  with  much  that  is  alternate,  there 
is  also  much  that  is  not.  There  are  three 
forms  of  litany  recognised  by  the  Church 
as  suitable  for  use  in  public  worship:  viz., 
the  Litany  of  the  Saints,  that  of  the 

•  He  thinks  that  infants  wlin  die  unbap- 
tised "  will  neither  be  glorified  nor  punished  by 
the  just  judge,  as  being  without  the  seal  [«.e. 
baptism]  indeed,  but  without  wickedness." 


Blessed  Virgin  (usually  called  the  Litany 
of  Loreto),  and  that  of  the  Most  Holy 
Name  of  Jesus.  The  Litany  of  the  Saints 
is  chanted  on  the  feast  of  St.  Mark  (April 
25),  and  on  the  three  Rogation  days ;  on 
the  former  occasion  it  is  called  the  Greater 
[litanicB  majores),  and  on  the  Rogation 
days  the  Lesser  (litanim  minores).  During 
the  devotion  of  the  Forty  Hours,  the 
Litany  of  the  Saints  is  sung  with  the 
addition  of  certain  verses ;  on  the  other 
hand,  when  it  is  sung  on  Holy  Saturday 
and  "VSTiitsun  Eve,  a  number  of  verses  are 
omitted.  The  Litany  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin — in  which  titles  expressive  of  the 
transcendent  dignity  and  privilege  of  the 
Mother  of  God,  as  well  as  of  the  love, 
trust  and  veneration  of  her  children 
towards  her,  are  woven  into  a  chain  of 
animated  supplication— is  now  usually 
sung  at  Benediction.  It  came  into  general 
use  from  having  been  observed  to  be  sung 
on  Saturdays  and  festivals  of  Our  Lady 
in  the  Santa  Casa  of  Loreto,  whence 
pilgrims  carried  it  into  all  Christian 
lands;  but  a  large  portion  of  it  is  far 
older  than  the  foundation  of  the  sanc- 
tuary, which  of  course  only  dates  from 
the  thirteenth  century.  The  bull  "  vSanc- 
tissimus"  of  Clement  "VTII.  directs  that, 
whereas  a  number  of  unauthorised  litanies 
had  lately  been  published,  no  one  should 
for  the  future  presume  to  publish,  or  to 
use  in  public  worship,  any  litany  but 
those  in  Breviaries,  Missals,  Pontificals, 
and  Rituals  {i.e.  the  Litany  of  the  Saints 
in  its  various  forms),  and  the  Litany  of 
Loreto.  But  it  is  universally  held  that 
the  use  of  the  Litany  of  the  Most  Holy 
Name,  having  been  already  sanctioned 
by  the  Holy  See  before  the  date  of  the 
bull  "  Sanctissimus,"i8  in  no  way  affected 
by  its  prohibitions. 

If  the  Greater  Litanies  fall  on  Easter 
Day  they  are  transferred  to  the  Tuesday 
following.  Priests  are  bound  sub  mortali 
to  recite  the  Litanies  both  on  St.  Mark's 
day  and  on  the  three  Rogation  days.  No 
new  names  of  saints  can  be  inserted 

I  without  the  special  permission  of  the 

I  S.C.R. 

I      The  earliest  and  simplest  form  of  litany 
is  the  "Kyrie  eleison,"  which  was  reciteil 
in  various  ways  in  primitive  times,  but  in 
the  twelfth  century-  settled  down  to  the 
!  form  still  in  use.    The  first  litanies  were 
embedded  in  the  liturgy ;  later  on  they 
were   developed   independently,  chiefly 
i  through  being  used  in  processions.  Under 
i  the  heading  "  Litania  Romana  "  there  is 
I  extant  in  a  Sacramentary  of  the  age  of 


oG6        LITER.E  FORMAT/E 


LITURGIES 


Gregory  tlie  Great  a  Litany  of  the  Saints, 
evidently  intended  for  use  in  some  Gaul- 
ish church :  *  it  contains  101  names. 
There  is  a  manifest  connection  between 
such  a  litany  and  collections  of  short 
metrical  Lives  of  saints — such,  e.g.,  as 
that  in  a  Bodleian  MS  (No.  779),  which 
contains  104  Lives. 

The  practice  of  singing  the  Litany  of 
the  Saints  on  St.  Mark's  day  is  said  to 
have  been  instituted  by  St.  Gregory. 
Seven  processions,starting  simultaneously 
from  seven  Roman  churches,  and  singing 
litanies  as  they  went,  all  met  in  the 
church  of  St.  Mary  Major.'*  Their  use 
on  the  Rogation  days  was  begun  by  St. 
Mamertus,  archbishop  of  Vienne,  in  the 
year  447,  the  special  intention  being  the 
deliverance  of  the  people  from  wolves, 
■which  in  that  year  were  more  than 
usually  ravenous.  [See  Rogation  Days.] 

IiZTSRa:  formatjbb.  [See  Epi- 
STOL^  Ecclesiasticj:.! 

XtiTESJE  Pats'ntes.  Certain 
public  documents  were  so  called  from  the 
form  in  which  the  notaries  commenced 
them:  e.g.  "Perpraesens  publicum  instru- 
mentum  cunctispafw^evidenter ; "  '  "  Let 
it  be  clearly  made  known  to  all  by  the 
present  public  instrument."  Canonists 
speak  of  the  Letters  Patent  of  Louis  XI. 
in  1475,  as  the  earliest  instance  in  France 
of  the  application  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
royal  pareatis  ("  ye  may  obey ")  or 
placitum  regunn  *  to  the  reception  of 
bulls,  briefs,  &c.,  from  Rome.  Pithou,  in 
his  work  on  the  Gallican  liberties,  sets 
forth  this  doctrine  in  its  full  tyrannous 
absurdity.  "Bulls  or  Apostolic  letters 
of  citation,  executional,  fulminatory,  or 
other,  are  not  executed  in  France  without 
the  pareatis  of  the  king  or  his  officers." 
"All  bulls  and  despatches  from  the  Court 
of  Rome  must  be  carefully  examined,  to 
ascertain  if  there  be  anything  in  them 
likely  to  operate  to  the  prejudice,  in  any 
manner  whatever,  of  the  rights  and 
liberties  of  the  Gallican  church,  and  of 
the  king's  authority."  * 

I.ZTTI.Z:  oirFZCE  or  the 
BXiESSED  VZRCZN'.  The  authorship 
has  often  been  attributed  to  Peter  Damian, 
but  Cardinal  Bona  ("Divin.  Psalm."  c. 

»  Art  by  Mr.  Hotham,  in  Smith  and 
Cheetham. 

2  H'ltham,  tthi  sup. 

*  This  is  the  opening  of  the  notarial  report 
of  a  Bermon  preached  at  Oxford  in  1382  (MS. 
Bodl.  -240.  p.  848). 

*  See  above,  art.  Canon  Law. 

*  VVctzer  and  Welte,  art.  "  Placitum  Reg." 


12,  quoted  by  Probst,  "Brevier."  p.  209^ 
holds  that  it  existed  at  the  beginning  ot 
the  eighth  cent  ury,  and  that  Peter  Damian 
only  restored  its  use. 

It  consists  of  psalms,  lessons,  and 
hymns  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
arranged  in  seven  hours  like  the  Breviary 
office,  but  much  shorter.  It  is  not  in- 
fluenced by  the  course  of  the  Church 
year,  except  that  the  Alleluia  is  omitted 
in  Lent,  and  that  a  change  is  made  in 
the  oflice  from  Advent  to  the  Purifica- 
tion. Even  the  AUeluia  is  not  added  to 
the  invitatory,  antiphons,  responsories 
and  versicles  in  Easter  time  (Dec, 
S.  R.  C,  28  Martii,  1626). 

The  Council  of  Clermont,  under 
Urban  II.,  in  10!  16,  made  the  recitation  ot 
the  Little  Office  obligatory  on  the  clergy, 
but  secular  priests  who  are  not  bound  to- 
recite  the  office  in  choir  are  now  free 
from  all  obligation  of  reciting  the  Little 
Office,  as  has  been  clearly  stated  by 
Pius  V.  in  his  bull  "Quod  a  nobis  pos- 
tulat"  prefixed  to  the  Breviary  (see 
Maskell,  "  Mon.  Rit."  vol.  iii.  p.  Ixii.). 
Where  there  is  a  custom  of  reciting  it, 
the  obligation  continues.  Even  in  that 
case,  however,  it  need  not  be  said  on 
feasts  of  nine  lections  (if,  however,  there 
is  a  custom  of  saying  it  on  Sundays  and 
semidoubles  the  custom  is  to  be  main- 
tained), on  the  vigil  of  Christma.s,  in 
Holy  Week,  in  the  octaves  of  Easter  and 
Pentecost,  and  on  Saturdays  when  the 
larger  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  said 
(Gavant.  tom.  II.  §  9,  cap.  i.  n.  2-8). 

The  matins  and  vespers  are  said 
before,  the  other  hours  after,  the  corre- 
sponding hours  of  the  divine  office 
(Gavant.  loc.  at.  n.  13).  In  many  re- 
ligious orders,  and  in  rules  for  persons 
in  the  world  (e.g.  the  tertiaries  of  St. 
Francis),  the  Little  OtHce  is  prescribed 
instead  of  the  Breviary  hours. 

XiZTlTXtCZES.  I.  Meaning  of  the 
Word. — The  word  Xfirnvpyia  means  a 
public  service,  and  specially  at  Athens  a 
public  service  which  the  richer  citizens 
discharged  at  their  own  expense.  The 
theocratic  constitution  of  the  Jewish 
commonwealth  naturally  led  the  Sep- 
tuagint  translators  to  use  XeiTovpyla  and 
the  kindred  forms  chiefly  of  the  service  ot 
God  in  the  sanctuary.  It  answers  tO' 
various  words  in  the  original  Hebrew 
(see  e.g.  Exod.  xxviii.  21,  Num.  xxxviii.,. 
25,  2  Paralip.  xxxi.  4).  In  Luke  i.  23  it 
denotes  the  service  of  a  Jewish  priest,, 
and  it  is  used  in  the  New  Testament  ot 
any  service  rendered  to  God  (see,  e.g.,. 


LITURGIES 


LITURGIES 


Philipp.  ii.  17).  There  is  no  clear  in- 
stance in  the  New  Testament  of  \(iTnvpy[a 
or  XfiToupyf  11'  sip-nifving  a  service  per- 
formed bv  the  Christian  clergy,  though 
in  Acts  xiii.  2  the  words,  "As  they 
ministered  to  the  Lord  (Xetrovpynvvrcov 
(wtS>v)  and  fasted,"'  may  possibly  refer  to 
the  action  of  the  "  prophets  and  teachers  " 
in  preaching  and  guiding  the  devotions 
of  the  congregation.  Clem.  Rom.  1  Ep. 
44,  does  us'^  Xfirovpy/a  for  the  functions 
of  the  Christian  presbyters.  In  the 
fourth  centiirv-  the  use  of  the  word  for 
priestly  ministrations  was  fully  recog- 
nised (see,  e.ff.,  the  Council  of  Ancyra, 
canon  1  ;  anno  314),  and  from  that  date 
down  at  least  to  the  sixth  century  it  was 
used  for  any  solemn  service  {e.ff.,  evening  ' 
prayer,  baptism,  &c.),  but  especially  for 
the  Eucharistic  service.  In  this  sense  it 
has  been  adopted  by  the  Greek  church, 
which  speaks  of  "  divine  liturgy  "  where 
Latins  would  say  "holy  Mass."  It  is 
in  this,  its  narrowest  signification,  that 
we  take  the  word  here.  Under  "  litur-  \ 
gies  "  we  include  all  forms  and  services 
in  any  language  and  in  any  part  of  the 
church  for  the  celebration  of  the  Euchar- 
ist. We  may  add  here  that  awa^Ls 
(assembly)  is  another  word  used  by  the 
Greeks  for  the  Mass,  and  that  dominica 
solemnia  (TertuU.  '' De  Fug."  \A),domini- 
cum  celehrare  (Cyprian,  "  De  Op.  et 
Eleem.'  15,  Ep.  63),  officium  (Tertull. 
"  De  Orat."  18),  besides  "  sacrifice," 
"  offering,"  "  bloodless  and  rational  sacri- 
fice," are  names  common  among  the 
Fathers.  The  word  "  Mass  "  first  appears 
in  St.  Ambrose.  [For  it8  meaning  see 
the  article  Mass.] 

II.  Liturgical  Notices  to  the  Middle  of 
the  Fifth  Cen^ur!/.— Scripture  tells  us 
little  or  nothing  of  the  way  in  which  the 
Apostles  celebrated  the  Eucharist,  but 
from  the  year  150  onwards  we  have 
abundant  proof  that  the  Church  Ln  all 
parts  of  the  world  had  a  fixed  order  and, 
to  a  certain  extent  at  least,  fixed  words 
for  this  the  greatest  of  all  her  services. 
This  section  of  our  article  is  taken  from 
Le  Brun,  vol.  iii.  diss.  i.  a.  5,  from  whom 
we  borrow  the  patristic  references. 

The  Mass  was  said  by  the  bishop,  or  in 
his  absence  by  priests  assisted  by  at  least 
one  deacon  (Cyprian,  Ep.  5).  ! 

It  began  with    lections  from  the 
prophets.    Apostles    and  Evangelists. 
These  lessons  from   the   Old   or  New 
Testament  are  mentioned  by  Justin  in  j 
his  first  ApologT,-,  written  in  138  or  139.  | 
And  it  was  the  custom  of  the  East,  as  ' 


attested  by  St.  Chrysostom  ("Horn.  10 
in  Act.  Ap."),  of  Gaul  (Sulpic.  Sever. 
"  Vit.  Martin."  7),  Milan  and  Spain,  to 
read  the  prophets  as  well  as  the  Epistles 
and  Gospels.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
Roman  and  African  churches  there  were 
usually  only  two  lections — one  from  the 
Epistles,  another  from  the  Gospels,  with 
a  psalm  befween  them  (August.  "  Serm." 
176  al.  170).  These  lections  were  not, 
as  now  in  our  Mass,  preceded  by  an 
introit. 

Then  followed  a  sermon,  after  which 
certain  prayers  were  said  over  the  cate- 
chumens, and  they  were  dismissed  (.\m- 
brose,  Ep.  14).  Here  we  have  the  first 
great  division  of  the  Mass  into  the  "  Missa 
f-atechumenorum ''  and  ''Missa  fidelium.'' 
The  Council  of  Laodicfa,  canon  19, 
mentions  a  prayer  for  the  penitents  who 
were  dismissed  after  the  catechumens, 
but  in  390  Nectarius  of  Constantinople 
abolished  public  penance  in  the  East. 

The  altar  was  then  covered  with 
cloths  (Optat.  lib.  vi.)  and  the  celebrating 
bishop's  hands  were  washed  by  a  deacon 
(C'yril.  "  Mystagog."  5),  and  in  all  the. 
East  (.Justin,  "  Apol."  2;  Concil.  Laod. 
can.  19  ;  Chrysost.  "  De  Compunct.  Cor- 
dis "),  in  Spain  and  Gaul,  the  faithful  gave 
each  other  the  Kiss  of  Peace ;  whereas 
in  Rome  and  Africa  the  Pax  immediately 
preceded  the  Communion.  The  bread  ami 
the  mixed  chalice  (of  which  latter  even 
Justin  speaks)  were  presented,  and  in 
Carthage  from  St.  Cyprian's  time  verses 
of  the  psalms  were  sung  at  this  part  of 
the  Mass. 

The  "Sursum  corda"  is  mentioned  by 
Cyprian,  and  Augustine  says  the  Church 
over  all  the  world  answered,  "that  tli.n- 
lifted  up  their  hearts  to  the  Lord"  ("De 
Vera  Relig."  3).  The  Preface,  according  to 
St.  Chrysostom  and  St.  Cyril,  was  followed 
by  the  Sanctus.  We  know  very  little 
from  the  Fathers  about  the  words  of  the 
Canon.  They  tell  us  generally  that  the 
words  of  institution  were  accompanied  by 
prayer,  the  faithful  answering  "  .\men ''  at 
the  end;  and  St.  .\ugu-tine  ("In  Syinb.") 
says  the  sign  of  the  cross  was  made  at 
the  consecration.  The  fraction  of  the 
host  in  Africa,  and,  before  the  time  of  St. 
Gregory  the  Great,  at  Rome,  took  place, 
as  it  still  does  in  the  Ambrosian  Mas.s, 
before  the  Pater  Noster.  In  the  ancient 
use  of  the  Roman  and  African  churches 
the  Pax  was  given  after  the  Pater  Noster 
At  Jerusalem  the  celehrant,  in  other 
Eastern  churches  the  deacon,  said,  "Holy 
things  for  holy  persons."'    The  veil  of  the 


568 


LITURGIES 


LITURGIES 


sanctuary,  as  St.  Chrysostom  and  St. 
Cyril  of  Alexandria  mention,  was  par- 
tially drawn  aside  aiid  the  faithful  received 
communion  under  the  form  of  bread  in 
their  hands  from  the  bishop  or  priest, 
while  the  deacons  gave  them  the  chalice. 
In  the  church  of  Carthage  from  the 
fourth  century  verses  of  the  psalms  were 
sung,  and  we  know  from  St.  Cyril  that 
they  used  to  sing  the  verse  "  Taste  and 
see  that  the  Lord  is  good  in  the  church 
of  Jerusalem.  The  faithful  were  taught 
to  say  "  Lord,  I  am  not  worthy,"  &c.,  as 
they  went  to  communicate.  All  ended 
with  thanksgiving  and  the  salutation  or 
blessing  from  the  bishop,  "  Grace  be  with 
you  and  peace"  (Chrys.  "Horn.  iii.  ad 
Coloss.").  These  extracts  from  the  Fathers 
are  not,  of  course,  meant  to  convey  the 
impression  that  one  liturgy  or  even  that 
all  t  he  forms  j  ust  given  were  used  through- 
out the  Church.  What  they  do  prove  is 
that  the  Church  everywhere  had  certain 
forms,  and  with  regard  to  some  of  these 
forms  the  date  and  the  character  of  the 
incidental  notices  which  survive  show 
that  their  origin  may  be  traced  almost  to 
Apostolic  times  and  that  their  reception 
was  universal. 

III.  JV7ien  were  Liturgies  first 
written? — Very  different  answers  have 
been  given  to  this  question,  which  would 
not  arise  at  all  if  we  could  assume  that 
the  Liturgies  of  St.  James,  St.  Mark,  and 
St.  Clement  were  rightly  named.  It  is, 
however,  absolutely  impossible  to  sup- 
pose that  these  liturgies,  as  we  have  them, 
came  from  those  whose  names  they  bear. 
The  Clementine  Liturgy  comes  to  us 
under  the  most  suspicious  circumstances 
in  the  latest  liook  of  a  notorious  forgery, 
and  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  it 
ever  was  actually  used  in  any  church. 
The  Liturgy  of  St.  James  contains  inser- 
tions from  that  of  Constantinople  which 
must  have  been  made  as  late  as  the  fifth 
— one  (the  hymn  oi  ra  x^fovlilfi)  as  late 
as  the  seventh  century  ;  words  of  contro- 
versial theology  abound  in  it  (see  Ham- 
mond, "  Ancient  Liturgies,"  xliv) ;  and 
the  very  fact  that  no  extant  liturgies 
(except  the  Clementine)  have  any  form  of 
dismissing  penitents  points  to  a  time  later 
at  least  than  the  abolition  of  public 
penance  in  the  East  by  Nectarius  in  31)0. 
Doulitle.ss  these  liturgies  contain  older 
elements,  but  we  can  only  know  or  con- 
jecture what  they  are  by  collecting  infor- 
mation from  extraneous  sources 

TliHse  sources  are  of  course  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Fathers  and  the  decrees  of 


councils,  and  from  these  it  may,  we 
think,  be  safely  inferred  that  there  was 
no  entire  written  liturgy  during  the  first 
three  centuries  of  the  Church.  TertuUian 
("  De  Corona,"  3)  assumes  that  various 
most  important  liturgical  usages  {e.ff. 
celebration  of  the  Eucharist  early  in  the 
morning,  oblations  for  the  dead  on  the 
feasts  of  martyrs  (pro  nat(iliciis),  reception 
of  the  Eucharist  from  the  hand  of  the 
"  president  ")  rest  simply  on  "  custom  " 
and  "  tradition."  He  makes  no  allusion 
to  a  written  liturgy.  Cyprian  (Ep.  (i3) 
argues  against  those  who  used  water 
only,  instead  of  wine  mixed  with  water, 
in  the  Eucharist.  He  argues  at  length, 
and  is  evidently  anxious  to  adduce  every 
possible  reason  against  the  novelty  :  but 
he,  again,  appeals  simply  to  "  the  tradition 
of  the  Lord,"  without  the  remotest  refer- 
ence toliturgical  documents.  These,  it  may 
be  said,  are,  after  all,  only  arguments  from 
silence.  But  if  we  contrast  Cyprian's  ar- 
gument with  that  of  the  Council  iuTrullo, 
between  four  and  five  hundred  years  later, 
we  shall  see  how  strong  this  argument 
becomes.  The  council  (canon  32)  strictly 
forbids  the  Armenian  custom  of  consecra- 
ting wine  unmixed  with  water,  and  in 
proof  that  this  was  wrong  appeals  to  the 
three  Liturgies  of  St.  James,  St.  Basil, 
and  Chrysostom — i.e.  to  the  three  liturgies 
then  as  now  used  in  the  Patriarchate  of 
Constantinople  (Le  Brun,  tom.  iii.  p.  9). 
Further,  notwithstanding  the  full  infor- 
mation we  have  about  the  sacred  books 
which  the  Christians  were  required  to 
surrender  in  the  Diocletian  persecution, 
we  hear  nothing  of  their  litui-gies. 

We  assert,  then,  with  confidence, 
that  there  was  no  written  liturgy  in  the 
first  three  centuries,  and  this  though 
Probst  ("  Liturgie  der  drei  ersten  Jahr- 
hunderte,"  ad  init.)  has  tried  hard  to 
show  that  such  liturgies  existed  from 
160.  Probst's  learning  and  accuracy 
deserve  all  respect,  but  we  cannot  think 
equally  well  of  his  logical  power,  and  we 
confess  that  we  are  utterly  unable  to 
discover  anything  which  approaches  proof 
in  his  laborious  argument.  We  are 
disposed,  however,  to  go  further  and 
follow  Le  Brun  to  the  full  extent  of  his 
thesis — viz.  that  written  liturgies  did 
not  exist  for  the  first  four  centuries. 
He  relies  on  Basil  "De  Sp.  Sancto,"c. 
27  :  "  Which  of  the  Saints  has  left  us  in 
writing  the  words  of  invocation  at  the 
exhibition  of  the  bread  of  the  Eucharist 
and  the  chalice  of  benediction  F  For  we 
are  not  content  with  those  mentioned  by 


LITURGIES 


LiruEGiES  reo 


the  Apostle  or  the  Gospel,  but  we  also 
say  other  words  before  and  after,  as 
having  great  force  with  respect  to  the 
mystery,  receiving  them  from  unwritten 
tradition."  The  reader  must  judge  for 
himself  as  to  the  import  of  these  words. 
So  excellent  an  authority  as  Mr.  Maskell 
("Ancient  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of 
England,"  ed.  3,  xxvii)  believes  that  St. 
Basil  only  means  to  deny  that  the  litur- 
gical words  were  contained  in  Scripture. 
Early  in  the  fifth  century  Pope  Innocent 
I.  writing  to  the  Bishop  Decentius,  who 
had  applied  to  him  for  the  Roman  Use, 
reminds  him  that  he  had  often  come  to 
Rome  and  witnessed  the  customs  observed 
"  in  consecrating  the  mysteries  and  in  the 
performance  of  other  secret  rites  "  ("  in 
caeteris  agendis  arcanis "),  and  that  this 
sufficed.  He  tells  him,  however,  that 
the  Pax  should  be  given,  not  (as  in  the 
East)  before  the  consecration,  but  "  after 
all  the  things  which  I  ought  not  to 
disclose."  This  does  not  look  as  if  the 
Canon  of  the  Mass  had  even  then  been 
committed  to  writing  in  the  Roman 
chm-ch.  Long  before  this,  however,  there 
may  have  been  a  fixed,  even  if  there  was  | 
not  a  written.  Canon  of  the  Mass.  The 
memory  of  the  ancients,  who  were  obliged, 
before  the  invention  of  printing,  to  use 
the  faculty  much  more  than  we  are,  must 
not  be  measured  by  our  modern  standard. 
It  was  a  common  thing  in  the  ancient 
Church  for  persons  to  know  the  Psalter 
by  heart,  and  priests  learned  to  repeat 
the  Canon  without  book  (even  now  no 
surprising  feat)  long  after  it  had  been 
written. 

IV.  Families  of  Liturgies. — The  most 
superficial  observer  cannot  fail  to  be 
struck  by  the  difi'erence  between  the 
Elastern  and  Western  liturgies.  Each  of 
the  former  can  be  printed  in  very  narrow 
space,  because  it  is  only  in  the  lessons 
and  subordinate  hymns  that  any  varia- 
tion occurs.  It  is  very  ditl'erent,  e.g., 
with  our  Roman  Mass,  with  its  wealth 
of  collects.  Prefaces,  &c.  Moreover,  in 
the  Roman  Mass  there  were  at  one  time 
a  much  lai'ger  number  of  variable  Pre- 
faces. There  is  the  same  variety  in  the 
liturgies  of  Gaul  and  Spain,  and  in  these 
last  even  a  great  part  of  the  prayers  cor- 
responding to  the  Roman  Canon  vary 
also.  Thus  it  comes  that  a  separate 
volume  is  needed  for  each  Western 
liturgy,  while  all  the  chief  Eastern  ones, 
with  slight  omissions,  can  be  printed  in 
one  manual. 

We  are  able,  however,  to  divide  the 


liturgies  on  a  more  exact  and  thorough 
system.  "It  is  now  thoroughly  recog- 
nised," says  Mr.  Hammond  ("  Ancient 
Liturgies "),  "  that  there  are  five  main 
groups  or  families  of  liturgies,  which  are 
distinguished  from  each  other  chieSj-, 
though  not  solely,  by  the  difierent  ar- 
rangement of  their  parts."  Three  of 
these  are  Oriental,  two  Western — one 
purely  so,  the  other  Western  in  respect 
of  the  countries  where  it  was  used  and 
many  of  its  characteristics,  but  present- 
ing at  the  same  time  certain  Oriental 
peculiarities. 

(a)  The  West  Syrian  Family  places 
the  great  intercession  for  the  living  and 
the  dead  (which  is  common  to  all  litur- 
gies and  which  is  familiar  to  us  as  the 
Mementoes  for  the  living  and  for  the 
dead)  after  the  invocation  of  the  Holy 
Spirit — which  in  Oriental  liturgies  follows 
the  consecration.  The  oldest  member  of 
this  family  is  the  Liturgy  of  St.  James, 
but  this  again  is,  "  without  doubt,  a 
direct  modification  of  a  liturgy  nearly  if 
not  quite  identical  with  the  so-called 
Clementine."  St.  Basil's  Liturgy  is  a 
recast  from  that  of  St.  James,  and  St. 
Chrysostom's  an  abbreviation  of  St. 
Basil's.  In  its  chief  characteristics,  and 
even  in  part  of  its  wording,  the  Armenian 
liturgy  follows  St.  Basil's.  The  Liturgies, 
then,  of  St.  James,  St.  Basil,  St.  Chryso- 
stom,  of  Armenia,  are  the  members  of 
this  family.  Palestine,  Armenia,  the 
whole  territories  of  the  Greek  and  Rus- 
sian churches,  are,  as  we  shall  see,  the 
countries  where  it  pievaUs. 

The  Clevientine  Liturgy  never  seems 
to  have  been  actually  used  in  aily  church. 
Le  Brun  places  its  composition  at  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century.  Mr.  Ham- 
'  mond  thinks  it  may  represent  liturgical 
use  in  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  at 
a  time  when  the  worship  of  the  Church, 
though  not  uniform,  still  had  not  been 
j  broken  up  into  the  separate  and  developed 
forms  of  the  later  liturgies.  It  bears 
unmistakeable  marks  of  great  antiquity, 
i  Such  are  the  exact  agreement  with  the 
I  order  of  the  parts  of  the  liturgy  men- 
tioned by  Justin ;  the  prayers  over  cate- 
chvmiens,  the  possessed,  penitents ;  the 
prayer  for  persecuting  emperors,  &c. 
Again,  the  great  length  of  the  Preface 
points  to  a  time  when  there  was  no 
elaborate  cycle  of  feasts  to  fix  the  mind 
on  particular  grounds  of  thanksgiving. 
The  eighth  book  of  the  Apostolic  Consti- 
tutions as  it  stands  is  probably  not  older 
than  the  fifth  century.    But  the  compiler 


LITURGIES 


LITURGIES 


would  not  have  ventured  to  put  an  en- 
tirely new  liturgy  into  the  mouths  of  the 
Apostles.  The  puzzling  feature  of  this 
liturgy  is  the  absence  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer. 

Liturgy  of  St.  James. — Its  antiquity 
is  proved  by  its  correspondence  with  the 
description  of  the  Liturgy  by  St,  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem.  It  was  once  current  through- 
out the  Patriarchates  of  Jerusalem  and 
Antioch.  It  exists  in  two  recensions, 
Greek  and  Syriac,  of  which,  as  Renaudot 
has  shown,  the  Greek  is  the  original.  In 
its  Greek  form  it  is  now  used  only  by  the 
Schismatic  Greeks  at  Jerusalem  on  St. 
James's  day,  October  23.  It  is  also  said 
to  be  used  in  some  islands  of  the  Archi- 
pelago. (See  Article  Liturgy  in  Smith 
and  Cheetham.)  In  its  Sj'riac  form,  it 
is  the  chief  and  prototype  of  the  many 
liturgies  used  by  the  Jacobites  or  Mono- 
physite  Syrians  and  by  the  Maronites 
who  are  Catholics.  The  Maronites,  how- 
ever, have  changed  the  words  of  conse- 
cration to  the  Roman  form  and  reduced 
the  invocation  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  a 
prayer  for  the  spiritual  benefit  of  the 
communicants,  who  now  receive  only 
under  one  kind. 

The  Liturgies  of  Constantinople — viz. 
those  of  St.  Basil  and  St.  Chrysostom — 
are  now  used  far  more  widely  than  any 
other  Eastern  liturgies.  The  Liturgy  of 
St.  Basil  may  very  likely  be  his  in 
substance,  and  since  the  Council  in  TruUo 
{i.e.  from  the  close  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury) the  "  Liturgy  of  St.  Clirysostom  " 
(an  abbreviation  of  St.  Basil's)  has  borne 
its  present  name.  The  Liturgy  of  St. 
Basil  is  said  on  Sundays  in  Lent  except 
Palm  Sunday,  on  Holy  Thursday  and 
Saturday,  the  Vigils  of  Christmas  and 
Epiphany,  and  on  St.  Basil's  day.  In 
Lent,  except  on  Sundays  and  Saturdays 
the  Liturgy  of  the  Pre-sanctitied  (of 
uncertain  date  and  authorship)  is  used ; 
on  all  other  days  of  the  year  the  Liturgy 
of  St.  Chrysostom.  The  Liturgies  of 
Constantinople  are  used,  not  only  by  all 
Greeks  suljject  to  Constantinople,  or 
aq-ain  (in  Slavonic)  throughout  the  Rus- 
sian church, by  the  Bulgarians,  Georgians, 
!k.c.,  but  also  by  the  Melchites  or  Oriental 
"  Orthodox "  in  communion  with  Con- 
stantinople, and  by  the  United  or  Catho- 
lic Greeks  in  Italy  and  other  parts  of  the 
world.  A  letter  of  Balsamon  shows  that 
Constantinople  in  the  twelfth  century 
had  already  imposed  her  Uturgies  on  a 
remnant  in  the  other  Eastern  Patriar- 
chates which  had  not  become  Nestorian 


or  Monophysite.  She  had  thus  secured  a 
barren  uniformity  at  a  heavy  price.  If 
it  had  not  been  for  the  vitality  of 
Nestorian,  Monophysite,  and  Alonothelite 
heresy,  the  liturgies  of  Constantinople 
might  have  obtained  exclusive  possession^ 
and  rites  no  less  Catholic  and  venerable 
than  those  of  Constantinople  might  have 
perished  altogether  under  the  influence 
of  bigotry  and  ambition. 

The  Armevians  use  only  one  liturgy, 
founded  on  the  Greek  one  of  St.  Basil. 
The  United  Armenians  use  the  same  rite 
with  some  modifications.  Bartholomew 
of  Bologna,  a  Dominican  missionary,  had 
the  Roman  Missal  (Dominican  edition) 
translated  into  Armenian,  and  introduced 
it  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century 
among  the  "  United  Brethren,"  an  order 
for  converted  Armenians.  The  two  most 
strikingpeculiaritiesinthe  true  Armenian 
rite — the  use  of  unleavened  bread  and 
wine  without  water — are  shewn  by  Le 
Brun  (tom.  IV.  diss.  x.  a.  10)  to  have 
been  introduced  by  an  Armenian  council 
about  640,  in  order  to  symbolise  the 
Monophysite  doctrine  that  Christ  had 
only  one  nature. 

(3)  The  Second  or  Ale.randrian 
Family  is  characterised  by  the  occurrence 
of  the  "Great  Intercession"  for  living 
and  dead  in  the  midst  of  the  Preface,  and' 
by  the  prominent  part  assigned  to  the 
deacon.  The  original  Church  language 
of  the  Alexandrian  church  was  Greek, 
and  we  possess  three  Greek  liturgies 
belonging  to  it :  viz.  those  of  St.  Mark, 
St.  Basil,  and  St.  Gregory.  Originally 
there  were  twelve  Coptic  liturgies,  and 
these  are  still  preserved  in  Ethiopic  by 
the  Abyssinians,  who  depend  on  Alexan- 
dria ;  but  Gabriel,  70th  Patriarch  of  the 
Copts,  who  lived  in  the  twelfth  century, 
limited  the  Copts  to  three  liturgies — viz. 
those  of  St.  Cyril,  St.  Basil,  and  St. 
Gregory,  all  in  Coptic.  Of  course  the 
Alexandrian  Liturgy  of  St.  Basil,  whether 
Greek  or  Coptic,  must  be  carefidly  dis- 
tinguished from  that  of  Constantinople. 

The  Greek  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark  is  in 
its  main  features  very  ancient,  for  it  con- 
tains references  to  persecution  as  still 
likely,  though  it  has  been  altered  under 
the  influence  of  Constantinople.  The 
Coptic  Liturgy  of  St.  Cyril,  exhibits 
close  and  often  verbal  agreement  with 
that  of  St.  Mark,  and  has  the  true  Alex- 
andrian arrangement  of  parts  throughout. 
The  Coptic  St.  Basil,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  identical  with  that  of  St.  Cyril  up  to 
the  Anaphora,  but  in  the  Anaphora — i.e^ 


LITURGIES 


LITURGIES  571 


from  the  "  Sursum  corda  "  to  the  end— it 
conforms  to  the  Coustantinopolitan  or 
West  Syrian  model.  Mr.  Hammond  sup- 
poses on  very  plausible  grounds  that,  the 
Alexandrian  St.  Basil,  whether  Greek  or 
Coptic,  arose  from  unitinn;  the  Anaphora 
of  St.  Basil  used  by  the  Greek  church  to 
the  proanaphoral  portion  of  the  original 
Alexandrian  liturgy.  Finally,  the  Liturgy 
of  St.  Gregory  follows  the  type  of  the 
Coptic  St.  Basil.  The  chief  Ethiopia 
liturgy,  the  "  canon  universalis,"  closely 
follows  the  Greek  St.  Mark  and  the 
Coptic  St.  Cyril.  It  is  unique,  as  Mr. 
Hammond  points  out,  in  omitting  the 
"Sursum  corda,"  with  its  response.  Of 
their  three  existing  liturgies,  the  Copts 
ordinarily  use  that  of  St.  Basil.  St. 
Gregory's  is  only  used  in  the  midnight 
Masses  of  Christmas  and  Epiphany  ; 
St  Cyril's,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
the  purest  representative  of  the  old 
national  liturgy-,  only  on  the  Friday  be- 
fore Palm  Sunday.  (Marquis  of  Bute, 
"Coptic  Morning  Service  for  the  Lord's 
Day,"  Introduction.)  The  Catholic  or 
United  Copts  have  imitated  the  Latins 
iu  several  points — viz.  communion  under 
one  kind,  the  use  (mostly)  of  unleavened 
bread,  and  kneeling  at  communion. 
(Marquis  of  Bute,  ib.) 

(y)  The  East  Syrian  Family  places  the 
general  intercession  between  the  words  of 
institution  and  the  invocation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  It  includes  the  liturgies  in  the 
Syriac  tongue  used  by  the  Nestorians  and 
Chaldeans,  &c.,  descendants  of  Nestorians 
who  abjured  heresy  and  returned  to  the 
Church,  preserving,  however,  their  ancient 
rites. 

The  Nestorians  have  three  liturgies. 
The  most  ancient,  and  also  that  in  ordi- 
nary use,  is  "  The  Liturgy  of  the  Blessed 
Apostles,  composed  by  Lord  Addaeus 
[prob.  Thaddeus]  and  "Maris,  Doctors  of 
the  Children  of  the  East."  It  omits  in 
its  present  form  the  words  of  institution, 
though  Bickell  has  proved  that  it  origin- 
ally contained  tbem  (see  Hammond,  Ux). 
The  other  two  litur^'ies  are  caUed  after 
Theodore  (of  Mopsuestia)  and  Nestorius, 
though  there  are  reasons  for  believing 
even  this  la:;t  to  be  older  than  the  Nesto- 
rian  schism  in  431.  The  liturgy  of 
Nestorius  is  the  only  one  of  the  three 
which  has  been  corrupted  in  the  interest 
of  heresy  (Le  Brun,  diss.  xi.  a.  10).  Le 
Brun  (ib.  a.  11)  asserts  that  the  Chaldeans 
or  Nestorian  converts  of  Diarbekir  have 
adopted  a  Syriac  tran.-.lation  of  the  Roman 
Missal,  using,  however,  leavened  bread. 


He  seems  to  have  been  misinformed  ;  at 
all  events  this  is  not  the  case  now. 
Dr.  Badger,  the  learned  author  of  the 
"  Nestorians  and  their  Ritual,"  whose 
authority  is  decisive  on  such  a  point,  says 
the  Catholics  of  the  Chaldean  rite  use  the 
same  three  liturgies  as  the  Nestorians. 
They  have,  however,  introduced  the 
words  of  institution  in  the  liturgy  of  the 
Apostles,  and  placed  them  after  the  invo- 
cation in  the  other  two  liturgies.  They 

j  elevate  the  Host  and  chalice,  and  they 
give  the  laity  at  communion  the  Host 

I  dipped  in  the  Precious  Blood.  Moreover, 

I  the  priest  reserves  the  particles  over  after 

j  the  communion  of  the  people,  instead  of 

I  consuming  them   like  the  Nestorians  ; 

i  priests  say  Mass  daily,  and  even,  if  there 
are  several  priests  in  one  church,  have 
more  than  one  Mass  on  the  same  altar 

I  (Badger,  vol.  ii.  p.  241  seq). 

(  (fi)  The  Kindred  but  Independe7}t 
Liturgies  of  Gaid  and  Spain. — Here  the 
Great  Intercession  comes  just  after  the 
offertory,  though  the  Mozarabic  Mass  has 
also  a  Memento  of  the  living  before  the 
Pater  Noster.  Not  only  collects,  lections, 
&c.,  but  also  the  greater  part  of  the 
prayers  which  correspond  to  the  Canon 
are  variable.  It  has  been  supposed  that 
these  liturgies   are   partly  due  to  the 

I  church  of  Asia  Minor,  with  which  the 
ancient  church  of  Lyons  was  connected. 
However  that  may  be,  certain  it  is  that 
this  Western  family  of  liturgies  has  some 
Eastern  peculiarities:  such  are  "  Sancta 
Sanctis"  in  the  Mozarabic  Liturgy,  and, 
in  both  the  Galilean  and  ^lozarabic  rites, 
the  regular  reading  of  a  lection  from  the 
Old  Testament,  the  various  proclamations 
by  the  deacon,  the  "Preces"  (i.e.  probably 
a  series  of  intercessions  like  the  ectene, 
or  deacon's  litany  in  Eastern  liturgies), 
and  the  giving  of  the  Pax  early  in  the 
service,  whereas  in  the  Roman  Mass  it 
has  always  been  given,  according  to  the 

:  earliest  notice  extant,  after  the  consecra- 
tion. 

[  The  word  "  Mozarabic  "  is  from  3/o5- 
I  zarab,  the  participle  of  an  Arabic  verb 
meaning  "  to  adopt  the  Arab  mode  of 
life."  It  must  have  been  applied  to  Chris- 
tians living  under  the  5loors,  but  the 
liturgy  is  much  older  than  its  name,  for 
it  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  known 
I  to  Isidore  of  SevUle  in  the  sixth  century. 
It  was,  indeed,  this  Saint  and  his  brother, 
St.  Leander,  who  had  the  principal  share 
in  compiling  the  Spanish  Missal,  and 
St.  Isidore  presided  over  a  Council  of 
Toledo  which  imposed  it  on  all  Spain  and 


572 


LITURGIES 


LITURGIES 


on  Narbonne,  which  did  not  belong  to  the 
Franks  till  759.  In  Charlemagne's  time 
the  Mozarabic  or  Gothic  rite  fell  into 
some  disrepute  because  of  expressions  in 
it  supposed  to  favour  the  Adoptionist 
heresy.  Early  in  the  ninth  century,  after 
much  discussion  between  Rome  and  Spain, 
the  Missal,  from  w  hich  the  incriminated 
phrases  had  been  removed,  was  declared 
orthodox  ;  the  Spaniards,  however,  being 
required  to  conform  the  words  of  conse- 
cration to  those  in  the  Roman  Missal. 
But  in  the  next  century,  Alexander  II., 
Gregory  VII.,  and  Urban  11., made  great 
eflbrts  to  substitute  the  Roman  Missal. 
In  the  thirteerAh  century,  the  Mozarabic 
rite  had  disappeared  from  every  cathedral 
church,  and  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  it 
had  disappeared  altogether.  In  1500, 
CardinalXimenespublished  the  Mozarabic 
Missal  with  some  few  assimilations  tn 
Roman  use,  and  built  a  collegiate  church 
in  which  this  Missal  and  the  Mozarabic 
Breviary  (printed  1502)  were  to  be  used. 
Dr.  Neale  (quoted  by  Hammond,  p.  Ixv) 
tells  us  that  at  present  the  Mozarabic  rite 
is  followed,  not  only  in  this  church,  but  in 
two  parish  churches  in  Toledo  and  one  at 
Salamanca.  The  most  remarkable  feature 
in  the  Mass  to  an  ordinary  observer  is 
the  elaborate  symbolism  of  the  Fraction. 
The  Host  is  divided  first  into  two,  then 
into  nine  parts,  each  with  a  separate 
name,  taken  from  the  mysteries  of  Christ's 
life. 

Gallican  Liturgy.  —  This  venerable 
liturg\-  does  not  exist  in  a  complete  form, 
since  no  Gallican  "  Antiphonarium  "  (the 
book  containing  introits,  oHertories,  &c.) 
has  yet  been  found.  But  we  have  three 
Sacramentaries  printed  by  Cardinal 
Thomasi  in  IQ-^O,  and  again  by  Mabillon 
in  his  "De  Liturgia  Gallicana,"  in  16><5. 
The  first  is  called  by  Mabillon  "Gallico- 
Gallicanum,"  and  was  probably  used  in 
South  Gaul;  the  second,  "Missale  Franc- 
orum,"  used  in  North-Western  Gaul,  con- 
tains a  large  admixture  of  Roman  elements 
— the  prayers  are  Gelasian,  the  Preface, 
though  retaining  its  Gallican  name, 
"  Contestatio,"  ends  like  the  Preface  in 
the  Roman  Mass;  the  third,  "Gallicanum 
"Vetus,"  seems  free  from  Roman  admix- 
tures, except  in  the  office  for  Good  Friday. 
Besides,  we  have  a  GaUican  Lectionary 
edited  by  Mabillon  in  his  work  cited 
above,  and  a  "  Sacramentarium  Gallica- 
num," found  by  Mabillon  in  the  monastery 
at  Bobbio,  and  printed  by  him  in  his 
"  Museum  Italicum."  But  this  last  has 
the  Gregorian  or  Roman  Canon,  Further, 


we  have  a  most  detailed  and  valuable  ex- 
position of  the  old  Gallican  Mass,  in  an 
extract  from  two  letters  of  St.  Germanus 
of  Paris,  written  in  the  middle  of  the 
sixth  century.  Additional  fragments  of 
eleven  Gallican  Masses  havebeen  published 
by  Mone  ("  Griechische  und  lateinische 
Messen,"  Frankfort,  1850),  and  a  few  more 
by  Bunsen  ("  Analecta  Ante-Nicen.")  and 
Mai  ("Script.  Vet.  Vaticana  Collect." 
torn.  ii.).  From  the  materials  at  his  com- 
mand, Le  Rrun  has  been  able  to  give  a 
very  full  and  trustworthy  account  of  the 
Gallican  Liturgy,  which  in  the  order 
(though  not  in  the  name)  of  its  various 
parts  is  almost  identical  with  the  Moz- 
arabic Liturgy,  which  we  possess  entire. 
Want  of  space  compels  us  to  refer  our 
readers  to  Le  Brun's  clear  and  interesting 
account  in  tom.  iii.  It  was  under  the 
influence  of  Pepin  and  Charlemagne  that 
the  GaUican  gave  way  to  the  Roman  rite. 
The  Caroline  books,  composed  in  790, 
certify  that  the  Roman  was  already  re- 
ceived in  "  the  provinces  of  all  the  Gauls," 
in  Germany  and  Italy,  as  weU  as  among 
the  Saxons  and  "  certain  nations  of  the 
North."  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the 
revision  of  the  Roman  Missal  made  for 
the  use  of  their  dioceses  by  French  bishops 
in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centu- 
ries, and  now  at  last  entirely  abandoned, 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  ancient 
Gallican  Missals.  Rome  never  approved 
these  modern  revisions  by  episcopal 
authority,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
ancient  Gallican  rite,  if  it  bad  been  re- 
tained, would  have  been  in  no  way  af- 
fected by  the  decree  of  Pius  V.  forbidding 
any  deviation  from  the  Roman  Missal  as 
approved  by  him,  except  in  churches 
where  a  prescription  of  two  hundred  years 
could  be  claimed  for  the  liturgy  in  use.' 

The  Roman  Missal  and  its  Derivatives 
are  characterised  by  the  position  of  the 
Pax  just  before  communion,  and  the 
division  of  the  Great  Intercession  into  a 
Memento  of  the  living  before,  and  of  the 
dead  after,  the  consecration.  The  early 
history  of  the  Roman  Liturgy  is  unknown. 
Writers  of  great  name,  Milman,  De  Rossi, 
Liglitfoot,  Westcott,  &c.,  have  contended, 
with  great  probability,  that  the  original 

1  But  certain  genuine  Gallican  rites  were 
preserved  down  to  the  Revolution  in  many 
French  thurcbes,  notably  the  episcopal  bene- 
diction between  the  Pater  Noster  and  the  "  Pax 
Domini"  (preserved  at  Sens,  I'aris,  Auxerre, 
Troies,  Meaux,  &c. ),  and  the  lection  from  the 
Old  testament  in  the  Masses  of  Christmas  Day. 
Le  Urun,  tom.  III.  iv.  4. 


LITURGIES 


LITUIIGIES 


673 


Romau  cbiiicb  -nas  composed  mainly  of 
persons  who  spoke  Greek.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  names  in  the  salutations  of 
the  Epistle  to  tlie  Romans,  and  nearly 
all  the  names  of  the  Roman  bishops  for 
the  tirst  two  centuries,  are  Greek.  So  is 
all  the  early  literature  of  the  Romau 
church.  And  it  is  held  by  Westcott 
(■'Canon,"  p.  -69)  and  many  others  that 
the  early  Latin  versions  of  the  New- 
Testament  were  made  for  Africa,  not 
for  Rome.  Again,  St.  Paul  wrote  to  the 
Roman  Churcn  in  Greek;  for  few  now 
will  adopt  the  unfortunate  sugtrestion  of 
the  scholiast  in  the  Pesbito,  that  the 
original  of  the  Epistle  was  in  Latin.  If 
we  adopt  this  view,  we  shall  also  be  led 
to  the  supposition  that  the  liturgy  was 
in  Greek.  When  Justin  wrote  his 
"  Apology  "  to  the  Emperor  Pius,  he  was 
liTing  in  Rome.  If  in  describing  the 
celebration  of  the  Eucharist  he  draws  his 
picture  (as  would  be  most  natural)  from 
the  Roman  church,  then,  undoubtedly, 
the  Roman  Liturgy  was  Oriental  in 
character.  The  liturgical  order  in  Justin 
differs  in  marked  features  from  the  Latin 
Mass  of  Rome,  as  it  was  when  we  first 
hear  of  it  and  as  it  is  now,  and  agrees 
with  the  Oriental  liturgies  of  Family  I. 

The  oldest  authentic  notice  of  the 
Roman  Mass  is  in  Innocent's  letter  to 
Decentius  (anno  416).  He  mentions  two 
characteristics  which  distinguish  the 
Roman  Mass  from  all  other  liturgies — 
viz.  the  giving  of  the  Pax  towards  the 
end  of  the  Mass,  and  the  Memento  of  the 
living  after  the  oblation  and  in  the  Canon 
("Prius  ergo  oblationes  sunt  commend- 
andae,  ac  tunc  eorum  nomina,  quorum  sunt, 
edicenda,  ut  inter  sacra  mysteria  nomi- 
nentur  ").  The  Roman  order  was  already 
ancient,  for  Innocent  attributes  it  to  St. 
Peter.  The  Canon  of  the  Roman  Mass 
must  have  been  fixed  in  every  detail  in 
St.  Leo's  time  (440-4G1)  ;  for.  according 
to  the  ancient  author  of  the  "Lives  of 
the  Popes," he  added  the  words  "Sanctum 
sacrificium,  immaculatam  hostiam."  We 
have  a  Leonine  Sacramentary,  published 
by  Muratori  in  his  "  Liturgia  Romana 
Vetus,"  but  unfortunately  it  contains 
merely  collects  and  Prefaces  without 
Onlinary  or  Canon.  The  "Lives  of  the 
Popes  "  attributes  a  more  important  work 
of  revision  to  Gelasius  (402-49(i),  who,  it 
is  there  said,  composed  prayers  and  Pre- 
faces. Wahifrid  Strabo  adds  that  Gelasius 
set  in  order  the  prayers  composed  by 
himself  and  others.  Tlie  Gelasian  Sacra- 
mentary was  edited  at  Rome  from  a  MS. 


"copied  before  the  year  700"  (so  Le 
Brun,  tom.  III.  diss.  ii.  a.  2. ;  Mr.  Ham- 
mond, on  the  contrary,  says  "  from  an 
early  ninth  century  MS."),  and  afterwards 
from  other  MSS.  by  Gerbertus,  in  his 
work  on  the  old  German  Liturgy  (1776- 
79).  It  agrees  closely,  and  has  perhaps 
been  altered  into  conformity  with  the 
Gregorian  Ordo  and  Canon.  Pope  Yigilius 
(elected  538)  sent  the  Roman  Canon 
("  Canonicae  precis  textum  ")  to  Profutu- 
rus,  bishop  of  Braga,  in  Spain.  He  tells 
him  that  this  Canon  was  invariable  the 
whole  year  through  (and  here  let  the 
reader  note  a  distinguishing  mark  of  the 
Roman  as  contrasted  with  all  other 
Western  liturgies),  except  that  on  the 
solemnities  of  Easter,  Ascension,  Pente- 
cost, Epiphany,  and  of  the  Saints,  certain 
"  Capitula  "  appropriate  to  the  day  were 
added.  These  "  Capitula  "  were  most 
likely,  as  Le  Brun  conjectures,  short  ad- 
ditions similar  to  those  now  made  in  the 
"  Conimunicantes  "  and  "  Hanc  igitur." 
The  finishing  stroke  was  put  to  the  work 
by  Gregory  the  Great  (590-604),  whose 
Sacramentary  was  edited  by  Pamelius  in 
the  second  volume  of  his  "  Litui-gicon 
Latinum  "  (Cologne,  1571),  by  Rocca 
(Rome,  1597),  and  by  the  Benedictine 
M6nard  (in  1642)  with  learned  notes. 
Gregory  made  a  slight  change  in  the 
Canon — viz.  by  adding  the  words  "  dies- 
que  nostros,''  &c.  (see  article  Caxon),  and 
another  of  far  greater  moment,  by  placing 
the  Fraction  after,  whereas  till  then  it 
had  occurred  before,  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
He  abbreviated  the  rest  of  the  Mass. 
Thus  he  substituted  verses  for  entire 
psalms,  and  whereas  the  Gelasian  Mass 
had  two  or  three  prayers  before  the 
Epistle,  one  Secret,  two  Post-commu- 
nions— of  which  one  was  said  over  the 
people  ("  super  populum  ")  —  Gregory 
reduced  the  ordinary  number  of  these 
prayers  to  three:  Collect,  Secret,  Post- 
communion  :  and  of  the  Prefaces — very 
numerous  in  ancient  times — kept  only 
those  few  which  we  still  have  (Muratori, 
"De  Rebus  Liturg."  p.  14;  and  Mabillon, 
"  De  Lit.  Gallican."  i.  cap.  2,  iv.  apud 
Maskell).  Since  Gregory's  day,  rubrics 
have  been  multiplied,  Masses  added  for 
new  feasts,  &c.  &c.,  '•  but  there  has 
been,"  says  a  learned  Protestant,  "  no 
change  of  importance  in  the  Roman 
Liturgy.  That  is  to  say,  the  number  of 
prayers  composing  the  Mass,  the  order  in 
which  they  occur,  and  the  names  of  them, 
have  remained  unaltered ''  (Hammond, 
p.  Ixxiii). 


674 


LITURGIES 


LITURGIES 


The  Ambrosian  Mass  is  not  a  daughter, 
but  a  sister  of  the  Roman  or  Gregorian 
Liturgy.  In  the  crucial  tests,  the  position 
of  the  Pax  and  of  the  Great  Intercession, 
it  differs  from  the  Mozarabic  and  Gallican, 
and  exactly  agrees  with  the  Roman  Mass. 
But  like  the  Roman  Liturgy  before  Gre- 
gory, it  is  rich  in  Prefaces,  and  has  the 
Fraction  before  the  Pater  Noster.  It  has, 
however,  adopted  the  "  diesque  nostros," 
&c.,  from  the  Gregorian  Canon  ;  and 
several  introits,  and  the  arrangement  of 
the  three  Masses  on  Christmas,  have  been 
borrowed  from  Rome.  It  has  been  thought 
that  Greek  influence  may  be  traced  in  the 
prayers  over  the  corporal  ("super  sindo- 
nem"),  the  litanies  said  on  Sundays  in 
Lent,  the  proclamation  by  the  deacon 
before  the  Epistle,  &c. 

We  pass  over  the  Liturgy  of  the 
Patriarchate  of  Aquileia,  which  seems  to 
have  been  a  mere  variety  of  the  Roman 
Use,  but  of  which  little  is  known ;  and 
■we  pass  on  to  a  subject  of  far  greater 
interest  to  us — viz.  the  Liturgical  Use  of 
the  Ancient  Church  of  England  down  to 
the  Reformation.  We  take  as  our  guide 
the  admirable  works  of  Mr.  Maskell  — 
one  entitled  the  "Ancient  Liturgy  of  the 
Church  of  England,"  and  the  other, 
"  Monumenta  Ritualia."  It  is  probable, 
from  St.  Augustine's  question  to  Pope 
Gregory  ,  that  the  ancient  British  churches 
used  a  Hturgy  akin  to  those  of  Gaul  and 
Spain.  But  the  influence  of  St.  Augustine 
led  to  a  wide  adoption  of  the  Roman 
Liturgy  in  its  main  features.  In  747  the 
Council  of  Clove>lioo,  which  may  fairly 
be  taken  as  representing  south  and  middle 
England— for  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, the  Bishop  of  Rochester,  three 
bishops  from  Mercia,  two  from  Wessex, 
cue  from  Lincoln,  and  one  from  Sussex, 
were  present  (see  Hefele,  "  Concil."  iii. 
p.  F)(]-2) — decreed  that  "  the  holy  feasts  of 
our  Lord's  disi)ensation  in  the  flesh,  in 
all  things  duly  ])ertaining  to  them — i.e.  in 
the  ollice  of  Bapti>m,  in  the  cehibration 
of  Masses,  in  the  manner  of  the  chant — 
should  be  celebrated  accoi'ding  to  the 
copy  which  we  have  in  writing  from  the 
Roman  Church."  These  words  are  clear 
and  express,  nor  is  there  room  for  doubt 
that  as  Christianity  spread  among  the 
Saxons,  the  Roman  replaced  the  Gallican 
Canon,  and  that  gradually  the  whole 
Missal,  in  its  main  ieatures,  was  modelled 
after  the  Roman  prototype. 

It  is  true  then,  in  a  general  way,  that 
our  ancestors  used  the  Roman  Liturgy. 
But  only  in  a  general  way :  first,  because 


before  the  invention  of  printing,  the 
uniformity  which  has  prevailed  since 
Pius  "V.  issued  his  authoritative  edition 
of  the  Roman  Missal  was  a  matter  of 
impossibihty  ;  and,  next,  because  the 
power  of  bishops  to  regulate  public  wor- 
ship in  their  dioceses  was  not  restrained, 
as  at  present,  and  they  used  this  power 
in  introducing  minor  dift'erences,  though 
they  preserved  all  the  main  charactei-  of 
the  Roman  Mass.  Thus  difi'erent  Uses 
arose.  About  1085  Osmund,  bishop  of 
Salisbm-y,  promulgated  a  form  for  his 
diocese,  which  became  accepted  in  the 
South  of  England  and  spread  into  Ireland 
and  Scotland.  Then  there  were  the  Uses 
of  York  and  Hereford,  and  (in  fewer 
dioceses)  those  of  Lincoln  and  Bangor. 
Many  of  the  ancient  books  were  destroyed 
at  the  Reformation,  and  only  a  fragment 
of  the  Lincoln  Use  remains.  It  is  not 
certain  that  we  know  the  Use  of  Bangor, 
though  Mr.  MaskeU  believes  that  a  MS. 
from  which  he  has  printed  the  Ordinary 
and  Canon  contains  the  Use  of  that 
chmch.  Besides,  there  was  a  Use  of  St. 
Paul's  in  London  (where  the  Sarimi  books 
were  not  received  till  1414),  of  which  we 
know  nothing.  And  no  doubt  there  were 
varieties  in  the  Sarum  rite  which  might 
be,  and  were,  to  a  certam  extent,  regarded 
as  separate  Uses. 

Mr.  Maskell  has  placed  the  Ordinary 
and  Canon  of  the  Mass  according  to  the 
Sarum  (supposed),  Bangor,  York,  Here- 
ford, and  Roman  Uses,  in  parallel  cnlunins. 
To  this  we  must  refer  the  reader,  for  a 
complete  enumeration  of  the  points  in 
which  these  Uses  difl'er  from  each  other 
would  be  long  and  tedious,  and  would, 
after  all,  convey  a  much  less  vivid  im- 
pression than  any  reader  familiar  with 
the  Roman  Mass  can  gain  for  himself 
with  little  pains  by  reading  the  texts. 
We  content  ourselves,  therefore,  with  a 
few  general  remarks. 

There  is— we  will  not  say  no  diflerence 
of  doctrine :  between  the  old  and  the  pre- 
sent rites  of  the  English  church  there  is, 
with  one  exception,  no  point  of  diflerence 
from  which  any  theological  argument 
could  be  deduced.  This  exception  occurs 
in  a  single  prayer.  After  the  priest  has 
put  a  fragment  of  the  Host  in  the  ciialice, 
he  prays,  in  the  four  English  Uses,  that 
this  mixture  of  Christ's  body  and  blood 
may  be  to  himself  and  to  nil  who  partahe 
of  it  ("omnibusque  sumentibus,"  "  et  om- 
nibus sumentibus")  health  of  mind  and 
body.  The  words  itaUcised  are  a  yA\c  of 
the  time  when  the  faithful  communicated 


LITURGIES 


LOGOTHETE 


57o 


«iuder  both  kinds,  retained  long  after  they 
had  ceased  to  do  so.  They,  of  course, 
are  no  evidence  of  change  of  doctrine, 
though  they  do  prove  change  of  disci- 
pline; but  Archbishop  Craumer,  in  his 
answer  to  the  Devonshire  rebels,  availed 
himself  of  them  as  an  argument  for  com- 
munion in  both  kinds. 

The  first  impression  upon  a  modem 
Catholic  reader  made  by  the  reading  of 
these  old  English  Uses  will  be,  we  think, 
one  of  surprise  that  he  finds  himself  so 
much  at  home  in  them.  They  are  utterly 
unlike  the  "Communion  Service"  of  the 
church  now  established,  whUe  we  are  con- 
vinced that  if  they  were  re-introduced 
among  us  to-morrow,  our  people  would 
scarcely  feel  any  difi'erence.  In  the  Ordi- 
nary of  the  Mass,  the  old  English  and 
modern  Roman  rites  agTee  part  for  part 
and,  as  a  rule,  word  for  word.  In  the 
Canon,  almost  every  word  is  the  same 
down  to  the  end  of  the  "Libera  uos" — 
i.e.  to  the  end  of  the  Canon  proper.  After 
that,  many  of  the  prayers  are  different. 
This  diflerence  is  easily  explained,  for  the 
prayers  which  follow  the  "Libera  nos" 
are  later  than  St.  .\ugustine's  time  ;  nay, 
with  the  exception  of  the  "  Agnus  Dei " 
(added  by  Pope  Seririus,  and  adopted  in 
all  the  English  Uses),  they  are  later — some 
of  them  much  later — than  the  Council  of 
Cloveshoo,  which  imposed  the  Roman 
Missal  on  England.  Indeed,  the  prayer 
which  the  priest  says  before  the  Pa.x 
("Domine  Jesu  Christe")  was  not  to  be 
found  in  the  Roman  Missal  even  in  1090, 
after  St.  Osmund's  time.  "SVe  need  not 
wonder,  then,  that  there  is  in  this  part 
considerable  divernence  between  the  Eng- 
lish Uses  and  the  ^Iis*al  of  Pius  V, 

What  we  had,  therefore,  was,  not  a 
national  Liturgy  like  that  of  the  Copts 
or  Chaldeans,  or  even  a  Liturgy  so  distinct 
from  the  Roman  as  that  of  Milan,  but 
English  editions  or  recensions  of  the 
Roman  Liturgy.  Nor  must  it  for  a  mo- 
ment be  supposed  that  Rome  deprived  us 
of  our  ancient  usages.  Rome  in  no  way 
interfered,  or  would,  so  far  as  can  be 
conjectured,  ever  have  interfered.  She 
has  not  only  tolerated,  but  enforced,  the 
ancient  Lituriries  of  the  East.  She  allows 
the  Dominican  varietv  of  the  Roman 
Mass,  &c.,  &c.  The  bull  of  Pius  V.,  as  he 
expressly  stated,  did  not  impose  the  new 
edition  of  the  Missal  on  any  church  which 
had  rites  of  its  own  with  a  prescription  of 
two  hundred  years.  The  Reformers  set 
themselves  energetically  to  destroy  the 
Sarum  books;  copies  became  extremely 


rare,  and  our  clergy,  forced  to  get  their 
education  abroad,  naturally  preferred  to 
say  Mass  and  otFice  from  the  modern 
Roman  books  which  were  so  much  more 
easily  procured. 

(A  full  account  of  the  literature  will  be 
found  in  Smith  and  Cheetham,  article 
Liturgies,  Some  of  the  most  important 
works  have  been  noticed  in  the  courM_- 
of  this  article.  Le  Brun,  "Explication 
de  la  Messe,"  is  a  most  accurate  and 
convenient  repertory  of  all  the  results 
obtained  by  Renaudot,  Mabillon,  Menard, 
&C.  It  abounds  besides  in  original  re- 
search, and  gives  full  accounts  of  the 
chief  Liturgies,  with  learned  notes.  But 
no  student  should  be  without  Mr.  Ham- 
mond's reprint  of  the  texts  of  the  Ancient 
Liturgies,  accompanied  by  an  excellent 
Introduction.  Mr.  Hammond  puts  the 
student  in  possession  of  a  rational  classi- 
fication of  the  liturgies,  and  teaches  him 
to  fix  his  attention  on  the  cardinal  points 
in  reading  larger  books.) 

I.OCZ  TBEOX.OGZCX.  The  souTces 
from  which  theological  arguments  are 
drawn.  The  name  has  become  familiar 
through  the  celclirated  work  of  Melchior 
Cauus  (1523-151  ;0),  a  Spanish  Dominican, 
Professor  of  Theology  at  Salamanca, 
employed  at  the  Council  of  Trent  under 
Paul  III.,  and  finally  Bishop  of  the 
Canaries.  In  this  work,  which  is  written 
in  most  elegant  and  classic  al  Latin,  Canus 
uses  the  word  loci  or  tottoi  exactly  as 
Aristotle  and  Cicero  had  done — ».e.  in  the 
sense  of  sedes  e  quibus  argumenta  pro- 
muntur.  It  discusses  the  use  to  be  made 
by  the  theologian  of  Scripture,  Councils, 
Fathers,  Philosophy,  &c.,  and  forms  a 
scientific  introduction  to  Dogmatic  Theo- 
logy. Cauus  complains  that  theologians 
argued  little  from  the  Councils,  not  fre- 
quently enough  from  Scripture,  scarcely 
at  all  from  Histon%  and  he  sets  him.-t  if 
to  guide  them  into  a  fuller  and  more  di,<- 
criminating  use  of  the  material  which 
the  revival  of  letters  was  opening  up. 
]3oth  in  style  and  in  method  Canus  marks 
a  new  era.  He  had  a  most  powerful 
influence  in  inaugurating  the  critical  and 
historical  as  distinct  from  the  merely 
scholastic  theology.  (From  the  work  of 
Canus  itself,  and  from  Kuhn,  "  Dogmatik," 
i.  p.  486  ^pfj.) 

KOCOTKETE  (Xoyo^fTT/r,  properly, 
an  accountant).  Besides  a  number  of 
ofiicers  in  the  civil  service  who  bore  this 
title  at  the  Byzantine  Court,'  it  was  given 
to  the  chief  otficial  of  the  Patriarch  of 

1  See  Gibbon  s  Decline  atui  Fall,  ch.  liii. 


576  LOLLARDS 


LORETO 


Constantinople,  the  logotheta  ecclesiasticus, 
whose  functions  closely  resembled  those 
of  an  episcopal  chancellor  in  the  Western 
Church.  [See  Chancelloe,  Episcopal.] 
(Wetzer  and  Welte.) 

Z.OX.Z.ARSS.  [See  Wyclutites.] 
lOR£TO.  In  the  Ecclesiastical 
State,  a  few  miles  south  of  Ancona,  on  a 
hill  three  miles  distant  from  the  sea, 
there  is  a  stately  domed  church,  the  work 
of  Bramante,  rising  among  the  bouses  of 
the  little  city  of  Loreto.  On  eiitering  the 
church,  the  pilgrim  or  traveller  observes 
under  the  dome  "  a  singular  rectangular 
edifice,  of  no  great  height,  constructed 
apparently  of  white  marble,  and  richly 
adorned  with  statues  and  sculpture." 
This  is  the  famous  Santa  Casa,  or  Holy 
House,  which  tradition  asserts  to  be  the 
very  same  building  in  which  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary  dwelt  at  Nazareth,  where 
she  heard  the  message  of  the  archangel, 
and  where  the  Holy  Family  resided 
during  the  childhood  and  hidden  life  of 
our  Lord.  Its  internal  length  is  about 
31  feet;  its  breadth,  13  feet.  The  roof 
is  modem.  Externally,  the  original  walls 
cannot  be  seen ;  but  within  the  building 
the  coarse  stonework  of  the  original 
masonry  is  exposed  to  view.  The  material 
is  a  dark  reddish-coloured  stone.  It  was 
once  thought  to  be  brick,  in  which  case 
this  could  not  have  been  the  house  which 
once  stood  at  Nazareth,  where  brick 
houses  are  unknown.  But  on  this  ques- 
tion of  the  stone  of  which  the  Santa 
Casa  is  built,  more  will  have  to  be  said 
further  on,  when  the  current  objections 
to  the  legend  come  under  consideration. 
Towards  the  eastern  end  of  the  house 
stands  an  altar,  and  behind  the  altar  is  an 
image,  said  to  be  of  olive  wood,  now 
blackened  by  the  smoke  of  the  lamps ; 
this  is  the  famous  image  of  our  Lady  of 
Loreto. 

The  legend  of  the  Holy  House  in  its 
main  features  runs  as  follows.  The 
Christian  power  having  been  finally  ex- 
pelled from  Palestine,'  the  house  in  which 
God's  Mother  dwelt  for  many  years  with 
her  Divine  Son  and  St.  Joseph  was  com- 
pletely at  the  mercy  of  the  infidels.  That 
it  might  be  removed  to  a  place  of  safety, 
and  be  for  the  future  in  Christian  hands, 
angels  lifted  it  from  its  foundations,  and 
bore  it  through  the  air,  in  the  first  place 
to  Illyria,  w^here  it  rested  on  the  top  of  a 
hill  at  Tersatz  or  Tersatto,  near  Fiiime,  in 
the  night  of  May  10,  1291.  In  the 
morning  the  inhabitants  wondered  to  see 
>  By  the  capture  of  Acre,  1291. 


a  house  standing  where  none  had  beett 
before ;  they  approached  it,  noticed  that 
it  was  without  foundations,  and  upoa 
entering  saw  an  altar  and  an  image  of  the 
Virgin  and  Child.  But  the  Holy  House 
of  Nazareth,  for  such  it  was,  did  not  long 
remain  at  Tersatz.  After  three  years  and 
a  half,  on  December  10,  1294,  it  was  re- 
moved to  the  opposite  side  of  the  Adriatic. 
Shepherds  near  Recanati  are  said  to  have 
seeii  it  borne  through  the  air,'  and  de- 
posited in  a  wood  near  the  sea  called 
Lauretum,  either  from  the  laurels  which 
grew  there  or  because  it  belonged  to  a 
rich  lady  of  Recanati  named  Laureta. 
Soon  pilgrims  visited  it  in  gri'at  numbers, 
but,  the  place  being  remote,  brigands  also 
made  their  appearance,  and  to  approach 
the  house  became  a  work  of  danger.  In 
less  than  a  year  (August  1295)  there  was 
a  third  removal,  to  a  hill  three  or  four 
miles  from  the  w-ood,  along  which  passed 
a  public  rnad.  The  spot  where  the  Holy 
House  alighted  belonged  to  two  brothers, 
who  quarrelled  as  to  their  respective 
rights  of  property  in  the  site.  Again,  in 
December  129.5,  the  house  was  removed 
from  its  place,  but  only  for  a  very  short 
distance,  and  was  set  down  in  the  middle 
of  the  public  road  above  mentioned, 
where  it  has  remained  to  the  present  day. 
The  Blessed  Virgin,  appearing  in  a  vision 
to  a  holy  liermit  who  dwelt  near  Recanati, 
soon  after  the  final  translation,  unfolded 
to  him  the  true  character  of  the  house. 
After  a  time  the  people  of  Tersatz  heard 
where  it  was,  and  numbers  of  them 
crossed  the  sea  to  visit  it.  These  simple 
pilgrims  are  said  to  have  solemnlj'  en- 
treated our  Lady  to  return  to  them, 
exchiiming,  "Torna,  torna  a  noi,  bella 
Signora,  con  la  tua  Casa." 

Such  being  the  legend,  it  remains  to 
inquire  by  what  kind  of  testimony  it  is 
supported,  and  to  consider  objections 
which  have  been  advanced  against  various 
j  portions  of  it.  The  evidence  producible, 
i  whatever  may  be  its  value,  is  not  so  strong 
and  conclusive  as  of  itself  to  exclude  the 
possibility  of  doubt.  No  contemporary 
book  or  record,  with  the  exception  of  two 

1  The  accounts  vary  ;  Baptista  says  that 
the  great-great-grandfather  of  a  certain  Paul  of 
Recanati  saw  the  house  '-ijlidinir  over  the 
waves  of  the  sea  like  a  ship  ;  "  Tursellinus, 
though  his  narrative  is  otherwise  consistent 
with  this  view,  adds  thiit  '  thcro  was  one 
among  them  [the  shepherds]  who  atfirmed  ihat 
he  saw  it  when  it  was  being  \n<rnv  in  mid  air 
over  the  sea;"  Jerome  Ani:clita  (who  wrote 
about  1530,  and  before  Turscllinu^)  simply  says 
that  it  was  "  miraculously  carried  over  the  sea." 


LORETO 


LORETO  577 


documents  -whicli  will  be  considered 
further  on,  can  be  appealed  to  as  noticing 
the  translation.  No  extant  writing  of  the 
fourteenth  century  directly '  mentions  it. 
The  archives  of  Tersatz  and  Recauati, 
which  are  said  to  have  contained  state- 
ments confirmatory  of  different  parts  of 
the  above  narrative,  have  perished.  The 
eai-liest  account  of  the  translation  which 
can  be  distinctly  traced  was  drawn  up  by 
Peter  George  Teremanus,  or  Teramano, 
Guardian  of  the  Santa  Casa,  in  1460 ;  on 
this  the  accounts  given  by  Baptista  and 
Angelita  were  evidently  based.  Tere- 
manus examined  witnesses  and  took  down 
their  evidence;  one  of  these,  named 
Francis,  deposed  that  his  grandfather, 
who  lived  to  be  120  years  old,  had 
told  him  that  he  had  seen  the  House 
while  it  was  still  in  the  wood,  and  often 
gone  in  and  prayed  there.  T'eremanus 
put  together  a  narrative  which  he  in- 
scribed on  a  tablet  and  hung  up  in  the 
Santa  Casa  ;  this  tablet  was  seen  and  read 
by  Baptista  and  Angelita.  Two  bulls  of 
I»aul  II.,  dated  1464  and  1471,speak  of  the 
"  Domus  et  Imago  "  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary  at  Loreto ;  the  later  of  the  two 
refers  in  general  terms  to  the  translation. 

The  first  writer  who,  in  works  still 
extant,  speaks  of  the  translation,  seems  to 
have  been  Baptista  Mantuanus,  an  Italian 
poet  of  some  note,  who  joined  the  Car- 
melite order  (to  which  the  custody  of  the 
sanctuary  of  Loreto  was  committed  by 
Sixtus  IV.)  and  vsrrote  a  history  of  the 
church  about  1480.'  He  derived  his  in- 
formation chiefly  from  the  tablet  of 
Teremanus,  whom  he  calls  Neronianus. 
In  his  "  Agelarii,"  a  poem  in  Latin  hex- 
ameters,^ Baptista  enlarges  in  a  florid 
style  on  the  marveUoiis  translation.  After 
Baptista  came  the  Jerome  Angelita 
already  mentioned,  who  dedicated  his 
circumstantial  history  of  the  Santa  Casa 
to  Clement  VII. ;  he  was  followed  by  the 
Jesuits  TorseUino  and  Riera,  and  many 
others. 

1  The  expression  "  directly  "  is  used  because 
Jerome  Angelita,  %vho  was  perpetual  chancellor 
of  the  cimimune  of  Recanati,  and  wrote  on 
Loreto  early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  declares 
that  he  had  found  among  the  town  records  a 
brief  of  Benedict  XIII.  (fur  XII.)  dated  in  1341, 
which  he  understood  as  indirectli/  referrinfr  to 
the  image  contained  in  the  Santa  Casa.  The 
brief  induk'enccd  a  picture  in  a  church  at 
Kecana  i,  which,  being  a  copy  of  the  said 
image,  was  visited  by  aged  p»?rsons  who  could 
not  walk  out  as  far  as  Loreto. 

'  Baptista.  Opera  omnia  (Antwerp,  1676), 
Tol.  iv.  p.  216, 

5  lb.  vol.  i.  p.  362. 


There  is,  however,  evidence  of  earlier 
date  that  Loreto  was,  and  Wad  long  been, 
a  celebrated  shrine  of  our  Lady  ;  and  the 
question  suggests  itself,  on  what  did  th.it 
t  L'lebrity  rest  ?  Flavins  Blondus,  born  in 
l;388,  in  his  work  "  Italia  Illustratu,"  of 
which  we  may  place  the  date  between 
1430  and  1440,^  speaks  of  the  "  sacellum  " 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  at  Loreto  as  of  a 
shrine  of  great  celebrity,  and  notices  the 
number  of  costly  e.c-votos,  testifying  to 
the  gratitude  of  the  ott'erers,  which  were 
hung  on  the  walls  of  the  church.  It  can 
hardly  be  doubted  that  this  "  sacellum  " 
was  identical  with  the  Santa  Casa  now  at 
Loreto.  The  same  word  is  frequently 
used  by  Baptista  in  his  history  already 
mentioned,  and  there  it  evidently  refers  to 
the  Santa  Casa,  the  migrations  of  which 
he  describes  nearly  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  the  legend  given  above.  There- 
fore, if  Flavins  did  not  mean  the  Santa 
Casa  by  the  "  sacellum "  of  the  Virgin 
(which  he  distinguishes  from  the  "  basi- 
lica "  to  which  it  was  attached),  he  must 
have  meant  some  building  which  in  the  in- 
terval between  1430  and  1480  totally  dis- 
appeared, and  was  replaced  by  a  bouse 
built  of  stone  brought  from  Palestine  for 
the  purpose,' to  represent  our  Lord's  abode 
at  Nazareth.  To  adopt  such  a  view 
without  a  particle  of  evidence  would  be 
uncritical.  Flavius,  therefore,  when  he 
mentions  the  "  sacelliun  celeberrimum  "  of 
Loreto,  is  speaking  of  the  present  Santa 
Casa,  the  antiquity  of  which  is  thus 
traced  to  within  150  years  of  the  time  at 
which  the  legend  says  it  was  brought 
to  Loreto.  But  surely  his  words  authorise 
us  to  go  further ;  he  speaks  of  this  as  the 
most  famous  shrine  of  the  Virgin  "in  the 
whole  of  Italy ; "  but  the  growth  of  such 
a  fame  must  have  been  an  afl^air  of  many 
years  ;  we  should  naturally  suppose  that 
the  commencement  of  the  devotion  could 
not  have  been  later  than  the  middle  of 
the  fourteenth  century.  Hence  by  a  pro- 
cess of  legitimate  inference  we  are  led  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  present  Santa 
Casa  must  have  been  at  Loreto  within 
some  fifty  years  of  the  time  which  the 
legend  fixes  for  its  arrival. 

A  further  question  arises — Can  the 
existence  of  the  Santa  Casa  be  traced 
before  its  alleged  removal  to  Loreto  ?  A 
remarkable  passage  in  a  description  of  the 
Holy  Land  by  a  Greek  writer  named 

'  At  the  end  of  the  treatise  Havius  speaks 
of  Eugenius  IV.  (  +  1447)  as  still  living. 

2  The  necessity  of  this  inference  will  be 
shown  further  on. 

P  f 


^7S  LORETO 

Phocas,  of  which  a  translation'  is  given 
in  the  article  on  Loreto  by  Mr.  MejTick, 
in  the  "Christian  Kemembrancer "  for 
April  1854,  throws  light  on  this  point. 
Phocas  visited  Nazareth  in  1185,  and 
says  that  he  found  two  churches  there, 
one  of  which  contained  the  house  of 
Joseph  in  which  the  Annunciation  and 
Conception  were  said  to  have  taken  place. 
He  says  in  one  place  that  this  house 
was  "  transformed  into  a  most  beautiful 
church  " :  but  a  few  lines  further  on  we 
come  to  a  passage  which  shows  what  his 
meaning  was.  For  after  saying  that  in 
this  church,  on  the  left  side,  near  the 
altar,  there  was  a  cave,  he  adds;  "Pro- 
ceeding from  the  mouth  within  the  cave 
you  come  down  a  few  steps,  and  thus  gain 
a  view  of  that  which  was  anciently  the 
house  of  Joseph,  in  which,  after  her  return 
from  the  fountain,  .  .  .  the  angel  thus 
saluted  the  Virgin.  Now  on  the  spot 
where  the  salutation  took  place  there  is 
a  cross  of  black  stone,  graven  in  rehef  on 
white  marble,  and  on  the  right  side  of 
the  said  altar  was  a  small  cot  (fxiKpos 
niKia-Kos),  in  which  the  ever  Virgin 
^Mother  of  God  had  her  chamber."  It  is 
contended  that  either  the  whole  house 
here  mentioned,  or  else  the  "cot"  on  the 
right  side  of  the  altar,^  was  the  Santa 
Casa  now  at  Loreto.  This  much,  at  any 
rate,  is  clear,  that  about  100  years  before 
the  date  assigned  to  the  first  removal  of 
the  house  to  Tersatz,  there  was  a  building 
within  a  church  at  Nazareth  which 
tradition  named  "the  house  of  Joseph." 
Nothing  seems  to  have  been  changed  at 
a  period  nearly  seventy  years  later  (125.3), 
when  St.  Louis  visited  Nazareth.  About 
12()2  this  church,  as  is  mentioned  in  a 
hitter  from  Urban  IV.  to  St.  Louis,  dated  in 
the  following  year,'  was  "  levelled  to  the 
ground  "  by  the  Sultan  of  Babylon.  But 
it  does  not  necessarily  ibllow  that  the 
house  was  destroyed,  for  the  Christians 
would  be  likely  to  block  up  and  conceal 
the  entrance  of  the  cave.  For  a  specimen 
of  the  way  in  which  travellers  spoke  of 
the  state  of  things  at  Nazareth  after  1291, 
we  may  take  the  passage  cited  by  Mr. 
Meyrick  from  Sir  John  Maundevile,  who 
visited  Palestine  about  1350.  "It  [the 
church]  is  now  all  downe ;  and  men  have 
made  a  litylle  resceyt,  besyde  a  pilere  of 
that  chirche,  for  to  rescey ve  the  ofTrynges 

1  The  original  may  be  read  in  the  Acta 
Sanctorum,  t.  ii.  Miii.  p.  3. 

Benoilict  XIV.  favoured  the  second  of 
thet^e  su|.p,.>iiions. 

»  Meyrick,  p.  357. 


LORETO 

of  pilgrymes."  There  is  no  mention  here 
of  anything  like  what  Phocas  saw. 
Gradually  a  new  subterranean  chapel 
was  fashioned,  smaller  than  the  Santa 
Casa,  but  partly  on  the  same  area ;  this  is 
now  called  the  "  Chapel  of  the  Angel." 
The  original  foundations  of  the  "house of 
Joseph  "  were  explored  in  the  seventeenth 
century  by  the  Franciscan  guardians  of 
the  shrine  at  Nazareth ;  and  they  testified 
that  they  exactly  tallied  with  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  house  at  Loreto.' 

Adamnan  of  lona,  a  writer  of  the 
eighth  century,  also  speaks  of  the  two 
churches  at  Nazareth,  and  his  language 
has  been  supposed  to  imply  that  the 
house  of  Joseph  had  existed  on  the  site  of 
one  of  them,  but  was  in  existence  no 
longer.  But  the  words  need  not  neces- 
sarily be  so  understood ;  they  are  perfectly 
compatible  with  the  actual  existence  of 
the  house  at  the  time  when  Arculfus, 
Adamnan's  informant,  visited  Nazareth. 

Respecting  many  other  points  of  in- 
terest relating  to  the  Santa  Casa,  such  as 
the  frequency  of  the  miracles  wrought 
there,  the  visions  of  our  Lady  at  Tersatz 
and  Loreto,  the  bulls  of  Pontiffs,  and 
the  alterations  made  by  Papal  order  in  the 
house  itself,  the  reader  is  referred  to  one 
or  more  of  the  works  mentioned  at  the 
end  of  the  article,  particularly  to  those  of 
the  Abb6  Caillau,  Archbishop  Kenrick, 
and  Father  Hutchison. 

A  few  of  the  common  objections  to 
the  authenticity  of  the  Holy  House  call 
for  some  remark.  The  late  Dean  Stanley, 
who  gives  a  glowing  and  really  beautiful 
description  of  the  environs  of  the  Lake  of 
Gennesareth  in  his  "  Sinai  and  Palestine," 
was  led  to  treat  of  the  history  of  the  Santa 
Casa  in  connection  with  his  visit  to  Naza- 
reth. No  one  can  be  sui-prised  that  a  man 
so  prepossessed  in  favour  of  a  non-miracu- 
lous and  non-clerical  Christianity  rejected 
the  lioreto  legend,  though  he  cannot  have 
been  insensible  to  its  beauty.  He  thought 
he  could  show  that  if  the  Santa  Casa  was 
ever  connected  with  a  grotto  in  the  side 
of  the  hill  at  Nazareth,  according  to  the 
received  view,  either  the  house  had  no 
door,  or  there  was  a  dead  wall  between 
it  and  the  grotto,  and  no  way  of  passing 
from  one  to  the  other.  His  argument  is 
met  and  shown  to  be  fallacious  in  the 
work  of  Father  Hutchison.  The  Dean 
thought  that  the  house  must  have  been 
built  of  set  purpose  by  some  devout 
person  or  persons  in  the  middle  ages,  to 
keep  alive  devotion  to  the  mystery  of  the 
'  Hutchison,  p.  74. 


LOnETO 


LORETO 


579 


Iiicnrnntion,  just  as  the  chapels  of  the  I 
Sncro  Monte  at  Varallo  were  huilt,  and  j 
with  the  feeling  that  prompted  the  Pisans 
to  bring  home  earth  from  Palestine  in 
their  galleys  and  coTertheirCampo  Santo 
■with  it.  it  is  enough  to  say  that  this  is 
pure  conjecture,  and  that  if  such  a  work 
had  ever  been  undertaken  at  Loreto,  some 
record  of  it  could  hardly  fail  to  have  been 
preserved.  [ 

It  was  for  a  long  time  a  common  ! 
Protestant   objection  that    the  Santa 
Casa  could  not  have  been  the  house  at 
Nazareth,  because  it  was  of  brick,  and  I 
brick  buildings  were  unknown  at  Naza-  j 
reth.     It  is  now  well  known  that  the  ' 
house  is  built  of  stone ;  but  it  has  been 
maintained  that  this  stone  is  the  common 
red  volcanic  stone  of  the  neighbourhood, 
and  "  wholly  unlike  anything  in  Pales- 
tine."   The  contradictory  of  this  assertion 
appears  to  have  been  established  through  ' 
the   exertions  of  Mgr.  (now  Cardinal) 
Bartolini,  who  sent  to  an  eminent  profes- 
sor of  chemistry  at  Rome  four  samples  of 
stone — two  brought  from  Nazareth,  and 
two  taken  (with  the  Pope's  permission) 
from  the  walls  of  the  Santa  Casa — with  a 
request  that  he  would  analyse  and  report 
on  them.  The  professor  reported  that  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  four  samples 
was  absolutely  identical,  although  in  ap-  | 
pearance  and  mechanical  characteristics 
they  differed  considerably.'  FatherHutchi-  I 
son  concludes  that  "  the  stone  of  which  ' 
the  Holy  House  is  composed  is  limestone, 
identical  with  that  of  Nazareth,  the  stone 
about  Loreto  being  of  a  totally  diflerent 
character."  t 

Mr.  Meyrick,  perhaps  the  ablest  of  all 
the  assailants  of  the  legend,  has  fallen  '■ 
into  several  inaccuracies.    Endeavouring  ■ 
to  show  that  the  views  taken  by  different 
Pontiffs  have  not  been  in  agreement  with 
one  another,  he  says  (p.  368),  "  The  bull 

of  ...  .  Julius  II  makes  the 

house  pass  at  once  from  Nazareth  to 
Recanati."    It  is  true  that  TorselHno 
says  so ;  but  the  fact  is  otherwise ;  the 
bull   of  Julius,  of  which   Archbishop  ! 
Kenrick  (p.  145)  prints  the  text,  dis-  I 
tinctly  states  that  the  house  was  first 
removed  "  ad  partes  Sclavonise  et  locum  | 
Flumen  nuncupatum."    Again,  Mr.  Mey- 
rick, when  endeavouring  to  throw  discredit  j 
on  Jerome  Angelita's   statement  that 
Nicolas  Frangipani,  lord  of  Tersatz,  was 
absent  at  the  time  of  the  first  translation, 
having  gone  to  the  war  with  the  Emperor 

'  Hutchison,  p.  79.  The  Report  is  given 
■n  extenso  by  Father  Hutchison,  p.  80. 


Rodolph,  States  that  that  emperor  died 
"  on  the  15th  July,  1291,"  only  some  two 
months  after  the  date  assigned  to  the  trans- 
lation. But  in  fact  Rodolph  died  on 
September  fiO,  1291.  An  error  of  more  im- 
portance is  the  assertion  that  there  is  an 
absolute  lack  of  contemporary  evidence  for 
the  legend.  Mr.  Meyrick  must  surely  have 
seen  the  large  work  of  Martorelli;  in  this 
(vol.  ii.  p.  49)  the  text  is  given  of  a 
letter  of  instruction,  dated  September  9, 
12; '5,  and  addressed  by  the  priors  of  the 
commune  of  Recanati  to  their  emissary, 
one  Alexander  de  Servannis,  in  which 
they  state  that  the  "  Sancta  Domus  "  has 
wonderfully  been  removed  from  its  rest- 
ing place  in  the  wood  to  the  land  of  two 
brothers  of  the  Antici  family,  and  that  he 
is  to  confer  with  the  town's  agent  at 
Rome  with  a  view  to  obtaining  from  the 
Pope  a  brief  authorising  the  transfer  of 
the  new  site  to  the  town  of  Recanati. 
Cinelli,  a  Florentine,  author  of  a  work  on 
Loreto  never  printed,  but  in  the  possession 
of  a  Roman  canon  at  the  time  when 
Martorelli  wrote,  is  said  to  state  in  it 
that  he  had  copied  this  letter  from  the 
original  in  ihe  possession  of  the  Marchesi 
Antici.  Cinelli  wrote  about  1705.  In 
his  unprinted  history  is  also  said  (by 
Martorelli)  to  be  contained  a  letter  from 
Paul  of  the  Wood,  written  in  1297  to 
Charles  Duke  of  Sicily,  and  informing 
him  of  various  particulars  respecting  the 
translation.  It  is  plain  that  these  state- 
ments of  Martorelli  require  more  investi- 
gation than  they  have  yet  received.  If 
the  original  letter  of  the  priors  existed  in 
his  time,  there  seems  no  reason  why  it 
should  not  be  still  preserved  in  some 
Italian  library,  and  if  it  were  found,  and 
declared  by  palseographers  to  be  really  of 
the  date  assigned  to  it  by  Cinelli,  the 
question  of  the  truth  of  the  legend  would 
be  nearly  settled.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  letters  can  be  proved  to  be  fabri- 
cations, or  if  the  credit  of  Cinelli  can  be 
shown  to  be  nil,  the  question  would 
remain  where  it  was  before. 

(CaiUau,  "  Hist.  Critique  et  Relig.  de 
N.  D.  de  Lorette,"  184-3 ;  Flavins  Blondus, 
"  Opera,"  Basle,  1559  ;  Hutchison,  "  Lo- 
reto and  Nazareth,"  1863 ;  Jerome  An- 
eelita,  "Hist,  della  Traslatione  della 
Santa  Casa,"  1571 ;  Kenrick,  "The  Holy 
House  of  Loretto,"  Philadelphia,  1876 ; 
Mantuanus  Baptista,  "  Opera  Omnia," 
Antwerp,  1576;  Martorelli,  "  Teatro 
Istorico,"  &c.,  Rome,  1732;  Meyrick,  art. 
on  Loreto  in  "  Christ.  Remembrancer,  '' 
April  1854 ;  Torsellino,  "  Historia  Laur- 
P  p  2 


580         LORETTO  NUNS 


LUTHER  AKD  LUTHERANISM 


etana,"  Cologne,  1622;  English  version 
of  Torsellino,  by  T.  P.,  1608;  Zucchi, 
"  Istoria  di  Loreto,"  Italian  version  of 
Torsellino,  vnth  an  additional  book, 
Venice,  1610.) 

X.ORETTO  wtra.  The  founder  of 
this  order,  Mrs.  Mary  Teresa  Ball,  an 
Irish  lady,  took  for  her  pattern  the  rule 
and  customs  of  the  Institute  of  the 
T5.V.M.  (see  that  article),  in  the  York 
house  of  which  community  she  had  been 
trained  to  re;^ular  discipline  during  seven 
years,  and  made  herself  fully  acquainted 
with  the  excellent  system  of  female  edu- 
<-ation  there  practised.  Returning  to  Ire- 
land, and  supported  by  the  approbation 
of  Archbishop  Murray,  Mrs.  Ball  pur- 
oliased  a  large  mansion  at  Rathfarnham, 
•near  Dublin,  and,  in  November  1822, 
"  commenced  the  institution  which  has 
since  become  so  well  known,  and  so  de- 
servedly celebrated,  as  the  convent  of 
'  Our  Lady  of  Loretto.' "  There  are  at 
present  about  sixteen  other  convents 
(if  Loretto  nuns  in  Ireland.  In  1841  a 
ooloiiy  of  eleven  sisters  went  to  India, 
iuid,  with  the  aid  of  Archbishop  Carew, 
t  st  a  1  (1  ished  themselves  in  Calcutta,  whence 
they  liave  sent  out  several  branches.  In 
1845  the  order  was  introduced  into  the 
^Mauritius,  and  two  years  afterwards  a 
<;ol.>nv  of  nuns  was  planted  at  Toronto 
in  LTpper  Canada,  whence  they  have 
,>;])read  to  several  other  places.  (Dean 
Murphy's  "Sketches";  Irish  Catholic 
Directory.) 

I.OW  STTM-BAV.  The  first  Sunday 
after  Easter.  The  name  given  to  it  in 
the  Missal  and  Breviary  is  "  Dominica  in 
Albis,"  because  then  the  newly-baptised 
wore  their  white  robes  for  the  last  time. 
St.  Augustine  mentions  this  custom  in  a 
sermon  for  the  day,  and  it  is  alluded  to 
in  the  noble  Breviary  hymn  still  used  in 
the  vespers  of  Low  Sunday,  "  Ad  regias 
Agni  dapes." 

The  name  Low  Sunday,  like  the 
Greek  avrnrdaxa,  emphasises  the  contrast 
between  the  great  Easter  solemnity  and  the 
Sunday  which  ends  the  octave.  Another 
Latin  name  "  Pascha  clausum "  is  pre- 
served in  the  Dutch  name,  "Beloken 
Paaschen,"t.e."  clo.se  of  Easter."  The  name 
Quasimodo  "  is  taken  from  the  first  words 
of  the  introit  in  the  Mass,  and  is  the 
common  name  for  this  Sunday  in  France 
and  Germany. 

I.TJWETTI:.  A  circular  crystal  case, 
fitting  into  an  aperture  in  the  mon- 
strance, in  which  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
is  placed  for  exposition. 


X.TTTHSa  AND  XiVTHERAITZSK. 

Martin  Luther  was  born  at  Eisleben, 
Saxony,  November  10,  1483,  and  died 
there  February  18, 1546.  His  father  was 
a  peasant  who  afterwards  became  a  miner. 
Soon  after  Martin's  birth  the  family  re- 
moved to  Mansfeld,  and  there  the  lad 
received  his  early  education.  The  public 
or  elementary  schools  at  this  time  were 
very  numerous  in  Germany.  Martin's 
gifts  were  marked  from  the  beginning. 
He  had  a  fine  voice,  was  admitted  to  the 
choir,  and,  following  the  custom  of  the 
time,  sang  before  the  houses  of  the  rich  to 
gain  money  enough  to  enable  him  to 
prosecute  his  studies  in  a  higher  school. 
At  fourteen  he  was  sent  to  the  school  of 
the  Franciscans  at  Magdeburg,  where  he 
remained  a  year.  From  Magdeburg  he 
went  to  Eisenach,  where  his  voice  at- 
tracted the  attention  and  favour  of  Dame 
Ursula  Cotta,  a  wealthy  lady,  who  re- 
ceived him  into  her  house  and  supported 
him  until  he  entered  the  university  of 
Erfurt  (1501).  Martin's  father  was  now 
a  master-miner  and  in  a  position  to 
advance  his  son.  He  sent  him  to  Erfurt 
to  study  law.  There  he  remained  until 
1505,  when  he  took  his  degree  of  Master 
of  Arts  and  began  a  course  of  lectures  on 
Aristotle.  He  was  of  an  ardent  and 
impulsive  temperament  and  had  strong 
religious  leanings.  The  sudden  death  of 
a  friend,  who  was  struck  by  lightning  at 
his  side,  seems  to  have  detei-mined  his 
vocation.  In  spite  of  the  opposition  of 
his  father  and  friends  he  entered  the 
Augustinian  convent  at  Erfurt  to  dedicate 
himself  to  God  (July  17,  1505).  There 
he  went  through  the  customary  discipline, 
and  in  1507,  his  father  objecting  to  the 
last,  he  was  ordained  priest.  Luther's 
earnestness  and  application  won  the  favour 
of  Dr.  John  Staupitz,  the  Augustinian 
provincial  of  Meissen  and  Thuringia. 
Frederick  the  Wise,  elector  of  Saxony, 
had  opened  a  university  at  Wittenberg 
and  was  looking  for  capable  professors. 
At  the  recommendation  of  Staupitz, 
Luther  was  offered  the  chair  of  dialectics 
(1508)  and  afterwards  lectured  in  theo- 
logy. Urged  by  Staupitz,  he  undertook, 
though  at  first  with  extreme  reluctance, 
to  preach.  His  abilities  were  so  marked 
and  his  zeal  so  apparent,  that  in  1510 
he,  with  a  brother  monk,  was  chosen  to 
visit  Rome  on  business  of  the  order. 
The  sight  of  Rome  and  the  memories 
it  called  up  moved  the  impressionable 
young  man  so  deeply  that  he  fell  on  his 
knees   and  cried,  "Hail,  Rome  I  holy 


LUTHER  AXD  LUTHERANISM 


LUTHER  AND  LUTHERANISM  531 


■city,  thrice  sanctified  by  the  blood  of 
martyrs  1 " 

From  his  coming  to  man's  estate  Lu- 
ther's mind  seems  never  to  have  been 
■wholly  at  rest,  nor  were  his  convictions 
■wholly  clear  on  certain  doctrinal  points. 
At  Rome,  the  Rome  of  Leo  X.,  he  was 
scandalised  to  hear  that  many  priests 
•were  unbelievers.  Returning  to  his  uni- 
Tcrsitj-,  he  resumed  his  lectures  and  his 
studies,  was  made  Doctor  of  Theology 
(1512),  and  studied  closely  Greek  and 
Hebrew  in  order  to  enable  him  better  to 
expound  the  Scriptures.  About  this  time 
Pope  Leo  X.  proclaimed  indulgences  in 
Germany,  for  those  who  contributed  to 
the  completion  of  St.  Peter's  basilica  in 
Rome.  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  elector 
and  archbishop  of  Mentz  and  Magdeburg, 
was  ordered  to  publish  the  indulgences, 
and  John  Tetzel,  of  Leipzig,  a  learned 
and  eloquent  Dominican,  was  appointed 
by  Albert  to  preach  the  indulgences 
among  the  people. 

The  proclamation  of  indulgences  was 
not  new  in  Germany,  nor  was  opposition 
to  it  on  the  part  of  the  people  and  of  both 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities  new. 
[See  Indulgences.] 

When  Tetzel  began  to  preach  the 
indulgences,  opposition  at  once  brolie 
out,  and  Luther  took  the  lead  in  the 
opposition.  He  drew  up  his  objections 
in  the  shape  of  ninety-five  propositions, 
which  he  fastened  to  the  door  of  the 
castle  church  at  Wittenberg  on  AU 
Saints'  eve  (October  31,  1517).  In  these 
he  attacked  the  abuse,  not  the  doctrine, 
of  indulgences,  pronouncing  anathema 
on  whosoever  spoke  against  the  truth  of 
Papal  indulgences  (Prop.  71).  He  stated, 
furthermore,  that  he  had  no  purpose  to 
speak  against  Holy  W^rit  or  the  doctrines 
of  the  Popes  and  Fathers  of  the  Church. 
Nevertheless  the  propositions  contained 
the  germ  of  his  future  heresy. 

In  assailing  the  abuse  of  indulgences 
Luther  only  gave  voice  to  a  widespread 
feeling  in  Germany.  He  at  once  gained 
a  number  of  adherents,  among  them  men 
of  influence  both  in  Church  and  State. 
The  Bishop  of  Wurzburg  wrote  to  the 
Elector  Frederick  to  protect  Luther.  A 
heated  controversy  arose.  There  were 
various  replies  to  Luther,  one  of  the 
ablest  being  by  Tetzel.  A  more  famous 
and  learned  opponent  stiU  was  Dr.  John 
Eck,  \- ice-chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Ingoldstadt.  Luther,  now  wholly  roused, 
replied  with  heat  and  haste  to  his  adver- 
saries, and  in  a  style  and  manner  not  at 


all  in  accord  with  modem  ideas  of  con- 
troversial courtesy.  His  opponents  were 
asses,  pigs,  dolts,  &c.,  and  were  assailed 
with  still  viler  epithets.  Where  he  failed 
in  argument  he  took  refuge  in  invective, 
often  of  the  coarsest  kind.  As  the  con- 
troversy deepened  he  struck  farther  away 
from  the  doctrinal  truths  he  had  hitherto 
preached  and  taught.  Yet  he  claimed 
to  be  in  perfect  accord  and  sympathy 
with  the  centre  of  Catholic  doctrine,  and 
in  the  letter  to  Pope  Leo  X^  which 
accompanied  his  propositions  and  their 
defence  he  wrote :  "  Most  Holy  Father, 
I  cast  myself  at  thy  feet  with  aU  that  I 
have  and  am.  Give  life  or  take  it ;  call, 
recall,  approve,  reprove ;  your  voice  is 
that  of  Christ,  who  presides  and  speaks 
in  you." 

Probably  none  of  the  parties  engaged 
in  the  controversy  had  any  idea  at  this 
time  whither  it  was  drifting.  The  Pope 
took  the  matter  easily.  Nevertheless  he 
appointed  a  court  to  try  the  case  and 
summoned  (August  7,  1518)  Luther  to 
Rome  to  defend  himself.  At  the  request 
of  the  Elector  Frederick,  the  Diet  of 
Augsburg  was  substituted  for  Rome  as 
the  place  of  trial,  and  Cardinal  Cajetan, 
Papal  legate,  was  ap])ointed  to  represent 
the  Pope  at  the  Diet.  Luther  appeared 
(October  1518).  The  cardinal's  in- 
structions were  to  enter  into  no  con- 
troversy, but  demand  an  absolute  retrac- 
tation on  Luther's  part.  Luther  claimed 
that  he  had  said  naught  against  the 
Scriptures,  the  doctrine  of  the  Church, 
the  decrees  of  Popes,  or  reason.  He  con- 
sented to  declare  formally  his  reverence 
and  obedience  to  "  the  Roman  Church  in 
every  word  and  deed,  whether  in  time 
past,  present,  or  future,"  and  if  he  had 
said  aught  contrary  to  this  declaration  he 
wished  it  to  be  considered  as  having  been 
never  spoken.  He  fled  from  Augsburg 
angry  at  heart. 

The  Pope  issued  a  bull  explaining 
clearly  the  true  teaching  of  the  Church 
on  indulgences  (November  9,  1518),  and 
sent  Charles  of  Miltitz,  himself  a  Saxon, 
as  nuncio  into  Germany  with  a  view  to 
reconciling  all  parties  and  bringing  about 
peace.  Miltitz  seemed  to  side  with 
Luther  as  against  Tetzel.  He  prevailed 
upon  Luther  to  -write  another  letter 
(March  3,  1519)  of  complete  submission 
to  the  Pope  and  to  the  authority  of  the 
Church  ;  but  the  nuncio  was  deceived  in 
imagining  his  mission  accomplished. 

While  the  German  bishops  were  pre- 
paring to  meet  and  confer  on  the  poiuta 


582  LUTHER  AND  LUTHERANISM 


LUTHER  AND  LUTHERANISM 


of  dispute,  a  public  discussion  took  place 
at  Leipzig  between  Luther  and  his  friends 
and  their  opponents.  George,  duke  of 
Sa.xony,  presided,  and  a  large  and  culti- 
vated audience  assembled.  With  Luther 
were  his  friend  Carlstadt  and  the  Witten- 
berg professors.  Opposed  to  them  whs 
the  learned  Eck,  and  the  professors  of 
Cologne,  Louvain,  and  Leipzig.  The 
chief  matters  of  discussion  were  the  con- 
dition of  man  after  the  fall ;  free-will  and 
grace ;  penance  and  indulgences ;  and  the 
primacy  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  which 
primacy,  Luther  maintained,  rested  only 
ou  human  authority,  claiming  that  the 
Pope  had  no  more  jurisdiction  than  the 
Archbishop  of  Magdeburg  or  the  Bishop 
of  Paris.  Here  also  Luther  gave  open 
expression  to  his  doctrine  that  faith 
alone,  with  or  without  good  works,  secures 
salvation.  He  furthermore  denied  free- 
will in  man  and  the  infallibility  of  the 
oecumenical  councils.  Duke  George, 
seeing  the  danger  of  these  propositions, 
stopped  the  discussion. 

The  universities  of  Paris,  Louvain, 
and  Cologne  condemned  Luther's  propo- 
sitions (1519).  Luther  retaliated  with 
abuse  of  the  faculties  of  those  establish- 
ments, and  on  October  11,  1520,  wrote  to 
the  Pope,  sending  him  his  pamphlet  on 
"  Christian  Liberty,"  and  assailing  in 
virulent  terms  the  whole  office  and  dig- 
nity of  the  Papacy.  Meantime  he  was 
incessant  in  defence  of  his  theories,  and 
between  1520  and  1521  he  launched  out 
pamphlet  after  pamphlet,  that  were 
eagerly  caught  up  by  the  German  people 
and  spread  abroad,  creating  discussion 
and  tumult  everywhere.  In  these  he 
taught  that  the  Bible  was  the  only  source 
of  faith  ;  that  human  nature  was  wholly 
corrupted  by  original  sin;  tliat  conse- 
quently man  was  not  free,  and  whatever 
he  did,  whether  good  or  ill,  was  the  work 
of  God ;  that  faith  alone  saves  ;  that  the 
hierarchy  and  priesthood  are  unnecessary, 
and  exterior  worship  is  useless ;  that  the 
sacraments  were  profitless  (a  doctrine 
that  he  afterwards  modified),  and  that 
Christian  priesthood  is  universal. 

These  doctrines,  especially  the  last, 
caught  the  hearts  of  multitudes,  the  gist 
of  them  being  an  absolute  freedom  from 
all  restraint  and  a  practical  sanctification 
of  sin.  Luther  appealed  strongly  to  the 
spirit  of  nationality  and  greed.  He  ad- 
dressed tli«  emperor,  the  nobles,  and  the 
peoples.  He  urged  the  emperor  to  over- 
throw the  power  of  the  Pope,  confiscate 
the  wealth  of  the  Church,  abolish  feasts 


and  holidays,  and  Masses  for  the  dead. 
He  substituted  German  for  the  Latin, 
which  was  the  literary  language  of  the 
time,  and  by  this  means  his  teachings 
spread  the  more  readily  among  his  coun- 
trymen, while  he  made  use  of  vile  illus- 
trations to  caricature  the  Pope,  the  monks, 
and  the  teachings  of  the  Church. 

On  June  15,  1520,  the  Pope  issued  a 
bull  specifically  condemning  Luther's 
teachings  and  excommunicating  him  if 
he  refused  to  retract  within  sixty  days. 
Luther  retorted  with  a  pamphlet  in 
which  he  held  the  author  of  the  bull  to 
be  Antichrist.  He  succeeded  in  winning 
over  the  elector  of  Saxony,  who  used  his 
good  offices  in  Luther's  behalf  with  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  Luther  appealed 
(November  17,  1520)  from  the  authority 
of  the  Pope  to  a  general  council,  and  on 
December  10,  1520,  publicly  burned  the 
Pope's  bull  at  Wittenberg,  consigning 
the  Pope  himself  to  "  fire  eternal."  The 
emperor,  seeing  the  fiame  that  was  being 
kindled  over  the  land,  convoked  the 
German  Diet  at  Worms  (1521).  Luther 
appeared  before  the  Diet  to  answer  the 
charges  against  him,  and  refused  to  re- 
tract unless  "convicted  of  error  by  Scrip- 
ture proof  or  by  plain  reason,"  he  relying 
absolutely  on  his  own  interpretation  of 
Scripture.  All  efforts  to  change  him 
being  unavailing,  he  was  ordered  to  quit 
Worms,  and  left  under  a  safe-conduct. 
He  was  taken  to  Wartburg,  near  Eisenach, 
and  there  remained  from  May  1521  to 
March  1522,  living  under  the  name  of 
"  Master  George "  and  dressing  as  a 
knight.  The  Diet  of  Worms  placed  him 
under  the  ban  of  the  empire  as  a  heretic. 
But  the  circumstances  of  the  time  and 
the  opposition  of  the  German  States  ren- 
dered the  edict  ineffective. 

At  Wartburg,  which  he  called  his 
"  Patmos,"  Luther  employed  most  of  his 
time  in  translating  the  Bible  into  German 
and  in  issuing  more  pamphlets.'    Leo  X. 

>  The  Church  Times  of  July  26,  1878,  speak- 
ing of  the  List  of  Bibles  in  the  Caxtnn  Exhibi- 
tion (South  KensioKton,  1877),  published  by 
H.  Stevens,  says :  "  This  catalogue  will  be  very 
useful  for  one  thing  at  any  rate,  as  disproving 
the  popular  lie  about  Luther  finding  the  Bib  e 
for  the  first  time  at  Erfurt  about  1507.  Not 
only  are  there  very  many  editions  of  the  Latio 
Vulgate  long  anterior  to  that  time,  but  there 
were  actually  nine  German  editions  of  the  Bible 
in  the  Caxton  Exhibition  earlier  than  14H3,  the 
year  of  Luther's  birth,  and  at  least  three  more 
before  the  end  of  the  century."  Mr.  H.  Stevens 
writes  in  the  Athenieum  of  October  6,  1883, 
p.  434:  "By  1507  more  than  one  hundred 
Latin  Bibles  had  been  printed,  some  of  them 


LUTHER  AND  LUTIIERANISM 


LUTHER  AND  LUTIIER.\NISM  583 


died  December  1, 1 521,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Adrian  VI.,  who  took  up  with  great 
earnestness  the  subject  of  reform  within 
the  (^hurch.  He  urged  the  Diet  of  Niirn- 
berg  (November  1 522)  to  take  active  and 
vigorous  stejis  against  Luther,  for  "the 
revolt  now  directed  against  the  spiritual 
authority  will  shortly  deal  a  blow  at  the 
temporal  also."  The  Diet  confessed  that 
it  was  impossible  to  enforce  the  edict 
against  Luther  for  fear  of  a  popular  up- 
rising. Adrian  died  in  1523  and  was 
succeeded  by  Clement  VII. 

Clement  sent  Cardinal  Campeggio  to 
the  Diet  at  Niirnberg,  but  he  was  as  un- 
successful as  his  predecessors.  Most  of 
the  princes  seemed  to  favour  a  break 
with  Rome,  and  Frederick,  the  elector  of 
Saxony,  made  himself  the  chief  protector 
of  Luther  and  those  who  followed  him. 
The  States  divided  :  Mecklenburg,  An- 
halt,  Mansfeld,  Prussia,  and  the  cities  of 
Brunswick  and  Magdeburg  declared  for 
Luther,  under  the  leadership  of  John, 
the  new  elector  of  Saxony,  and  Philip 
landgrave  of  Hesse,  an  alliance  being 
concluded  at  Torgau  (May  4,  1526).  The 
other  side  made  an  alliance  at  Dessau, 
and  thus  began  the  division  between  the 
Catholic  and  Protestant  Statesof  Germany. 

Luther's  teachings  had  already  taken 
effect  among  the  people.  Many  monks 
renounced  their  orders  and  their  vows. 
Carlstadt,  Luther's  friend,  raised  a  mob 
at  Wittenberg  and  destroyed  the  altars 
and  images  of  Christ  and  the  saints. 
The  same  was  done  elsewhere.  Infant 
baptism  was  rejected  at  Zwickau,  where 
Nicholas  Storch  organised  a  society  that 
developed  into  the  Anabaptists.  These 
attracted  Carlstadt  and  other  prominent 
Lutherans,  and  great  excesses  were  corn- 
small  and  cheap  pocket  editions.  There  had 
been,  besides,  thirteen  edition$  of  a  translation  of 
the  Vulgate  into  German,  and  others  in  other 
modern  l.nnsuages.  .  .  .  Amo-^s  the  most 
interesting  additions  latest  made  [to  the  Gren- 
ville  Library  in  the  British  Museum]  is  a 
nearly  complete  set  of  fourteen  grand  old  pre- 
Luther  German  Bibles,  1460-1518,  all  in  huge 
folios  except  the  twelfth,  which  is  in  quarto 
form."  The  Athenaeum  of  December  22,  188a, 
contains  an  article  on  "  The  German  Bible  before 
Luther,"  in  which  it  is  shown  that  what  Geffcken 
calls  "the  German  Vulgate  "  was  in  common  use 
aniiing  the  people  long  before  Luther's  time;  that 
Luther  had  evidently  the  old  Catholic  German 
Bible  of  1483  before  him,  when  making  his 
translation  ;  and  that,  consequently,  "  it  is  time 
we  should  hear  no  more  of  I.uther  as  the  first 
German  Bible  translator,  and  of  his  translation 
as  an  independent  work  from  the  original 
Greek  "'  (from  The  Bible  and  the  Reformation, 
by  C.  F.  B.  Allnatt). 


j  mitted  by  them  at  Wittenberg.  Luther 
took  alarm,  and  leaving  Wartburg  reached 
Wittenberg  on  Good  Friday,  1522.  All 
through  Easter  week  he  harangued  his 
followers  and  condemned  their  violence. 
More  monks  left  their  convents,  took 
wives,  and  recruited  the  Lutheran  ranks. 
The  teaching  of  human  irresponsil)ility 
for  sin  and  disregard  of  all  authority 
took  effect  among  the  masses.  The  pea- 
sants rose  in  rebellion  against  their  lords, 
burned  convents,  and  stormed  the  castles 
of  the  nobles.  Thomas  Miinster  took  the 
lead,  preaching  human  equality.  Luther 
himself  was  compelled  to  preach  against 
those  whom  his  doctrines  had  aroused, 
and  he  urged  the  nobles  to  slay  without 
mercy  these  "  children  of  the  devil."  His 
advice  was  taken,  and  it  is  estimated  that 
a  hundred  thousand  peasants  were  slain 
in  the  "  Peasants'  War." 

Luther  called  Henry  VTII.  the 
"crowned  ass,  liar,  varlet,  idiot,  snivel- 
ling sophist,  and  swine  of  the  Thomist 
herd."  The  learned  Erasmus  was  also 
drawn  into  the  controversy  against 
Luther,  and  was  answered  in  similar 
strain.  Luther  had  now  thrown  olF  his 
monk's  habit,  and  on  June  13,  1525,  he 
married  Katharina  von  Bora,  an  ex-nun 
of  Nimptschen,  in  Saxony.  He  had  been 
already  famed  for  his  free  life  even  among 
his  own  followers,  and  this  final  step 
brought  great  ridicule  on  the  Reformer. 
"It  was  thought,'' wrote  Erasmus,  "  that 
Luther  was  the  hero  of  a  tragedy;  but 
for  my  part  I  regard  him  as  playing  the 
chief  part  in  a  comedy,  that  has  ended, 
like  all  comedies,  in  a  marriage." 

Luther's  adherents  had  become  so 
numerous  that  he  found  it  necessary  to 
systematise  a  form  of  faith  and  of  eccle- 
siastical government  for  them  in  lieu  of 
that  which  he  had  taught  them  to  reject. 
A  synod  was  called  at  Homburg  by 
Philip  of  Hesse  (October  152G).  It  was 
there  agreed  to  adopt  a  synodal  constitu- 
tion which  gave  each  congregation  com- 
plete control  over  its  own  ecclesiastical 
discipline.  This  plan,  with  some  modifi- 
cations to  secure  outward  uniformity, 
was  adopted  in  the  Lutheran  States. 
Preachers  were  appointed  by  a  commis- 
sion of  ecclesiastics  and  laymen.  The 
established  ecclesiastical  foundations  were 
abolished,  and  the  head  of  the  State  was 
made  the  supreme  authority  within  the 
State  on  matters  of  Cliurch  government. 
To  educate  the  rising  generation  in  his 
doctrines  Luther  published  a  larger  and 
a  smaller  catechism  to  be  used  in  the 


684  LUTHEE  AND  LUTHERANISM 


LUTHER  AND  LUTHERANISM 


schools  (1529).  These  measures  brought 
the  Lutherans  closer  together,  and  at  the 
Diet  of  Spires,  held  in  1526,  the  Lutheran 
States  presented  a  bold  and  organised 
front  in  the  persons  of  their  princes.  The 
emperor  was  at  war  and  consequently  not 
in  a  position  to  enforce  any  demands. 
The  Diet,  accordingly,  at  the  dictate  of 
the  Lutherans,  recognised,  until  the  meet- 
ing of  an  cecimienical  council,  the  right  of 
each  State  to  act  for  itself  in  regard  to 
religious  matters.  The  Diet  assembled 
again  at  Spires  in  1529  to  determine  reli- 
gious dilllciilties  and  take  measures  against 
the  Turks.  The  conditions  proposed  hy 
the  Catholic  princes  were  moderate 
enough,  but  the  Lutherans  solemnly 
protested  against  them,  whence  the  name 
of  Protestants  (April  19,  1529).  They 
claimed  to  be  the  exclusive  heirs  of  the 
true  religion,  the  only  members  of  the 
one  saving  Church  of  Jesus  Christ,  and 
pronounced  the  Mass  an  idolatrous  act  of 
worship  which  should  not  be  tolerated. 

Disputes  arose  among  the  Lutherans 
themselves  concerning  the  Eucharist. 
Luther  denied  the  Catholic  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  and  denied  also 
Zwingli's  figurative  interpretation  of  the 
words  "  This  is  my  body."  He  invented 
the  theory  of  consubstantiation.  A  con- 
ference was  held  at  Marburg  (October  1, 

1529)  to  settle  the  dispute,  but  it  only 
served  to  widen  the  dissension,  and  mani- 
fest the  absurdity  of  Luther's  claim  to 
free  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures. 

A  Diet  was  held  at  Augsburg  (June 

1530)  ,  at  which  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
presided.  The  Emperor  demanded  a 
written  confession  of  faith  from  the  Pro- 
testant princes  and  a  list  of  the  practices 
of  "which  they  complained.  Hence  origi- 
nated what  is  known  as  the  Augsburg 
Confession,  or  Symbol  of  Faith,  which 
was  dravm  up  by  ^Melanchthon  and  suf- 
fered subsequent  changes.  Luther  fuUy 
approved  of  it.  The  Confession  was  an 
embodiment  of  Luther's  teachings  in  a 
partially  disguised  form,  and  among  the 
pretended  abuses  were  Communion  under 
one  kind,  private  Masses,  clerical  celibacy, 
confession,  and  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy. 
The  Catholic  theologians  drew  up  a  Con- 
futation of  the  Confession,  which  met  the 
approval  of  the  emperor  and  of  the  Catho- 
lic princes,  and  the  Protestants  were 
ordered  to  remuince  their  errors  and  re- 
turn to  the  ancient  faith.  A  hopeless 
attempt  to  bring  about  unity  was  made, 
but  frustrated  by  Luther  and  his  more 
resolute  followers.    The  Zwinglian  cities 


drew  up  a  Confession  of  their  own,  and 
Zwingli  himself  another  of  his  own 
The  emperor  put  an  end  to  the  profitless 
discussion,  giving  the  Protestants  till 
the  15th  of  the  following  April  to  deter- 
mine on  their  course. 

The  Protestant  princes  met  at  Smal- 
kald  on  Christmas  Day,  15-30,  and  there 
entered  on  an  offensive  and  defensive 
alliance,  known  as  the  League  of  Smal- 
kald  (March  29,  1531),  to  bind  them  for 
seven  years.    Both  Luther  and  Melan- 
I  chthon  now  authorised  the  use  of  arms 
for  the  maintenance  of  Protestantism, 
i  The  emperor,  needing  the  Protestant  alli- 
i  ance,  entered  into  negotiations  with  them, 
I  conceding  at  Niirnberg  (July  23,  1532) 
that  until  the  assembly  of  a  general 
council  no  action  should  be  taken  against 
the   Protestants,   but   that  everything 
should  remain  as  it  was.    This  is  known 
as  the  Peace  of  Niirnberg. 

Clement  VII.  died  in  1534,  and  was 
j  succeeded  by  Paul  III.,  who  was  anxious 
I  to  convene  a  council,  that  the  I'rotestants 
might   attend.    But  they  rejected  all 
overtures.    The  League  of  Smallcald  was 
renewed  (1535)  for  ten  years.    In  15.34 
Luther  completed  his  translation  of  the 
whole  Bible,  and  in  1537  issued  the  Arti- 
1  cles  of  Smalkald,  which  were  accepted  by 
the  League,  and  which  embodied  a  spirit 
I  of  deep  hostility  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
I  "  May  God  fill  you  with  hatred  of  the 
I  Pope!"  was  his  parting  benediction  to 
i  the  League,  and  thenceforth  the  League 
i  refused  to  attend  any  council  of  the 
Church. 

The   Swiss   joined    the  Protestant 
League  in  15.38,   and  the  elector  of 
Brandenburg  in  1539.     The  duchy  of 
Saxony  also  joined,  and  Luther  con- 
tinued to  inflame  the  minds  of  princes 
j  and  people  against  the  Catholic  Church 
j  and  the  council.  The  emperor  summoned 
j  another  religious  conference,  which  finally 
met  at  Woi-ms  (January  14,  1541).  It 
resulted  in  nothing.    A  Diet  was  next 
called  at  Ratisbon  (April  5),  which  proved 
equally  ineffectual. 

The  Anabaptists,  supposed  to  have 
been  crushed  in  the  Peasants'  War.  now 
rose  up  again  and  appeared  in  Miinster 
under  John  of  Leyden  and  others.  Poly- 
gamy was  introduced,  and  riot  of  every 
kind  reigned,  until  the  city,  after  a  siege 
of  eighteen  months,  was  taken  by  storm 
(June  25,  1535)  and  the  leaders  executed 
with  extreme  cruelty.  Philip  of  Hesse, 
who  had  been  mamed  sixteen  years,  and, 
with  his  wife  living,  was  a  notorious  free- 


LUTHER  AND  LrTHERAXISM 


LYOXS,  COUNCILS  OF  685 


liver,  asked  Luther  to  authorise  him  to 
marry  a  second  wife.  After  much  hesi- 
tation the  Reformer,  fearful  of  losing 
Philip's  assistance,  granted  the  requisite 
authorisation  "  in  order  to  provide  for  the 
welfare  of  his  body  and  soul,  and  to  bring 
greater  glory  to  God." 

Lutheranism  now  began  to  be  intruded 
uito  various  places  by  force  of  arms. 
Luther  saw  the  seeds  of  religious  dissolu- 
tion already  at  work.  His  health  was 
broken  and  his  spirit,  save  as  against 
Rome.  He  entertained  grave  doubts 
about  the  efficacy  of  his  work.  The  re- 
form he  saw  to  be  a  reform  downwards. 
Public  morals  were  at  a  lower  grade  than 
they  had  been  before.  "  Since  we  began 
to  preach  our  doctrine,"  he  said  in  his 
pulpit  at  Wittenberg  in  15-32,  "  the  world 
has  grown  daily  worse,  more  impious, 
and  more  shameless.  Men  are  now  beset 
by  legions  of  devils,  and,  while  enjoying 
the  full  light  of  the  Gospel,  are  more 
avaricious,  more  impure  and  repulsive, 
than  of  old  under  the  Papacy.  Peasants, 
burghers,  and  nobles — men  of  all  degrees, 
the  highest  as  well  as  the  lowest — are  all 
alike  slaves  to  avarice,  drunkenness, 
gluttony,  and  impurity,  and  given  over  to 
shameful  excesses  and  abominable  pas- 
fiions."  "  Let  us  go  from  this  Sodom," 
he  wrote  to  Catharine  in  1545,  and  quitted 
Wittenberg  in  disgust,  onlj'  returning  at 
the  demand  of  the  elector  and  of  the  uni- 
versity. At  Eisleben  he  died  shortly 
after  delivering  a  most  violent  sermon 
against  the  Jews. 

Owing  to  the  wars,  scandals,  and  dis- 
turbances of  the  time  Lutheranism  spread 
rapidly  over  many  of  the  German  States 
and  cities,  being  imposed  upon  some  by 
force  of  arms.  Albert  of  Brandenburg 
introduced  it  into  Prussia,  andathis  death 
in  1568  Lutheranism  was  the  predominant 
religion  in  his  domain  of  West  Prussia. 
It  readily  made  its  way  into  Silesia,  where 
the  Lutherans  soon  quarrelled  among 
themselves  on  doctrinal  matters.  It 
entered  more  slowly  into  Poland,  and 
after  a  severe  struggle  its  progress  was 
stayed  by  the  exertions  of  some  holy  and 
zealous  prelates  and  the  coming  of  the 
Jesuits.  It  made  more  rapid  advances 
in  Livonia,  Courland,  Esthonia,  Hungary, 
and  Transylvania,  though  in  Hungary  it 
was  supplanted  by  Calvinism.  In  Sweden 
it  was  established  by  Gustavus  Vasa,  and 
soon  passed  into  Denmark,  Norway,  and 
Iceland.  The  same  causes  were  at  work 
everywhere  to  favour  its  progress:  cor- 
ruption of  public  morals,  wealth  of  the 


Church,  scandals  among  the  clergy,  greed 
of  gain  on  the  part  of  the  princes,  nobles, 
and  people.  After  the  first  flush  of  con- 
quest Lutheranism  never  made  any  ad- 
vance in  territory.  It  remained  stationary 
or  receded  in  favour  of  Catholicity.  "  The 
geographical  frontier  between  the  two 
religions," says  Macaulay,'  "has  continued 
to  run  almost  precisely  where  it  ran  at 
the  close  of  the  Thirtjr  Years'  War  ;  nor 
has  Protestantism  given  any  proofs  of 
that  '  expansive  power '  which  has  been 
ascribed  to  it ;  "  and  again :  "  We  think 
it  a  most  remarkable  fact  that  no  Chris- 
tian nation  which  did  not  adopt  the 
principles  of  the  Reformation  before  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  should  ever 
have  adopted  them."  It  is  estimated  that 
there  are  about  40,000,000  Lutherans  in 
the  world,  20,000,000  of  these  being  Ger- 
mans. Recent  reports  show  that  onlj-  a 
small  minority  of  these  are  communicants. 
The  masses  of  the  Lutheran  population 
in  Germany  no  longer  attend  church. 
Lutheranism  was  first  introduced  into 
the  North  American  colonies  by  a  colony 
of  Swedes  about  16.30,  the  first  church 
being  built  in  1637.  To-day  Lutherans 
rank  about  fourth  in  numerical  order 
among  the  Protestant  denominations  of 
the  United  States. 

IiYOM'S,  COUM'CZI.S  OT.  I.  The 
first  General  Council  of  Lyons  ended  the 
j  long  strife  between  the  emperor  Frederic 
II.  and  the  Church.  The  emperor,  who 
was  educated  under  Innocent  III.,  was  a 
man  of  extraordinary  abilities  and  of  a 
wide  culture,  most  unusual  in  that  age. 
He  was  a  great  statesman,  he  fostered 
the  schools  of  Palermo  and  Naples,  en- 
couraged the  study  of  Arabic,  philosophy 
[  and  mathematics,  and  set  in  his  own 
person  an  example  of  taste  in  Italian 
literature.  Unhappily,  he  had  a  super- 
stitious belief  in  astrology,  he  was  charged 
with  grave  immorality,  his  temper  was 
cruel  and  despotic,  and  his  word  could 
not  be  trusted.  He  had  been  crowned 
emperor  Ln  1220,  and  his  diff'erences  with 
the  Church,  which  had  begun  under  the 
gentle  Pope  Honorius  III.,  broke  out 
into  open  war  under  Gregoiy  IX.,  in 
whom  Frederic  met  an  antagonist  as 
determined  as  himself.  In  1227,  the 
j  Pope  excommunicated  the  emperor  for 
I  constantly  deferring  a  crusade  which  he 
had  promised  to  undertake.  The  latter 
replied  by  seizing  Rome  and  driving  out 
the  Pope.  When  he  did  go  to  Jerusalem, 
!  he  was  still  excommunicate ;  he  showed 
I      '  Essay  on  Ranke's  History  of  the  Popes. 


m     LYOXS,  COUNCILS  OF 


LYONS,  COUNCILS  OF 


that  he  had  undertaken  the  crusade 
purely  from  political  motives;  stories 
were  circulated  of  his  contemptuous 
speeches  in  the  Holy  City,  which  gained 
for  him  the  reputation  of  an  unbeliever; 
and  it  was  not  till  1230  that  he  was 
absolved  from  excommunication.  In  1239 
he  again  incurred  excommunication  for 
his  attacks  on  the  Lombards,  and  for 
setting  his  natural  son  Enzio  on  the 
throne  of  Sardinia,  a  fief  of  the  Church. 
He  seized  the  States  of  the  Church,  and 
in  the  midst  of  the  strife  Gregory  IX. 
died,  (.'elestine  IV.  reigned  only  for  a 
few  days,  and  the  Holy  See  was  vacant 
for  two  years.  In  1243,  Innocent  IV.,  a 
former  friend  of  Frederic's,  was  elected 
Pope.  The  new  Pope  refused  to  absolve 
Frederic  except  on  conditions  which  the 
emperor  would  not  accept.  Frederic 
promoted  sedition  and  tumult  in  Rome, 
and  by  occupying  all  roads,  bridges,  and 
harbours,  cut  the  Pope  off  from  inter- 
course with  the  rest  of  the  world.  In 
this  extremity,  the  Pope  fled  from  Sutri 
by  Civita  Vecchia  and  Genoa  to  Lyons, 
whither,  on  January  3,  12<1:5,  he  sum- 
moned all  kings,  princes  and  prelates  to 
a  general  council. 

The  Byzantine  emperor,  Baldwin  11., 
the  Latin  Patriarchs  of  Constantinople, 
Antioch,  and  Aquileia,  and  140  bishops, 
besides  cardinals,  were  present  at  the  con- 
sultation previous  to  the  council,  while 
the  famous  jurist  Taddeo  di  Suessa  de- 
fended the  cause  of  his  master,  Frederic. 
At  the  first  session  (June  28,  1245),  in 
the  cathedral  church  of  St.  John,  the 
Pope,  in  a  long  speech,  enlarged  on  the 
five  wounds  of  Christendom — viz.  the 
sins  of  the  higher  and  lower  clergy,  the 
supremacy  of  the  infidels  in  the  Holy 
Land,  the  straits  of  the  Latin  emperor  in 
Constantinople,  the  excesses  of  the  Tar- 
tars in  Hungary  and  the  neighbouring 
countries,  the  oppression  of  the  Church 
by  the  emperor  Frederic.  He  accused 
the  emperor  of  perjury,  sacrilege,  and 
heresy ;  of  immorality ;  of  maintaining 
an  understanding  with  the  Saracens ;  of 
friendship  with  the  Saltan  of  Babylon. 
In  the  third  session  various  decrees  were 
passed  on  elections  to  benefices,  contri- 
butions to  be  levied  for  the  Holy  Land 
and  the  Latin  Empire  in  the  East,  and 
for  help  against  the  Tartars;  on  the 
abuse  of  Church  censures,  &c.  &c.  Again 
Taddeo  sought  to  exculpate  his  master, 
and,  failing  in  this,  he  protested  against 
the  proceedings  of  the  council,  denied 
that  it  was  oecumenical,  though  there 


were  now  250  bishops  present,  and  ap- 
pealed to  a  future  Pope  and  true  general 
council.  The  Pope,  at  the  council's  re- 
quest, solemnly  renewed  the  sentence  of 
excommunication  against  Frederic,  de- 
posed him  from  his  office,  and  absolved 
his  subjects  from  allegiance,  authorised  a 
new  election  to  the  empire,  excommuni- 
cated all  who  should  serve  him,  whether 
as  emperor  or  king,  and  promised  that 
the  Holy  See  would  provide  for  Sicily. 
The  bishops  dashed  their  candles  to  the 
ground,  in  token  of  assent,  and  set  their 
seals  to  the  instrument  of  excommunica/- 
tion. 

In  1246,  the  electors  who  took  the 
ecclesiastical  side  raised  Henry  Raspe  of 
Thiiringen,  and  after  his  death,  in  1247, 
William  of  Holland,  nephew  of  the  Duk© 
of  Brabant,  to  the  royal  dignity.  Frede- 
ric had  still  a  considerable  following, 
but  his  son  Conrad  had  been  defeated  at 
Frankfort  in  1246,  and  he  himself  met 
with  a  decided  reverse  before  Parma,  in 
1248.  In  1250,  he  died  in  Apulia,  56 
years  of  age.  He  had  made  his  confession 
to  his  friend  the  archbishop  of  Palermo, 
and  been  reconciled  to  the  Church. 

II.  Pope  Gregory  X.,  who  was  eager 
for  a  new  crusade,  opened  the  Second 
Council  of  Lyons  (the  Fourteenth  Gene- 
ral Council)  in  May  1274.  James  I.  of 
Aragon,  the  Latin  Patriarchs  of  Con- 
stantinople and  Antioch,  ambassadors 
from  England,  France,  Germany,  and 
Sicily,  500  bishops,  besides  other  pre- 
lates, met  in  the  cathedral  church.  St, 
Thomas  of  Aquin  died  on  his  way  to  the 
council ;  St.  Buonaventure  was  actually 
present,  and  died  before  it  was  over.  A 
tax  was  imposed  on  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fices in  favour  of  the  East.  On  June  24 
the  Greek  ambassadors  arrived,  and  in 
the  Mass  on  the  feast  of  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul  the  Gospel  and  Creed  were  sung 
in  Greek  as  well  as  in  Latin,  the  clause 
"Filioque"  being  repeated  three  times. 
In  the  fourth  session,  July  6,  the  docu- 
ments from  the  Greek  emperor,  Michael 
Palseologus,  from  the  heir  to  his  throne, 
and  from  their  prelates  were  publicly  read, 
and  the  emperor's  representative  swore 
that  his  master  renounced  the  schism 
and  returned  to  the  obedience  of  the 
Pope.  The  union  thus  effected  was 
scarcely  more  than  nominal,  and  certainly 
was  of  short  duration,  but  it  led  to  an 
important  definition  by  the  council — viz. 
that  "  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  eternally 
from  the  Father  and  the  Son,"  "  as  from 
one  principle"  and  "by  a  single  spira- 


MACCABEES,  FEAST  OF 


MANICIIEE3 


587 


tion."  An  important  measure  was  passed 
to  regulate  and  accelerate  Papal  elections. 
The  cardinals  were  to  assemble  in  the 
town  where  the  last  Pope  died,  ten  days 
after  his  decease  ;  they  were  to  he  strictly 
secluded  "  in  conclave "  from  the  outer 
world;  their  rations  were  to  be  dimi- 


nished after  the  first  three  days,  and 
diminished  yet  further  after  eight  days, 
if  their  business  still  remained  to  be 
done.  Other  decretals  (collected  in  the 
"  Sextus  Decretalium  ")  were  published 
by  the  Pope,  partly  during,  partly  after, 
the  council.    (Hefele,  "  Concilien.") 


M 


MACCABEES,  FEAST  OF.  [See 

Saints.] 

MACEDOirzAiirs  (called  also  Fneur- 
matoiitdchi).  Heretics  who  denied  that 
the  Holy  Ghost  was  God,  equal  to  and 
consubstantial  with  Father  and  Son. 
Macedonius  was  a  Semiarian  and  bishop 
of  Constantinople  till  his  deposition  by 
the  Acacians,  who  were  pronounced 
Arians  in  360.  After  his  deposition,  his 
influence  brought  the  Trinitarian  con- 
troversy into  a  new  stage.  Confessing 
that  tlie  Son  was  like  the  Father  in 
substance,  he  held  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
was  a  creature,  like  the  angels,  and  a 
servant  of  the  Father  and  the  Son.  He 
was  joined  by  several  of  tlie  Semiarian 
leaders,  Eustathius  of  Scljnste,  Eleusius 
of  Cyzicus,  and  .Marat liouius  of  Nico- 
media.  This  last  w  as  a  chief  support  of 
the  party,  and  from  him  they  were  some- 
times called  Marathonians.  The  doc- 
trine, owing  partly  to  the  strict  life  of 
its  apostles,  was  widely  accepted,  not 
only  in  Constantinople,  but  also  in  all 
Thrace,  Bithynia,  and  the  neighbouring 
provinces.  Under  Julian,  the  Mace- 
donians held  synods,  especially  at  Zele  in 
Pontus.  They  were  condemned  in  a 
Roman  synod  under  Pope  Damasus  in 
374,  at  a  great  Illyrian  synod  in  .')7  and 
finally  in  the  Second  General  Council  in 
381.  In  388,  Theodosius  prohibited  all 
exercise  of  their  religion.  (Hefele,  "  Con- 
cil."  vols.  i.  ii.) 

nxASOSTN-A  [Italian,  "  Mt  Lady  "]. 
A  name  given  to  representations  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  in  art,  and  occasionally 
used  as  an  invocation  in  devotions  to  her. 

MACZSTERZTTM  OF  THE 
CHURCH.    [See  CHrECH  of  Chbist.J 

MAJOR  ORDERS.  The  superior 
ranks  of  the  sacred  ministry — bishops, 
priests,  deacons,  and  subdeacons — are  said 
to  have  major  orders.  Before  the  thir- 
teenth century  the  subdiaconate  was  one 
of  the  minor  orders. 


ItfAWZCHEES.  Man!  or  Manes,  the 
founder  of  this  sect,  was  born  at  Babylon 
about  the  beginning  of  the  third  century. 
From  the  religion  of  the  Persians  he 
derived  the  doctrine  of  the  two  principli's, 
aiid  from  Gnostic  sects  the  notion  of  the 
hatefulness  of  matter.  He  and  his  fol- 
lowers must  not  be  regarded  as  Christians 
lapsed  into  heresy,  but  as  heathens  who 
adopted  so  much  of  Christian  ideas  as 
suited  their  purpose.  Mani  was  an 
Oriental  philosopher;  the  notion  of  a 
moral  fall,  and  a  personal  conviction  of 
sin,  on  which  Christianity  is  built  up, 
were  repugnant  to  him.  In  his  view  the 
soul  of  man  suffered,  not  from  a  weak  and 
corrupt  will,  but  from  contact  with 
matter.  \Vhatever  evils  the  soul  allows 
itself  to  commit  are  on  this  view  physical, 
not  moral — miseries,  not  sins.  Again, 
the  restorative  energy  must  be  looked  for, 
not  in  a  religion  which  reforms  the  will, 
and  after  it  the  whole  nature,  but  in  an 
enlightening  philosophy,  which  reduces 
the  contaminating  contact  with  matter 
to  a  minimum.  According  to  Mani, 
"  two  systems  stood  eternally  opposed — 
God  with  the  kingdom  of  light  and  the 
seons  [see  Gnos  ucism],  and  Satan  with 
his  kingdom  of  darkness  and  the  de- 
mons." '  Light  is  the  animating  principle 
in  all  nature;  and  all  beings  are  higher 
or  lower  according  to  the  measure  of 
their  participation  in  the  light.  Woman 
is  the  gift  of  the  demons,  who  impel  men 
to  propagate  their  kind  in  order  that 
emancipation  from  matter  and  darkness 
may  never  come  to  them.  The  ideal  light- 
clad  soul  is  the  Redeemer,  or  Christ,  who 
descended  from  heaven  in  what  was  a 
body  only  in  appearance,  to  teach  men  to 
bridle  and  extirpate  their  desires,  so  that 
they  may  return  to  their  true  home,  the 
kingdom  of  light,  The  sect  observed 
three  seals  {siffiincida) — the  seal  of  the 
mouth,  the  seal  of  the  hands,  and  the  seal 
»  Mohler,  i.  316. 


588  MANIPLE 


MANIPLE 


of  the  bosom.  By  the  first  they  were 
forbidden  to  eat  meat  or  eggs,  or  to  drink 
wine  or  milk ;  by  the  second,  to  kill  any 
animal  or  tear  in  pieces  any  plant;  by 
the  third,  to  marry,  or  at  least  to  have 
offspring.  The  members  were  divided 
into  the  "  elect "  and  the  "  hearers ; "  the 
former  were  expected  to  observe  the 
Manichfean  doctrine  strictly;  from  the 
latter  less  was  required.  They  could 
gather  plants  and  prepare  them  for  food, 
and  when  so  prepared,  the  "  elect "  took 
them  from  their  hand.s.  The  Manichees 
rejected  the  Old  Testament  altogether, 
and  while  accepting  the  New  Testament 
put  aside  such  passages  as  did  not  suit 
them  on  the  pretence  that  they  were  in- 
terpolated. They  regarded  Mani  as  the 
Paraclete  promised  by  Christ,  and  had 
a  hierarchy  imitated  from  that  of  the 
Catholic  Church.  The  sect  became 
numerous  in  the  East,  flourished  in  North 
Africa,  and  even  spread  to  several  countries 
of  Southern  Europe.  The  promises  of 
light,  wisdom,  and  enfranchisement  which 
they  held  out  to  their  disciples  seduced 
for  a  time  the  powerful  mind  of  St. 
Augustine.  Ever3-one  knows  how  he 
shook  himself  free  from  them,  and  wrote 
eloquent  treatises  against  them.  Several 
Christian  emperors,  down  to  and  includ- 
ing Justinian,  published  edicts  against 
them,  and  little  is  heard  of  Manicheeism 
after  the  sixth  century,  although  the  dis- 
tinctive doctrines  of  the  sect  reappear 
among  the  Paulicians,  the  Cathari,  the 
Albigenses,  the  Bogomiles,  and  other 
mediaeval  heretics.  (Mohler,  "Kirchen- 
geschichte.") 

iMCAsrzPXiE.  An  ornamental  vest- 
ment worn  by  subdeacons  and  by  clergy 
of  higher  orders  at  Mass.  It  hangs  from 
the  left  arm  below  the  elbow  (Gavantus 
says  above  the  elbow,  but  he  is  corrected 
by  Meratus),  and  is  fastened  by  strings 
or  pins.  It  is  of  the  same  colour  and 
material  as  the  chasuble.  Priests  put  it 
on  before  Mass  after  the  girdle.  Bishops 
do  not  take  it  till  they  have  said  the  Con- 
fiteor  at  the  foot  of  the  altar.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  symbolise  penance  and  sorrow, 
and  the  prayer  which  the  priest  is  directed 
in  the  Missal  to  say  as  he  puts  it  on 
alludes  to  this  signification.  "  Be  it  mine, 
0  Lord,  to  bear  the  maniple  of  weeping 
and  sorrow,  that  I  may  receive  with  joy 
the  reward  of  toil."  And  the  prayer  said 
by  the  bishop  is  much  the  same.  Litur- 
gical writers  also  see  in  the  maniple  a 
symbol  of  the  cord  with  which  Christ 
was  bound  on  his  capture. 


Many  writers,  following  Cardinal 
Bona,  have  thought  that  they  could  trace 
the  mention  of  the  maniple  to  Gregory 
the  Great,  who  wrote  to  John  of  Eavenna 
because  the  clergy  of  that  see  had  begun 
to  use  mappulre,  which,  up  to  that  time, 
had  been  peculiar  to  Roman  ecclesiastics. 
It  has  been  shown,  however,  by  Binterim 
that  the  mappula  were  not  maniples  but 
portable  baldacchini.  The  mosaic  of  St. 
Vitalis  at  Ravenna  (sixth  century)  repre- 
sents the  bishop  and  clergy  without 
maniples,  and  it  is  not  till  the  eighth  and 
ninth  centuries  that  any  trace  of  the 
maniple  is  found.  It  was  originally  a 
handkerchief  (hence  the  name  manipuhis) 
used  for  removing  perspiration  and  the 
moisture  of  the  eyes.  Mabillon  quotes 
from  a  document  of  the  year  781 ,  in  which 
"five  maniples"  are  named  along  with 
other  vestments.  In  889,  Bishop  Riculf, 
of  Soissons,  required  each  church  to  have 
at  least  two  girdles  and  as  many  clean 
maniples  ("totidem  nitidas  manipulas"). 
In  the  tenth  century,  Bishop  Ratherius 
forbade  anyone  to  say  Mass  without 
amice,  alb,  stole,  "fanone  et  planeta."  The 
jdaneta  is  the  chasuble ;  the  fano  (Goth. 
fana,  allied  to  the  Greek  n-ij^os  and  the 
Latin  prmnus,  and  the  same  word  as  the 
modern  German  Fahne)  is  the  maniple; 
haul  fan  or  hantvan  being  the  translation 
of  manijndus  or  mampula  in  mediaeval 
vocabularies. 

The  follovring  are  the  principal  changes 
which  have  occurred  in  the  form  and  use 
of  the  maniple.  Originally,  as  has  been 
said,  it  was  a  mere  handkerchief,  used 
indeed  at  Mass,  but  then  for  ordinary 
purposes.  But  it  was  richly  ornamented. 
Thus  in  908,  Adalbero,  bishop  of  Augs- 
burg, offered  a  maniple  worked  with  gold 
at  the  shrine  of  St.  Gallus.  In  the 
Basilica  of  St.  Ambrose  at  Milan  there 
are  four  figures  of  saints,  constructed  in 
8.35,  with  ornamental  maniples  on  their 
left  arms,  much  like  Gothic  maniples  of  a 
much  later  date  Hefele  gives  a  figure 
(belonging  to  the  ninth  century^  of  a 
priest  with  little  bells  on  his  maniple,  in 
imitation  doubtless  of  the  bells  on  the 
coat  of  the  Jewish  High  Priest.  But 
even  as  late  as  1100  Ivo  of  Chartres 
mentions  the  use  of  the  maniple  for 
wiping  the  eyes,  and  it  was  only  gradu- 
ally that  the  maniple  became  entirely  of 
stiff  material.  The  prayer  in  the  Missal, 
as  we  have  seen,  still  alludes  to  the  old 
and  simple  use. 

Again,  in  HOC  a  Council  of  Poitiers 
1  restricted  the  use  of  the  maniple  to  sub- 


deacons,  and  such  is  the  present  custom. 
But  only  a  little  before  the  council  Lan- 
franc  speaks  of  the  maniple  as  commonly 
worn  by  monks,  even  if  lavinen.  A 
statute  of  the  Church  of  Li^fze  (1287) 
directs  that  the  maniple  should  be  two 
feet  long,  which  is  much  more  than  its 
present  length.  Moreover,  since  the 
chasuble  used  to  cover  the  entire  body, 
the  priest  did  not  put  on  the  maniple  till 
the  chasuble  was  raised  after  the  Contiteor 
and  his  arm  left  free.  A  memory  of  the 
old  state  of  things  is  preserved  by  bishops 
at  their  Mass.  (Gavantus,  with  Merati's 
notes.    Hefele,  "Beitrage.") 

MAXTSTTS.  In  the  Capitularies  of 
Charlemagne  respecting  Saxony  (Baluze, 
i.  183,  quoted  by  Stubbs  in  "  Const.  Hist.," 
i.  228)  it  is  ordered  that  for  every  rhurch 
a  house  with  enclosed  yard  {curtis)  and 
two  mansi  of  land  shall  be  provided. 
Here  and  in  many  other  places  tlie  word 
seems  to  signify  merely  a  measure  of  land, 
and  is  probably  equivalent  to  bovata  or 
ox-gang,  the  quantity  of  laud — usually 
about  twelve  acres — which  could  be  tdled 
with  one  ox.  Crradually  the  meaning  of 
the  word  changed,  rill  it  came  to  signify 
"a  house  with  land  attached  to  it,"  a 
residence.  Thus  in  an  agreement  made 
in  1219  between  the  bishop  of  Lincoln 
and  the  abbot  of  St.  Albans,'  it  is  stipu- 
lated that  the  vicar  of  Leighton  shall 
have  a  "  mansus  competens ''  along  with 
the  small  tithes  and  other  advantages. 
As  used  by  Matthew  Paris  in  his  Lite  of 
Abbot  Paul,  who  lived  soon  after  the  Con- 
quest ("terra  trium  mansuum  cum  toti- 
dem  hortis  "),  the  expression  seems  to  be 
passing  from  its  earlier  into  its  later 
meaning.^  Tn  the  Chronicle  of  Brompton 
(fl.  1200)  the  term  is  used  simply  for 
mansion  or  residence.' 

nXADl'TEX.i.ETTA.  A  vestment 
made  of  silk  or  woollen  stuff,  open  but 
fastened  in  front,  reaching  almost  to  the 
knees,  without  sleeves  but  with  openings 
for  the  ai-ms  and  with  a  low  collar  round 
the  neck.  It  is  worn  by  cardinals,  bishops, 
abbots,  and  the  "prelati"  of  the  Roman 
Court,  as  well  as  by  others  to  whom  the 
privilege  is  granted  by  the  Pope.  It  is 
used  to  cover  the  rochet,  so  that  bishops 
wear  it  only  when  they  are  out  of  their 
dioceses,  the  uncovered  rochet  being  the 
sign  of  jurisdiction.  The  mantellette  of 
cardinals  are  of  three  colours — viz.,  red, 
violet,  and  rose-coloured  {rosacea) ;  those  of 

1  Matt.  P.iris  (Wats),  p.  130. 

2  Jb.  p.  60. 

S  Twys.  X  Script.  913. 


MARIST  FATHERS  589 

a  bishop  in  Rome  are  always  of  the  same 
hue.    (Moroni,  "  Diziouario  istorico.") 

KAN-VAX..     [See  RiTUALE.] 

nXANVAi.  MASSES.  [See  Mass.] 
nxARCzoirxTE.  [See  Gk-osticism.J 

IVIARZST  BROTHERS.  This  is  a 
teaching  confraternity,  founded  by  a 
3tarist  father,  which  has  seven  schools  in 
England  (at  Peckham  and  five  other  loca- 
lities in  London,  and  ai  -Jarrow)  and  four 
in  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Dun- 
dee, and  Dumfries). 

niARZST  FATHERS.'  I.  Orujin. 
This  religious  order  was  founded  early 
in  the  present  centur}-  by  the  Very 
Reverend  Father  Colin,  who  was  born 
on  August  7,  1790,  in  the  diocese  of 
Lyons. 

From  childhood  he  cherished  the 
thought  of  the  society  which  he  felt 
himself  called  to  found  ;  and  he  had 
scarcely  entered  upon  the  sacred  ministrj^, 
as  assistant  priest  to  his  own  brother,  in 
1816,  when  he  persuaded  him  and  a  few 
others  to  unite  with  him  in  the  pious 
work. 

When  he  had  traced  the  first  sketch 
of  his  rule,  he  wrote  to  Pius  VII.  a  letter 
which  concluded  with  these  words :  "  Such 
are  our  plans,  as  laid  down  for  us  in  con- 
stitutions, which  we  have  not  drawn 
from  any  book  or  rule.  We  hope  to 
submit  them  personally  to  your  Holiness, 
and  to  make  you  fully  acquainted  with 
the  source  whence  we  derive  them." 
Pius  VII.  replied  to  this  letter  by  a 
brief,  dated  March  9,  1828,  expressive  of 
his  approval.  Encouraged  to  pursue  his 
designs,  the  yoimg  founder  increased  the 
number  of  his  associates,  and  in  1820  the 
rising  society,  at  the  request  of  the  Bishop 
of  Belley,  took  charge  of  the  ecclesiastical 
seminary  of  that  town,  thus  uniting  the 
work  of  education  to  that  of  preaching 
missions,  already  carried  out  with  much 
fruit. 

About  1835  the  attention  of  the  Holy 
See  was  seriously  turned  to  the  distant 
missions  of  the  Soutli  Sea  Islands,  a  held 
much  in  need  of  labourers.  Cardinal 
Franzoni  wrote  to  the  council  of  the 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith, 
at  Lyons,  inquiring  whether  there  could 
not  be  found  in  France  some  priests  to 
undertake  the  glorious  task  of  preaching 
the  gospel  in  Western  Oceania.  The 
Marists  readily  embraced  the  proposal 

1  The  following  article  lias  been  abridged 
from  inform.ition  kiiuily  supplied  for  the 
Catholic  Dictionaiu  by  I'athr>r  Leterrier, 
superior  of  the  Marists  in  Dublin. 


590       MARIST  FATHERS 


MAEIST  FATHERS 


when  made  to  fhem.  Then  Pope  Gre- 
gory XVI.,  to  encourage  and  fortify  the 
new  apostles,  signed,  on  Ajnil  29,  1836, 
the  brief  Omniinn  Gentium,  which  ap- 
proved the  "  Society  of  Mary  "  under  the 
very  same  name  which  it  had  from  the 
beginning.  The  final  sanction  was  given 
by  Pius  IX.,  the  Pontiff"  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  on  Februaiy  28,  1873. 

The  Very  Reverend  Father  Colin  died 
at  Notre  Dame  de  la  Neyliere  (Rhone) 
on  November  15,  1875,  at  the  age  of 
eighty-five. 

II.  Progress  of  the  Society. — Before 
his  death  he  had  the  consolation  of  see- 
ing that  God  had  blessed  his  work.  In 
France  the  Society  of  ^lary,  of  which  the 
mother-house  is  at  Lyons,  was  already 
divided  into  two  provinces.  The  province 
of  Lyons  contains — two  houses  of  forma- 
tion ;  a  novitiate  and  scholasticate ;  two 
great  seminaries ;  five  missionary  houses  ; 
three  houses  of  retreat  for  the  ajred  or 
infirm  religious,  and  five  colleges  for 
intermediate  education  —  Aubenas,  St. 
( 'hamond,  Riom,  Toulon,  and  La  Seyue- 
sur-Mer.  In  the  latter  there  are  prepa- 
ratory courses  for  the  military  college  of 
St.  Cyr  and  the  naval  school, 

The  province  of  Paiis,  besides  the 
novitiate  and  scholasticate,  embraces  the 
great  seminaries  of  St.  Brieux  and  Agen, 
the  colleges  of  St.  Vincent  of  Senlis  and 
Montlufon,  and  seven  missionary  houses. 

From  the  beginning  the  Society  of 
Mary  devoted  itself  to  the  foreign  mis- 
sions. The  Congi'egation  of  the  Propa- 
ganda entrusted  to  it  the  spreading  of 
the  faith  in  Western  Oceania,  where  no 
Catholic  priest  had  yet  penetrated,  and 
where  all  the  savage  tribes,  scattered 
over  a  gi-eat  number  of  islands,  had  been, 
or  actually  were,  cannibals.  The  first 
departure  of  missionaries  took  place  in 
December  18.j6  Father  Bataillon  was 
the  first  to  land,  in  the  island  of  Wallis. 
In  the  course  of  four  years  of  preaching, 
amid  dangers  and  fatigues,  he  succeeded 
in  converting  the  whole  island,  and  since 
then  the  Catholic  faith  has  reproduced 
among  that  savage  people  the  marvels 
related  of  the  missions  of  Paraguay  and 
the  first  ages  of  Christianity.  Father 
Bataillon  became  first  Vicar-Apostolic  of 
Central  Oceania,  and  died  in  his  much- 
loved  island  of  Wallis  on  March  11, 
1877,  after  forty  yenrs  of  missionary 
labours.  Another  of  the  lirst  band  was 
Father  Chanel,  who  was  placed  at  Fu- 
tuna,  an  island  inhabited  In'  cannibals 
of  the  worst  type.    The  preaching  and 


example  of  the  missionary  proved  alike 
inefiectnal;  the  conversion  of  this  people 
demanded  the  blood  of  a  martyr.  Father 
Chanel  fell  a  victim  to  their  hatred  of 
the  faith  on  April  28,  1841.  Almost 
instantaneously  the  whole  island,  moved 
by  Divine  grace,  embraced  the  Catholic 
faith.  Dr.  Epalle,  at  first  missionary  in 
New  Zealand,  and  afterwards  named 
Vicar- Apostolic  of  Melanesia  and  Micro- 
nesia, was  not  spared  to  display  his  zeal  in 
the  new  field  assigned  to  him  by  the  Holy 
See.  He  was  massacred  on  the  island  of 
Isabella  by  the  savage  tribes  to  whom 
he  was  carrying  the  gospel  of  peace.  In 
this  same  Vicariate  Apostolic  several 
Marist  missionaries  have  fallen  victims 
to  the  cannibals. 

Dr.  Douarre,  bishop  of  Amata,  started 
for  another  Vicariate  Apostolic  in  New 
Caledonia.  This  archipelago  was  occu- 
])ied  by  tribes  engaged  in  constant  war- 
fare with  one  another,  prompted  by  their 
appetite  for  human  flesh.  The  courageous 
apostle,  undaunted  by  the  dangers,  made 
an  attempt  to  carry  out  his  object,  but 
failed.  A  missionary  was  killed,  and 
the  establishment  completely  destroyed. 
Obliged  to  quit  the  unfriendly  land,  the 
missionaries  left,  but  with  the  intention 

,  of  coming  back ;  and  at  a  later  period 
they  did  return,  to  recommence  and 
])ursue  the  work  of  civilisation  and  the 
salvation  of  souls. 

In  Australia  the  Marist  Fathers  have 
three  houses,  one  in  Sydney  and  two 
others  in  the  neighbourhood. 

In  New  Zealand  Marist  missionaries 
were  the  first  to  announce  the  true  faith 

I  to  the  Maoris.  Afterwards,  when  this 
extensive  country  became  an  English 
colony,  the  Marist  Fathers,  who  had 
founded  all  the  stations,  first  of  the 
diocese  of  Aucldand,  and  then  of  the 
diocese  of  Dunedin,  turned  their  attention 
exclusively  to  the  diocese  of  Wellington. 
The  clergy  of  this  diocese,  as  large  as 
the  two  others  combined,  are  almost  all 

!  Marists. 

In  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Central 
Oceania,  except  at  Wallis  and  Futuna, 
the  Fathers  have  to  contend  with  the 
e.stablished  influence  of  Protestantism. 
Notwithstanding,  however,  all  the  re- 
sources of  its  adversaries,  Catholicity 
gains  ground.  Its  progress  must  be 
ascribed  to  the  self-sacrificing  spirit  of 
the  missionaries. 

The  archipelago  of  the  Navigators'  I., 
formed  into  a  Vicariate  Apostolic  in 
1851,  was  confided  to  another  Marist, 


M.vrjST  xrxs 


MAROXITES 


591 


Dr.  Elloy,  of  cherished  memory,  a  true 
apostle.  At  Samoa  he  endeared  himself 
to  all,  even  the  Protestants,  who  fre- 
quently cho;;e  him  to  settle  their  disputes. 

The  archipelago  of  Fiji,  which  forms 
a  pro-Vicariate  Apostolic,  has  been  in 
the  hands  of  the  society  .since  1844. 
The  sufferings  undergone  by  the  Fathers 
among  this  barbarous  population  are  in- 
credible. Never  was  there  a  mission 
more  beset  with  difficulties,  more  fruitful 
in  sufferings,  and  more  barren,  at  least 
apparently,  of  results.  At  last,  however, 
God  begins  to  bless  this  zealous  perse- 
verance ;  from  day  to  day  the  movement 
in  favour  of  Catholicism  becomes  more 
and  more  pronounced. 

In  New  Caledonia  the  clergy  of  the 
French  colony  are  all  members  of  the 
society.  The  Fathers  have  charge  of  the 
penal  settlements,  and  also  continue  to 
spread  the  faith  among  the  natives. 

In  the  British  Isles  and  the  United 
States  the  establishments  of  the  society 
.are  numerous.  In  London  it  has  charge 
of  two  missions,  that  of  St.  Anne's  and 
that  of  Notre  Dame  de  France  (for  the 
French  residents).  There  is  a  novitiate 
at  Paignton,  near  Torquay ;  the  Fathers 
have  also  charge  of  the  mission.  In 
Dublin  the  society  has  a  scholasticate 
and  a  day-school,  and  a  college  at  Dun- 
dalk  (co.  Louth). 

In  the  United  States  it  has  charge  of 
four  important  missions,  and  the  flourish- 
ing college  of  Jefferson,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Mississippi,  above  New  Orleans. 

To  conclude,  the  Society  of  Mary,  in 
virtue  of  an  Apostolic  brief,  bearing  date 
September  8,  1S50,  established  a  third 
order,  for  pious  persons  living  in  the 
world.  The  number  of  members  already 
affiliated  to  its  different  fraternities  is 
considerable. 

MARXST  WTTNS.  These  religious, 
whose  institute  was  initiated  by  the  Pere 
Colin  (see  preceding  art.),  have  houses  at 
Peckham  and  Richmond,  in  the  diocese 
of  Southwark. 

KARZST  SISTERS.  This  is  a 
teaching  institute;  it  has  a  school  in 
Spitalfields,  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  Marist  Fathers  there. 

MAROXTXTES.  There  has  been 
much  dispute  on  the  origin  of  the  name, 
but  the  following  is  probably  the  true 
account.  Maro,  a  Syrian  monk,  contem- 
porary with  St.  Chi-ysostom,  settled  on 
Mount  Lebanon,  and  after  his  death  a 
monastery,  called  after  him  the  monas- 
tery of  St.  Maro,  was  founded  between 


Apamea  and  Emesa,  on  the  Orontes.  A 
monk  belonging  to  this  house,  and  known 
as  John  Maro,  was  named  bishop  of 
Botrys  in  G76  by  Macarius,  Patriarch  of 
Antioch,  who  was  afterwards  deposed  as 
a  Monothelite  by  the  Sixth  Genei-al 
Council.  John  Maro  thus  became  the 
spiritual  and  temporal  head  of  the  Chris- 
tian population  on  Mount  Lebanon,  and 
contended  successfully  both  against  Sara- 
cens and  Melchites.  On  the  destruction 
of  the  old  monastery  of  St.  Maro  by  the 
Imperialists,  another  was  founded  at 
Kefr-Nay,  in  the  district  of  Botrys,  and 
thither  the  head  of  St.  Maro  was  brought. 
Partly  from  the  John  Maro  who  died  in 
707,  partly  from  St.  Maro,  the  patron  of 
the  monastery,  the  Monothelite  Chris- 
tians on  Mount  Lebanon  were  called 
Maronites. 

In  1 182  a  Latin  Patriarch  of  Antioch 
united  them  to  the  Catholic  Church.  A 
schism  was  caused  through  Greek  in- 
fluence, and  a  Maronite  Patriarch  fell 
away.  But  the  rent  was  healed  in  1216, 
!  and  ever  since  the  Maronites  have  been 
steadfast  Catholics.  Originally  the  Maro- 
nites acknowledged  their  Patriarch  as 
civil  ruler,  but  after  a  brief  space  they 
were  governed  on  a  feudal  system  by  an 
Emir  chosen  by  the  aristocratic  families, 
and  he  in  turn  nominated  the  Sheiks.  In 
1842  an  arrangement  was  made  by  which 
the  government  of  the  Lebanon  was 
divided  between  two  Emirs,  one  chosen 
by  the  Maronites,  another  by  the  Druses, 
the  former  having  a  Druse,  the  latter  a 
Maronite,  assessor.  The  terrible  massa- 
,  cres  of  Maronites  by  the  Druses  in  1860 
:  (16,000  Maronites  were  slain,  100,000 
!  were  driven  from  their  home.«)  led  to 
fresh  changes.  The  Lebanon  was  placed 
under  one  governor  nominated  by  the 
Turks  ;  feudal  rights  were  abolished,  but 
each  nation  has  its  own  Sheiks.  In 
186-5  the  number  of  Maronites  was  about 
loO,000. 

The  Patriarch  is  chosen  by  the  bishops, 
the  Pope  confirming  and  sending  the 
pallium.    He  is  subject  to  Propaganda. 

j  He  appoints  and  consecrates  the  bishops. 

I  He  alone  consecrates  the  holy  oils  and 
chrism.  No  translation  from  Svriac  into 
Arabic  can  be  made  without  his  approval. 

'  Every  three  years  he  must  summon  the 
bishops  to  a  synod.    His  title  (conferred 

I  by  Alexander  IV.  in  1254)  is  Patriarch 
of  Antioch,  and  he  always  adds  the  name 

I  of  Peter  to  his  own.    His  income  consists 

I  of  100,000  piastres  derived  from  three 
monasteries,  with  about  100,000  more 


MARONTTES 


MARRIAGE 


from  a  poll-tax  levied  on  all  adult  Maro- 
nites,  a  tax  of  five  piastres  each  levied 
from  the  priests,  tithes,  and  a  subsidy 
from  bishops  and  religious  houses. 

Metropolitan  is  a  mere  title  of  honour. 
Formerly  the  faithful  of  each  diocese  re- 
commended a  candidate  for  a  vacant 
bishopric.  Since  1730  the  Patriarch  has 
nominated  with  the  advice  of  his  bishops 
and  also  of  the  clergy  and  nobles  of  the 
vacant  diocese.  The  bishops  alone  give 
the  sacrament  of  Confirmation.  There 
are  also  titular  bishops,  two  of  whom  are 
the  Patriarch's  vicars,  another  administers 
his  diocese,  another  is  his  agent  at  Rome, 
&c.  The  diocesan  bishops  are  supported 
by  lands  belonging  to  the  diocese,  reserves 
in  the  taxes  and  tithes  collected  for  the 
Patriarch,  and  stole  fees.  Since  1736 
there  have  been  only  nine  bishoprics, 
counting  that  of  the  Patriarch,  of  which 
Beyrout,  Tripolis,  Aleppo,  Damascus, 
Baalbek,  Sidon,  Cyprus  are  archiepi- 
scopal,  Byblus  (the  Patriarch's  bishopric), 
and  Eden  episcopal  sees.  The  archdeacon, 
ceconomus,  periodeutes  or  bardut,  arch- 
priest  and  chorepiscopus  are  the  officials 
of  the  diocese. 

The  parish-priests,  usually  married, 
are  chosen  by  the  people.  There  are 
300  parishes,  500  secular  priests.  The 
parish-priest  is  allowed  to  till  land,  and 
his  income  consists  in  offerings  of  corn, 
oil,  sillc,  &c.,  and  stole  fees.  There  are 
three  lower  or  minor  orders — viz.  psaltist, 
reader  and  subdeacon,  three  greater  or 
higher,  deacon,  priest,  bishop.  The  ton- 
sure is  given  before  the  minor  orders. 
There  are  three  general  and  several  dio- 
cesan seminaries,  the  latter  of  recent 
origin.  There  is  also  a  Maronite  college 
at  Rome.  Education  is  given  in  Arabic, 
the  vulgar,  and  in  Syriac,  the  liturgical, 
language,  and  also  of  course  in  the  theo- 
logical sciences. 

The  Maronite  religious  follow  the  rule 
of  St.  Antony.  Down  to  1757  there 
were  only  two  congregations,  one  of  St. 
Isaias,  another  of  St.  Aiitony  or  St. 
Elisaeus.  The  statutes  of  both  congre- 
gations were  approved  by  Clement  XII. 
But  in  1770  Clement  XIV.  approved  the 
subdivision  of  the  latter  congregation  into 
that  of  Aleppo  and  that  of  the  Baladites 
or  "natives  "  belonging  to  Mount  Leba- 
non. These  Baladites  are  chiefly  laymen. 
Each  of  the  three  congregations  has  a 
general  superior,  chosen  for  three  years 
and  independent  of  the  Patriarch,  and  a 
procurator  at  Rome  There  are  (or  were 
in  1805)  about  1,000  lay  brothers  and 


600  Fathers.  Fourteen  monasteries  be- 
long to  the  congregation  of  St.  Isaias, 
four  to  that  of  Aleppo,  nineteen  to  that 
of  the  Baladites.  There  are  seven  nun- 
neries of  the  strict  observance.  There 
are  also  many  irregular  monasteries  and 
nunneries  where  the  rule  is  less  strict, 
and  the  superior  must  belong  to  the  foun- 
der's family.  In  one  convent  of  Maronit© 
nuns,  a  Western  rule,  that  of  the  Visita- 
tion, is  observed. 

IVXABRZAGE.  I  The.  Nature  of 
Marriaqe  as  such. — Marriage  is  a  natural 
contract  between  man  and  woman,  which 
Christ  has  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a 
sacrament.  Heathen  may  be,  and  are, 
united  in  true  maiTiage,  and  their  union 
is  of  course  a  lawful  one,  sanctioned  and 
blessed  by  God  Himself,  who  is  the  author 
ot  nature  as  well  as  of  grace.  But  it  is 
only  among  baptised  persons  that  the  con- 
tract of  marriage  is  blessed  and  sanctified 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  become  a  means 
of  conferring  grace,  so  that  we  must  dis- 
tinguish between  marriage  in  itself  or 
according  to  the  natural  law  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  sacrament  of  marriage  on 
the  other.  Theologians  commonly  give 
the  following  definition  of  marriage,  taken 
from  the  Master  of  the  Sentences.  It  i» 
"viri  mulierisque  conjunctio  maritalis 
inter  legitimas  personas  individuam  vitae 
societatem  retinens."  It  is  "  conjunctio 
viri  et  mulieris  " — i.e.  the  union  of  man 
and  woman,  the  persons  between  whom 
the  contract  is  formed  ;  it  is  "  maritalis  " 
— i.e.  it  implies  the  giving  to  each  power 
over  the  person  of  the  other,  and  so  is  dis- 
tinct from  the  union  of  friend  with  friend, 
man  with  man  in  business,  and  the  like  ; 
it  is  "  inter  legitimas  personas  " — i.e.  be- 
tween those  who  are  not  absolutely  pre- 
vented by  lawful  impediment  from  con- 
tracting such  a  union ;  "  individuam 
vit£B  societatem  retinens,"  it  binds  them 
to  an  undivided  and  indissoluble  partner- 
ship during  life,  and  so  is  distinct  from 
such  unhallowed  unions  as  are  contracted 
for  a  time  or  may  be  ended  at  will.  If 
we  add,  "  gi-atiam  conjugibus  conferen- 
dam  significans" — i.e.  being  an  (eftica- 
cious)  sign  of  grace  to  be  bestowed  on  the 
persons  contracting— we  have  the  full 
definition  of  marriage  as  a  sacrament.  Of 
course,  the  definition  gives  the  bare  essen- 
tials of  marriage,  for  it  ought  to  include 
the  most  perfect  union  of  heart  and  soul, 
sympathy  and  interest. 

Two  points  in  the  above  definition 
may  cause  some  difficulty,  since  it  as- 
sumes that  even  in  the  law  of  nature  a 


MARRIAGE 


MARRIAGE 


593 


man  can  only  liave  one  wife  (and  of  course 
a  -woman  only  one  husband),  and  further 
that  bv  the  same  law  the  marriage  tie 
lasts  till  death. 

With  regard  to  the  former  point,  poly- 
gamy, according  to  St.  Thomas  ("  Suppl." 
Ixv.  1),  does  not  absolutely  destroy  the 
end  of  marriage,  for  it  is  possible  that  a 
man  with  several  wives  should  protect 
them  and  provide  for  the  education  of  his 
children.  And  therefore  (as  many  theo- 
logians suppose,  from  the  time  of  the 
Deluge)  God  allowed  the  Patriarchs  and 
others,  whether  Jews  or  heathen,  to  have 
more  wives  than  one.  But  polygamy 
cruelly  injures  the  perfect  union  of  mar- 
riage ;  it  degrades  man  by  sensuality  and 
exposes  woman  to  the  miseries  of  jealousy 
and  neglect ;  it  endangers  the  welfare  of 
the  children,  and  so  may  be  justly  stig- 
matised as  contrary  to  the  law  of  nature. 
Moreover,  monogamy  alone  is  contem- 
plated in  the  institution  of  marriage : 
Gen.  ii.  24,  "  Therefore  a  man  will  leave 
his  father  and  his  mother  and  will  cleave 
to  his  wife,  and  they  shall  be  one  flesh." 
The  legislation  in  Deut.  xxv.  5  seq.  appears 
to  assume  that  monogamy  was  the  rule 
among  the  Hebrews  ;  so  does  the  book  of 
Proverbs  throughout,  and  particularly  the 
beautiful  description  of  the  good  wife  in 
ch.  xxxi.,'  and  the  same  idea  pervades  the 
noble  poetry  of  Ps.  cxxviii.  (see  also  in  | 
the  Deutero-canonical  books,  Tob.  i.  11 ;  i 
Ecclus.  xxvi.  1).  It  was  not  till  A.D. 
1020  that  a  law  of  Rabbi  Gershon  ben 
Judah  in  the  Synod  of  Worms  absolutely 
prohibited  polygamy  among  the  Western 
Jews.  It  was  practised  by  the  Jews  of  I 
Castile  even  in  the  fourteenth  century,  j 
and  still  survives  among  the  Jews  of  the  ' 
East  (Kalisch  on  Exodus,  p.  370 ;  on 
Levit.  p.  374).  But  our  Lord  Himself 
expounded  and  enforced  the  natural  law 
of  marriage,  and  recalled  men  to  the  idea 
of  marriage  given  in  Genesis.  It  is  worth 
noticing  that  He  quotes  the  Septuagint 
text,  which  is  more  express  in  favour  of 
monogamy  than  the  Hebrew  :  "  And  tfie 
two  shall  be  one  flesh."  (So  also  the  | 
Samaritan,  Dri'y^i'D  n<nV  "and  there  shall  i 
be  from  the  two  of  them  one  flesh  " ;  the 
New  Testament  invariably,  Mark  x.  8 ; 
1  Cor.  vi.  16 ;  Ephes.  v.  31  ;  and  the 

1  The  estimate  of  women  is  high  through- 
out the  Old  Testament.  We  need  only  remind 
the  reader  of  Mary,  the  sister  of  Moses,  De- 
borah, Anna.  See  also  Prov.  xiv.  1  ;  xviii.  22  ; 
xix.  14  (even  xxi.  9,  19,  are  not  really  difle- 
rent  in  spirit).  The  most  unfavourable  judf,'-  i 
ment  is  that  of  £ccles.  vii.  28.  j 


Vulgate.  The  Targum  of  Onkelcs,  on 
the  other  hand,  exactly  follows  the 
Hebrew.)  Again,  since  Christ  spoke 
generally  of  all  mankind  and  not  simply 
of  those  who  were  to  be  members  of  his 
Church,  theologians  hold  that  He  with- 
drew the  former  dispensation,  and  conse- 
quently that  polygamy  is  unlawful  and  a 
violation  of  natural  law  even  in  heathen. 
(Billuart,  "  De  Matrimon."  diss.  v.  a.  1.) 

The  same  principles  apply  to  the 
second  point  of  difficulty.  Moses,  our 
Lord  declares,  permitted  divorce  because 
of  the  hardness  of  men's  hearts,  i.e.  to 
prevent  greater  evils ;  and  in  consequence 
of  this  dispensation  it  was  perhaps  lawful 
for  the  heathen  to  imitate  the  example  of 
the  Jews  in  this  respect  also.  But  here, 
too,  Christ  has  recalled  all  mankind  to  the 
primitive  institution.  The  apparent  ex- 
ception which  our  Lord  makes  will  be 
considered  below,  and  certain  cases  in 
which  marriage  may  be  really  dissolved 
have  been  explained  in  the  article  on 
DrvoECE. 

n.  (a)  The  Sacrament  of  Marringe. — 
A  sacrament  is  an  outward  sign,  and  no- 
body doubts  that  in  marriage,  as  in  all 
other  contracts,  some  outward  sign  on  the 
part  of  the  contracting  parties  isnecessary. 
They  must  signify  their  consent  to  the 
solemn  obligation  of  living  together  as 
man  and  wife.  It  is  plain,  too,  that  mar- 
riage may  be  called  a  sacred  sign,  for  it 
typifies,  as  St.  Paul  (ad  Ephes.  v.)  assures 
us,  the  mysterious  union  between  Christ 
and  the  Church,  which  is  his  bride.  But 
is  it  an  efficacious  sign  of  grace  ?  That 
is,  is  the  contract  of  marriage  accom- 
panied by  signs  which  not  only  betoken 
but  necessarily,  in  consequence  of  Christ's 
institution,  convey  grace  to  all  baptised 
persons  who  do  not  wilfully  impede  the 
entrance  of  the  grace  into  their  hearts  ? 
This  is  a  question  on  which  Catholics  are 
divided  from  Protestants,  and  which  was 
agitated  among  Catholics  themselves  late 
even  in  the  middle  ages.  St.  Thomas 
("  Supp."xlii.  a.  3),  though  he  assimies  that 
marriage  is  a  sacrament  of  the  new  law, 
inquires  whether  it  "  confers  grace,"  and 
mentions  three  opinions :  first,  that  it 
does  not  do  so  at  all,  and  this  opinion  he 
dismisses  at  once ;  next,  that  it  confers 
grace  only  in  the  sense  that  it  makes  acts 
lawful  that  would  otherwise  be  sins  (this 
opinion  he  also  rejects,  but  in  a  less  sum- 
mary way) ;  and  thirdly,  that  when 
"contracted  in  the  faith  of  Christ,"  it 
confers  grace  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  the 
married  state,  and  this  opinion  he  accepts 

aa 


694  -MARIITAGE 

as  "  more  probafcle."  It  ia  plaiu  that  aU 
•which  the  second  opinion  attributes  to 
marriage  may  be  truly  said  of  marriage 
as  a  natural  contract,  and  does  not  by  any 
means  amount  to  a  confession  that  mar- 
riage is  a  Christian  sacrament  in  the 
sense  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  What 
St.  Thomas  gives  as  the  more  probable 
opinion  is  now  an  article  of  faith,  for  the 
council  (Sess.  xxiv.  De  Sacram.  Matr.), 
after  stating  that  Christ  Himself  merited 
for  us  a  grace  which  perfects  the  natural 
love  of  marriage  and  strengthens  its  in- 
dissoluble unity,  solemnly  defines  (Can.  1) 
that  marriage  is  "  truly  and  properly  one 
of  the  seven  sacraments  of  the  evangelical 
law  instituted  by  Christ." 

The  same  council  speaks  of  Scripture 
as  insinuating  {innuit)  this  truth,  and 
more  can  scarcely  be  said.  One  text,  in- 
deed, as  translated  in  our  Douay  Bible, 
would  certainly  seem  to  settle  the  ques- 
tion—viz. Ephes.  V.  31,  32,  "  For  this 
cause  shall  a  man  leave  his  father  and 
mother,  and  shall  adhere  to  his  wife  ;  and 
they  shall  be  two  in  one  flesh.  This  is 
a  great  sacrament,  but  I  speak  in  Christ 
and  in  the  Church."  But  we  venture  to 
think  that  this  is  not  the  true  sense  of 
the  Vulgate,  "  Sacramentum  hoc  mag-  \ 
num  est ;  ego  autem  dico  in  Christo  et 
in  ecclesia,"  which  exactly  answers  t6  the  . 
original  Greek,  except  that  "  in  Christo 
et  in  ecclesia"  would  be  better  rendered  j 
as  in  the  old  Latin  of  Tertullian  ("  Contr. 
Marc."  V.  18  ;  "  De  Anima,"  11),  "  in 
Christum  et  in  ecclesiam."  "  Sacramen- 
tum "  need  not  mean  a  "  sacrament "  any 
more  than  the  Greek  ixva-rfjpiov  which  it 
represents,  and  to  prove  this  we  need  not 
go  beyond  the  text  of  the  Vulgate  itself, 
which  speaks  of  the  "  sacramentum '"  of 
godliness,  1  Tim.  iii.  16;  the  "sacramen- 
tum "  of  the  seven  stars ;  the  "  sacramen- 
tum "  of  the  woman  and  the  beast,  Apoc. 
i.  20 ;  xvii.  7.  Indeed,  though  the  word 
"sacramentum"  occurs  in  fifteen  other 
places  of  the  Vulgate,  it  cannot  possibly 
mean  a  sacrament  in  any  one  of  them. 
We  translate,  accordingly,  "This  mystery 
is  great,  but  I  speak  with  reference  to 
Christ  and  the  Church" — that  is,  the 
words,  "  For  this  cause  shall  a  man  leave," 
&c.,  contain  a  hidden  or  mysterious  sense,' 
in  virtue  of  which  St.  Paul  regards 
Adam's  words  about  the  union  between 

>  The  formula,  "This  is  .i  tircat  mystpiy," 
is  n  cotnninii  R,il)l)inioal  one,  XTip'  NTT 
See  S.  hoottsen.  Horse,  p.  7«3  seq.,    aud  the 
same  Ch.-ililee  word  for    mystery  "  is  priSL-rved 
iu  the  re.sliito  rendering  of" the  verse. 


MARKLAGE 

man  and  wife  as  a  type  or  prophecy  of 
the  union  between  Christ  and  his  Church. 
We  have  the  authority  of  Estius  for  this 
interpretation,  which  is  that  generally 
adopted  by  modern  scholars,  and  he 
denies  that  the  ancients  appealed  to  this 
text  to  prove  marriage  a  sacrament. 

On  the  other  hand,  St.  Cyril  ("Lib.  ii. 
in  Joann.")  says  that  Christ  was  present 
at  the  wedding  in  Cana  of  Galilee  that 
He  might  sanctify  the  principle  of  man's 
generation,  "  drive  away  the  old  sadness 
of  child-bearing,"  "give  grace  to  those 
also  who  were  to  be  born  ;  "  and  he  quotes 
the  words  of  St.  Paul,  "  If  any  man  is  in 
Christ,  he  is  a  new  creature ;  old  things 
have  passed  away." 

St.  Augustine  ("Tract.  9  in  Joann." 
cap.  2)  holds  similar  language.  This 
theory,  however  credible  in  itself,  certainly 
does  not  lie  on  the  surface  of  St.  Johns 
narrative. 

More  may  be  made  of  1  Tim.  ii.  11  seq. 
"  Let  a  woman  learn  in  quietness,  in  all 
subjection.  But  teaching  I  do  not  permit 
to  a  woman,  nor  to  have  authority  over  a 
man,  but  to  be  in  quietness.  For  man 
was  first  formed,  then  Eve,  and  Adam 
was  not  deceived,  but  the  woman  being 
deceived  hath  fallen  into  transgression ; 
but  she  shall  be  saved  through  her  child- 
bearing,'  if  they  continue  in  faith  and 
love  and  sanctification  with  temperance." 
St.  Paul  excludes  women  from  the  public 
ministry  of  the  Church,  and  reserves  that 
for  men.  But  he  assigns  them  another 
ministry  instead.  They  are  to  save  their 
own  souls  by  the  faithful  discharge  of 
their  duties  as  wives,  and  to  be  the  source 
of  the  Church's  increase,  for  it  cannot 
subsist  without  marriage  any  more  than 
without  the  sacrament  of  order.  Women 
are  to  be  the  mothers  of  children,  whom 
they  are  to  tend  and  train  for  the  service 
of  (/hrist.  And  just  as  a  special  grace  is 
given  to  those  whom  God  calls  to  the 
l)riestly  state,  so  is  "  the  state  of  marriage 
placed  under  the  protection  and  blessing 
of  a  special  grace,  as  being  dedicated  to 
the  Church  and  subserving  its  continual 
growth  and  expansion."  Thus  the  inter- 
course of  the  sexes,  which  is  apt  to 
become  a  source  of  fearful  corruption,  is 
blessed  and  sanctified,  more  even  than  in 
its  primitive  institution,  and  directed  to 

'  Bishop  EUicott.  ad  loc,  translates 
"  throutrh  the  child-hearing" — i.e.  through  the 
birth  of  Christ.  It  soems  to  us  incrcdilile  that 
St.  Haul,  if  he  really  meant  this,  sliould  have 
expressed  it  by  au  allusion  so  obscure  and 
I  abrupt. 


MARRIAGE 


MARRIAGE 


a  still  hisrher  end,  that  of  carrying  on  the 
Church's  life  on  earth.  The  natural 
union  is  holy  and  beautiful :  Christ  per- 
fects the  union  of  heart  and  soul  and 
makes  it  still  more  holy  and  beautiful  by 
sacramental  grace ;  and,  hallowed  by 
a  sacrament,  marriage  becomes  the  perfect 
antitj^ie  of  Christ's  union  with  his 
Church.  He  cleansed  his  Church  that 
He  might  unite  it  to  Himself  He  sanc- 
tities Christian  man  and  woman  in  their 
union  that  it  may  be  "  a  hallowed  copy 
of  his  own  union  with  his  Church  "  (see 
the  eloquent  passage  in  DoUinger,  in 
"  First  Age  of  the  Church,"  Engl.  Transl. 
pp.  .361,  362). 

The  reader  must  remember  that  we 
do  not  allege  this  last  passage  as  in  any 
■way  conclusive  from  a  controversial  point 
of  view,  though  we  do  think  it  fits  in  well 
with  the  Catholic  doctrine.  Many  au- 
thorities are  alleged  from  tradition,  one  or 
two  of  which  we  have  already  given  in 
speaking  of  the  marriage  at  Cana.  St. 
Ambrose,  "  De  Abraham,"  i.  7,  says  that 
he  who  is  unfaithful  to  the  marriage  bond 
"  undoes  grace,  and  because  he  sins  against 
God,  therefore  loses  the  share  in  a  hea- 
Tenly  mystery  {sacramenti  caelestis  consor- 
tium amiffit)."  St.  Augustine,  "DeBono 
Conjugali,"  cap.  24,  writes :  "The  advan- 
tage of  marriage  among  all  nations  and 
men  lies  in  its  being  a  cause  of  generation 
and  a  bond  of  chastity,  but  as  concerns 
the  people  of  God,  also  in  the  holiness  of 
a  sacrament  (in  sanctitate  sacramentt)." 
Here  the  distinction  drawn  between 
natural  and  Christian  marriage,  and  still 
more  the  comparison  made  between  the 
"  sacramenta  of  marriage  and  order,' 
seeiu  to  warrant  our  rendering  of  "sanc- 
titate sacramenti." 

(3)  The  Nature  of  the  Sacramental 
Grace,  ^c. — Marriage,  then,  is  a  sacra- 
ment of  the  new  law,  and  as  such  confers 
grace.  The  sacrament  can  only  be  re- 
ceived by  those  who  have  already  received 
baptism,  the  gate  of  all  the  other  sacra- 
ments ;  and  marriage  is  not,  like  baptism 
and  penance,  instituted  for  the  cleansing 
of  sin,  so  that  grace  is  conferred  on  those, 
and  those  only,  who  are  at  peace  with 
God.    Christians  who  are  in  mortal  sin 

1  He  says  the  "  sncramentum  ordinationis  " 
remains  in  a  cleric  deposed  for  crime,  and  that 
so  the  bond  of  marriage  is  only  loosed  by 
death.  However,  cap.  18  provas  "that  St.  Au- 
gustine did  not  use  the  word  sacramentum  " 
in  its  precise  modern  sense,  for  he  calls  the 
polygamy  of  the  Jews  "  sacramentuui  pluralium 
nuptiarum,"  as  typifying  the  multitude  of  con- 
verts to  the  Church. 


may  contract  a  valid  marriage,  but  they 
receive  no  grace,  though  they  do  receive 
the  sacrament  and  therefore  have  a  claim 
and  title  to  the  sacramental  grace  when 
they  have  amended  their  lives  by  sincere 
repentance.  Christians,  on  the  other 
hand,  who  contract  marriage  with  due 
dispositions  receive  an  increase  of  sancti- 
fying grace,  and,  besides,  special  graces 
which  enable  them  to  live  in  mutual 
and  enduring  affection,  to  bear  with  each 
other's  infirmities,  to  be  faithful  to  each 
other  in  every  thought,  and  to  bripg  up  the 
children  whom  God  may  give  them  in  His 
fear  and  love.  They  may  go  confidently 
to  God  for  every  help  they  need  in  that 
holy  state  to  which  He  has  deigned  to 
call  them,  for  He  Himself  has  sealed 
their  union  by  a  great  sacrament  _of  the 
(Gospel.  Theologians  are  not  agreed  about 
the  time  when  Christ  instituted  the  sacra- 
ment. Some  say  at  the  wedding  in  Cana ; 
others,  when  He  abrogated  the  liberty  of 
divorce  (Matt,  xix.) ;  others,  in  the  great 
Forty  Days  after  Easter. 

(y)  If  we  ask,  further,  how  this  grace 
is  conferred,  or  in  other  words  who  are 
the  Ministers  of  the  Sacrament,  what  are 
the  words  and  other  signs  through  which 
it  is  given,  the  answer  is  far  from  easy. 
It  is  evident  that  there  must  be  a  real 
consent  to  the  marriage  on  both  sides, 
otherwise  there  can  be  no  contract  and 
therefore  no  sacrament.  But  is  the  ex- 
pression of  mutual  consent  enough  ?  The 
great  majority  of  mediaeval  theologians, 
though  William  of  Paris  is  quoted  on  the 
other  side,  answered  yes.  They  held  that 
wherever  baptised  persons  contracted 
marriage,  they  necessarily  received  the 
sacrament  of  marriage  also.  On  this 
theory,  the  parties  themselves  are  the 
ministers  of  the  sacrament;  the  matter 
consists  in  the  words  or  other  signs  by 
which  each  gives  him  or  herself  over  to 
the  other ;  the  form,  which  gives  a  deter- 
minate character  to  the  matter,  consists 
in  the  acceptation  of  this  surrender  by 
each  of  the  contracting  parties.  Hence 
(apart  from  the  positive  enactments  of 
■  Trent,  for  which  see  Clandestinity,  under 
Impediments  op  Marriage),  wherever 
Christians  bind  themselves  by  outward 
signs  to  live  as  man  and  wife,  they  receive 
the  sacrament  of  marriage.  No  priest  or 
religious  ceremony  of  any  kind  is  needed. 
A  very  diflTerent  view  was  put  forward  in 
the  sixteenth  century  by  Melchior  Canus 
("  Loci  Theol."  viii."  5).  He  held  that 
the  priest  was  the  minister  of  the  sacra- 
ment; the  expressed  consent  to  live  as 
ftQ  2 


m 


MARRIAGE 


MARRIAGE 


man  and  wife  the  matter ;  the  words  of 
the  priest,  "  I  join  you  in  marriage,"  or 
the  like,  the  necessary  form.  A  marriage 
not  contracted  in  the  face  of  the  Church 
would,  on  this  theory,  be  a  true  and  valid 
marriage  but  not  a  sacrament.  Theolo- 
gians and  scholars  of  the  greatest  learning 
and  highest  reputation,  Sylvius,  Estius, 
Tournely,  Juenin,  Renaudot,  &c.  (see 
Billuart,  "  De  Matrim."  diss.  i.  a.  6)  em- 
braced this  opinion.  In  its  defence  an 
appeal  might  be  made  with  great  plausi- 
bility to  the  constant  usage  of  Christians 
from  the  earliest  times,  for  they  have 
always  been  required  vo  celebrate  marriage 
before  the  priest.  But  it  is  to  be  observed 
that  Tertullian  ("  De  Pudic."  4),  strong  as 
his  language  is  against  marriages  not  con- 
tracted before  the  Church,  says  that  such 
unions  "  are  in  danger  "  (periclitantur)  of 
being  regarded  as  no  better  than  concu- 
binage, which  implies  that  they  were  not 
really  so.  Nor  does  he  make  any  distinc- 
tion between  the  contract  of  marriage  in 
Christians  and  the  sacrament,  though  it 
would  have  been  much  to  his  purpose 
could  he  have  done  so.  Besides,  the 
language  of  the  Fathers  quoted  above 
points  to  a  belief  that  Christ  elevated  the 
contract  of  marriage  to  a  sacrament,  not 
that  He  superadded  the  sacrament  to 
marriage.  Moreover,  Denzinger  ("Ritus 
Orientales,"  tom.  i.  p.  152  seq.)  shows 
that  the  Nestorians,  who  have  retained 
the  nuptial  benediction  from  the  Church 
and  beUeve  in  the  obligation  of  securing 
it,  still  consider  that  marriage,  even  as  a 
sacred  rite,  may  be  performed  by  the  par- 
ties themselves  if  the  priest  cannot  be 
had ;  and  he  quotes  from  Gregorius  Dath- 
eviensis  this  dictum,  "Marriage  is  effected 
through  consent  expr^^ssed  in  words,  but 
perfected  and  consummated  by  the  priest's 
blessing  and  by  cohabition.  Now,  at 
all  events,  the  former  of  the  two  opinions 
given  is  the  only  tenable  one  in  theChurch. 
Pius  IX.  in  an  allocution,  September  27, 
1852,  laid  down  the  principle  that  there 
"can  be  no  marriage  among  the  faithful 
which  is  not  at  one  and  the  same  time  a 
Eacraraent;"  and  among  the  condemned 
propositions  of  the  Syllabus  appended  to 
the  Encyclical  "Quanta  Cura"  of  1864, 
the  sixty-fourth  runs  thus: — "The  sacra- 
ment of  marriage  is  something  accessory 
to  and  separable  from  the  contract,  and 
the  sacrament  itself  depends  simply  on 
the  nuptial  benediction."  Whether,  sup- 
posing a  Christian  (having  obtained  a 
dispensation  to  that  effect)  were  to  marry 
a  person  who  is  not  baptised,  the  Chris- 


tian party  would  receive  the  sacrament 
as  well  as  enter  into  the  contract  of  mar- 
riage, is  a  matter  on  which  theologians 
differ.  Analogy  seems  to  favour  the  affir- 
mative opinion. 

(S)  The  Conditions  for  the  Validity  of 
Man~iage  are  mostly  identical  with  the 
conditions  which  determine  the  validity 
of  contracts  in  general.  The  consent  to 
the  union  must  be  mutual,  voluntary, 
deliberate,  and  manifested  by  external 
signs.  The  signs  of  consent  need  not  be 
verbal  in  order  to  make  the  marriage 
valid,  though  the  rubric  of  the  Ritual 
requires  the  consent  to  be  expressed  in 
that  manner.    The  consent  must  be  to 

[  actual  marriage  then  and  there,  not  at 
some  future  time ;  for  in  the  latter  case 
we  should  have  engagement  to  marry  or 
betrothal,  not  marriage  itself.  Consent  lo 
marry  if  a  certain  condition  in  the  past  or 
present  be  realised  {e.g.  "I  take  you  N. 

j  for  my  wife,  if  you  are  the  daughter  of 
M.  and  N".")  suffices,  supposing  that  the 
condition  be  fulfilled.  Nay,  it  is  generally 
held  that  if  a  condition  be  added  de- 
pendent on  future  contingencies  {e.g.  "  I 
take  you  N.  for  my  wife,  if  your  father 

j  will  give  you  such  and  such  a  dowry '') 

i  the  marriage  becomes  a  valid  one  without 
any  renewal  of  the  contract,  whenever 
the  condition  becomes  a  reality.  The 
condition  appended,  however,  must  not 
be  contrary  to  the  essence  of  marriage — 
e.g.  a  man  cannot  take  a  woman  for  his 
wife  to  have  and  hold  just  as  long  as  he 
pleases.  (See  Gury,  "  Theol.  Moral."  De 
Matrimon.  cap.  iii.) 

ni.  Lidissolubility  of  Marriage. — The 
law  of  Israel  (Deut.  xxiv.  1)  allowed  a 
man  to  divorce  his  wife  if  she  did  not 
find  grace  in  his  eyes,  because  he  found 
in  her  some  shameful  thing  (^^^  ni"l!;> 
literally  the  "nakedness  or  shame  of  a 
thing ;  "  LXX,  liax'OlJ^ov  npayfxa  ;  Vulg. 
aliquam  faeditatem),  and  the  woman  was 
free  at  once  to  marry  another  man.  The 
school  of  Shammai  kept  to  the  simple 
meaning  of  the  text.  Hillel  thought  any 
cause  of  offence  sufficient  for  divorce — 
e.g.  "  if  a  woman  let  the  broth  burn ; " 
while  R.  Akiva  held  that  a  man  might 
divorce  his  wife  if  he  found  another 
woman  handsomer.  (See  the  quotation 
from  "  Arbah  Turim  Nilchoth  Gittin,"  i. 
in  McCaul,  "Old  Patlis,"  p.  189.)  The 
Pharisees  tried  to  entangle  Christ  in 
these  Rabbinical  disputes  when  they 
asked  Him  if  a  man  might  put  away  his 
wife  "for  any  cause."    In  Athens  and  in 


MARRIAGE 


MARRIAGE 


597 


Rome  under  the  Empire  the  liberty  of 
divorce  reached  the  furthest  limits  of 
Rabbinical  licence.  (For  details  see  Bol- 
linger, "Gentile  and  Jew,''  Engl.  Transl. 
vol.  ii.  p.  230  scq.  p.  2o4  seq.)  Our  Lord, 
AS  we  have  already  seen,  condemned  the 
Pharisaic  immorality,  annulled  the  Mosaic 
dispensation,  and  declared,  "Whosoever 
shall  put  away  his  wife,  except  for  forni- 
cation, and  shall  marry  another,  com- 
mitteth  adulterj^,  and  he  who  marrieth 
her  when  she  is  put  awav  comuiitteth 
adultery"  (Matt.  xix.  9).  'The  Catholic 
•understands  our  Lord  to  mean  that  thei 
bond  of  marriage  is  always,  even  when 
one  of  the  wedded  parties  has  proved  un- 
faithful, indissoluble,  and  from  the  first 
Christ's  declaration  made  the  practice  of 
Christians  with  regard  to  divorce  essen- 
tially and  conspicuouslj-  different  from 
those  of  their  heathen  and  Jewish  neigh- 
bours. Still  it  was  only  by  degrees  that 
the  strict  practice,  or  even  the  strict 
theory  just  stated,  was  accepted  in  the 
Church.  And  before  we  enter  on  the 
interpretation  of  Christ's  words,  we  will 
give  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  practice 
and  opinion  on  the  matter. 

Christian  princes  had  of  course  to 
deal  with  the  subject  of  divorce,  but  they 
did  not  at  once  recast  the  old  laws  on 
Christian  principles.  Coiistantine,  Theo- 
dosius  the  Younger,  and  Valentinian  III. 
forbade  divorce  except  on  certain  specified 
prounds  ;  other  emperors,  lite  Anastasius 
(in  497)  and  Justin  (whose  law  was  in 
force  till  900),  permitted  divorce  by 
mutual  consent,  but  no  one  emperor 
limited  divorce  to  the  single  case  of 
adultery.  Chardon  says  that  divorce  (of 
course  a  vinculo)  was  allowed  among  the 
Ostrogoths  in  Spain  till  the  thirteenth 
century,  in  France  under  the  first  and 
second  dynasties,  in  Germany  till  the 
seventh  century,  in  Britain  till  the  tenth. 
(Chardon,  "  Ilist.  des  Sacrements,"  tom. 
T.  Maria ffe,  ch.  v.) 

It  would  be  waste  of  labour  to  accu- 
mulate quotations  from  the  Fathers  in 
proof  of  their  belief  that  divorce  was 
unlawful  except  in  the  case  of  adultery. 
But  it  is  verj'  important  to  notice  that 
the  oldest  tradition,  both  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Churches,  regarded  marriage 
as  absolutely  indissoluble.  Thus  the 
"  Pastor  Hermse  "  (lib.  ii.  Mand.  iv.  c.  I), 
Athenagoras,  "  Legat."  33  (whose  testi- 
mony, however,  does  not  count  for  much, 
since  he  objected  to  second  marriages 
altogether),  and  Tertullian  ("De  Monog." 
9),  who  speaks  in  this  place,  as  the  con- 


text shows,  for  the  Catholic  Church, 
teach  this  clearly  and  unequivocally.  The 
principle  is  recognised  in  the  Apostolic 
Canons  (Canon  48,  al.  47),  by  the  Council 
of  Elvira  held  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century.  Canon  9  (which,  however, 
only  speaks  of  a  woman  who  has  left  an 
unfaithful  husband),  and  by  other  early 
authorities. 

However,  the  Eastern  Christians, 
though  not,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the 
earliest  times,  came  to  understand  oui 
Lord's  words   as   permitting  a  second 

r  marriage  in  the  case  of  adultery,  which 
was  supposed  to  dissolve  the  marriage 
bond  altogether.  Such  is  the  view  and 
practice  of  the  Greeks  and  Oriental  sects 
at  the  present  day.  And  even  in  certain 
parts  of  the  West  similar  views  prevailed 
for  a  time.  Many  French  synods  {e.ff. 
those  of  Vannes  in  40-5  and  of  Compiegne 
in  756)  allow  the  husband  of  a  -wife  who 
has  been  unfaithful  to  marry  again  in 
her  life-time.  Nay,  the  latter  council 
permitted  re-marriage  in  other  cases  :  if 
a  woman  had  a  husband  struck  by  leprosy 
and  got  leave  from  him  to  marry  another, 
or  if  a  man  had  given  his  wife  leave  to 
go  into  a  convent  (Canons  16  and  19). 
Pope  Gregory  II.,  in  a  letter  to  St.  Boni- 

I  face  in  the  year  72G.  recommended  that 
the  husband  of  a  wife  seized  by  sickness 
which  prevented  cohabitation  should  not 
marry  again,  but  left  him  free  to  do  so 
provided  he  maintained  his  first  wife. 
(Quoted  by  Hefele,  "  Beitriige,"  vol.  ii. 
p.  376.)  At  Florence  the  question  of 
divorce  was  discussed  between  the  Latins 
and  Greeks,  but  after  the  Decree  of  LTnion ; 
and  we  do  not  know  what  answers  the 
Greeks  gave  on  the  matter.  The  Council 
of  Trent  confirmed  the  present  doctrine 
and  discipline  which  had  long  prevailed 
in  the  West  in  the  following  words  :  "  If 
any  man  say  that  the  Church  is  in  error 
because  it  has  taught  and  teaches,  follow- 
ing the  doctrine  of  the  Gospels  and  the 
Apostles,  that  the  bond  of  marriage  can- 
not be  dissolved  because  of  the  adultery  of 
one  or  both  parties,  let  him  be  anathema." 
(Sess.  xxiv.  De  Matrim.  can.  ^)  The 
studious  moderation  of  language  here  is 
obvious,  for  the  canon  does  not  directly 
require  any  doctrine  to  be  accepted  ;  it 
only  anathematises  those  who  condemn 
a  certain  doctrine,  and  implies  that  this 
doctrine  is  taught  by  the  Church  and 
derived  from  Christ.  It  was  the  Venetian 
ambassadors  who  prevailed  on  the  Fathers 
to  draw  up  the  canon  in  this  indirect 
form,  80  as  to  avoid  needless  oll'euce  to 


598 


MARRIAGE 


MARRIAGE 


the  Greek  subjects  df  Venice  in  Cyprus, 
Candia,  Corfu,  Zante,  and  Cephalonia. 
The  canon  was  no  doubt  chiefly  meant  to 
stem  the  erroneous  views  of  Lutherans 
and  Calvinists  on  divorce. 

Our  Lord's  utterances  on  the  subject 
of  divorce  present  some  difficulty.  In 
Mark  X.  11,  12  ;  Luke  xvi.  18,  He  abso- 
lutely prohibits  divorce  :  "  Whosoever 
shall  put  away  his  wife  and  many 
another,  committeth  adultery  against  her ; 
and  if  a  woman  put  away  her  husband 
and  be  married  to  another,  she  committeth 
adultery."  But  in  Matt.  xix.  9, 10,  there* 
is  a  marked  difference :  "  "Whosoever  shall 
put  av^  ay  his  wife,  except  for  fornication, 
and  marry  another,  committeth  adultery; 
and  he  who  marrieth  a  woman  put  away, 
committeth  adultery."  So  also  Matt.  v. 
32.  Protestant  commentators  understand 
our  Lord  to  prohibit  divorce  except  in  the 
case  of  adultery,  when  the  innocent  party 
at  least  may  marry  again.  Maldonatus, 
who  acknowledges  the  difficulty  of  the 
text,  takes  the  sense  to  be — "Whoever 
puts  away  his  wife  except  for  infidelity 
commits  adultery,  because  of  the  danger 
of  falling  into  licentiousness  to  which  he 
unjustly  expcses  her,  and  so  does  he  who 
in  any  case,  even  if  his  wife  has  proved 
unfaithful,  marries  another."  He  takes 
St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  as  explanatory 
of  the  obscure  passage  in  St.  Matthew. 
Subsequent  scholars,  we  venture  to  think, 
have  by  no  means  improved  on  Maldo- 
natus. Hug,  who  is  never  to  be  mentioned 
without  respect,  suggested  that  Christ 
first  (in  Matt.  v.  32)  forbade  divorce 
except  in  case  of  adultery ;  then  Matt, 
xix.  9,  10,  forbade  it  altogether,  the 
words  "  except  for  fornication "  in  the 
latter  place  being  an  interpolation — a 
suggestion  perfectly  arbitrary  and  followed 
by  nobody.  A  well-known  Catholic  com- 
mentator, Schegg,  interprets  the  words 
"for  fornication"  {enl  iropveia)  io  mean, 
"  because  the  man  has  found  his  marriage 
to  be  null  because  of  some  impediment, 
and  so  no  marriage  at  all,  but  mere 
concubinage."  In  this  event  there  would 
be  no  occasion  for  or  possibility  of 
divorce.  On  Matt.  v.  32  {napeKTos  \6yov 
nopveias,  save  where  fornication  is  the 
motive  reason  of  the  divorce)  he  thinks 
Christ  took  for  granted  that  the  adul- 
teress would  be  put  to  death  (according 
to  Levit.  XX.  10)  and  so  leave  her  husband 
free,  an  hypothesis  which  is  contradicted 
by  the  "  pericope  of  the  adulteress " 
(John  viii.  3  seq.').  Bollinger's  elaborate 
theory  given  in  the  Appendix  to  his 


"  First  Age  of  the  Church  "  is  less  inge- 
nious than  that  of  Hug,  but  scarcely  less- 
arbitrary.  He  urges  that  iropvevfiu  can 
only  n'ier  to  "fornication,"  and  cannot 
be  used  of  sin  committed  after  man-iage  ; 
but  nnpvda  and  TTopvev€iv  are  used  of 
adultery  (1  Cor.  v.  1  ;  Amos  vii.  17  ;  Sir. 
xxiii.  33),  so  that  we  need  not  linger 
over  Bollinger's  contention  (which  has 
no  historical  basis,  and  is  objectionable 
in  every  way)  that  antenuptial  sin  on 
the  woman's  part  annulled  the  union 
and  left  the  man  free,  if  he  was  un- 
aware of  it  when  he  meant  to  contract 
marriage.' 

IV.  The  Unity  of  Marriage.  — T}it. 
unlawfulness  of  polygamy  in  the  common 
sense  of  the  word  follows  from  the 
declaration  of  Christ  Himself,  and  there 
was  no  room  for  fui-ther  question  on  the 
matter.  With  regard  to  reiteration  of 
marriage,  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  vii.  39,  40) 
distinctly  asserts  that  a  woman  is  free 
to  marry  on  her  husband's  death.  Still 
there  is  a  natural  feeling  against  a  second 
marriage,  which  Virgil  expresses  in  the 
beautiful  words  he  puts  into  Bido's 
mouth — 

Ille  meos,  primu8  qui  me  sibi  junxit,  amores 
Abstulit ;  ille  habeat  secum  servetque  sepulcro. 

And  this  feeling,  of  which  there  ara 
many  traces  among  the  heathen,  was  yet 
more  natural  in  Christians,  who  might 
well  look  to  a  continuance  in  a  better 
world  of  the  love  which  had  begun  and 
grown  stronger  year  by  year  on  earth. 
Moreover,  the  Apostle  puts  those  who 
had  married  again  at  a  certain  disadvan- 
tage, for  he  excludes  them  (1  Tim.  iii.  2 ; 
Titus  i.  6)  from  the  episcopate  and 
priesthood.  And  the  Church,  though 
she  held  fast  the  lawfulness  of  second 
marriage  and  condemned  the  error  of  the 
Montanists  (see  TertuUian,  "  Be  Monog."' 
"  Exhortat.  Castitatis  "),  and  of  some 
Novatians  (Concil.  Nic.  i.  Canon  8), 
treated  such  unions  with  a  certain  dis- 
favour. This  aversion  was  much  more 
strongly  manifested  in  the  East  than  in 
the  West. 

1  Dollinger  objects  to  the  instance  from 
1  Cor.  V.  1,  because  he  savs  there  is  no  Greek 
word  for  "incest,"  so  that  the  Apostle  was 
obliged  to  use  mpvela-  Why  iropuela  rather 
than  fioix^ia  ?  As  to  Amos  vii.  17,  "  Thy  wife 
will  commit  fornication  in  the  city,"  he  urges 
that  this  drtilcinent  was  not  to  be  voluntary  on 
thewomim's  part,  and  therefore  was  not  adul- 
tery. This  argument  proves  too  much.  If  it 
was  not  adultery  because  not  wilful,  no  mora 
was  it  "  fornication." 


MARRIAGE 


MARRIAGE 


699 


Atlienagoras  ("  Legat."  33)  says  1 
Christians  marry  not  at  all,  or  only 
once,  since  they  look  on  second  marriage 
as  a  "  sjx'cious  adultery  "  {tinpenrji 
((TTi  iioixfia).  Clement  of  Alexandria 
("  Strom."  iii.  1,  p.  551,  ed.  Potter) 
simply  repeats  the  apostolic  injunction, 
"  But  as  to  second  marriage,  if  thou  art 
on  fire,  says  the  Apostle,  marry."  (In 
iii.  1:^,  p.  551,  he  is  referring  to  simulta- 
neous bigamy.)  Early  in  the  fourth 
century  we  find  Eastern  councils  showing 
strong  disapproval  of  second  marriage. 
Thus  the  Council  of  Neocaesarea  (Canon  7) 
forbids  priests  to  take  part  in  the  feasts 
of  those  who  married  a  second  time,  and 
assumes  that  the  latter  must  do  penance. 
The  Council  of  Ancyra  (Canon  19)  also 
takes  this  for  granted,  and  the  Council 
of  Laodicea  (Canon  1)  only  admits  those 
who  have  married  again  to  communion 
after  prayer  and  fasting.  Basil  treats 
this  branch  of  Church  discipline  in  great 
detail.  For  those  who  mai-ried  a  second 
time  he  prescribes,  following  ancient 
precedent,  a  penance  of  one  year,  and  of 
several  years  for  those  who  marry  more 
than  once.  (See  the  references  in  Hefele, 
"Concil."i.  p.  339;  "  Beitrage,"  i.  p.  50 
seq.)  Basil's  rigorism  had  a  decided 
influence  on  the  later  Greek  Church. 
A  Council  of  Constantinople,  in  920, 
discouraged  second,  imposed  penance  for 
third,  and  excommunication  for  fourth 
marriage.  Sucli  is  the  discipline  of  the 
modem  Greek  church.  At  a  second 
marriage  the  "  benediction  of  the  crowns" 
is  omitted,  and  "  propitiatory  prayers " 
are  said ;  and  although  some  concessions 
have  been  made  with  regard  to  the  former 
ceremony,  Leo  AUatius  testifies  that  it 
was  still  omitted  in  some  parts  of  the 
Greek  church  as  late  as  the  seventeenth 
century.  A  fourth  marriage  is  still 
absolutely  prohibited.* 

The  Latin  Church  has  always  been 
milder  and  more  consistent.  The  "Pastor 
Hermae  "  (lib.  ii.  Mandat.  iv.  4)  emphati- 
cally maintains  that  there  is  no  sin  in 
second  marriage.  St.  Ambrose  ("  De 
Viduis,"  c.  11)  contents  himself  with  say- 
ing, "We  do  not  prohibit  second  mar- 
riages, but  we  do  not  approve  marriages 
frequently  reiterated."  Jerome's  woi-ds 
are,  "  I  do  not  condemn  those  who  marry 
twice,  three  times,  nay,  if  such  a  thing 

1  The  Oriental  sects  (Copts,  Jacobites, 
Armenians)  are  even  stricter  than  the  Greeks. 
The  Nestorians,  however,  are,  as  might  have 
been  expected,  free  from  any  spirit  of  strictness 
on  this  point.    Denzinger,  ttit.  Orient,  i.  p.  180. 


can  be  said,  eight  times  (no«  dnmno 
digomos,  imo  et  t.riti(imofi,et,  si  did  potest, 
ortofftnyios),"  but  he  shows  his  dislike  for 
repeated  niurriage  (Ep.  l.wii.  "  Apol.  pro 
libris  adv.  .Tovin.").  Greaorj- III.  advi.«i!S 
Boniface,  the  Apostle  of  (iennany,  to 
prevent,  if  he  can,  people  marrying  more 
than  twice,  but  he  does  not  call  such 
unions  sinful.  Xordid  the  Latin  Church 
impose  any  penance  for  reiterated  mar- 
riage. We  do,  indeed,  find  penance  im- 
posed on  those  who  married  again  in  the 
penitential  books  of  Theodore,  who  be- 
came archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  (108. 
ButTheodore's  view  came  from  his  Grrek 
nationality  ;  and  if  Ilerardus,  archbishop 
of  Tours,  speaks  of  third  marriage,  Szc, 
as  "  adultery,"  this  is  probably  to  be  ex- 
plained by  the  Greek  influence  which  had 
spread  from  England  to  France.  Any- 
how, this  is  the  earliest  trace  of  such 
rigorism  in  the  West. 

The  Latin  Church,  however,  did  ex- 
hibit one  definite  mark  of  disfavour  for 
reiterated  marriage.  The  "Coi-pus  Juris" 
contains  two  decretals  of  Alexander  III. 
and  Urban  III.,  forbidding  priests  to  give 
the  nuptial  benediction  in  such  cases. 
Durandus  (died  1296)  speaks  of  the  cus- 
tom in  his  time  as  difi'erent  in  different 
places.  The  "  Rituale  Romanum "  of 
Paul  V.  (1605-1621)  forbids  the  nuptial 
benediction,  only  tolerating  the  custom 
of  giving  it,  when  it  already  existed,  if  it 
was  the  man  only  who  was  being  married 
again.  The  present  rubric  permits  the 
nuptial  benediction  except  when  the 
woman  has  been  married  before. 

y.  Ceremonies  of  Marriage. — From 
the  earliest  times  and  in  all  times  Chris- 
tians have  been  wont  to  celebrate  their 
marriages  in  church,  and  to  have  them 
blessed  by  the  priest ;  nor  can  they  cele- 
brate them  otherwise  without  sin,  except 
in  case  of  necessity.  "  It  is  fitting," 
Ignatius  writes  ("Ad  Polycarp."  5),  "for 
men  and  women  who  marry,  to  form  this 
union  with  the  approval  of  the  bishop 
that  their  union  may  be  according  to 
God."  "What  words  can  suffice,"  Ter- 
tuUian  says  ("  Ad  Uxor."  ii.  9),  "  to  tell 
the  happiness  of  that  marriage  which  the 
Church  unites,  the  oblation  confirms,  and 
the  blessing  seals,  the  angels  announce, 
j  the  Father  acknowledges  !  " 

In  the  form  approved  for  England  the 
priest  in  surplice  and  white  stole  questions 
the  man  and  woman  as  to  their  consent. 
Then  each  party  expresses  this  consent  at 
!  length  and  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  with 
{  joined  hands  : — "  I  N.  take  thee  N.  to 


600 


MARRIAGE 


MARRIAGE 


my  wedded  wife,  to  liave  and  to  hold 
from  this  day  forward,  for  better  for 
worse,  for  richer  for  poorer,  in  sickness 
and  in  health,  till  death  us  do  part,  if 
Holy  Church  will  it  permit,  and  thereto 
I  plight  thee  my  troth."  "  I  N.  take  thee 
N.  to  my  wedded  husband,"  &c.  Where- 
upon the  priest,  "  I  join  you  into  mar- 
riage in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  the 
Son,"  Sec.  The  bridegroom  then  places 
gold  and  silver  on  a  plate  or  on  the  book 
which  he  afterwards  gives  to  the  bride, 
and  a  ring  which  the  priest  sprinkles 
with  holy  water  and  blesses.  The  bride- 
groom takes  the  ring  from  the  priest  and 
gives  the  money  to  his  wife,  saying, 
"  With  this  ring  1  thee  wed,  this  gold  and 
silver  I  thee  give,  with  my  body  I  thee 
worship,  and  with  all  my  worldly  goods  I  I 
thee  endow " ;  then  he  puts  the  ring  on 
the  thumb  of  his  wife's  left  hand,  saying, 
"  In  the  name  of  the  Father " ;  on  her 
second  finger,  saying,  "  and  of  the  Son  "  ; 
on  her  third  finger,  saying,  "  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  "  ;  and  on  her  fourth  finger, 
where  he  leaves  it,  saying,  "  Amen."  The 
Nuptial  Mass  is  then  celebrated,  and  the 
priest  gives  the  nuptial  benediction  after 
the  Paternoster  and  again  after  the  "  Ite 
Missa."  Nothing  can  exceed  the  gxace 
and  tender  beauty  of  these  prayers  of 
benediction. 

Many  of  these  ceremonies  belonged 
originally  to  the  betrothal.  [See  Es- 
pousal.] The  ring,  or  annulus  pronubus, 
was  used  to  plight  troth  before  Christian 
time  by  the  Romans.  So  again,  espousing 
with  gold  and  silver,  called  arrhce,  cer- 
tainly existed  among  the  Franks  previous 
to  their  embracing  Christianity,  also  a- 
mong  the  Jews,  whence  it  may  have 
passed  into  the  Greek  ritual.  The  joining 
of  hands  (once  accompanied  by  a  kiss)  is 
alluded  to  by  Tertullian  ("De  Virg.  : 
Veland."  11).  St.  Isidore  of  Seville, 
quoted  hy  Chardon,  says  the  ring  was 
put  on  the  foiu-th  finger  of  the  left  hand, 
because  it  contains  a  vein  immediately 
connected  with  the  heart.  This  sage 
reason  was  the  current  one  in  the  middle 
ages. 

The  words  of  the  priest,  "  Ego  jungo  " 
("  I  join  you  into  marriage  "),  are  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin.  "  Anyone," 
says  Chardon  (tom.  v.  "Mariage,"  ch.  2), 
"  may  convince  himself  of  this  by  looking 
through  the  extracts  from  ancient  Sacra- 
mentaries  and  Missals  published  by  j 
Father  Martene."  They  are  omitted,  the  | 
same  author  continues,  in  a  Pontifical  of 
Sens  (only)  300  years  old,  and  they  are  \ 


wanting  in  the  "Ordo  ad  faciendum 
sponsalia  "  reprinted  by  Mr.  Maskell  from 
a  Sarum  "Manuale"  of  1543.  On  the 
other  hand,  two  striking  ceremonies  men- 
tioned by  Nicolas  I.  in  his  answer  to  the 
Bulgarians,  and  both  older  than  Chris- 
tianity itself,  are  now  unknown  among  us. 
These  are  the  solemn  veiling  of  the  bride 
and  the  wearing  of  crowns  by  the  married 
couple.  The  Greeks  have  kept  this  latter 
rite:  indeed,  "crowning"  among  them  is  a 
common  word  for  the  nuptial  benediction. 
The  marriage  service  according  to  the  old 
English  use  of  Sai-um  is  substantially  the 
same  as  the  modern  Roman  one,  but  more 
elaborate.  The  couple  stood  at  the 
church  door  till  the  man  had  placed  the 
ring  on  the  woman's  hand  (the  riirht 
hand,  by  the  way),  and  certain  prayers 
had  been  said  over  them.  Additional 
prayers  were  said  over  them  at  the  altar 
steps:  then,  before  Mass  began,  they  were 
placed  in  the  presbytery — "  that  is  to  say, 
between  the  choir  and  the  altar  "  (rubric 
of  Sarum  Manual).  The  rubric  of  the 
Hereford  Missal  directs  them  to  hold 
lights  in  their  hands.  The  Nuptial  Mass 
was  "of  the  Trinity,"  with  prayers  for 
the  occasion.  After  the  Sanctus,  four 
clerics  in  surplices  held  a  veil  {pallium) 
over  them  while  they  lay  prostrate,  and 
the  special  benediction  was  given  after 
the  Fraction  of  the  Host.  At  the  "  Agnus 
Dei,"  the  pallium  was  removed,  both  rose, 
the  bridegroom  received  the  pax  from  the 
priest  and  kissed  his  wife.  There  is 
nothing  in  the  Sarum  Manual  which 
answers  to  our  nuptial  prayer  before  the 
"  Ite  Missa  est,"  though  the  Hereford 
Missal  gives  a  special  form  of  benediction 
with  the  chalice.  After  Mass,  bread  and 
wine,  or  some  other  liquor,  were  blessed 
and  tasted  by  the  newly-man-ied  couple. 
At  night  the  priest  blessed  the  nuptial 
couch. 

It  must  not  be  thought  that  these  rites, 
even  so  far  as  they  differ  from  those  now 
in  use,  were  in  any  way  peculiarly 
English.  They  occur  almost  exactly  iii 
the  same  order  and  form  in  a  Ritual  of 
Rennes  and  a  Pontifical  from  the  monas- 
tery of  Leri,  from  which  Chardon  {loc. 
cit.)  gives  copious  extracts.  But  we  can 
find  no  parallel  for  the  placing  of  the  ring 
on  the  bride's  right  hand. 

In  the  Greek  church  the  marriage 
service  is  known  as  aKoKovdla  tov  aTf(f)avw- 
fxwioi,  the  office  of  crowning.  After  tlie 
espousals,  in  which  two  rings,  one  of  gold 
and  another  of  silver,  are  placed  on  the 
altar  and  given  by  the  priest  to  bride- 


M.\RTYR 


MARTmOLOGY  601 


groom  and  bride  re?pectively,  the  persons 
to  be  married  enter  the  church,  preceded 
by  the  priest  with  the  incense.  After 
Psalm  xxxi.  and  various  prayers  the  priest 
puts  a  crown  on  the  head  of  each  w  ith 
the  words,  "The  senant  of  God  N. 
crowns  the  servant  of  God  N.  in  the 
name,"  &c.  There  is  no  mention  of 
Nuptial  Mass  in  the  modem  Greek  Eu- 
chologies,  and  Greeks  are  usually  married 
in  the  evening.  From  more  ancient  MSS., 
however,  Goar  found  that  the  bridegroom 
and  bride  used  to  receive  Communion 
from  a  particle  of  a  Host  previously  con- 
secrated and  placed  in  a  chalice  with 
ordinary  wine.  The  offices  of  marriage 
among  the  other  Orientals  are  given  by 
Denzinger. 

MARTYR  (jiapTvs,  then  fidprvp, 
which  was  originally  the  --Eolie  form). 
A  witness  for  Christ.  In  early  times 
this  title  was  given  generally  to  those  who 
were  distinguished  witnesses  for  Christ, 
then  to  those  who  sufl'ered  for  Him ;  ' 
lastly,  after  the  middle  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, the  title  was  restricted  to  those  who 
actually  died  for  Him.  The  very  first 
records  of  the  Church  which  we  possess 
tell  us  of  the  honours  done  to  the  martyrs. 
It  was  the  martyi-s  who,  first  of  all,  were 
regarded  as  saints ;  the  relics  of  the 
martyrs  which  were  first  revered ;  to  the 
martyrs  that  the  first  churches  were 
dedicated.  The  name  "  martyrium " 
(fiapTvpiov),  which  at  first  meant  the 
church  built  over  a  martyr's  remains,  was 
given  to  churches  generally,  even  if  dedi- 
cated to  saints  who  were  not  martjTed, 
though  this  usage  was  partly  justified  by 
the  fact  that  a  church  was  not  consecrated 
till  the  relics  of  some  martyr  had  been 
placed  in  it. 

Benedict  XIV.,  in  his  work  on 
"Canonisation"  (lib.  iii.  cap.  11  seq.), 
gives  the  modem  law  of  the  Church  on 
the  recognition  of  martyrdom  with  great 

'  tidprvs  and  the  cognate  words  begin  to 
assume  their  later  technical  sense  in  Acts  xxii. ; 
Apoc.  ii.  13.  This  technical  sense  is  probably 
intended  in  Clem.  Rom.  1,  Ad  Cor.  5 ;  certainly 
in  Ignat.  Ad  Ephes.  1  ;  Mart.  Polyc.  19  ;  Me- 
lilo  (apud  Kuseb.  H.  E.  iv.  26)  ;  Dionys.  Co- 
rinth, {ib.  ii.  •i.'j  > ;  Hegesippus  (i6.  ii.  23,  iV.  22)  ; 
Epist.  Gull.  (ib.  V.  1,  2)  ;  Anon.  Adv.  Catnph. 
(ib.  V.  16);  Iren.  i.  28,  1,  &c. ;  though  at  the 
same  time  the  words  were  also  used  of  testi- 
mony which  was  not  sealed  by  death.  The 
epistle  of  the  Martyrs  of  Vienne  and  Lvons 
just  quoted  distinguishes  between  confessors 
(<5/u(!Ao70()  and  martyrs,  but  in  Clement  Alex. 
(Strom,  iv.  9,  p.  596)  and  even  in  Cyprian  the 
distinction  is  not  observed.  The  Decian  perae- 
( ution  tended  to  fix  it. 


fulness.  He  defines  martyrdom  as  the 
"  voluntary  endurance  of  death  for  the 
faith  or  some  other  act  of  virtue  relating 
to  God."  A  martyr,  he  says,  may  die 
not  only  for  the  faith  directly,  but  also  to 
preserve  some  virtue — e.ff.  justice,  obe- 
dience, or  the  like,  enjoined  or  counselled 
by  the  faith.  He  mentions  the  dispute 
among  theologians  whether  a  person  who 
died  for  confessing  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  which  in 
his  time  had  not  been  defined,  would  be 
a  martyr.  He  gives  no  decided  opinion 
on  the  point,  but  says  that  "in  other 
cases  the  safe  rule  is  that  one  who  dies 
for  a  question  not  yet  defined  by  the 
Church  dies  in  a  cause  insufficient  for 
martyrdom."  Further,  he  explains  that 
to  be  a  martyr  a  man  must  actually  die 
of  his  sufferings  or  else  have  endured 
pains  which  would  have  been  his  death 
but  for  miraculous  intervention. 

MARTYROX.OG'S'.  A  hst  of m  artyr s 
and  other  saints,  and  the  mysteries  com- 
memorated on  each  day  of  the  year,  with 
brief  notices  of  the  life  and  death  of  the 
former.  It  is  these  brief  notices  which  dis- 
tinguish a  Martyrology  from  a  mere  calen- 
dar. It  is  read  in  monastic  orders  at  Prime 
after  the  prayer  "Deus,  qui  ad  principium." 
It  is  followed  by  the  versicle  "  Precious  in 
the  sight  of  the  Lord  is  the  death  of  his 
saints,"  and  by  a  petition  for  the  inter- 
cession of  the  heavenly  court ;  and  these 
words  are  retained  even  in  the  secular 
office  when  the  Martyrology  is  not  actually 
recited.  Mr.  Maskell  has  collected  many 
proofs  that  in  England  the  Martvrology 
used  to  be  said  in  the  monastic  chapter, 
not,  like  the  office,  in  the  choir.  This 
custom,  however,  was  in  no  way  peculiar 
to  England,  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
notes  of  Meratus  on  the  subject  (Part.  II. 
sect.  V.  cap.  21).  After  Prime,  or  some- 
times after  Tierce,  the  monks  adjourned  to 
the  chapter,  heard  the  Martyrology  and 
said  the  prayers  which  now  form  part  of 
Prime,  "Deus,  in  adjutorium  meum"; 
"  Dignare,  Domine,  die  ista,"  &c.,  before 
setting  out  to  their  daily  labour. 

Gregory  the  Great  speaks  of  a  Martyr- 
ology used  by  the  Eoman  Church  in  his 
day,  but  we  do  not  know  for  certain 
what  it  was.  A  Martyrology  attributed 
to  Jerome  is  printed,  e.ff.  in  Vallarsi's 
edition  of  his  works.  It  has  undergone 
many  revisions  and  later  editions.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  Jerome  may  have  col- 
lected a  Martyrology  from  the  various 
calendars  of  the  Church,  and  that  the 
Martyrology  which  goes  by  his  name,  as 


G02 


MARY 


MARY 


we  have  it,  is  the  corruption  of  a  t)ooK 
used  in  St.  Gregory "s  time  at  Rome.  The 
lesser  Roman  Martyrology  was  found  at 
Ravenna  by  Ado,  archbishop  of  Vienne, 
about  850.  A  third  Martyrology  is  attri- 
buted (erroneously,  Hefele  says)  to  Bede, 
and  the  foundation  of  the  work  may 
probably  come  from  him.  All  Western 
Martyrologies  are  based  on  these  three. 
^\"e  have  Martyrologies  from  Florus,  Ado, 
Usuard,  in  France ;  from  Rabanus  and 
Notker  of  St.  Gall,  in  Switzerland. 

The  Roman  Martyrology  mentioned, 
as  we  have  seen,  by  Gregory  the  Great 
is  mentioned  again  at  the  English  Coun- 
cil of  Cloveshoo.  Such  a  work  is  of  course 
subject  to  constant  alterations  from  the 
addition  of  new  feasts,  &c.  A  revision 
of  the  Roman  Martyrology  was  made  by 
Baronius  and  other  scholars  in  1584.  It 
was  revised  again  under  Urban  VIII. 
(See  Laemmer,'  "  De  Mart.  Rom."  Ratis- 
bonse,  1878.) 

MART  (Mapuj/ii,*  Dn»).    The  object 

1  This  schol.ir  classifies  Martyrologies  thus : 
(1)  that  attributed  to  Jerome  ;  (2)  Martyr. 
Rom.  Parv.  published  by  Rosweyd  in  1613.  and 
written  in  Rome  about  740 ;  (3)  a  genuine 
Martyrology  of  Bede,  with  interpolations  from 
Florus  of  Lyons  ;  (4)  that  of  Usuard,  dedicated 
to  Charles  the  Bald,  used  from  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, not  only  in  Benedictine  bouses,  but 
throushout  the"  West.  In  the  fifteenth  century 
no  other  was  in  use  except  in  St.  Peter's,  and 
even  there  the  Martyrology  was  but  a  transla- 
tion of  Usuard. 

2  The  n<jminative  and  vocative  of  Mary, 
the  Mother  of  our  Lord,  is  always  Vlaptd/x 
(Matt.  xiii.  .05  ;  Luke  i.  27,  30,  34,". 38,  89,  4i;, 
66  ;  ii.  34  ;  Acts  i.  14),  the  only  exception 
being  i.  19,  where  the  reading  is  doubtful. 
Sometimes  the  genitive  is  Mopias ;  sometimes  it 
is  indeclinable,  as  in  Luke  ii.  ."j,  16.  The  word 
yiapd/x,  or  Mary,  is  of  course  identical  with 
Miriam,  the  name  of  the  sister  of  Moses.  The 
meanings," bitterness" (from  Heb.ijp), "lady  " 

(from  Chaldee  and  Syriac  NnDi  "j;^.  the  same 

word  which  is  familiar  to  all  in  Maranathit, 
"our  Lord  cometh,"  1  Cor.  xvi.  22),  must  cer- 
tainly be  abandoned  ou  philological  grounds. 
Ther'e  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt  that  the  deriva- 
tion generally  accepted  among  scholars  from 
mtji  "  t°  rebel,"  is  correct ;  so  that  "  Mary," 
or  "Miriam"  =  "rebellion."  The  niediaev.il 
notion  that  the  word  "Mary"  was  connected 
with  the  Latin  "mare  "  is  curious.  The  last 
syllable  "  yam,"  does  mean  the  sea.  But 
how  St.  Bernard  came  to  think  "  Mary  "  meant 
"star  of  the  sea,"  we  cannot  say  (Q*  "liSD> 
"liixht  of  the  sea"?).  No  part  of  the  word 
resemliles  any  word  for  "star"  in  Hebrew, 
Syriac,  Chaldee,  or,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  in 
any  lan{;uage.  It  might  easily  (though  of 
course,  quite  wrongly)  be  taken  to  mean  "  Lord 


of  this  article  is  to  sum  up  and  justify 
the  teaching  and  practice  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  her  devotion  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  Catholics  do  not  stand  alone  iu 
this  devotion,  for  the  schismatic  Greeks, 
and  most  of  the  ancient  Oriental  sect* 
agree  with  -Catholics  in  magnifying 
Clary's  dignity  and  seeking  her  inter- 
cession. Protestants,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  all  but  unanimous  in  condemning  the 
Church's  devotion,  and  have  often  de- 
nounced it  as  idolatrous.  Some  points 
which  concern  us  here  will  be  passed 
lightly  over,  because  we  have  considered 
them  elsewhere.  The  Immacttlate  Con- 
ception is  discussed  in  a  special  article. 
We  have  endeavoured  to  show  (see 
Beatific  Vision)  that  Mary  and  the 
other  saints  already  see  God  face  to  face ; 
we  assume  further  that  she  and  they  are 
able  to  hear  our  prayers,  reserving  the 
treatment  of  that  question  to  the  article 
Saints. 

I.  Mary  in  Scripture. — It  may  be 
fairly  alleged  that  the  Bible  begins  with 
Mary.  When  God  cursed  the  serpent.  He 
said,  "  I  will  put  enmity  between  thee 
and  the  woman,  and  between  thy  seed 
and  her  seed."  Of  course  those  who 
think  the  serpent  was  only  a  serpent  will 
see  no  prophecy  or  anything  more  than  a 
rediction  of  the  strife  in  Eastern  lands 
etween  man  and  the  serpent,  his  deadly 
and  insidious  foe,  the  serpent  stealthily 
aiming  at  the  man's  heel,  the  man  aiming 
at  the  serpent's  head.  But  Protestants 
who  believe,  as  the  Apocalypse  implies, 
that  the  serpent  was  the  devil,  and  that 
our  Lord  is  the  promised  "seed  of  the 
woman  "  who  was  to  crush  the  serpent's 
head,  are  logically  bound  to  understand 
the  woman  who  is  to  be  at  enmity  with 
the  serpent  as  Mary.  The  woman  and 
her  seed  are  put  close  together — the 
"enmity"  of  the  one  is  compared  with 
that  of  the  other,  and  to  what  woman  is 
all  this  applicable  except  to  Mary  ?  She 
was  the  virgin '  (this  is  not  the  place  to 
discuss  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  the 

of  the  sea,"  and  perhaps  this  led  to  the  notion 
that  it  meant  "  star,"  unless  our  suggestion  in 
brackets  be  ricrht. 

'  Too  much  is  made  by  some  Catholic 
writers  of  the  article  in  the  Hebrew  of  Is.  vii.  14, 
"  Behold  the  virgin  with  child  and  bringing 
forth  a  son."  Probably  "  the  virgin  "  me:ins 
the  virgin  standing  before  the  prophet  in  vision. 
Besides,  the  definite  article  is  used  in  Hebrew 
where  we  should  not  employ  it  in  English.  See, 
e.g.  Num.  xi.  27,  lit.  "  the  lad  ran  and  told 
Moses,"  though  this  is  the  first  mention  of  anv 
lad  (Ewald,  Gram.  §  277  a). 


MARY 


MARY 


603 


original)  who  was  to  bear  a  child,  and 
that  child  was  to  be  called  Emmanuel, 
God  with  us." 

This  prediction  was  fulfilled,  and 
Mary  received  the  highest  dignity  pos- 
sible to  a  mere  creature.  She  was  not 
indeed  the  mother  of  the  Godhead,  but 
she  was  the  motlier  of  God,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  Clirist  her  Son  was 
God  and  man  in  one  Person.  True,  her 
Son  did  not  take  his  divine  nature  from 
her,  any  more  than  a  son  who  is  mere 
man  receives  his  soul  from  his  mother. 
The  soul  is  infused  by  God,  but  as  body 
and  soul  are  united  in  one  human  person, 
we  reasonably  speak  of  a  woman  as  the 
mother  of  her  son,  not  merely  as  the 
mother  of  a  human  body.  And  granting 
this,  it  is  strange  that  sincere  Christians 
should  stumble  on  the  language  in  which 
the  (!hurch  speaks  of  Mary.  She  is 
exalted  above  the  angels,  for  surely  God's 
mother  is  nearer  to  Him  than  the  angels 
who  stand  before  the  throne.  From  her  1 
Christ  took  the  blood  He  was  to  shed  for 
her  and  for  us  all.  Moreover,  whereas 
the  two  gr(\it  dignities  of  virginity  and 
maternity  are,  according  to  God's  ordinarj' 
law,  inconii)atible,  in  Mary's  case  they 
were  united.  Joseph  "  took  unto  him  his 
wife,  and  he  knew  her  not  until  she 
brought  forth  her  first-born  son :  and  he 
called  his  name  Jesus  "  (Matt.  i.  24,  25). 
"We  do  not  know  where  to  find  more 
beautiful  or  more  impassioned  language 
used  by  the  Church  about  Mary  than  the 
words  which  occur  in  the  "  Common  "  of 
the  Breviary  office  : — "  Holy  and  stainless 
virginity,  with  what  praise  to  extol  thee 
I  do  not  know ;  He  whom  the  heavens 
cannot  contain  was  contained  in  thy 
bosom.  Blessed  art  thou  amongst 
women,  and  blessed  is  the  fruit  of  thy 
womb."  Yet  these  words,  strong  as  they 
are,  simply  state  a  primary  tenet  of  the 
Christian  faith.  Her  virginity,  her 
divine  maternity,  her  position  as  the  sole 
parent  of  Him  who  had  no  man  for  his 
father — these  are  the  deeply-laid  founda- 
tions of  Mary's  glory. 

But  Mary  was  not  merely  the  passive 
inLstrument  of  the  Incarnation.  By  the 
free  use  of  her  own  will  she  co-operated 
in  our  salvation,  and  was  associated  with 
her  divine  Son.  It  depended  on  her  will 
whether  or  no  the  divine  economy  by 
which  the  Incarnation  and  our  redemption 
were  acconi])lisliod  was  to  be  frustrated, 
as  the  first  (lis]ii'iisati(in  had  been  by  tlie 
disobedience  of  Adam  and  Eve.  The 
account  in  Luke  i.  26 -'38,  and  especially 


Mary's  question,  "How  will  this  be, 
seeing  that  I  know  not  man  ?  "  are  proof 
of  the  deliberate  wav  in  which  :\Iarv 
chose  her  part,  and  tlie  freedom  ol"  the 
consent  is  expressed  in  her  word>,  ••  lie- 
hold  the  handmaid  of  the  Lord,  be  it 
unto  me  according  to  thy  word.'"  And 
so  her  cousin,  St.  Elizaljeth,  acknow- 
ledges not  only  Mary's  diiinity  as  the 
Mother  of  the  Messias  — "  "W  ln'iice  is  this 
unto  me  that  the  mother  of  my  Lord 
should  come  unto  me  ?  " — but  also  Maiy's 
personal  holiness  and  share  in  tlie  work 
of  our  salvation.  "Blessed  is  she  who 
believed,  because  "  (or  perhaps  "  that  ") 
"  there  will  be  an  accomplishment  of  the 
things  spoken  to  her  by  the  Lord " 
(Luke  i.  43-45). 

Mary  maintains  and  exercises  her 
rights  and  privileges  as  the  mother  of 
Christ  throughout  the  Gospel  history. 
It  is  she  who  bore  the  Light  of  light  into 
the  world  in  the  stable  at  Bethlehem. 
She  nourished  at  her  breast  and  with  a 
mother's  love  that  human  life  which  her 
divine  Son  had  condescended  to  take 
from  her.  He  Himself  has  told  us  how 
grateful  He  is,  how  bountiful  his  reward 
for  a  cup  of  water  given  in  his  name. 
It  was  Mary's  privilege  to  minister  to 
Him  directly,  and,  first  by  herself,  then 
in  union  with  St.  Joseph,  actually  to 
support  Christ's  life  during  his  early 
years.  To  her  and  to  St.  Joseph  He,  the 
Lord  of  all,  "was  subject"  (Luke  ii.  51). 
Not  less  but  more  "  subject "  than  ordi- 
nary sons,  because  He  was  "  made  under 
the  law,"  and  came  to  give  a  perfect 
example  of  the  way  that  the  law  which 
commands  filial  obedience  should  be 
Ifcpt.  In  her  company  Christ  spent 
thirty  out  of  the  three-and-thirty  years 
of  his  earthly  sojourn.  At  her  request 
He  made  the  water  wine,  and  so  inaugu- 
rated his  puljlic  ministry  and  manifested 
his  glory.  When  nearly  all  the  Apostles 
had  tied  she  stood  at  the  foot  of  his  cross, 
suft'ering  surely  as  no  other  mother  ever 
suffered,  and  drinking,  as  no  other  crea- 
ture ever  drank,  the  chalice  of  Christ's 
Passion. 

There  is  no  hint  in  Scripture  of  any 
sin  or  imperfection  on  Mary's  part.  No 
doubt  our  Lord,  when  she  told  Him  at 
the  wedding  that  there  was  no  ^\  ine, 
answered,  "Woman,  what  is  theie  to  me 
and  to  thee:  mine  hour  is  not  yet  come?  ' 
(the  translation  is  that  of  Dr.'^Westcott). 
The  passage  is  confessedly  a  hard  one. 
Possibly  Christ  may  have  meant  that 
there  was  nothing  in  common  between 


604 


MARY 


MARY 


Lis  divine  and  her  human  nature.  She 
could  not  fathom  the  counsels  of  his 
omniscience.  The  hour  of  full  triumph 
vrhich  she  naturally  and  innocently 
desired  had  not  come  yet,  was  not 
to  come  till  that  hour  which  St.  John 
again  and  again  calls  Christ's  own 
(John  vii.  30,  viii.  20,  xiii.  1),  the  hour 
of  his  weakness,  his  passion,  and  his 
death.  Be  this  as  it  may,  two  things  are 
certain.  First,  in  the  word  woman  (we 
quote  the  same  distinguished  Protestant 
scholar)  there  "  is  not  the  least  tinge  of 
reproof  or  severity.  The  address  is  that 
of  courteous  respect,  even  of  tender- 
ness." Next,  Mary  cannot  possibly  have 
been  guilty  of  fault  in  asking,  or  rather 
suggesting,  the  very  thing  that  Christ 
did. 

Nor  does  the  New  Testament  ever  im- 
ply that  Mary  ceased  to  be  a  virgin ;  on  the 
contrary,  it  confirms,  tbough  it  nowhere 
states,  the  Catholic  dogma  of  her  per- 
petual virginity.  We  read  of  our  Lord's 
brethren,  but  the  same  word  is  used  in 
Genesis  xiii.  8,  xxix.  15,  for  the  relation- 
ship between  Abraham  and  Lot,  Laban 
and  Jacob,  and  yet  we  know  that  they 
were  uncles  and  nephews,  not  brothers  in 
the  strict  sense.  Again,  those  who  press 
the  word  "  brother"  against  the  virginity 
of  Mary,  must  be  reminded  that  St. 
Joseph  is  called  the  "  Father  "  of  Jesus, 
and  that  not  only  by  those  who  knew  no 
better,  but  by  the  Blessed  Virgin  herself, 
who  knew  all  (Luke  ii.  48).  The  evan- 
gelist himself  calls  Joseph  the  Father  of 
Jesus  (Luke  ii.  ^3),  and  Mary  and  Joseph 
(Luke  ii.  41,  43)  his  "parents,"  and  it  is 
interesting  and  most  instructive  to  note 
that  later  scribes  have  taken  offence  and 
altered  the  reading  in  each  of  the  three 
cases.  Another  objection  to  the  Catholic 
doctrine  is  often  drawn  from  the  words 
of  St.  Matthew  i.  25 :  Joseph  "  knew 
not "  his  wife  "  till  she  brought  forth  a 
son"  (the  word  fivst-born  is  wanting  in 
the  best  MSS.) ;  and  of  St.  Luke  ii.  7  : 
Mary  brought  forth  "her  first-born  son." 
But  St.  Matthew's  evident  purpose  is  to 
accentuate  the  fact  that  Mary  was  a 
virgin  at  Christ's  birth  ;  he  asserts  and 
implies  nothing  as  to  what  happened 
afterwards.  In  St.  Luke  the  prominent 
idea  is  the  consecration  of  the  first  male 
child,  and  this  appears  from  v.  23  of  the 
same  chapter,  "  As  it  has  been  written  in 
the  law  of  the  Lord,  every  male  opening 
the  womb  shall  be  called  holy  to  the 
Lord."  With  him  the  first-begotten  is 
equivalent  to  the  "male  opening  the, 


womb," '  and  has  nothing  to  do  with 
subsequent  children.  St.  John  furnishes 
positive  evidence,  urged.  Bishop  Light- 
foot  writes,  "  with  fatal  ett'ect,"  against 
the  view  that  Mary  had  other  children 
than  Jesus.  Our  Lord  on  the  cross  (John 
xix.  26,  27)  commended  his  mother  and 
St.  John  to  each  other's  care.  Why,  if 
she  had  children  of  her  own  ?  Even 
Meyer  admits  that  it  will  not  suffice  to 
say  that  Christ's  "  brethren "  did  rot 
believe  in  Him  (John  vii.  5),  for  "  the 
speedy  overcoming  of  this  unbelief  (Acts 
i.  14)  could  scarcely  be  concealed  from" 
Christ.  And  indeed  it  is  inconceivable 
that  Christ  should  appear  to  one  of  Mary's 
supposed  sons,  that  this  son  should  be 
specially  entrusted  with  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Mother  Church  of  Jerusalem, 
that  Mary  herself  should  join  in  worship 
with  her  "  sons  "  (Acts  i.  14),  and  yet  all 
the  time  live  in  the  house  and  iinder  the 
care  of  a  comparative  stranger.  We  may 
add  that  this  interpretation  of  Scripture 
has  approved  itself,  not  only  to  Catholics 
and  learned  High  Churchmen  like  Pear- 
son and  Mill,  but  also  to  recent  Protes- 
tant scholars  who  cannot  he  suspected 
of  undue  bias  in  the  matter — viz.  to 
Westcott  (see  the  Commentary  on  John, 
ad  vii.  3,  xix.  26),  and  to  Lightfoot  (on 
Galatians,  p.  25.3^ 

1  Not,  of  course,  in  so  strict  a  sense  as  to 
exclude  the  inlegritas  carnis  post  partum. 

2  It  would  require  a  treatise  to  give  the 
reasons  alleged  tor  the  different  views  on  the 
"  brethren  of  the  Lord,"  because  these  reasons 
depend  on  a  number  of  details,  most  of  which 
must  be  given  at  length  or  not  at  all.  Here 
we  can  do  little  more  thnn  state  the  views 
themselves,  with  the  history  of  their  re- 
ception or  rejection.  (1)  Helvidiu.s,  who 
lived  at  Rome,  maintained,  about  380,  that 
these  "  brethren  "  were  the  sons  of  Joseph  and 
Mary.  This  theory  was  supported  about  the 
same  time  by  Bonosus,  Bishop  of  Sardica,  and 
apparently  also  by  Jovinian,  a  monk  probably 
of  Milan.  It  was  condemned  soon  after  it  ap- 
peareil,  in  Synods  at  Rome  and  Capua.  It  has 
no  support  in  antiquity,  except  perhaps  from 
Tertullian,  and  is  regarded  by  all  Catholic 
writers  as  heretical.  Thus  Petavius  calls  it 
"detestable  to  Christian  ears,  and  sacrilegious 
according  to  the  judgment  of  the  ancient 
Fathers ;  "  nay,  heretical,  since  even  general 
councils  call  Mary  ael  irapflfVoj  {I)e  Incarnat. 
xiv.  3).  It  has,  however,  been  adopted  by  very 
many  Protestants.  (2)  "  Nearly  all  the 
Greeks,"  according  to  Maldonatus,  besides 
Hilary  and  Ambrose,  held  that  the  "  brethren  " 
were  sons  of  Joseph  by  a  former  marriage,  and 
consequently  that  "James,  the  brother  of  the 
Lord,"  was  a  different  person  froni  James,  the 
son  of  Alphaeus,  one  of  the  twelve.  In  reality,  as 
Lightfoot  shows,  this  theory  was  common  to  all 
writers,  Greek  and  Latm  (except,  of  course, 


MARY 


MARY 


605 


Mary,  tben,  was  the  Virgin  Mother  of 
God.  She  remained  in  perpetual  virginity: 

those  who  held  the  heretical  view  mentionert 
lirst),  down  to  Jerome's  time,  and  after  his  time 
to  all  Greek  writer^  except  Chrysostom  in  his 
latest  works  and  Theodorct.*  It  is  inc(ir|iorated 
in  the  Greek  cilHccs.  which  distiniruish  between 
Jatne#.  -'the  Lord's  brother,"  and  the  son  of 
Alphieus.  ilaldonatiis  (sec  .Matt.  xii.  46)  rejects 
but  does  not  censure  i  his  view.  Petaviiis  simply 
says  it  is  "  more  jirobable  that  .Joseph  had  not 
been  previously  married."  In  modern  times 
this  liypothc>is  has  found  a  poiverful  advocate 
in  Bishop  Lit;htfo'it.  This  older  opinion  atfordcd 
a  ready  explanation  of  the  term  "brethren." 
All  who  took  Joseph  for  our  Lord's  father 
would  look  on  his  sons  by  a  former  marriai;e  as 
i.ur  Lord's  half-brothers  and  speak  of  tliein  as 
his  "  brethren."  The  use  of  the  word  is  pos- 
sible, but  not  nearly  so  natural,  on  the  view 
to  be  mentioned  next.  At  the  same  time  it 
must  be  admitted  that  Catholic  feeling,  es- 
pecially during  the  last  three  centuries,  has 
attached  itself  strongly  to  the  virginity-  of  St. 
Joseph,  as  most  in  keeping  with  his  office  as 
the  guardian  of  our  Lord  and  the  Blessed  'Virgin. 
(.3)  Jerome  advocated  and  to  all  appearance 
started  a  third  view — viz.  that  the  '-brethren'' 
were  sons  of  a  sister  of  the  Bloscd  Virgin  also 
called  Mary.  The  "brethren"  of  Jesus  were 
James,  Judas,  Joseph,  or  Joses,  and  Simon 
(Mark  vi.  3).  Now,  of  these,  James,  the  ' 
Lord's  brother,  is  said  by  St.  Paul  (Gal.  i.  19  ; 
this  interpretation,  however,  is  doubtful)  to 
have  been  an  Apostle.  But  the  only  James  in 
the  apostolic  lists  whom  St.  Paul  can  mean  and 
name  here  is  James,  the  son  of  Alphieus,  James 
the  sou  of  Zebedee  lieiiig  dead  long  licfore  the 
Apostle  wrote  (.\cts  xii.  2).  Thcrct'orc,  James 
the Lord'sbrotherwastheson.not  df.loscph,  but 
Alphaeus.  But  we  can  also  ascertain  the  name 
of  his  mother,  since  in  Matt,  xxvii.  56  ;  Marc. 
XV.  40,  we  read  that  Mary  the  mother  of  James 
and  Joseph,  and  therefore  the  wife  of  Alphiieiis, 
was  present  at  the  crucifixion.  This  ^lary  is 
to  be  identitied  with  Mary  the  wife  ot  t  lo|.  ,< 
and  the  sister  of  the  Blessed  'Virgin,  -  Si. 
John  says  was  present  by  the  cross  (.lolin 
xix.  25).'  It  is  very  doubtful  whether  Si.  John 
means  to  say  that"  the  Blessed  'Virgin  had  a 
sister  also  called  Mary  ("  his  mother — and  his 
mother's  sister,  Mary  of  Clopas — and  Mary 
Ma^'dalene "),  or  whether  he  mentions  four 
women  at  the  foot  of  the  cross  ("his  mother 
and  his  mother's  sister — Mary  of  Clopas  and 
Mary  Magdalene  ").  Anyhow,'  Jerome's  theory 
is  rendered  still  more  j.lausible  by  the  fact,  for 
so  it  may  be  fairly  regarded,  that  "  Alplueus  " 
and  "Clopas''  (this  is  the  true  reading  in 
John  xix.  25;  "Cleophas,"  in  Luke  xxiv.  18,  is 
another  name  altogether)  arc  two  forms  of 
the  same  Aramaic  name  "  t'halp.'ii "  (i^'pn)-  ' 
This  view  that  our  Lord's  brethren  were  his  i 
cousins  became  the  accepted  one  in  the  Latin 
Church,  which  in  her  Mass  and  office  <mly  recog- 
nises two  Jameses,  one  the  son  of  Zebedee,  the 


*  Theophylact's  opinion — viz.  that  Clopas 
dving  childless,  Joseph  raised  up  children  to 
him — is  obviously  only  a  modilication  of  the 
common  Greek  theory.' 


she  was  associated  with  a  closeness  im- 
possible to  other  creatures  in  the  work  of 
her  divine  Son.  She  was  faithful  and 
obedient  to  her  Son  and  Saviour  at  the 
first,  faithful  and  obtxlient  to  the  end. 
Scripture  is  silent  about  her  laterlifeand 
its  close.  Bat  Christians  believe  that  life 
here  is  a  prejiaration  for  the  better  life  to 
come,  and  from  the  gi-eatness  of  Marv'.s 
work  and  dignity  on  eartli,  they  learned 
to  conceive  her  greatness  in  power  in 
heaven,  where  her  love  is  made  perfect 
and  she  is  for  ever  with  her  Son.  Natu- 
rally, tlierefore,  they  came  to  discover  in 
the  Apocal\-pse — the  one  book  of  the  New 
Testament  wliich  can  hardly  fail  to  have 
been  written  after  Mary's  death — a  picture 
of  Mary  in  heaven.  "The  only  passage," 
says  Cardinal  Newman — (but  see  Wisdom 
ii.  23,  24) — "  Development,"  p.  414 — 
"  where  the  serpent  is  directly  identified 
with  the  evil  spirit  occurs  in  the  twelfth 
chapter  of  Revelation  ;  now,  it  is  observ- 
able that  the  recognition,  when  made, 
is  found  in  the  course  of  a  vision  of  *  a 
woman  clothed  with  the  sun,  and  the 
moon  under  her  feet : '  thus,  two  women 
are  brought  into  contrast  with  each  other. 
Moreover,  as  it  is  said  in  the  Apocalypse, 
'  The  dragon  was  -svroth  with  the  woman, 
and  went  about  to  make  war  with  her 
seed,'  so  it  is  prophesied  in  Genesis :  '  I 
will  put  enmity  between  thee  and  the 
woman,  and  between  thy  seed  and  her 
seed.  He  shall  bruise  (?)  thy  head,  and 
thou  shalt  bruise  (?)  his  heel.'  Also  the 
enmity  was  to  e.xist,  not  only  between  the 
serpent  and  the  seed  of  the  woman,  but 
between  the  seq)ent  and  the  woman  her- 
>.  lf ;  and  here,  too,  there  is  a  correspond- 
riice  in  the  Apocalyptic  vision."  There 
is,  then,  "  reason  for  thinking  that  this 
mystery  at  the  close  of  the  Scripture 
record  answers  to  the  mystery  in  the 
beginning  of  it,  and  tliat  the  woman 
mentioned  in  both  passages  is  one  and  the 
same,  and  that  she  can  be  none  other 
than  "  Mary.  We  need  not  be  at  a  loss 
to  imagine  the  way  in  which  Mary  exer- 
cises her  great  power  in  heaven.  Once 
the  body  of  Christ  was  entrusted  to  her 
care,  surely  in  heaven  she  cannot  fail  to 
intercede  for  liis  mystical  body — for  all 
those  who  are  her  children  because  they 
are  the  brethren  of  her  Son.    And  this 

other  the  son  of  Alpha;us,  "  brother"  of  the  Lord 
and  bi.shop  of  Jerusalem.  Among  Protestants, 
Dr.  Mill,  of  Cambridge,  has  d.'fcnded  it  with 
great  learning  and  ingenuity  in  a  treatise 
entitled  The  Accountu  of  our  Lord's  Brethren 
in  the  N.T.  uinrficaied  (Cambridge,  1843). 


eoe 


MARY 


MARY 


Son  is  her  Son  still;  He  hears  her  prayers 
with  filial  lore  and  tenderness,  since — as 
the  Scripture,  and  especially  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews,  assures  us — Christ  has 
carried  bis  human  nature  to  the  right 
hand  of  the  Majesty  on  high,  and  He 
cannot  continue  to  be  man  if  be  has 
ceased  to  be  a  son.  When  Protestants 
assert  that  the  relation  of  son  and  mother 
ceased  to  exist  between  Jesus  and  Mary 
when  his  earthly  years  were  over,  they 
thereby  do  away  with  all  claim  on  our 
part  to  the  human  sympathy  of  Christ. 
Yet  it  is  this  human  sympathy  of  bis  in 
heaven  to  which  great  prominence  is  given 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  and  to 
which  devout  Protestants,  who  will  not 
hear  of  devotion  to  Mary,  cling  as  their 
comfort  and  stav. 

II.  The  Tradition  of  the  Church  on 
Devotion  to  Mary. — It  would  be  vain  to 
deny  that  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin 
was  far  less  prominent  in  ancient  than  in 
modern  times,  and  we  shall  have  occasion 
shortly  to  show  how  easily  this  difference 
may  be  explained.  But  it  would  be  a 
gross  mistake  to  suppose  that  Catholics 
at  any  time  doubted  her  great  place  in 
the  work  of  redemption  or  ignored  her 
dignity,  as  most  Protestants  do.  The 
latter  have  always,  and  almost  univer- 
sally, shrunk  from  using  the  title  "Theo- 
tocos/'  or  Mother  of  God.  We  believe 
we  are  not  wrong  when  we  say  that  the 
use  of  this  expression  would  serve  of  itself  [ 
to  marlc  the  person  wlio  employed  it  as  a  j 
Catholic'  Yet  "it  was  familiar  to  Chris-  i 
tians  from  primitive  times,  and  is  used, 
among  other  writers,  by  Origen,  Eusebius, 
St.  Alexander,  St.  Athanasius,  St.  Am- 
brose, St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  St.  Gregory 
Nyssen,  and  St.  Nilus  "  (Newman's  "  De- 
velopment," p.  145).  It  is  the  universal 
doctrine  of  the  early  Church  that  Mary 
was  the  second  Eve  (See  Immacul.\.TE 
Coxceptio:n-).  St.  Iren;eus  says  that 
"  Mary,  being  obedient,  became,  both  to 
herself  and  to  all  niauidnd,  the  cause  of 
salvation  ;"  that  "  the  knot  of  Eve's  dis- 
obedience was  loosed  by  Clary's  obedi- 
ence;" that  "what  the  Virgin  Eve  bound 
by  tuilieliiii',  tliis  the  A'irgin  Mary  un- 
bound by  faith;"'  that  "as  by  a  virgin 
the  human  race  had  been  given  over  to 

1  Of  course  we  put  the  Greeks,  &c.,  out  of 
count,  and  also  tb.it  modern  school  in  the 
Church  of  England  which  studiously  imitates 
Ciithdlic  phraseolii^rv.  And  even  .nnions  these 
til.-  piipular  use  of  the  words  •'  Mother  of  God  " 
is,  we  iiuagine,  very  receut,  if  it  e.\ijts  even 
now. 


death,  by  a  virgin  it  is  saved"  (Iren.  iii. 
22,4;  V.  19,1);  '.bus  absolutely  excluding 
the  common  Protestant  notion  that  Mary 
was  merely  a  passive  instrument  in  the 
Incarnation,  to  whom  no  special  gratitude 
is  due.  Further,  he  says  that  "  she  was 
drawn  to  obey  God,  that  of  the  Virgin 
Eve  the  Virgin  Mary  might  become  the 
advocate  "  (v.  19,  1).  In  the  last  place, 
St.  Ireneeus  speaks  of  Mary  as  "prophesy- 
ingfor  the  Church"  when  she  uttered  her 
"  Magnificat,"'  and  it  is  certain  that  from 
the  second  century  at  latest  Mary  was 
taken  as  a  type  of  the  Church  of  Christ. 
Thus,  the  "  Virgin  Mother "  is  a  title 
given  to  the  Church  in  the  letters  written 
by  the  Christians  of  Vienne  and  Lyons  in 
'  the  vear  177  (see  Euseb.  "  H.  E."  v.  1, 45) , 
and"by  Clem.  Alex.  ("Pjed."  1,  6).  And 
this  language  was  adopted  by  Marcus,  a 
Gnostic  heretic  of  the  same  period,  who 
made  the  Virgin  hold  the  place  of  the 
Church  in  his  symbolical  system  (Iren.  i. 
15,  It  is  important  to  notice  this,  for 
it  proves  that  when  Catholics  go  to  Mary 
as  to  their  mother,  a  title  and  office  which 
also  belong  to  the  Church,  their  practice 
is  consonant  with  the  spirit  of  ancient 
Christianity.  Nor,  again,  does  it  by  any 
means  follow  that  because  the  Fathers 
take  the  woman  in  Apoc.  xii.  1  to  repre- 
sent the  Church,  we  are  really  following 
an  opposite  interpretation  if  we  believe 
the  Blessed  Virgin  to  be  primarily  and 
directly  intended.' 

We  have  two  instances  of  Mary's 
interposition  from  heaven  in  favour  of 
Christians  on  earth,  preserved  from  the 
scanty  literature  of  the  first  three  centuries. 
St.  Gregory  Nyssen.  in  the  fourth  age, 
relates  that  his"name.<iake  Gregory  Thau- 
maturgus,  in  the  third,  was  pondering 
theological  doctrines  shortly  before  he 
was  made  priest ;  that  the  Blessed  Virgin 
appeared,  and  bade  St.  John  disclose  to 
the  young  man  the  "mystery  of  godliness,"' 
and  that  St.  John  answered,  "  that  he  was 
ready  to  comply  in  this  matter  with  the 
wish  of  the  Mother  of  the  Lord,  and 
enunciated  a  formula  well  tirrned  and 
complete,  and  so  vanished."  So,  St. 
Gregory  Nazianzen  records  an  incident 
contemporaneous  with  that  just  given — 
viz.  that  a  Christian  woman  had  recourse 

1  Erasmus  denied  that  any  of  the  early 
Fathers  understood  tlie  wonian'in  Apoc.  xii.  to 
be  the  1!U-M'.|  Vit-in.     The  p.iss.i;;?  (,uoted 
airainsi  him  tVoni  St.  Au^ustirie  liv  Ballerini 
'  in  his  .S(//f(i</e  of  Documents  on  tlie  Immaculale 
I  Conception  is  not  reuarded  as  genuine  by  tlie 
I  Benedictine  editors. 


MAKY 


4,0  Mary,  and  so  obtained  the  conversion 
■of  a  heathen  who  was  trying  to  pervert 
her  by  magic.  (See  Newman,  "  Develop- 
ment," pp.  415,  416.)  We  need  not  de- 
fend the  truth  of  these  stories.  True  or 
false,  they  prove  that  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury devotidu  to  tbe  Mother  of  God  was 
well  establijliod  and  already  regarded  as 
ancient;  and  in  both  instances  "the 
Blessed  Virgin  appears  especially  in  that 
character  of  Patroness  or  Paraclete,  which 
St.  Irenasus  and  other  Fathers  describe, 
and  which  the  mediseval  Church  exhibits  I 
— a  loving  Mother  with  clients."  (New-  ! 
man,  ib.)  \ 
But  till  the  last  part  of  the  fourth 
century  there  were  strong  reasons  which 
kept  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  the 
background  There  was  the  danger  of 
scandal  to  the  heatlien,  who,  with  their 
own  inadequate  notions  of  woi'ship,  might  i 
misconstrue  the  honour  paid  to  Mary ; 
and  then  there  was  the  long  struggle 
with  Arianism,  when  the  Church  was 
contending  for  the  very  centre  of  the  faith. 
"When  once  the  belief  in  the  full  Godhead  j 
of  the  Son  had  been  fenced  round  by 
formal  definition,  when  once  it  had  been 
decided  that  no  exaltation  of  the  Son 
would  suffice  unless  He  was  confessed  to 
be  the  one  eternal  God,  then  there  was 
no  longer  any  danger  of  confusing  Mary's 
honour  with  that  of  her  Divine  Son.  To 
honour  Mary  was  not  idolatry,  unless  the 
Arians,  who  had  employed  far  higher  I 
language  of  Christ  than  Catholics  have 
ever  used  of  his  Blessed  Mother,  were  I 
orthodox  in  their  belief.  Nay,  it  became 
clearer  than  ever  that  the  belief  in  Mary 
was  necessary  to  a  right  belief  in  Christ. 
Nestorius  denied  the  unity  of  his  Person. 
He  allowed  that  God  dwelt  in  Him,  but 
not  that  the  man  Christ  Jesus  was  God ;  [ 
and  this  was  tantamount  to  denying  the 
Incarnation  altogether,  and  reducing  the 
difference  between  Christ  and  his  creatures 
to  a  matter  of  degree,  since  God  dwells 
in  the  hearts  of  all  the  just.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  secure  right  faith  in  the 
manhood  of  the  Eternal  Son,  the  Church 
defined  at  Ephesus,  what  she  had  held 
everywhere  and  from  the  beginning,  that 
Mary  is  the  Mother  of  God.  Cardinal 
Newman  has  collected  a  catena  of  patris- 
tic passages  ("  Development,"  p.  145  seq.) 
on  the  I31essed  Virgin,  which  date  from 
the  conclusion  of  the  main  controversy 
with  the  Arians  and  the  rise  of  that  with 
Nestorius.  Augustine  will  allow  no 
guestiKH  of  sin  to  be  raised  when  Mary 
is  concerned.    Antiochus  calls  her  "  the 


Mother  ot  Life,  of  Beauty,  of  Majesty,"' 
"  the  Morning  Star ;  "  St.  Proclus,  "  the 
Fair  Bride  of  the  Canticles,"  "  the  Stay 
of  Believers,"  "  the  Church's  Diadem." 
"  Let  us  make  confession,"  says  an  early 
writer,  probably  one  of  the  Fathers  of 
Ephesus,  "  to  God  the  Word,  and  to  bis 
Mother  .  .  .  Hail,  ^lother,  clad  in  Light ! 
.  .  .  Hail,  all-undefiled  Mother  of  Holi- 
ness !  .  .  .  With  her  is  the  fount  of  life, 
and  breasts  of  the  spiritual  and  guileless 
milk,  from  which  to  suck  the  sweetness 
we  have  even  now  earnestly  i-uu  to  her," 
&c.  We  have  only  takt-n  a  few  words 
here  and  there  from  Cardinal  Newman's 
quotations,  but  surely  we  have  done 
enough  to  show  that  the  Church  of  the 
fifth  century  addressed  the  same  language 
to  Mary  as  the  Church  of  the  nineteenth. 

It  is  true  that  the  gi-eat  Fathers  St. 
Basil,  St.  Chrysostom,  and  St.  Cyril  of 
Alexandria  sometimes  express  themselves 
m  a  very  different  tone.  Cardinal  New- 
man has  considered  these  pas.sages  in  his 
"  Letter  to  Dr.  Pusey  "  ("  Ditf.  of  Angl." 
vol.  ii.  p.  I2f^),  and  we  will  only  venture 
on  one  remark.  It  may  sound  paradoxical, 
but  we  believe  it  true,  that  these  passages 
tend  to  confirm  Catholic  belief  in  Marj-'s 
spotless  sanctity.  Some  great  Father 
alleges  that  tlie  sword  which  was  to 
pierce  Mary's  heart  was  doubt  in  her  Son's 
divinity  which  took  possession  of  her 
soul  beneath  the  cross,  and  again,  that 
Christ  reprehended  his  mother  for  some 
fault,  of  haste  or  the  like,  at  the  Marriage 
of  Cana.  We  do  not  think  any  sober  Pro- 
testant scholar  would  approve  of  such 
exegesis.  And  when  indi\  i<lual  Fathers 
argued  in  such  a  way,  the  Church  was 
justified  in  disregarding  their  opinions, 
great  saints  and  doctors  though  they 
were.  Common  sense,  as  well  as  the 
sense  of  the  faithful,  was  against  them, 
and  they  had  neither  right  nor  power  to 
arrest  the  stream  of  devotion  to  Mary. 
The  stream  grew,  no  doubt,  in  its  course 
through  the  ages,  but  its  source  was  in 
the  Eternal  HiUs. 

Evil,  indeed,  would  this  devotion  be, 
if  it  diminished  or  obscured,  ever  so  little, 
j  that  supreme  devotion  to  God,  who  is 
over  all,  and  to  Jesus  Christ  whom  He 
has  sent.  But  one  who  dared  to  put 
Mary  on  an  equality  with  God,  or  to  deny 
that  Christ  is  the  "  one  mediator  between 
God  and  man  "—i.e.  the  sole  author  of 
our  redemption,  the  beginner  and  the 
finisher  of  our  faith — would,  by  that  very 
fact,  cease  to  be  a  Catholic.  Every  Catho- 
!  lie  child  is  taught  that  Mass  can  be  offered 


(308       MARY,  FEASTS  OF 


MARY,  FEASTS  OF 


to  God  alone,  and  the  obligation  of  hearing 
Mass  every  Sunday,  the  adoration  paid  to 
the  Blessed  Sacrament,  &c.,  keep  the 
supreme  character  of  the  worship  due  to 
God  constantly  before  the  mind.    We  are 
far,  of  course,  from  any  wish  to  defend  I 
exaggerated  or  imprudent  language.  One 
of  the  greatest  of  the  Church's  theologians,  | 
among  whose  many  virtues  a  tender  de-  ' 
m  otion  to  the  mother  of  God  was  not  the 
least,  protests  against  extravagant  and  ill- 
founded  praise  of  Mary.    "  This  kind  of  j 
idolatry,"   he  writes,  "  secret,  and,  as 
Augustine  says,  natural  to  the  human 
heart,  is  far  removed  from  the  grave  cha- 
racter of  theology — that  is,  of  heavenlj^ 
wisdom."  And  he  quotes  certain  "  golden 
words  "  of  Gerson,  also  a  devout  client  of 
Mary,  in  which  he  (Gerson)  "  restrains  ; 
immoderate  licence  in  setting  forth  the 
praises  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  andconfines 
it  within  the  limits  of  a  sober  and  manly 
piety "  (Petav.  "  De  Incamat."  xiv.  9). 
Admonitions  to  the  same  efiect  may  be 
found  in  the  work  of  another  famous 
Catholic   scholar — highly   esteemed  by  i 
Benedict   XIV.   and  Clement  XIV.— 
Muratori,  "  De  Moderamine  Ingeniorum."  i 
We  would  only  urge  that  the  efiect  of 
Catholic  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin 
must  not  be  judged  on  a  priori  grounds 
but  tested  by  experience.    It  is  among 
Protestants  who  have  repudiated  this  de- 
votion, not  among  Catholics,  who  have 
retained  it,  that  imperfect  and  false  ideas  [ 
on  the  divinity  of  Christ  have  struck 
root. 

(There  is  a  vast  literature  on  this  sub- 
ject.    We  would  specially  notice  the 
cliapters  of  Petavius  in  his  treatise  on  j 
the  "  Incarnation ;  "  Cardinal  Newman,  in  [ 
his  "  Development,"  and  "  Letter  to  Dr. 
Pusey  ;  "  "  Jesus,  the  Son  of  Mary,"  by  i 
Mr.  j.  B.  Morris — a  work  full,  not  only  \ 
of  recondite  learning,  but  also  of  deep 
thought,  and  which,  marred  though  it  is 
by  eccentricities,  will  well  repay  careful 
study ;  and  a  short  but  masterly  rationale 
of  the  doctrine  and  devotion  in  Father 
Ryder's  "  Catholic  Controversy.") 

MART,  FEASTS  OF.  Benedict 
XIV.,  quoting  a  note  of  Mabillon  on  St. 
Bernard,  says  that,  even  as  late  as  the 
twelfth  century,  four  feasts  only  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  were  celebrated  in  the 
Church — those  of  the  Purihcation,  An- 
nunciation, As.sumption,  and  Nativity. 
At  present,  the  number  of  her  feasts  has 
risen  to  about  twenty.  An  account  has 
been  given,  in  separate  articles,  of  those 
which  relate  to  events  in  the  Blessed 


Virgin's  history — viz.  to  her  Conception, 
Nativity,  Name,  Presentation,  Espousals, 
Annunciation,  Visit  to  St.  Elizabeth 
(Visitation),  Purification  (see  Candle- 
mas), Dolours,  and  Assumption.  There 
are  other  feasts  which  commemorate 
]Mary's  interest  in  the  Church  militant  on 
earth,  and  these  will  be  mentioned  here. 

(1)  Feast  of  Mary  the  Help  of  Chris- 
tians, May  24— in  the  Supplement  of  the 
Breviary.  The  title  "  Help  of  Christians" 
was  added  to  the  Litany  of  Loreto  by 
Pius  V.  after  the  naval  victory  of  Lepanto 
over  the  Turks.  The  feast  was  instituted 
by  Pius  VII.,  who  attributed  his  deliver- 
ance from  a  captivity  of  five  years  at 
Savona  and  his  return  to  Rome,  out  of 
which  he  had  been  twice  driven  by 
violence,  to  the  intercession  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin. 

(2)  Feast  of"  The  Blessed  Virgin  Mary 
of  Mount  CarmeV — For  the  connection 
of  the  Carmelite  order  with  the  mountain 
of  that  name,  see  the  article  on  the  Car- 
melites, and  for  the  privileges  attached  to 
the  Carmelite  scapular,  see  Scapulars. 
The  feast  was  approved  for  the  Carmelites 
by  Sixtus  V.  in  1587.  Paul  V.  inserted 
new  lections  in  the  office,  which  was 
revised  by  Bellarmine.  Benedict  XIII. 
extended  the  feast  to  the  whole  Church. 
A  further  change  in  the  lections  has  been 
made  by  Leo  XIII. 

(3)  St.  Mary  of  Snow  {Dedicationts 
Ecdesi(eS.  Marine  ad  Xives). — This  church 
is  sometimes  called,  from  the  Pope  who 
is  said  to  have  founded  it,  the  Liberian 
Basilica;  the  Sixtine  Basilica, because  Six- 
tus III.  enlarged,  or,  as  Tillemont  thinks, 
founded  it ;  the  Church  of  St.  Mary  of  the 
Crib  {JB.  Mai-ice  ad  Prcesepe),  because  the 
relics  of  the  crib  in  which  Christ  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  laid  were  brought 
there  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh 
century  ;  and,  most  commonly,  the  Church 
of  St.  Mary  Major,  a  name  given  to  it 
from  the  eighth  century,  because  of  its 
magnificence  and  its  rank  as  the  second 
church  of  Christendom,  the  Lateran 
Church  being  the  only  one  which  takes 
precedence  of  it.  The  name  ad  nives 
given  in  the  Martyrology  and  Breviary  is 
due  to  the  following  story.  John,  a 
Roman  patrician,  and  his  wife,  being 
childless,  wished  to  spend  their  fortune  in 
lionour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  She  sig- 
nified to  them  and  to  Pope  Liberius  in 
dreams  that  she  wished  a  church  dedi- 
cated to  her  on  the  Esquiline  Hill,  and 
told  them  that  the  site  would  be  marked 
out  by  snow.     Next  day  it  was  found 


MARY,  FEASTS  OF 

that  the  promised  snow  had  actually 
fallen,  though  the  month  was  August 
and  the  heat  intense.  Benedict  XIV. 
collects  all  the  evidence  which  can  be 
T)roduced  for  this  miracle,  his  oldest 
authority  being  that  of  Pope  Nicolas  IV. 
in  1287.  The  lections  in  the  older 
Breviaries  add  that  when  Liberius  began 
to  diir  the  foundation  the  earth  opened 
of  itself. 

(4)  Our  Lady  of  Mercy '  {de  Mercede), 
September  24. — Tlie  order  of  Our  Lady  of 
Ransom  was  founded  by  St.  Peter  Nolas- 
cus,  St.  Raymond  of  Pennafort,  and 
James  King  of  Arragon,  with  the  object 
of  freeing  Christian  captives  from  the 
Turks.  The  feast  was  approved  first  of 
all  for  the  order  itself,  then  extended  to 
Spain,  next  to  France,  and  lastly  by 
Innocent  XII.  to  the  whole  Church. 

(5)  Feast  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Rosary, 
first  Sunday  in  October. — The  victory  of 
Lepanto  was  won  by  Don  Juan  of  Austria,  1 
October  7,  1571,  while  the  members  of 
the  Confraternity  of  the  Rosary  at  Rome 
were  making  special  supplication  for  the 
success  of  the  Christian  arms,  and  Pius  V., 
then  Pope,  ordered  that  an  annual  com- 
memoration should  be  made  of"  St.  Mary 
of  Victory."  Gregory  XIII.  in.stituted 
the  feast  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Rosary  on  1 
the  first  Sunday  in  October  for  all 
churches  with  a  chapel  or  altar  dedicated 
to  the  Blessed  Virgin  under  that  title. 
Clement  X.  extended  the  feast  to  all  the 
dominions  of  the  Spanish  king.  The 
Emperor  Leopold  begged  Innocent  XII. 
to  extend  the  feast  to  the  whole  Church, 
but  the  Pope  died  before  he  was  able  to 
do  so.  At  last  Clement  XL,  after  another  i 
victory  over  the  Turks  had  been  obtained  | 
in  1710  by  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,  and 
Corfu  been  freed  from  Turkish  besiegers 
in  the  same  year,  made  the  feast  of  uni- 
versal observance.  The  lections  of  the 
Second  Nocturn,  which  contain  a  history 
of  the  origin  of  the  feast,  were  added  under 
Benedict  XIII.,  and  have  been  revised  by 
Leo  XIII.,  who  also  added  the  invocation 
"Regina  Sacratissimi  Rosarii"  to  the 
Litany  of  Loreto. 

(6)  Patronage  of  the  Blessed  Virgin. — 
The  feast  was  approved  for  Spain  in  1679, 
for  the  States  of  the  Church  by  Benedict 

1  "  Ransom  "  would,  of  course,  be  the  natural 
translation.  But  "  Our  Lady  of  Mercy  "  is  the 
common  rendering  in  our  Enclish  Calendars ; 
and  so  in  German  '■  von  der  Barmherziijkeit." 
And  I  his  appears  to  be  correct,  for,  according 
to  Dufresne,  "  merce*,"  in  mediseval  Latin,  is 
used  f.jf  "misericordi;!." 


MARY,  OFFICE  OF,  SATURDAY  609' 

'  XIIT.,  in  order  to  celebrate  the  power  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin's  intercession.  It  is 
now  usually  kept  in  churches  which  liave 
permission  to  celebrate  it  on  the  secfind, 
not,  as  at  first,  on  the  third  Sunday  in 
November.  Other  feasts  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  are  celebrated  by  permission  in 
certain  parts  of  the  Church.  Such  are 
the  feasts  of  the  Dirine  yiaternity  and  of 
the  Purity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  kept  on 
the  second  and  third  Sundays  of  October 
(both  these  feasts  are  observed  in  Eng- 
land); the  Prodigies  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
kept  at  Rome  and  some  other  places  on 
July  9 ;  the  Mother  of  the  Divine  Pastor, 
kept  in  Tuscany  on  the  first  Sunday  in 
May  by  leave  of  Pius  VII. ;  Our  Lady  of 
Consolation,  on  the  first  Sunday  in  July ;. 
Our  Lady  of  Peac  ',  on  the  fourth  Sunday 
in  October.  (See  "  Manuale  Decret.  S. 
Rit.  Cong."    No.  2139  seq.) 

(7)  The  Feast  of  Our  lady's  Expecta- 
tion {Expectatio  partus)  should  have  been 
mentioned  in  a  separate  article.  The 
Spanish  Church  used  to  keep  the  feast 
of  the  Annunciation  on  December  18, 
by  a  decree  of  a  Council  of  Toledo  in 
the  seventh  century.  The  object  was  to 
prevent  the  feast  falling  in  Holy  or  Easter 
Week.  When  the  Spaniards  adopted  the 
Roman  usage  with  regard  to  the  Annun- 
ciation, they  instituted  the  feast  of  the 
Expectation  to  replace  their  old  observance- 
on  December  18,  and  the  latter  feast 
was  approved  b}-  Gregory  XIII.  The 
Spaniards  also  call  it  the  "Feast  of  0," 
because  the  first  of  the  greater  antiphons 
is  said  in  the  vespers  of  its  vigil.  It  was 
extended  to  the  Venetian  territory  iu 
169.5,  and  to  the  States  of  the  Church  by 
Benedict  XIII.  in  172-5.  It  is  kept  in 
England,  but  is  not  a  feast  of  the  whole 
Church.  (Chiefly  from  Benedict  XIV., 
"De  Festis.") 

MARY,  FSAST  OF  THE  31 AME. 
The  real  and  supposed  meanings  of  the 
name  have  been  explained  in  the  article 
on  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The  feast  of  the 
Name  arose  at  Cuen^a,  in  Spain,  and  its 
local  celebration  was  approved  by  the 
Pope  in  151-3.  This  permission  was  with- 
drawn by  Pius  v.,  and  restored  by  Sixtus 
V.  Originally  the  feast  seems  to  have 
been  kept  on  September  22.  Iinioccnt 
XL,  after  the  victory  obtained  against  the 
Turks  and  the  consequent  relief  of  Vienna 
from  siege  in  16S3,  extended  the  feast  and 
office  to  the  whole  Church. 

MARY,    OFFICE    OF,  SATUR- 
DAY.— The  office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
is  said  on  all  Saturdays  ;  not,  however, 
B  R 


610 


MASS 


MASS 


•when  a  feast  of  Nine  Lessons  falls  on  that 
day,  not  during  Advent  and  Lent,  on 
ember  days,  vifrils,  or  ferias  on  which  the 
lessons  of  a  previous  Sunday  have  to  be 
said  at  Matins.  In  this  office  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  the  twelve  ferial  psalms 
are  said,  and  there  are  only  three  lessons, 
the  last,  however,  being  followed  by  the 
Te  Deum.  This  rule  was  authorised  by 
Urban  II.  at  the  Council  of  Clermont  in 
1096.  The  present  office  was  composed 
and  issued  under  Pius  V.  Clement  VIII. 
revised  it,  and  substituted  a  lesson  from 
St.  Jerome  instead  of  the  previous  one 
from  St.  Epiphanius  for  the  month  of 
April.  Mystical  reasons  are  ^ven  by 
liturgical  writers  for  this  commemoration 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  on  the  Sabbath — 
e.g.  that  the  Eternal  \\'ord  rested  in  her. 
(Ga vantus  on  the  Rubrics  of  the  Breviarj-.) 

MASS.  The  Catholic  doctrine  on  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Mass  has  been  explained 
in  the  article  Eucharist,  the  general 
history  of  the  Roman  Mass  under 
Liturgy,  and  the  history  of  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  the  Mass  under  special 
articles,  Canon,  Collect,  Introit, 
Kyrie,  and  the  like.  Here  we  confine 
ourselves  to  matters  of  terminology  and 
special  regulation. 

I.  The  loord  "  il/ass."— About  its 
meaning  and  derivation  there  is  not  the 
leastroom  for  reasonable  doubt.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  find  its  origin  in 
Hebrew.  Asa  (HK'i;)  means  "  to  do,"  and 
sometimes  "  to  perform  a  sacred  action,  to 
sacrifice "  (like  Upa  pe'^eti/  in  Homer),  and  it 
was  suggested  that  a  noun,  Misah  (nb'yp) , 
might  be  derived  from  the  verb.  .Such  a 
formation  is  a  sheer  impossibility  in  He- 
brew, and  cannot  be  thought  of  without 
a  shudder.  Maaseh  (nb't'P)  is  the  proper 
form.  A  Hebrew  word  "  Missah  "  (nDD) 
does  occur  Deut.  xvi.  10,'  and  an  attempt 
was  made  to  derive  the  Latin  word  from 
it,  though  the  Hebrew  word  in  question 
nieiins  '•  number,"  "  rate,"  &c.,  and  has 
nothing  to  do  with  sacrifice.  It  only 
occur.*  once,  and  if  the  Church  had  wished 
to  adopt  a  IL'brew  word  for  "sacrifice,"' 
she  would  have  chosen,  we  may  be  very 
sure,  one  of  the  numerous  Hebrew  words 
which  occur  times  without  number  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  one  of  which,  "  cor- 
ban,"  occurs  in  the  New  (Mark  vii.  11 ; 

'  -^T  nanj  nsp-  Here  nOD  comes  next 
a  word  which  Uocs  mean  "free-will  offer- 
inK,"  and  the  VulgJite  remlerinf;  "oblationem 
spoiitaneam  maiius  tuae,"  is  probably  the  inno 
cent  cause  of  coiitusi  lU. 


cf.  Matt,  xxvii.  6),  and  is  frequently  used 
in  the  Peshito  or  chief  Syriac  version  for 
"  sacrifice."  Besides,  if  the  early  Church 
had  adopted  the  word  from  the  Hebrew, 
as  it  did  adopt  other  Hebrew  words,  such 
as  "  Hosanna,"  "  Amen,"  "  Alleluia," 
"  Sabaoth,"  we  should  find  some  trace  of 
it  in  the  Greek  and  Oriental  Churches. 
We  should  expect  to  find  it  above  all 
in  Syriac,  a  language  closely  allied  to 
Hebrew,  and  which  has  in  its  New  Testa- 
ment version  three  words  for  sacrifice  as 
close  to  the  corresponding  Hebrew  words 
as,  e.g.,  the  French  hommc  is  to  homo. 
But  no  trace  of  "  Mass can  be  found 
except  in  Latin,  and  the  languages  which 
are  daughters  of  Latin.  Here  and  there 
we  find  /it'o-cra  in  Greek,  but  in  such  a 
way  as  shows  at  once  that  it  is  merely  a 
Latin  word  written  in  Greek  letters. 
Thus  the  "  Chronicon  Paschale,"'  written 
about  600,  describes  Justinian  as  dis- 
missing the  officers  of  the  palaces  and 
bidding  them  keep  their  houses.  The 
words  are  :  /cal  eSioicei'  evdeas  fxicrcras  Tois 
Tov  naXaTiov,  Koi  Xeyfi  roly  cruy/cXj^rt/coIy, 
'ATTfX^arf,  eKatrros  <pv}\.d^(t  tov  olkov 
avTov — "  and  straightway  he  gave  their 
dismiss fils  to  the  officials  of  the  palace 
and  said  to  the  senators,  '  Go  away  :  let 
each  keep  his  house.'"  The  word  ^iVo-ay 
is  here  clearly  taken  from  the  Latin,  just 
as  "  Palatium  "  is.  We  are  ashamed  to 
linger  so  long  over  such  a  question,  but 
unhappily  the  class  of  people  who  think 
that  any  word  can  be  derived  from  any 
other  word  a  little  like  it  is  not  yet 
extinct. 

The  word  "  Missa,"  then,  is  of  purely 
Latin  origin  and  comes  from  "  mittere," 
"  to  send."  St.  Thomas  (III.  Ixxxiii.  4,  ad 
9) '  suggests,  among  other  explanations, 
that  "  Missa  "  may  mean  prayers  sent  to 
God  ;  and  a  similar  explanation  —viz.  that 
"  Missa  "  means  the  sending  or  off'ering  up 
of  the  sacrifice  to  God — has  been  defended 
with  great  learning  in  recent  times  by  a 
profe-sor  at  Wiirzburg,  the  late  Hermann 
Midler,  in  a  treatise  on  Missa  :  the  Origin 
and  Meaning  of  the  Name"  ("Missa, 
Ursprung  und  Bedeutung  der  Benen- 
nung,"  Wertheim,  1873).  This  writer 
proves  that  "  mittere  ''  is  sometimes  used 
by  classical  writers  in  connection  with 
"  inferiae,"  the  sacrifices  of  the  dead.  But 
this  is  not  enough  to  explain  why  the 
Church  adopted  an  obscure  and  scarcely 

I  MUller  (p.  87)  quotes  Peter  of  Cluijnv 
(lib.  ii.  Mirac.  28) :  "  Sacrificium  ofierimus, 
quod  et  usu  jam  veteri  tracto  nomine,  quia  Deo 
mittitur,  Missam  vocamus." 


MASS 


MASS 


611 


intelligible  word  for  "  aacrifice,"'  when 
plain  and  familiar  terms,  "  saciificium," 
"  oblatio,"  &c.,  were  at  hand.  Moreover, 
the  history  of  the  word  is  adverse  to  any 
theory  which  connects  it  with  the  notion 
of  sacrifice.  V\e  may,  then,  dismiss  this 
account  also  and  give  the  accepted  ex- 
planation. 

"Missa"  is  only  another  form  of 
"  missio,"  "  dismissal."  A  good  instance 
of  a  similar  form  is  supplied  by  "  repulsa  " 
( =  "  repulsio  ")  in  the  line  of  Horace, 
"  Virtus  repulsis  nescia  sordidae  ;  "  and 
many  more  examples  present  themselves 
from  the  Latin  of  a  later  period — 
"  ascensa  "  for  "  ascensio,"  "  collecta  '  for 
"  col  lectio,"  "confessa"'  for  "confessio," 
and  last  of  all  "  remissa''  for  "  remissio," 
&c.  About  the  year  500  Avitus  of  Vienne, 
writing  to  the  Burgundian  king  Gundo- 
bald  (Ep.  1,  Migne,  lix.  p.  186),  who 
wished  for  an  explanation  of  the  words 
••  non  missum  facitis "  in  the  old  Latin 
version  of  Mark  vii.  11,  12.  says  that  in 
churches  and  law-courts  "  Missa  fieri  pro- 
nuntiatur,  cum  populus  ab  observatione 
dimittitur ''  ("  dismissal  is  announced 
when  the  people  are  let  free  from  [further] 
attendance  ").  This  derivation  of  "  Missa" 
from  "iiiittere"  was  clear  to  St.  Isidore 
of  Seville  ("Etymolog."  vi.  19).  Now, 
in  the  liturgy  there  were  two  solemn  dis- 
missals—first, of  the  catechumens  after 
the  Gospel  and  sermon ;  next,  of  the 
faithful  at  the  end  of  the  service.  The 
word  for  dismissal  then  came  to  denote 
the  service  from  which  the  persons  in 
question  were  dismissed.  The  first 
authority  for  this  use  of  Missa  for  the 
liturgy,  putting  aside  a  spurious  letter  of 
Pius  I.,  is  St.  Ambrose  (Ep.  20,  4.)  He 
uses  the  words  "  Missam  facere."  More 
than  two  himdred  years  later  St.  Gregory 
of  Tours  uses  the  modern  phrase,  "  Missam 
dicere."'  And  it  must  be  remembered 
that,  so  far  from  the  word  Missa  having 
any  necessary  connection  at  the  first  with 
the  Eucharist,  it  was  employed,  not  only, 
as  we  have  already  seen  in  law-courts, 
but  also  for  church  services  which  had 
nothingtodo  with  the  Eucharist.  Matins, 
as  Sirmond  in  his  "  Xotes  on  St.  Avitus," 
(Ep.  1)  shows,  were  called  "  Missee  ma- 
tutinae,'"  Vespers  "Missje  vespertinre." 
"  Missa  '■  also  occurs  in  a  canon  of  the 
ninth  century  in  the  sense  of  festival 
( Hefele,  "  Concil."  iv.  p.  256  of  the  second 
edition). 

II.  Customs  and  Regtdationa  cmcei-n- 
itiff  Mass. — Some  of  these  are  given  in 
separate    articles — e.ff.    under  Altar, 


Vestments,  CJoioitmiou,  Others  may 
be  mentioned  here. 

(a)  The  Frequency  of  Celebration. — 
In  early  times  the  bishop  and  priests 
celebrated  together.  This  custom  seems 
to  have  continued  in  Rome  long  after  it 
had  ceased  elsewhere,  being  mentioned 
by  Amalarius  of  Metz  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, and  later  still  by  Innocent  III.  It 
has  not  yet  entirely  died  out  among  us, 
for  at  the  Mass  of  Ordination  the  newly 
ordained  priests  say  Mass  jointly  with 
the  bishop,  though  they  do  not  partake 
of  the  same  Host  or  of  the  Precious 
Blood.  In  chui-ches  outside  the  city 
priests  celebrated  independently ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  priests  of  the  Roman 
tituli,  practically  equivalent  to  urban 
parishes,  used  the  Host  consecrated  and 
I  sent  to  them  by  the  Pope. 

Ordinarily  speaking,  then  (an  excep- 
tion will  be  noted  presently),  there  was 
but  one  Mass  each  day  in  the  same 
church,  and  this  is  still  the  custom  of  the 
Greeks  and  Orientals,  unless  where,  as 
in  the  case  of  Uniates,  they  have  been 
influenced  by  Western  practice.  Xor 
was  Mass  said  everywhere  on  all  days  of 
the  week.  It  may  perhaps  be  inferred 
from  Acts  ii.  42,  46,  that  the  Apostles 
celebrated  the  Agape  ending  with  the  l-'.ii 
charist  daily.  Justin,  however  ("  Apol." 
i.  67),  only  speaks  of  the  Eucharist  ic 
celebration  on  Sunday.  St.  Augustine 
(Ep.  54,  "  Ad  Januar.")  informs  us  that 
in  some  places  there  was  Mass  daily,  in 
others  only  on  Sundays,  in  others  on 
Saturdays  "and  Sundays.  Mass  was  said 
daily  in  Africa  (Cj-prian,  Ep.  Iviii.),  in 
Rome  and  Spain  (Hieron.  Ep.  Lsxi.  "  Ad 
Lucin."),  at  Milan  (Le  Brun  quotes  Am- 
brose, lib.  ii.  ep.  14,  "  Ad  Marc"),  at  An- 
tioch  and  Constantinople  (Chrys.  "In 
Ephes."  Horn.  iii.  d.*)  But  at  Csesarea 
St.  Basil  tells  us  Mass  was  said  only  on 
Sundays,  Fridays,  and  Saturdays,  and 
the  feasts  of  the  Martyrs.  Of  ' course, 
when  we  speak  of  Mass  every  day,  we 
except  Good  Friday  and  Holy  Saturday 
in  the  Roman  Church,  and  all  the  days  of 
Lent  except  Saturdays  and  Sundays  in 
the  Church  of  Constantinople. 

On  many  occasions  Mass  was  reite- 
rated by  the  same  celebrant  where  now 
one  Mass  would  be  said  and  a  commemo- 
ration made  or  more  than  one  Mass  said 
by  different  celebrants.  We  have  spoken 
of  this  custom  in  the  article  on  Christ- 

»  Tillemont  has  shown  tlmt  these  homilie.s 
were  delivered  there,  and  Monttaucon  is  of  the 
same  opinion. 

E  R  2 


MASS 


MASS 


MAS  Day,  and  need  not  dwell  on  it  longer 
here.  Apart  from  this,  a  twofold  spirit 
prevailed  in  the  middle  ages.  Some 
priests  said  several  Masses  daily  out  of 
devotion.  "  Priests  were  allowed  to 
•celebrate,"  says  Meratus  (Pars  I.  in 
Rubr.  Gener.),  "  several  times  a  day,  as 
often  as  they  thought  good,  so  that  one 
would  say  Mass  twice,  another  three 
times,  another  as  often  as  he  pleased  on 
the  same  day,  believing  that  God  was 
inclined  to  mercy  as  often  as  Christ's 
Passion  was  brought  to  mind " ;  and  he 
quotes  Walafrid  Strabo,  "  De  Rebus 
Eccles."  cap.  25,  who  relates  that  Pope 
Leo  III.  sometimes  celebrated  nine  times 
in  one  day.  Pope  Alexander  II.  forbade 
any  priest  to  say  Mass  more  than  once  in 
the  day,  and  his  enactment  is  incorpo- 
rated in  the  "  Decretum "  of  Gratian. 
The  Pope,  however,  mentions,  and  appa- 
rently without  disapproval,  the  habit  of 
saying  two  Masses  daily,  "one  of  the 
day,  another  for  the  dead."  St.  Anselm 
and  St.  Albert  are  said  by  Meratus  to 
have  done  so.  Mr.  Maskell  ("Ancient 
Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England,"  p. 
228)  collects  many  English  canons  pro- 
hibiting the  repetition  of  Mass  on  the 
same  day  by  the  same  priest.  Thus  a 
Provincial  Constitution  of  Archbishop 
Langton  prohibits  anyone  from  celebrat- 
ing more  than  once  a  day  except  on 
Christmas  and  Easter  Sunday,  and  on 
occasion  of  a  funeral  in  the  church  ;  and 
one  of  the  last  injunctions  published 
among  us  before  the  change  of  religion 
was,  that  "  no  priest  say  two  Masses  in 
one  day,  except  Christmas  Day,  without 
express  licence." 

Devotion  led  some  holy  persons  at  the 
same  period  in  quite  an  opposite  direc- 
tion. St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury  did  not 
celebrate  daily ;  and  a  contemporary, 
noting  this,  says  the  practice  of  priests 
on  this  point  varied,  that  those  who 
celebrated  often  were  to  be  commended 
for  the  purity  of  their  lives ;  those  who 
acted  like  St.  Thomas,  for  their  humility 
(Fleuiy,  "  H.  E."  livr.  Ixx.  §  64).  Mass 
was  said  rarely  among  the  Carthusians, 
and  St.  Francis  of  Assi.si,  in  his  "  Testa- 
ment," wished  one  priest  only  to  cele- 
brate each  day  in  his  convents.  The 
other  priests  were  to  content  themselves 
witli  hearing  Mass  (Fleury,  hvr.  Ixxix. 
25)- 

By  the  present  law  priests  are  strictly 
prohibited  from  saying  Mass  more  than 
once  on  any  day  except  Christmas  Day. 
Bishops,  however,  have  often  leave  to 


celebrate,  or  allow  their  priests  to  cele- 
brate, twice  on  a  Sunday  or  holiday  of 
obligation,  if  a  large  number  of  people 
would  otherwise  be  unable  to  hear  Mass ; 
and  most  English  priests  hold  faculties, 
renewed  at  intervals,  to  this  effect.  The 
ablutions  must  not  be  taken  at  the 
former  Mass.  The  present  Pope,  moved 
by  the  neces,sity  of  the  case,  has  per- 
mitted bishops  in  Mexico  to  have  three 
Masses  celebrated  by  one  priest  on  the 
same  day.  No  law  requires  a  priest,  as 
such,  to  celebrate  daily,  and  it  is  com- 
monly held  that  he  is  not  bound  to  do  so 
except  on  the  more  solemn  feasts  (St. 
Liguori,  "Theol.  Moral."  lib.  vi.  §  313). 
A  parish  priest  must  say  Mass,  whenever 
at  least  the  people  are  bound  to  hear  it. 
Modern  saints— e.^.  St.  Ignatius  and  St. 
Francis  of  Sales — strongly  encourage 
priests  to  celebrate  daily,  and  this  is  now 
the  common,  though  by  no  means  the 
universal,  custom. 

0)  The  hour  of  Mass  was  subject  to 
no  special  regulation  down  to  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century,  though  it  was  usually 
said  early  in  the  morning.  Le  Brun 
thinks  that  the  custom  of  saying  Mass 
at  tierce  {i.e.  at  9  a.m.)  began  with 
the  monks.  It  is  mentioned  by  Cassian, 
Sidonius  ApoUinaris,  a  Council  of  Orleans 
in  511,  and  St.  Gregory  of  Tours.  On 
the  stations — i.e.  AVednesday  and  Friday, 
and  in  Rome  on  Saturday  (all  usually 
fasting  days)  it  was  said  at  sext — i.e. 
noon;  on  other  fasting  days  after  none 
— i.e.  three  o'clock;  at  ordinations  the 
fast  was  continued  through  Friday  or 
Saturday  till  the  early  morning  of  the 
day  following,  when  the  Mass  was  said. 
(See  Le  Brun,  torn  iii.  diss.  i.  art.  9.) 
According  to  the  present  law  Mass  must 
not  be  said  before  dawn  or  later  than 
midday,  and  it  is  a  serious  matter  notably 
to  trangress  these  limits  except  in  virtue 
of  Apostolic  indult.  The  rule  which 
requires  the  priest  to  have  said  Matins 
and  Lauds  previously  is  not  so  strict. 
There  are  special  rules  on  the  relations 
of  OtBce  and  Conventual  Mass,  Mass  of 
Requiem,  &c.,  in  the  rubrics  of  the  Missal. 

(y)  T/ie  Applicntion  of  Mas«.— The 
j  Mass  is  a  sacrifice  of  adoration,  of  praise 
and  thanksgiving ;  it  is  also  a  sacrifice  of 
propitiation  for  sin,  and  a  means  of 
obtaining  all  graces  and  blessings  from 
God.  In  the  Canon  of  the  Roman  Mass 
I  and  all  other  liturgies  the  sacrifice  is 
always  ofi"ered  specially  for  certain  per- 
I  sons — e.ff.  for  those  present  in  the  church, 
I  for  those  who  contributed  the  bread  and 


MASS 


MASS 


G13 


•n-inc  for  the  consecration,  &c.  Theolo- 
gians, following  Scotus,  recognise  a  three- 
fold fruit  of  the  sarritice.  There  is  the 
general  fruit,  in  which  all  the  faithful 
participate,  the  more  special  fruit,  which 
belongs  to  those  for  whom  the  priest 
specially  oSers  the  sacrifice,  and  the 
most  special  fruit,  proper  to  the  celebrant 
himself.  The  Canon  of  the  Mass  recog- 
nises this  distinction,  and  so  bears  wit- 
ness to  its  antiquity.  The  celebrant 
oflers  "  for  thy  holy  Catholic  Church  "  ; 
again  he  speaks  of  those  "  on  whose 
account  we  ofier  to  Thee,  or  who  ofler  to 
Thee,  this  sacrifice  of  praise " ;  he  also 
calls  the  Mass  "  the  oblation  of  our 
ministry,"  and  in  an  earlier  part  of  the 
liturgy  offers  the  Host  "  for  my  number- 
less sins  and  offences  and  negligences." 
Theologians  dispute  how  far  and  in  what 
way  the  effect  of  the  oblation  is  limited, 
very  many  denying  that  there  is  any 
such  limit  except  in  the  capacity  of  those 
for  whom  the  offering  is  made,  so  that, 
e.g.,  Mass  said  for  a  hundred  persons 
would  profit  each  as  much  as  if  said  for 
one  only.  Practically,  however,  a  priest 
has  to  act  on  the  opinion  that  the  effect 
of  the  sacrifice  is  limited  by  the  ordina- 
tion of  Christ,  or  in  some  other  manner 
over  and  above  the  limitation  already 
mentioned.  Here,  then,  it  suffices  to  say 
that  in  "saying  Mass"  for  a  person  or 
persons  a  priest  applies  in  their  interest 
the  more  special  fruit  of  the  sacrifice. 
If  under  an  obligation  of  making  this 
application,  he  must  not  extend  it  to 
others  save  with  the  implied  condition 
that  he  does  not  intend  to  interfere  with 
the  rights  of  those  who  have  the  first 
claim.  But  of  course  he  always  offers 
generally  for  the  whole  Church,  and 
reserves  the  special  fruit  of  the  Mass  to 
himself.  The  following  regulations  exist 
with  regard  to  the  application. 

All  bishops  and  priesfs  with  cure  of 
souls  are  bound  to  say  Mass  for  their 
people  on  Sundays  and  holidays  of  obli- 
gation. If  the  holiday  of  obligation  has 
become  a  day  of  devotion,  the  duty  of 
saying  Mass  fm-  the  flock  continues. 
Missionary  priests,  such  as  those  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  are  mere  delegates  of 
the  bishop  without  cure  of  souls  in  the 
strict  sense.  They  are  not,  therefore, 
bound  to  offer  the  sacrifice  on  these  days 
for  the  people  in  their  district,  though 
charity  makes  it  fit  that  they  should  do 
80.  In  all  cathedrals  and  collegiate 
churches  the  Conventual  ^Mass  (see  below) 
must  be  said  daily  for  benefactors,  and 


chaplains,  &c.,  are  bound  to  say  Mass 
daily  for  the  founder  of  the  chaplaincy  or 
benefice,  unless  it  appear  from  the  tenus 
of  the  foundation  that  this  was  not  in- 
tended. Lastly,  a  strict  obligation  of 
saying  Mass  for  the  donor's  intention  is 
incurred  by  priests  who  accept  an  alms  on 
that  condition.  This  alms  or  stipend  is 
meant  for  the  celebrant's  support,  and 
corresponds  to  the  otlerings  of  bread  and 
wine  made  by  the  faithful  in  old  days. 
The  bishop  fixes  the  amount  of  this 
stipend  or  tax,  as  it  is  called,  and  the 
priest  must  not  ask,  though  he  may  accept, 
more.  If  he  has  leave  to  duplicate  or  say 
two  Masses  he  must  receive  alms  for  one 
i  only,  and  if  he  asks  another  priest  to  say 
the  Mass  in  his  stead,  he  must  hand  over 
the  whole  alms.  Manj-  rules  have  been 
made,  particularly  of  late,  to  prevent  any 
appearance  of  traflac  or  avarice  in  this 
matter.  Moreover,  Benedict  XIV.  points 
out  that  the  rich  have  no  unfair  advantage 
over  the  poor  because  of  their  greater 
power  to  have  Masses  said  for  them.  All 
souls  are  God's,  and  He  can  give  the  poor 
a  special  share  in  the  general  prayers  of 
the  Church,  and  supply  their  wants  in  a 
thousand  ways.  Riches  and  poverty  are 
each,  if  rightly  used,  the  means  of  salva- 
tion. 

III.  Names  for  different  kimh  of 
Masses. — (a)  High  Mass,  in  Latin  Mi^m 
solemnis,  is  Mass  with  incense,  music, 
the  assistance  of  deacon  and  subdeacon, 
&c.  It  is  usually  sung,  when  there  is  a 
sufficient  number  of  clergy,  at  least  on 
Sundays  and  great  feasts.  Meratus  quotes 
the  term  Missa  alta  from  Rymer's 
"  Fcedera,"  and  the  term,  ]Mr.  Maskell 
says,  seems  to  have  been  chiefly  in  use  in 
England.  But  the  fact  that  in  Dutch 
and  Flemish  exactly  the  same  term — viz. 
Hoogmis,  is  used,  while  the  Germans  have 
Hochamt,  surely  proves  that  Missn  alta 
must  have  been  "familiar  in  othercountries. 
"  Missa  dominica  "  and  "  aurea  "  were 
mediaeval  names  for  Masses  of  sp>^cial 
solemnity.  Under  solemn  Masses,  >[era- 
tus  classes  Pontifical  Masses,  celclirat.Ml 
by  the  bishop  with  his  insignia,  and 
Papal  Masses,  celebrated  by  the  Pojip  on 
certain  great  feasts  with  spi'cinl  riles. 
The  Pontifical  Mass  (the  tbiiig-,  not  tlie 
name)  is  mentioned  in  a  Roman  Ordo 
supposed  to  belong  to  the  former  part  of 
the  eighth  century.  Meratus  refers  to  a 
treatise  on  Papal  Masses  by  Marcellus, 
archbishop  of  ("orcyra — "  Rituum  eccle- 
siasticorum  sive  S.  Cserimoniarum  S. 
Romanse  Ecclesise." 


MASS 


MASTER  OF  THE  SACRED  PALACE 


(i3)  Loto  Mass :  Mima  bassa  in  French  1 
und  English  documents  ;  Basse  Messe ; 
Mtssa  plana  in  the  "  Crerimoniale  Episc." 
Mass  said  without  music,  the  priest  at  | 
least  saying,  and  not  singing,  the  Mass 
throughout. 

{y)  Missa  cantata ;  also  called  media. 
A  >Iass  sung,  but  without  deacon  and 
sul>deacon  and  the  ceremonies  proper  to 
High  Mass.  In  some  Enghsh  dioceses 
the  use  of  incense  is  permitted  at  such 
Masses. 

(S)  Missa  publica  (sometimes  com- 
munis) ;  a  Mass  to  which  the  faithful  of 
either  sex  are  admitted.  Hence  Gregory 
the  Great  prohibited  such  Masses  in 
monasteries.  From  the  sixth  century  at 
least,  nine  o'clock  was  the  time  fixed  for 
such  Masses.  The  decree  on  this  point 
attributed  to  Telesphorus  in  the  second 
century  is  of  course  a  forgery. 

(f)  Missa  privata  (also  secreta,fami- 
liaris,  pcculiaris)  is  difficult  of  definition. 
]\Ieratus  gives  one  explanation  which 
identifies  it  with  Low  Mass ;  another 
according  to  which  it  is  any  Mass  at  which 
the  priest  alone  commvmicates.  It  would 
be  convenient  if  we  could  use  this  word 
or  had  another  word  to  describe  Mass 
which  the  priest  says  chiefly  for  his  own 
devotion  or  that  of  his  friends,  and  not 
to  satisfy  the  wants  of  a  parish,  college, 
&c.  In  aU  private  Masses  the  priest 
must  have  at  least  a  server  to  represent 
the  body  of  the  faithful.  SoUtary  Masses 
were  once  celebrated  by  indulgence  or 
privilege  in  monasteries.  They  are  now 
strictly  forbidden. 

{()  Missa  parochialis;  the  "Assembly 
of  the  faithful  in  which  they  otter  public 
prayers  and  sacrifice  by  the  ministry  of 
their  pastor,  and  learn  from  him  what 
the}'  shmild  do  and  not  do  for  their  own 
salvation  and  the  edification  of  their 
neighbours."  The  Council  of  Trent 
directs  bishops  to  warn  the  faithful  that 
they  should  hear  Mass  in  their  parish 
churches  at  least  on  Sundays  and  gi-eater 
festivals. 

{rf)  Capitular  Mass  is  the  High  Mass 
on  Sundays  or  festivals  in  coUegiate 
churches. 

{B)  Conventual  Mass  is  that  which 
"the  rectors  of  cathedral  and  collegiate 
churches  are  bound  to  have  celebrated 
every  day  solemnly  and  with  music  after 
tierce."  It  must,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  be  applied  for  benefactors.  It  is 
also  known  among  regulars  as  Missa 
canonica,  tertim, publica,  communis,  viajor. 

(i)  Votive  Masses  are  those  which  do 


!  not  correspond  with  the  office  of  the  day^ 
but  are  said  by  the  choice  (vofum)  of  the 
priest.  On  all  days  except  Sundays, 
I  feasts  of  double  and  more  than  double- 
rank,  and  certain  other  days  specially 
excepted,  a  priest  may  say  a  Votive  Mas* 
of  the  Trinity,  the  Angels,  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul,  the  Holy  Ghost,  for  the  dead, 
&c.  &c.,  instead  of  that  assigned  for  the 
day. 

((c)  A  Bequiem  Mass  is  a  Mass  for  the 
dead,  and  is  so  called  from  the  opening 
words  of  the  Introit:  "  Requiem  aetemam 
dona  eis,  Domine." 

(X)  Missa  adcentitia  or  manualis  is  a 
Mass  said  for  the  intention  of  a  person 
who  gives  an  alms ;  and  is  opposed  to  a 
Missa  Icgata,  said  for  a  special  intention 
in  consequence  of  a  legacy  or  foundation. 
Thus  Missa  adventitia  or  manualis  is  a 
"  chance  "  Mass — one  which  "  comes  to 
hand." 

{)x)  The  Missa  prasanctificatorum  is 
really  not  a  Mass  at  all.  Some  account 
of  it  will  be  found  under  Holt  Week.^ 
Still  more  remote  from  the  true  idea  of 
Mass  is  the  Missa  sicca,  a  celebration 
without  either  consecration  or  com- 
munion, very  common  in  the  middle  agea 
in  the  presence  of  the  sick,  at  sea,  and  on 
other  occasions  when  a  true  Mass  could 
not  be  said.  St.  Louis  of  France  used 
habitually  to  have  this  Missa  sicca  said 
at  sea.  Sometimes  it  was  celebrated 
with  all  the  ceremonies  of  High  Mass. 
It  is  now  fallen  out  of  use,  except  that 
persons  learning  the  ceremonies  of  Mass 
sometimes  say  a  Missa  sicca  before  ordi- 
nation. A  real  Mass  was  sometimes  said 
at  sea.  Gavantus  (Pars  I.  tit.  xx.  f.) 
disapproves  the  practice,  because  of  the 
danger  that  the  chalice  may  be  over- 
turned. Benedict  XIV.  ("  De  Missa,"' 
lib.  iii.  cap.  6,  §  11)  holds  that  Mass 
cannot  be  said  at  sea,  even  if  there  seems 
to  be  no  danger  of  irreverence,  without 
an  Apostolic  iudult. 

MASTER.   [See  Degrees.] 

MASTER  OF  THE  SACRES 
PAXiACE  {mai/ister  sacri  palatii).  This 
is  a  dignity  of  the  Roman  Curia  [Curia 
Romaxa],  and  is  said  to  have  been  first 
conferred  on  St.  Dominic,  who,  obsen  ing 
that  the  attendants  of  cardinals,  while 
their  masters  were  transacting  business 
with  the  Pope,  for  want  of  employment- 
used  to  indulge  in  idle  and  frivolous  pas- 

'  The  thirty -sixth  canon  of  yElfric,  in  957, 
shows  that  one  otfice  of  the  Prcsaactified  on. 
Good  Friday  was  used  in  England  a  thousand, 
years  ago  (Maskell,  Aueient  Lit.  p.  214). 


MATINS 


MAUPJSTS 


615 


fimes,  obtained  the  permission  of  Hono- 
rius  in.  to  form  them  into  a  class  and 
explain  the  Bible  to  them.  Originating 
thus,  the  office  gradually  became  one  of 
greater  importance,  until  it  included  the 
right  of  nominating  the  preachers  before 
the  Pope  on  certain  great  festivals,  that 
of  acting  as  consultor  to  several  congre- 
gations, that  of  conferring  the  degree  of 
doctor  in  theology  and  philosophy,  with 
other  privileges,  as  well  as  the  duty  of 
examining  and  licensing  all  hooks  pub- 
lished in  Rome. 

MATINS.    ';See  Breviabt.] 

MATRXciTXiA.  (dim.  of  matrix,  a  roll 
or  register).  The  roll  containing  the 
names  of  the  clergy  permanently  attached 
to  a  cathedral,  or  a  collegiate,  or  a  parish 
church ;  also,  the  list  of  the  names  of  the 
students  regularly  admitted  into  any 
university. 

MATRZCITX.ATZOir  (mrtfn'citla). 
The  act  of  entering  the  name  of  a  student 
upon  the  matricula  or  roll  of  a  university, 
which  in  ordinary  cases  is  not  done  till 
the  candidate  for  admission  has  proved 
his  competency  by  passing  an  examination 
in  certain  prescribed  subjects. 

■MAmiTDT  TBirksDAT.  [See 
Holy  AVeek.] 

IVIA1TRZSTS.  The  famous  congre- 
gation of  St.  Maur,  an  offshoot  of  the 
Benedictine  order  [Bexedictixes],  took 
its  name  in  honour  of  the  favourite  dis- 
ciple of  St.  Benedict  so  called,  who  e.\- 
tended  the  order  greatly  in  France  in  the 
sixth  century,  and  founded  the  Abbey 
of  Glanfeuil,  called  after  him  St.  Maur- 
sur-Loire.  Hence,  in  these  northern 
countries  the  Benedictine  rule  was  re- 
garded as  having  him  for  its  author 
almost  equally  with  St.  Benedict  him- 
self; cf.  Chaucer's — 

"The  reule  of  seynt  Maura  or  of  seint  Beneyt." 

(ProL  C.  T.) 

In  the  sixteenth  century,  much  relaxation 
having  crept  into  the  monastic  observance 
of  Benedictine  houses  in  the  South  of 
Europe,  various  enterprises  of  reform  were 
set  on  foot  by  monks  in  whom  the  ancient 
fervour  still  glowed.  There  was  estab- 
li-hed  in  Lorraine,  by  Dom  Didier  de  la 
Cour,  the  austere  congregation  of  St. 
A'anne.  Many  convents  in  France  de- 
sired to  embrace  this  reform,  and  it  was 
solemnly  adopted  at  the  monastery  of 
St.  Augustine  at  Limoges  in  1613.  Here 
and  at  other  French  houses  the  congre- 
gation of  St.  Vanne  planted  monks  who 
might  teach  their  principles  and  procedure. 


But,  Lorraine  being  at  that  time  politi- 
cally separate  from  France,  it  was  thought 
expedient  that  a  new  congregation  should 
be  erected  for  the  latter.  This  being 
effected  in  1618,  the  new  institute,  of 
which  Dom  Benard  was  the  chief  propa- 
gator, took  the  name  of  St.  Maur,  and 
being  supported  by  Card,  de  Retz,  and 
afterwards  by  Richelieu,  rapidly  extended 
itself  among  the  Benedictine  convents  in 
France.  In  and  near  I'aris  they  even- 
tually had  tbree  great  houses,  the  Blancs- 
Manteaux,  St.  Germain  des  Pres,  and 
St.  Denis.  The  rule  was  at  first  observed 
in  its  full  strictness  in  the  houses  which 
adhered  to  the  congregation;  and  in 
union  with  this  religious  movement  an 
enthusiasm  for  literature  and  learning 
developed  itself,  which  modified  all  the 
arrangements  adopted.  A  general,  ap- 
pointed for  life,  governed  the  whole  in- 
stitute, which,  at  the  time  when  Helyot 
wrote  (about  1720),  comprised  oue  hun- 
dred and  eighty  abbeys  and  priories, 
grouped  in  six  provinces.  In  every  pro- 
vince there  were  one  or  two  noviciates  ; 
on  leaving  which,  the  young  novice  was 
admitted  to  profession  in  some  monastery, 
and  trained  in  piety  and  ecclesiastical 
knowledge  during  two  years.  After  that 
he  was  engaged  for  five  years  in  the 
study  of  philosophy  and  theology,  and 
finally  for  one  year,  called  the  "  year  of 
recollection,"  in  the  exercises  and  studies 
designed  to  fit  him  for  receiving  the 
priesthood  at  the  end  of  it.  If  we  m;iy 
judge  by  the  fruits,  the  preparation  must 
have  been  exceedingly  well  fitted  to 
train  men  for  successfully  engaging  in 
the  pursuits  of  literature  and  criticism. 
Those  "Benedictine  editions"  of  the 
Fathers,  which  scliolars  know  so  well 
and  value  so  highly,  all  came  from 
members  of  the  congregation  of  St. 
Maur.  Among  their  colossal  labours 
may  be  mentioned  "  Gallia  Christiana," 
the  "  History  of  French  Literature,"  the 
"  Recueil  "  of  the  historians  of  France, 
Mabillon's  "Annals  of  the  Benedictine 
Order,"  and  "Lives  of  Benedictine 
Saints,"  Tassin's  literary  history  of  the 
congregation,  Martene's  "Araplissima 
CoUectio,"  &c.,  &c.  The  majority  of 
their  own  countrymen  appear  to  be  in 
haste  to  forget  them;  but  the  rest  of  the 
world  will  not  soon  forget  the  gentle, 
pious,  genial,  indefatigable  Mabillon,  the 
Venerable  Bede  of  these  later  times;  nor 
Edmond  Martene,  that  model  of  exact 
and  thorough  research ;  nor  Montfaucon, 
whose  vast  erudition  illustrated  by  the: 


MAY 


MECHITAT^ISTP 


engraver's  art  the  whole  field  of  Grseco- 
Roman  antiquity  and  founded  the  science 
of  archaeology ;  nor  Ruinart,  the  historian 
of  the  Martyrs ;  not  to  speak  of  Rivet, 
Boiujuet,  Lami,  Labat,  Luc  d'Ach^ry,  Le 
Nourri,  MiSnard,  Martianay,  and  many 
more,  whose  names  all  suggest  priceless 
services  rendered  in  this  or  that  field  to 
the  cause  of  secular  and  sacred  learning. 

The  later  history  of  the  congregation, 
from  the  time  of  Il^lyot  to  their  suppres- 
sion in  1792,  is  more  chequered.  Jan- 
senism insinuated  itself  into  some  of  the 
convents  ;  and  in  the  controversy  which 
grew  out  of  the  publication  of  the  Con- 
stitution "Unigenitus"  (1713),  although 
the  general  and  the  superiors  remained 
loyal  to  the  Holy  See,  many  of  the 
monks  joined  the  party  of  opposition. 
After  some  time,  relaxations  of  the  rule, 
such  as  the  abandonment  of  the  old  habit, 
modification  of  the  prohibitions  respecting 
food,  and  the  cui'tailment  of  the  mid- 
night ofiice,  were  demanded  in  many 
convents,  and  to  a  great  extent  conceded. 
The  pseudo-philosophic  spirit  that  was 
abroad  infected  even  a  congregation 
which  had  commenced  as  an  austere 
reform  not  two  centuries  before  ;  and  if 
Htjlyot's  continuator  may  be  trusted,  a 
Freemasons'  lodge  was  established  at 
Glanfeuil  in  1775,  and  the  prior  of  the 
Maurist  monastery  there  became  the 
venerable  of  the  lodge.  Nevertheless, 
the  congregation,  though  it  no  longer 
produced  minds  of  the  calibre  of  those 
which  adorned  it  at  the  beginning  of  the 
century,  continued  to  be  devoted  to 
learning  and  literature.  The  "  Academy 
of  Saumur,"  established  in  the  abbey  of 
that  town,  achieved  a  wide  reputation. 
In  education  also  their  colleges  and 
schools  were  most  successful,  and  at- 
tracted, particularly  after  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Jesuits,  pupils  of  the  best 
blood  of  France;  among  these  colleges 
were  Soreze  in  Burgundy — reopened  in 
our  times  by  Lacnnlaire — Tiron,  Pont 
Levoy,  St.  Germer,  and  Auxerre.  After 
1780  the  dissensions  which  had  long 
troubled  the  peace  of  the  congregation 
grew  more  violent,  and  would  probably 
have  led  to  its  dissolution  even  if  the 
Revolution  had  not  occurred,  and  turned 
them  out  of  their  monasteries.  (H^lyot, 
continued  by  Badiche.) 

VIILY.  In  recent  times,  a  custom 
has  arisen  of  addressing  public  prayer  to 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  decking  her  altar 
with  Howers,  singing  hymns  in  her 
ihonour,  &c..  daily  during  the  month  of 


May.  The  prayers  used  are  from  books 
of  popular  devotion,  for  the  Church  does 
not  recognise  this  "  Month  of  May  "  by 
any  change  in  the  Mass  or  Office.  How- 
ever, Pius  VII.  in  a  brief,  March  21, 
1815,  granted  an  indulgence  of  300  days 
daily  to  those  who  practise  this  devotion 
at  home  or  in  church,  and  a  plenary 
indulgence  any  one  day  in  the  month  on 
condition  of  confession,  communion,  and 
prayer  for  the  intention  of  the  Pope.  An 
Italian  Father  of  Charity,  Dr.  Gentili, 
introduced  the  celebration  of  the  month 
of  May  among  ns  in  England  some  forty 
years  ago. 

nxECHZTARZSTS.  This  congrega- 
tion, which  exists  for  the  purpose  of 
instructing  and  improving  the  scattered 
members  of  the  Armenian  n.ition,  was 
founded  by  an  Armenian  named  Mechi- 
tar,  who  was  born  in  1676  at  Siwas,  the 
ancient  Sebastia,  a  town  near  the  source 
of  the  Halys,  on  the  borders  of  Pontus 
and  Cappadocia.  His  family  appears  to 
have  belon.<:ed  to  the  section  of  the 
Armenian  nation  which  has  always  ad- 
hered to  the  Catholic  Church.  From 
the  time  when  he  was  ordained  priest, 
in  165)9,  the  desire  of  labouring  for  the 
temporal  and  eternal  welfare  of  his  coun- 
trymen possessed  itself  of  his  whole 
nature.  He  went  to  Constantinople,  and 
formed  an  association  there  to  carry  out 
his  design;  but,  being  opposed  by  some 
of  the  schismatic  Armenians,  he  trans- 
ferred his  operations  to  Modon  in  the 
Morea,  which  at  that  time  belonged  to 
the  Republic  of  Venice.  Here  he  and 
his  companions  worked  on  for  fourteen 
years ;  but  in  1715,  war  having  broken 
out  between  the  Porte  and  the  Republic, 
Modon  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  and 
Mechitar's  convent  was  broken  up.  He 
then  retired  to  Venice,  and  obtained  from 
the  Government  the  island  of  San  Laz- 
zaro,  which  lies  in  the  lagune  between 
the  Lido  and  the  city.  Here  he  founded 
that  Armenian  convent  which  travellers 
from  foreign  lands  never  fail  to  visit 
and  unanimously  and  cordially  admire. 
Literary  labours,  which  have  for  their 
object  to  perfect  and  regularise  tie 
Armenian  language,  and  to  translate 
into  it  the  more  important  works  of  the 
various  European  literatures,  have  always 
been,  and  are  still,  zealously  prosecuted 
here  by  these  intelligent  Orientals. 
Branches  from  the  mother  house  have 
been  founded  at  Vienna  and  Trieste,  and 
at  several  places  in  Hungary.  The  All- 
gemeine  Zeitung   (December  17,  1850) 


MEDIATOR 


MEDIATOR  617 


tlius  writes  of  the  Mechitarists :  "  When 
one  takes  a  near  view  of  their  labours  at 
Vienna  and  Venice,  one  is  amazed  at  the 
powerful  influence  which  the  literary 
activity  of  these  learned  monks  exerts  on 
the  Armenian  nation  scattered  through- 
out the  East.  The  reviews,  the  books, 
the  numerous  translations  of  works  on 
history,  geography,  philology,  natural 
science,  and  voyages  and  travels,  which 
are  printed  in"  the  Mechitarist  presses 
of  Vienna  and  Venice  are  carried  far 
beyond  Persia  to  the  banks  of  the  Indus 
and  the  Ganges,  and  have  everywhere 
called  forth  among  the  Armenians  the 
desire  of  knowledge  and  a  taste  for  read- 
ing, and  set  on  foot  a  literary  movement 
which  was  before  entirely  dormant  in  a 
people  till  lately  essentially  and  exclu- 
sively commercial."  (Art.  by  Gams  in 
Wetzer  and  '\^'elte.) 

MEDIATOR  (jjLfo-tTTjs,  "  sequester 
Dei  et  hominum  Christus"  in  Tertull. 
"  Adv.  Prax."  27).  St.  Paul  (1  Tim.  ii. 
6)  speaks  of  Christ  as  the  "  one  mediator 
between  God  and  man,"  and  it  is  plain 
that  he  vindicates  this  office  as  one 
proper  to  Christ  alone,  for  the  passage 
runs  :  "  There  is  one  God,  one  mediator 
also  between  God  and  men,  a  man  Christ 
Jesus,  wlio  gave  Himself  also  a  ransom 
for  all,"  &c.  Christ  is  the  one  mediator, 
because  He  alone  could  draw  near  to 
God  in  virtue  of  merits  which  were  His 
own,  and  independently  of  the  merits  of 
any  beside  Himself.  He  alone  could 
offer  a  propitiation  infinite  in  value  for 
the  sin  of  man,  and  obtain  in  return  all 
the  gifts  of  salvation.  This  He  did  as 
man  ;  not,  however,  as  mere  man,  but  as 
man  who  was  also  God,  so  that  He  was 
able  to  make  full  and  perfect  atonement. 
Further,  St.  Thomas  points  out  (iii.  2fi, 
2)  that  a  mediator,  from  the  very  fact 
that  He  comes  between,  must  be  distant 
from  each  extreme.  Now  "  Christ  as 
man  is  far  from  God  {distat  a  Deo)  in 
nature,  and  from  men  in  the  dignity  of 
grace  and  glory."  Again,  a  mediator's 
offict»  is  to  join  tlie  two  extremes,  and 
this  Christ  does  "  by  setting  before  men 
the  commandments  and  gifts  of  God,  by 
making  satisfaction  to  God  for  them,  and 
by  interceding  for  them.  Christ,  there- 
fore, as  man  is  most  truly  called  media- 
tor." 

The  Arian  error  on  this  point  lay  in 
their  belief  that  the  Word  in  His  super- 
human nature  came  between  God  and 
creatures.  Creatures  "  could  not  bear  the 
hand  of  God,"  and  "  a  mediator  became 


I  necessary  that  things  generated  might 
come  to  be."  St.  Athanasius  ("Defens. 
Fid.  Nic."  cap.  iii.  §  8)  shows  the  illogi- 

1  cal  character  of  the  error,  for  if  the  Son 
is  a  creature,  then  on  the  Arian  theory 
another  mediator  must  have  been  re- 
quired to  create  Him  ;  if  not  a  creature. 
He  is  true  God. 

The  Protestant  mistake  consists  in 
interpreting  St.  Paul's  words  as  if  they 
excluded  the  mediation  of  the  saints. 

j  Assuredly  there  is  only  one  mediator  of 
redemption,  and  the  saints,  says  Estius 
(ad  loc),  are  "  mediators  in  an  imperfect 

,  way — i.e.  they  intercede  for  us  with  God, 
just  as  all  persons  do  who  in  prayer  com- 
mend our  salvation  to  God."  "  Whoever 
beseeches  God  for  others  constitutes  him- 

\  self  after  a  manner  a  medium  and  an  in- 
tercessor between  them  and  God,  though 
he  does  this  leaning  not  on  his  own  merits, 
but  on  another's — viz.  Christ's.  For  what- 

I  ever  the  saints  seek  for  us  in  prayer,  they 
only  seek  throuph  Christ."  In  'this  im- 
perfect sense  St.  Paul  calls  Moses  a 
"  mediator  "  (Galatians  iii.  19,  20).  This 

I  is  his  common  title  in  Jewish  -^-riters,  and 
his  mediatorial  office  clearly  appears,  e.g., 
Deut.  V.  2,  5 — "  I  stoal  between  the  Lord 
and  you  " ;  and  the  doctrine  of  angelic 
mediation  is  asserted  in  a  beautiful  pas- 
sage of  Elihu's  speech  (Job  xxxiii.  23)  — 
If  there  be  for  him  an  angel  to  mediate, 

One  of  a  thousand. 
To  declare  to  man  what  is  right  for  Wm, 
Then  He  (God")  is  gracious  to  him  and  says: 
"Loose  him  from  going  down  to  the  pit; 
I  have  found  a  ransom." 

There  can  be  no  doubt  about  the 
meaning  of  the  word  italicised  ('^'^D^. 
"An  angel  interceding  with  God  on 
behalf  of  men,  a  fx(aiTT]s"  is  Gesenius' 
commentary.  So  Delitzsch,  "Mittler," 
"mediator"  (he,  however,  understands 
the  "  angel  of  the  covenant  ").  The  Tar- 
gum  rendering  is  Paraclete,  advocate 
(SO'^plD).  The  LXX  entirely  misses 
the  sense ;  the  Vulgate  has  "  loquens  pro 
eo." 

We  may  remark  by  the  way  that  the 
doctrine  of  angelic  mediation  prominent 
in  the  Book  of  Job  has  not,  so  far  as  we 
know,  received  due  attention  from  Catho- 
lics ;  observe  the  words  in  the  first  speech 
of  Eliphaz  (v.  1). 

Call.    Is  there  one  to  answer  thee  ? 
To  which  of  the  holy  ones  (t  e.  angels)  wilt  thou 
turn  ? 

On  which  passage  an  eminent  Protestant 
scholar  comments  thus :  "  They  [angels] 


618  MEDITATION 


MELCIIITES 


appear  as  intercessors  for  men  with  God, 
bringing  men's  needs  before  Him,  and 
mediating  in  their  behalf.  This  work  is 
easily  connected  with  their  general  office 
of  labouring  for  the  good  of  men,  espe- 
cially of  the  pious ;  still  it  is  here  for  the 
first  time  ascribed  to  them."  (Dillmann, 
on  Job,  p.  44.) 

MEDITATION  AITD  MESTTAIi 
PRAYER.  Meditation  in  its  narrower 
and  technical  sense  may  be  defined  as  the 
application  of  the  three  powers  of  the 
soul  to  prayer — the  memory  proposing  a 
religious  or  moral  truth,  the  understand- 
ing considering  this  truth  in  its  applica- 
tion to  the  individual  who  meditates, 
while  the  will  forms  practical  resolutions 
and  desires  grace  to  keep  them.  It  is 
distinguished  from  vocal  prayer,  because 
in  meditation  no  words  are  used,  and  from 
the  higher  forms  of  mental  prayer  {e.(j. 
affective  prayer,  contemplation,  &e.),  be- 
cause in  these  there  is  no  methodical  use 
of  the  reason.  Mental  prayer  of  some 
kind  must  be  as  old  as  the  human  race, 
but  it  was  St.  Ignatius  of  Loyola  who 
reduced  the  rules  of  meditation  to  system, 
and  contributed  to  the  spread  of  medita- 
tion at  a  regular  hour  and  for  a  fixed 
space  of  time.  Thus  St.  Benedict  sup- 
poses that  some  of  his  monks  will  pray 
after  the  vocal  prayers  of  the  office  with 
tears  and  application  of  heart  (Rule,  c. 
25,  quoted  by  Fleury,  "  H.  E."  xxxii.  15), 
and  an  incident  in  his  life  (c.  4,  Fleury, 
loc.  cit.)  shows  that  the  religious  used  to 
pray  in  private  after  the  chanting  of  the 
psalms.  So  St.  Columban  admonishes 
his  religious  on  the  duty  of  private  prayer 
and  the  continual  application  of  the  mind 
to  God.  ("  Pcenit."  n.  19 ;  Fleury,  xxxv. 
10). 

Modern  ascetical  writers  are  much 
more  precise,  and  in  all  communities  of 
men  and  women,  in  all  seminaries,  &c.,  a 
time  is  set  apart  daily  for  mental  prayer, 
which  is  imposed  by  rule.  The  practice 
of  mental  prayer  is  recommended  to  secu- 
lar priests,  and  also  to  lay  persons  if  they 
have  some  education  and  desire  to  lead 
a  perfect  life.  The  method  given  by  St. 
Ignatius  in  his  Exercises  is  that  generally 
recommended  and  used,  at  least  till  the 
person  who  meditates  forms  a  method  of 
his  own.  The  best  exposition  of  it  is  by 
Father  Roothaan,  General  of  the  Society, 
"De  Ratione  Meditandi  "  (Romse,  1871). 
The  Ignatian  method  has  been  simplified 
by  St.  Liguori,  and  the  Sulpicians  have  a 
method  of  their  own,  propounded  by  M. 
Olier ;  another  is  given  by  the  Carmelite 


John  of  Jesus-Mary.  Books  of  medita- 
tion without  number  have  appeared  dur- 
ing the  last  three  centuries,  and  we  cannot 
pretend  to  mention  even  the  principal 
names.  Da  Ponte,  Avancini,  Crasset, 
Lancicius,  Challoner,  Chaignon,  are  those 
which  most  readily  occur  to  us. 

Benedict  XIV.,  in  his  work  on  Beati- 
fication, naturally  rebukes  the  rashness  of 
the  Jesuit  Hurtado,  who  maintained  that 
the  daily  and  formal  practice  of  mental 
prayer  was  necessary  for  salvation.  It 
is,  however,  a  great  and  powerful  help 
to  self-improvement  and  advance  in 
virtue. 

After  meditation  comes  affective 
prayer,  in  which  the  soul  goes  straight  to 
God  by  affection  of  the  will  without  need 
of  formal  discourse  or  reasoning.  Next 
come  higher  degrees  of  prayer,  which  the 
experience  of  the  saints  proves  to  be  most 
real,  but  which  are  far  removed  from 
ordinary  experience.  Contemplation,  we 
are  told,  is  either  natural  or  infused  in 
an  extraordinary  manner  by  God,  and  in 
the  latter  the  soul  is  said  to  be  passive — 
i.e.  to  be  in  some  special  sense  moved  by 
God.  It  is  important  to  notice  that  in 
the  passive  prayer  "  free  will  exercises 
itself  in  the  whole  of  its  extent."  Catholic 
mystics  insist  on  this,  and  wholly  reject 
the  false  notions  of  absorption  in  the 
Deity,  loss  of  personality,  &c.  Bossuet 
proves  this  at  length  from  St.  Teresa,  St. 
John  of  the  Cross,  &c.  (See  his  "  Instruc- 
tions sur  les  Etats  d'Oraison,"  traits  1, 
livr.  vii.  n.  13.  This  work  makes  the 
whole  matter  comprehensible,  so  far  as  it 
can  be  comprehended,  and  is  full  of 
learning). 

MEliCRlTES.  The  word,  which 
comes  from  the  Semitic  word  (Heb.  "r^r^^ 
Syr.  Chald.  Tj^D,  the  Arabic  is 

the  same)  for  king,  means  royalists. 
When  multitudes  of  Christians  in  the 
East,  and  especially  in  Egypt,  fell  away 
from  the  Church  after  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon,  and  clung  to  the  Monophysite 
creed,  the  Church  of  Constantinople  and 
the  Byzantine  Court  remained  orthodox, 
and  the  Emperors  exerted  their  influence 
on  the  Catholic  side.  Hence  the  name 
of  Melchites  was  given  to  those  Christians 
in  the  patriarchates  of  Alexandria,  An- 
tioch,  and  Jerusalem  who  held  to  the 
definition  of  Chalcedon.^    There  were  cf 

1  On  the  same  principle  the  orthodox  called 
the  Monothelites  of  Mount  Lebanon  "  maradaei," 
from  jjio,  "  to  rebel." 


MELCIIITES 


MELETIAN  SCHISM  619 


■course  closely  connected  with  the  patri- 
archate of  Constantinople;  they  adopted 
its  liturgy,  and  when  Constantinople  was 
■severed  by  schism  from  the  Catholic 
Church  they  lapsed  also.  In  fact,  both 
from  a  dogmatic  and  liturgical  point  of 
view,  the  .Melchites  are  simply  Greeks 
living  in  Egypt  and  Syria.  And  just  as 
Jacobites,  Copts,  or  Nestorians,  when 
they  return  to  the  Church,  retain  their 
ancient  rites,  so  the  Melchites  who  have 
recovered  Catholic  unity  retain  the 
liturgies  of  St.  Chrysostom  and  Basil, 
and  the  canon  law  to  which  they  Lave 
been  accustumed. 

TlieMclcliiteorGreek  Catholic  Church 
of  Antioch  dates  from  1686,'  when  the 
Greek  Patriarch  Athanasius  IV.  of 
Antioch  .submitted  to  the  Pope.  From 
Antioch  the  Catholic  Melchites  spread 
to  the  patriarchates  of  Alexandria  and 
Jerusalem. 

The  Patriarch  of  Antioch  i.s  chosen 
by  the  bishops  of  the  patriarchate.  The 
election,  however,  must  be  examined  and 
approved  by  Propaganda  and  confirmed 
by  the  Pope.  If  the  electionis  pronounced 
invalid,  the  Pope  nominates,  and  the  Pope 
may  appoint,  if  necessary,  a  coadjutor 
with  right  of  succession.  The  Patriarch, 
who  is  subject  to  Propaganda,  lives  at 
Ain  Teraz,  on  the  Le))an(.ii,  in  the  semin- 
ary for  priests.  The  l)i>li(ips  are  elected 
by  the  clergy  of  the  diocese,  the  right  of 
confirmation  and  consecration  resting 
with  the  Pati'iarch.  The  bishops  may  be 
taken  from  the  secular  clergy,  if  un- 
married. The  secular  priests,  who  are 
educated  at  a  seminary  on  Mount  Leba- 
non, may  coTitinue  to  live  as  married  men 
if  married  before  receiving  Holy  Orders. 
The  I'atiiarch  has  subject  to  him  the 
archdioceses  of  Damascus  (which  he  him- 
self administers).  Tyre,  Bosra  and  Hau- 
ran,  Homs  and  A])auiea,  and  Aleppo, 
besides  six  other  dif)eeses. 

A  Greek  Patriarch  of  Alexandria 
made  his  submission  and  received  the 
jKilIium  from  Clement  XI.  in  1713,  but 
he  had  no  Catholic  successors,  and  the 
Alexandrian  patriarchiite  is  administered 
by  the  vicar  of  the  Patriarch  of  Antiocli. 
This  vicar  is  a  bi.-hoj>  in  partihiix,  and 
lives  at  Cairo.  There  are  two  Greek 
Catholic  churches  at  Cairo,  one  at 
Ttosetta,  a  hospice  at  Damietta.  Another 
bishop  in  partihus,  also  a  vicar  of  the 
Patriarch  of  Antioch,  administers  the 

•  Or  rather  1720,  when  Ifjnatius,  who  had 
resigned,  was  restored  to  liis  see. 


patriarchate  of  Jerusalem.  Sur  (Tyre) 
and  Saida  (Sidon)  are  archbishoprics, 
Jean  d'Acre  a  bishopric. 

The  Melchite  religious  follow  the  rule 
of  St.  Basil,  with  modifications.  The 
monks  are  divided  into  two  congrega- 
tions. The  congregation  of  St.  Sahutor 
was  founded  in  1715,  and  is  ruled  by  an 
abbot-general,  who  lives  at  Deir-el-Muk- 
hallis,  a  few  miles  north-cast  of  Sidon. 
There  are  500  monks,  eight  monasteries, 
and  twenty-one  hospitia.  This  congre- 
gation has  a  house  at  Rome — St  a  Maria 
in  Carinis.  Most  of  the  parishes  are 
supplied  by  these  monks.  The  other 
congregation,  of  St.  John  Baptist  ("  Mar 
Johanna-el-Shuweir "),  erected  early  in 
the  eighteenth  centurj',  has  also  a  hospice 
at  Rome^ — Sta  Maria  in  Domuica,  detta 
la  Navicella.  This  congregation,  which 
is  recruited  from  Aleppo  and  Lebanon, 
was  subdivided,  by  authority  of  Gregory 
XVI.  in  1832,  into  the  congregation  of 
Aleppo,  with  four  monasteries  and  two 
hospices,  and  that  of  the  Baladites,  with 
the  same  number  of  monasteries  and 
hospices,  besides  the  hospice  at  Rome. 
At  this  last,  however,  the  procurators  of 
both  congregations  reside. 

There  are  three  convents  of  nuns,  one 
belonging  to  each  of  the  three  congTe- 
gations  just  enumerated.  The  number 
of  priests  is  at  present  (1890)  about  300, 
and  of  Catholics  114,000.  (Silbernagl, 
"  Kirchen  des  Orients  "  ;  Werner,  "  Orbis 
Terrarum  Catliolicus.'') 

niEX.ETXiiM'  SCHISIW.  The  name 
is  equivocally  applied  to  two  entirely 
diflferent  transactions. 

I.  Sch{s7n  of  Miletius  of  Egypt. — An 
admirable  article  by  Hefele*  throws  light 
on  this  obscure  and  complicated  affair,  in 
which  tlie  principal  actor  figures  to  dis- 
advantage in  the  writings  of  one  saint, 
and  to  advantage  in  those  of  another. 
Meletius  was  bishop  of  Lycopolis  in  the 
Thebaid.  At  the  time  of  the  persecution 
of  Diocletian,  when  many  of  the  Egyptian 
bishops  were  in  prison,  and  Peter,  the 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  absent  fj-oni  his 
see  (perhaps  he  was  in  hiding),  Meletius 
took  upon  himself  to  ordain  priests  in 
dioceses  other  than  his  own — a  thing 
clearly  against  the  canons — and,  guing  to 
Alexandria,  associated  hi msel  f  w i t li  A l  ui s, 
then  a  layman,  and  ordained  priests  and 
episcopal  visitors  on  his  own  authoi-ity, 
without  reference  to  the  absent  patriarch. 
This    conduct   naturally   occasioned  a 

>  In  Wetzer  and  Welte. 


620  MEMENTO 


MENTAL  RESERVATION 


schism,  which,  beginning  about  304,  was 
not  finally  extinguished  till  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century.  It  is  not  known  in 
what  year  Meletius  died.  St.  Athanasius 
mentions  Meletius  and  the  Meletians  in 
several  places  of  his  writings,  and  says 
that  the  former  sacrificed  to  idols  during 
the  persecution.  Hefele  thinks  that  with 
regard  to  this  Athanasius  must  have  been 
misled  by  a  false  report,  since  it  is  in- 
credible thiit  St.  Epiphanius  should  have 
spoken  in  terms  of  commendation  of 
Meletius  if  he  had  known  him  to  have 
consented  to  this  act  of  weakness.  The 
Meletian  schismatics  joined  the  Arians  in 
all  their  persecution  of  Athanasius.  On 
the  other  hand,  St.  Epiphanius,  in  his 
work  on  Heresies,  tells  the  story  of  the 
schism  from  a  quite  different  point  of  view. 
It  arose,  according  to  him,  out  of  a  differ- 
ence ol'  opinion  between  the  Patriarch 
Peter  and  Meletius,  on  the  subject  of  the 
"lapsi,"  the  former  taking  a  lax  view, 
and  being  willing  to  consent  to  their  re- 
placement in  all  their  functions  on  terms 
by  which  the  zealous  piety  of  Meletius 
was  scandalised.  Hefele  thinks  it  probable 
that  this  version  of  the  schism  was  given 
to  St.  Epiphanius  in  his  youth  by  some 
Meletian  priests  of  Eleutheropolis,  where 
Meletius  is  stated  to  have  ordained  clergy. 
The  Council  of  Nicjea  (325)  took  the 
matter  in  hand,  and  endeavoured,  by 
means  of  a  synodal  letter,  to  dispose  of  it ; 
but  the  cunning  of  the  Meletians  enabled 
them  to  elude,  to  a  great  extent,  the  con- 
ditions which  it  was  sought  to  impose 
upon  them. 

II.  Schism  of  Meletius  of  Antioch, — 

See  EUSTATHIANS. 

nxEiasM'TO.  [See  Dipttchs.] 
MElviORZii..  (1)  A  shrine  or  reli- 
quary containing  relics  of  some  martyr 
or  martyrs,  which  in  primitive  times  it 
was  customary  to  carry  in  procession. 
St.  Augustine,  in  the  twenty-second  book 
of  the  "  De  Civitate  Dei "  (ch.  8),  speaks 
of  the  "  Memory "  of  the  "  Twenty 
Martyrs  "  at  Hippo,  and  mentions  several 
instances  of  "Memories"  of  the  proto- 
martyr  St.  Stephen,  belonging  to  diilerent 
churches,  being  carried  in  procession  by 
the  respective  bishops,  and  becoming  the 
occasion  of  miraculous  cures.  "  Lucillus, 
bishop  of  Sinita,"  he  says,  "  while  carrying 
tliis  holy  burden  {pia  sarcina)  was  cured 
of  an  infirmity  under  which  he  had  long 
laboured." 

Abuses  having  arisen  through  the 
eagerness  to  obtain  relics,  a  law  of  Theo- 
dosius  ("  Cod.  Theod."  ix.  17,  7)  ordered 


that  none  should  buy  or  dismember  the 
bodies  of  martjTS,  or  remove  them  from 
place  to  place.'  This  law  cannot  have 
been  in  force  in  Africa  at  the  time  when 
St.  Augustine  wrote  as  above. 

(2)  A  church  or  chapel  built  in  memory 
of  a  martyr  or  confessor,  and  often  over 
his  tomb.  Such  a  chapel  usually,  if  not 
always,  contained  relics  of  the  martyr. 

MEM'OX.OGY  (Gr.  ^li]v).  A  monthly 
register.  By  this  name  the  Greeks  desig- 
nated the  calendars  inscribed  with  the 
names,  primarily  of  martyrs,  but  after- 
wards of  confessors  also,  which  in  the 
Latin  Church  were  caUed  Martyrologies. 
(See  Maetteology.) 

niEN'TAI.  RESERVATION-  or  re- 
striction {restrictio  mentalis)  occurs  where 
a  person  uses  words  in  a  sense  otlier  than 
that  which  is  obvious  and  which  he 
knows  they  are  likely  to  convey.  Thus, 
a  man  who  tells  a  beggar  that  he  has  no 
money  in  his  pocket,  meaning  that  he  has 
no  money  to  give  the  beggar,  uses  mental 
reservation.  He  inserts  mentally  a 
qualification  or  restriction  which  is  not 
expressed. 

If  the  restriction  is  of  such  a  nature 
that  it  cannot  be  perceived  by  the  hearer, 
then  the  person  who  uses  it  certainly 
sins.  So  all  Catholics  are  bound  to  hold. 
(See  Prop.  26,  27,  28,  among  those  con- 
demned by  Innocent  XI.) 

On  the  other  hand,  almost  all  theolo- 
gians hold  that  is  sometimes  lawful  to 
use  a  mental  reservation  which  may  be, 
though  very  likelj^  it  will  not  be,  under- 
stood from  the  circumstances.  Thus,  a 
priest  maj'  deny  that  he  Icnows  a  crime 
which  he  has  only  learnt  through  sacra- 
mental confession.  A  man  may  deny  a 
crime  he  has  committed  if  interrogated 
and  forced  to  answer  by  one  who  has  no 
authority ;  or,  again,  according  to  St. 
Liguori,  if  asked  to  lend  money,  he  may 
equivocate,  and  say  "  I  wish  I  had  it." 

But  it  must  be  remembered  that,  as 
is  allowed  on  all  hands,  just  cause  is 
needed  to  make  equivocation  lawful.  A 
habit  of  equivocation  is  detestable  to  all 
good  men,  and  the  practice  of  perfect 
simplicit}'  and  straightforwardness  is  not 
only  estimable  and  engaging  and  virtuous, 
but  it  is  also  the  wisest  course. 

Next,  St.  I^iguori  says  plainly  that  all 
equivocation  is  sinful  when  a  man  is  put 
on  his  oath  by  just  authority ;  that  it  is 
utterly  wicked  lor  tradesmen  to  afiirm  on 
oath  that  their  goods  cost  more  than  they 

1  Robertson,  Hist,  of  the  Christian  Church, 
i.  354. 


MEECY 


MERIT 


021 


really  did,  and  then  shelter  themselves 
under  equivocatiou  ;  that  no  equivocation 
must  be  used  in  contracts,  or  generally 
in  matters  conceming  the  interests  of 
others. 

Further,  many  even  of  the  strongest 
opponents  of  mental  reservation  would 
allow  ecpiivoeation  in  extreme  cases:  e.g. 
few  would  say  that  it  was  unlawful  for  a 
man  to  equivocate  if  a  burglar  asked  him 
where  his  money  was,  or  how  much  he 
had ;  or  if  a  murderer  asked  him  where 
he  could  find  his  intended  victim.  It  may 
be  mentioned  that  St.  Liguori  makes  some 
difficulty  about  letting  a  servant  say  his 
master  is  not  at  home,  when  this  is  not 
true  in  its  obvious  sense.  Yet  this  prac- 
tice is  common  in  England.  If  we  admit, 
as  many  Protestant  authorities  have  done, 
that  equivocation  is  in  some  cases  allow- 
able, it  is  hard  to  settle  what  these  cases 
are.  No  doubt,  equivocation  is  always  an 
evil,  though  not  always  a  sin,  and  the  less 
of  it  there  is  the  better.  With  regard 
to  St.  Liiiuori's  judgment  on  particular 
cases,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  no 
Catholic  is  bound  to  follow  him  through- 
out, and  Cardinal  Newman  has  recorded 
his  own  dissent  from  St.  Liguori's  teach- 
ing on  this  matter.  In  some  of  his 
decisions  on  mental  reservation  there  is 
high  theological  authority  on  the  other 
side. 

We  may  add  that  Catholic  theologians 
justify  the  lawfulness  of  equivocation  by 
an  appeal  to  John  vii.  8,  where  our  Lord 
says,  "  I  go  not  up  to  this  feast "  ("  Taber- 
nacles ").  The  argument  cannot  be  pressed 
against  Protestants,  for  the  weight  of 
documentary  evidence  favours  another 
reading — "  I  go  not  up  vet  to  this  feast." 
(See  St.  Liguori,  "Theol.  Moral."  lib.  iv. ; 
and  Cardinal  Newman,  "  History  of  My 
Religious  Opinions.") 

MERCY,  SPZRZTTTAI.  AWD  COR- 
PORAX.  WORKS  or.  In  the  middle 
ages  seven  great  works  of  mercy  to  the 
souls  and  bodies  of  our  fellow-men  were 
enumerated,  and  called  the  Spiritual  and 
Corporal  Works  of  Mercy.  The  classifica- 
tion constantly  appears  in  works  of  art, 
and  is  retained  in  modern  catechisms. 
The  Seven  Works  of  Corporal  Mercy  are, 
to  feed  the  huno^ry,  give  drink  to  the 
thirsty,  clothe  the  naked,  visit  prisoners, 
visit  the  sick,  harbour  strantrers,  burv  the 
dead  (Matt.  xxv.  35,  W, :  Toh.  xii.  12) :  of 
Spiritual  Mercy,  to  convert  -iiiners,  in- 
struct the  ignorant,  counsel  the  doulitlnl. 
console  the  afflicted, bear  wrongs  j)atiently, 
forgive  injuries,  pray  for  the  living  and 


I  the  dead.  They  are  all  comprised  in  two 
rude  hexameters — 

Visito,  poto,  cibo,  redinio,  tego,  collifio,  condo. 
I  Consule,  carpe,  doce,  solare,  remitte.  fer,  ora. 

(2a  2^,  q.  Si.  a.  2.) 

!       MERIT,  in   its   Strict  theological 

I  sense,  is  a  quality  which  belongs  to  the 
moral  actions  of  free  and  responsible 
agents  and  makes  these  actions  worthy 

[  of  reward.  Merit  implies  a  real  propor- 
tion between  the  work  done  and  the 
reward  given.  Thus,  a  man  who  labours 
well  in  the  fields  deserves,  or  merits,  his 
day's  wages  from  the  master  who  hired 
him ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  a  beggar 
who  comes  to  receive  a  promised  alms 
cannot  be  said  to  earn  or  merit  it.  To 
put  it  in  another  way,  a  man  who  merits 
can  claim  his  reward  as  a  matter  of  jus- 
tice, but  one  who  has  been  promised  a 
reward  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  work 
done  may  appeal  to  the  fidelity  and  kind- 
ness, but  not,  strictly  speaking,  to  the 

!  justice  of  the  donor.  In  order  to  merit, 
a  man  must  be  free,  since  he  cannot  claim 
reward  for  a  service  which  he  has  no 
power  to  withhold,  and  which,  therefore, 
is  not  his  to  give ;  what  he  does  must, 

I  obviously,  be  good;  it  must  be  done  in 
the  service  of  the  person  who  is  to  confer 
the  reward,  and  the  latter  must  have 
agreed  to  accept  the  work  done  and  to 
reward  it,  since  nobody  is  bound  to  pay 
for  work,  however  excellent,  which  he 
does  not  want.  We  have  been  speaking 
of  merit  in  a  sense  strict  and  definite, 
but  at  the  same  time  general — of  merit 
as  it  may  exist,  e.g.,  between  man  and 
man ;  and  so  far,  we  suppose,  there  is  no 
matter  for  dispute  between  Catholics  and 
Protestants. 

The  controversy  begins,  however, 
when  we  pass  from  the  nature  of  merit  to 
a  consideration  of  the  cases  in  which  it 
exists.  Protestants  admitted  that  man 
might  merit  reward  from  his  brother  man, 

I  and  that  Christ  merited  eternal  life  for 
Himself  and  for  all  who  believe  in  Ilim 
from  the  hand  of  God.  But  the  Refor- 
mers denied  that  the  good  works  of  the 

[  just  merited  an  eternal  reward,  and  they 
were  bound  in  consistency  to  do  so,  for 

I  they  were  committed  to  the  theory  that 

;  men  were  justified  solely  by  the  merits  of 
Christ  imputed  to  them  or  reckoned  to 
their  accotmt,  and  they  rejected  the 
Catholic  doctrine  that  God  accepted 
^iIlllers  because  they  were  renewed  within 
\>y  the  p-ace  of  Christ,  that  He  counted 
them  just  and  good  because  they  really 

,  had  become  just  and  good,  because  He 


622 


MERIT 


MERIl 


Himself  bad  washed  and  cleansed  them 
and  reformed  their  nature  more  wonder- 
fully than  He  had  farmed  it  at  the  drst. 
Hence  Luther  and  Melaiu-hthim  held  that 
the  best  works  of  good  men  were  actually 
sinful — nay,  that  hut  for  God's  mercy 
they  were  mortal  sins.  "  Every  work  of 
the  just  man,"  Luther  writes,  "is  dam- 
luible  and  a  mortal  sin  if  it  be  judged  by 
God's  judgment."  Melauchthon  is  just 
as  decided.  "  Works  which  follow  justi- 
fication, although  they  proceed  from  the 
Spirit  of  God,  who  has  taken  possession 
of  the  heart  of  justified  persons,  yet,  be- 
cause done  in  the  flesh  which  remains 
unclean  are  themselves  also  unclean." 
"  We  have  taught  that  we  are  justified 
by  faith  alone,  that  our  works,  that  our 
strivings  are  nought  but  sin."  Calvin, 
though  his  language  is  more  moderate, 
maintains  the  same  thesis  in  substance— 
viz.  that  the  "  good  works  of  the  faithful 
lack  such  perfect  purity  as  can  endure  the 
sight  of  God,  and  are  in  a  manner  de- 
filed." '  In  diametrical  and  conscious 
opposition  to  this  estimate,  the  Council 
of  Trent  (sess.  vi.  De  Justif.  canon  32) 
declares  that  a  man,  if  already  justified, 
"  through  such  good  works  as  he  does 
by  the  grace  of  God  and  merit  of  Christ 
whose  living  member  he  is,  truly  merits 
increase  of  grace,  eternal  life,  and  the 
actual  attainment  of  eternal  life,  if  he 
dies  in  grace."  This  docrine  is  limited 
in  several  ways,  and  it  will  be  better  to 
state  these  modificatious  and  a])|)fnd  the 
grounds  of  the  Tridentini"  doctniK'  as  we 
proceed.  In  great  mfa.>^iire,  indeed,  the 
.statement  sullices  to  justify  thi'  dMi-trine. 

(1)  Tlic  jnsi  liave  no  claim  lor  a  re- 
ward ajiui-t  from  tiod's  mercifid  promise. 
This  1.-  plain  from  the  very  nature  of 
merit,  as  we  ha\  e  already  seen.  Even 
from  other  men  we  cannot  in  strict  jus- 
tice claim  a  reward  for  services  done, 
unless  they  have  e.Ypre.^sly  or  by  implica- 
tion agreed  to  renninerate  them.  Unt 
besides  this  we  cmiuit  prolit  (h)(\  h\  our 
servire.  He  is  a  11 -wiM' .-n n I  almi-htv"  lli.S 
bliss  i.s  complete  in  it.-.^ll'.  and  He  has  no 
need  of  us  and  ol'  onr  wrnks.  Besides, 
our  service  is  alreail>  due  to  (iod  by 
other  titles.  A  slave  lodii^  for  no  reward 
from  his  master,  and  any  recompenst>  he 
may  receive  comes  to  him  from  liber- 

•  The  qiiot.\ti(ms  are  t.aUen  from  Miih'er's 
Si/mhii/iJi,  kaji.  iii.  §    1 .  III.  rctVnaici-s 

jin'  to  LuthtT,  .Isscr/.  Ollill.  .III..  feili.  li. 

fol.  3-2a  6;  .M .■lanclit li.m,  Loc.  'Jhc,  pp. 
108,  168  ;  Ciilviii,  U/ju^c.  p.  -I'M  ;  Iiislit.  ii.  8, 
§  09,  iii.  4,  §  28. 


ality  and  not  from  justice.  Thus,  men 
condemned  to  penal  servitude,  which  is  a 
kind  of  slaveiy,  work  hard,  but  they  have 
no  claim  at  law  for  wages.  But  no  slave 
can  belong  to  his  master  so  absolutely  as 
man  to  his  Creator.  Our  existence  is 
God's  gift:  His  strength  supports  us  at 
each  mstant ;  His  we  are,  and  Him  we 
have  to  serve.  Thei-e  would  have  been 
no  injustice  had  God  called  us  to  serve 
Him  without  reward,  and  our  service  at 
the  best  would  be  imperfect.  Hence  our 
Lord  reminds  us  of  the  manner  in  which 
God  might  have  dealt  with  us.  A  slave, 
He  says,  has  to  work  in  the  fields,  and 
when  he  comes  home  he  has  to  prepare 
his  master's  meal  and  take  his  own  after- 
wards. "  Does  he  thank  that  servant 
because  he  did  the  things  he  was  bidden  ? 
"  So  you  also,  when  you  do  all  that  you 
are  bidden,  say.  We  are  unprofitable 
servants:  we  have  done  what  we  wei-e 
bound  to  do  "  (Luke  xvii.  7  sc/j.).  So,  we 
say,  God  might  have  dealt  with  us,  but 
as  a  matter  of  fact  He  has  not  done  so." 
He  has  gi-aciously  promised  to  reward 
[  our  good  works  with  life  eternal;  and 
j  since  the  promise  has  been  made,  since, 
further,  there  is  a  real  proportion  between 
the  work  done  and  the  reward  given,  the 
i  reward  is  merited,  or,  in  other  words, 
God's  justice,  no  less  than  His  fidelity  to 
I  His  promise,  is  the  warrant  that  it  will  be 
given.  Scripture  speaks  on  this  point  as 
plainly  as  the  Council  of  Trent.  "  For 
the  rest,  there  is  reserved  for  me  the 
ci-own  of  justice  which  the  Lord  will 
give  in  that  day,  the  just  judge"  {'2  Tim. 
iv.  8).  Whatever  the  exact  sense  of  "  the 
crown  of  justice"  may  be,  the  last  words, 
"the  just  judge,"  leave  no  room  to  doubt 
that  St.  Paul  expected  a  reward  from  the 
justice  of  God.  So  again  in  Hebrews  vi. 
10,  the  words  are,  "(iod  is  not  unjust  to 
forget  your  worli  and  lalmur  of  love,"  and 
the  justice  ronsi-t>  in  giving  the  I'eward 
of  "salvation,"  as  tlir  pre(;eding  verse 
proves.  The  same  truth  follows  from  the 
reiterated  assurance  that  "  God  will  ren- 
der to  every  man  according  to  his  works  " 
(Kom.  ii.  G). 

(•2)  It  is  only  works  done  in  the 
friendship  and  by  the  grace  of  God  which 
1  merit  eternal  life  St.  Paul  constantly 
'  asserts  that  no  man  can  be  justified  by 
j  the  works  of  the  law.  In  the  Epistle  to 
I  the  Komans  he  shows  that  the  hewthen 

I  Th(»e  wlio  quote  Luke  xvii.  7  against  the 
Cntholio  docti-iiie  foriret  that  Christ  promises  to 
I  do  (I-uke  -xii,  37)  the  very  thin;;  wliiuh  the 
master  in  the  parable  (Luke  xvii. j  does  not  du 


MERIT 


MERIT 


623 


<i.  18-32)  and  the  Jews  (ii.  1-29)  were  I 
alike  under  condemnation  before  God, 
that  justification  came  bv  the  Gospel  and  I 
through  faith  (iii.  21-26),  and  that  all 
boasting  is  thereby  excluded  (iii.  27-31). 
In  1  Cor.  xiii.  we  have  the  general  state- 
ment, "  If  I  give  my  body  to  be  burnt  and 
have  not  charity,  i\  profits  me  nothing.'' 
The  contrary^  doctrine — viz.  that  man 
"can  be  justified  by  his  own  works  done 
through  the  strength  of  human  nature  or 
the  teaching  of  the  law,"  is  anathematised 
by  the  Council  of  Trent  {loc.  cit.  canon  1). 
The  work  of  our  salvation  begins  wholly 
from  the  crace  of  God  and  the  co-opera- 
tion of  our  free  will ;  it  springs  from  grace, 
not  from  merit ;  from  the  divine  mercy, 
not  from  the  divine  justice.  God  moves  j 
the  sinner  to  believe  and  to  repent,  and 
pours  the  Holy  Ghost  and  divine  love  into 
his  heart,  not  because  o!  any  merits  which  ! 
He  sees  in  him,  but  because  of  His  own  j 
infinite  compassion.  But  when  the  sinner  i 
has  passed  from  death  to  life,  the  least 
Tvork  done  by  God's  gi-ace  merits  heaven. 
Each  is  the  fruit  of  Christ's  Passion,  each 
is  done  and  can  only  be  done  by  those 
"who  have  received  power  to  become  the 
eons  of  God."  The  Holy  Spirit  in  the  heart 
is  a  "  fountain  of  water  spriuging  up  to 
eternal  life"  (John  iv.  1-3).  The  smallest 
work  of  mercy,  if  done  by  Christ's  in- 
dwelling grace,  is  from  that  very  fact  due 
to  a  principle  which  utterly  transcends 
all  earthly  reward,  and  which,  therefore, 
justly  claims  recompense  in  heaven. 
Hence  St.  Paul  boldly  tells  the  Colossians 
(i.  10)  to  "  walk  worthily  of  the  Lord," 
and  the  Thessalonians  (2  Ep.  i.  5),  so  to 
suffer  as  to  be  "  counted  worthy  "  of  the 
kingdom  of  God.  To  denj-  the  merit  of 
the  just  is  to  detract  from  the  merit  of 
Christ  in  whose  strength  they  act. 

Isor  can  the  doctrine  of  merit,  so 
understood,  fail  to  prove  a  powerful  in- 
centive to  humility  and  gratitude.  "  What 
merits  of  his  own,"  St.  Augustine  asks 
(Ep.  119,  al.  104)  "has  [the  sinner]  set 
free,  to  boast  of,  since  had  he  received 
according  to  his  merits,  he  would  have 
been  condemned  ?  Are  there  therefore  ! 
no  merits  of  the  just?  Evidently  there 
are,  because  they  are  just.  But  there 
were  no  merits  in  order  that  the}-  might 
become  just,  for  they  were  made  just 
when  they  were  justified ;  but  as  the  : 
Apostle  says,  'justified  freely  by  His  ' 
grace.'"  And  further  on  in  the  same 
epistle,  "  What  merit,  then,  can  there  be 
in  man,  anterior  to  grace  and  on  account 
of  which  he  can  receive  grace,  seeing  that 


grace  alone  works  in  us  all  our  good 
deserts,  and  seeing  that  God,  when  He 
crowns  our  merits,  crowns  what  are 
nothing  else  than  His  own  gifts.  For  as 
from  the  beginning  of  faith  we  obtained 
mercy,  not  because  we  were  faithiul,  but 
in  order  that  we  might  be  faithful,  so  in 
the  end,  when  Ufe  will  be  eternal,  He  will 
crown  us,  as  it  is  written,  '  in  pity  and  in 
mercy.'  So  not  in  vain  do  we  sing  to 
God,  '  And  His  mercy  will  go  before  me,' 
'  And  His  mercy  will  follow  me.'  Whence 
also  even  eternal  life,  which,  endless 
itself,  will  be  attained  at  the  end,  and 
therefore  is  given  after  merits,  is  itself 
too  called  a  grace,  because  these  same 
merits  of  which  it  is  the  reward  have 
not  been  done  by  us  of  our  sufficiency, 
but  have  been  done  in  us  by  grace,  because 
it  [eternal  life]  is  given  freely,  not  that  it 
is  not  given  in  consequence  of  merits,  but 
because  the  merits  to  which  it  is  given 
are  themselves  a  gift." 

Again,  the  Catholic  doctrine  is  utterly 
opposed  to  the  legalism  which  expects 
measure  for  measure,  so  much  reward  in 
heaven  for  so  much  external  service  on 
earth.  There  is  a  Jewish  saying,  "  God 
did  not  reveal  the  reward  attached  to 
each  commandment,  for  had  He  done  so 
man  would  keep  some  and  neglect 
others "  '  It  could  not  have  arisen 
among  Christians.  To  them  "  love  is 
the  fulfilling  of  the  law."  The  love  of 
God  above  all,  and  of  men  for  His  sake 
— that  is  the  one  indispensable  work ; 
and  of  itself,  though  all  external  works 
may  be  absent,  it  merits  the  kingdom  of 
heaven.  He  who  loves  has  passed  from 
death  to  life  ;  external  good  works  can 
claim  a  reward  so  far,  and  so  far  only,  as 
they  spring  from  love,  are  the  expression 
of  love,  serve  to  intensify  love. 

It  is  not  worth  while  to  show  at 
length  that  the  Fathers  taught  the 
Catholic  doctrine  on  gi-ace  and  justifica- 

1  Quoted  from  Tsncliuma  on  Ekeb.  in  the 
learned  Jewish  work.  HMnhnX'ietiReal-Encttd. 
fiir  Bibd  und  Talmud,  p.  7U1,  art.  -  Lohii  lind 
Strafe."  There  are  noble  nibbiuioal  maxims 
on  merit :  e.g.  "  The  reward  of  a  commaiidiiient 
is  a  commaiidiiient  {i.e.  leads  t'l  the  keepiiiu'  of 
another  commandment),  and  the  waires  ot  .sin 
is  sin"  -^Abot/i.  iv.  2);  and  by  Anti-..uu.s  of 
Soto  (about  ly8  B.C.),  '•  Be  not  as  servant.-  wlio 
serve  their  master  to  receive  a  reward,  but  be 
hke  servants  who  do  not  serve  their  master 
because  of  tlie  reward  :  let  the  fear  of  heaven 
rule  over  you  "  {Aboth.  i.  2).  But  there  i.s 
DOthins  in  the  preat  collection  of  rabbinical 
dicta  on  the  subject  in  the  article  referred  lo 
above  which  approaches  ever  so  distantly  to  tiie 
spirit  of  Matt.  xxii.  37-10  ,  Koiu.  xiii.  10. 


024  METROPOLITAN 


METROPOLITAN 


tion,  for  the  Reformers  were  conscious 
that  they  could  not  appeal  successfully 
to  tradition,  and  they  professed  to  restore 
a  belief  contained,  indeed,  in  Scripture, 
but  forgotten  even  from  early  times  in 
the  Church.  We  may,  however,  refer 
the  reader  to  (Clem.  Rom.  1  Ep.  30,  cf 
?,2  ;  ICp.  Barnab.  19 ;  Iren.  iv.  30,  3 ; 
Tertull.  "  Scorp."  12).  It  was  only  the 
Gnostics  in  the  first  ages  of  the  Church 
who  denied  the  merit  of  good  works. 
(See  Iren.  i.  23,  3,  i.  25,  5.)  It  is  more 
important  to  note  that  merit  is  some- 
times used  in  a  looser  sense,  and  that 
theologians  recognise  an  inferior  or  im- 
perfect merit — viz.  "  Meritum  de  Con- 
gruo,"  merit  of  congruity.  This  latter  is 
not,  properly  speaking,  merit  at  all,  it  is 
a  right  founded  in  friendship  and  libera- 
lity, not  in  strict  justice.  Thus  no  one 
can  merit  the  first  grace  or  recovei-y  from 
mortal  sin,  nor  can  a  holy  man  merit  the 
conversion  of  another,'  or  his  own  per- 
severance in  grace.  (See  Final  Per- 
SEVEKANCE.)  It  is,  however,  lawful  to 
hold  that  a  just  man  may  merit  a  sinner's 
conversion  de  congrtw,  because  it  is  con- 
gruous or  fitting  that  God  should  hear 
the  prayer  of  one  who  is  admitted  to  His 
friendship.  In  the  other  cases,  Billuart 
denies  that  there  is  any  place  even  for 
merit  de  conc/ruo,  unless  we  take  it  to 
mean  merit  in  a  still  laxer  and  vaguer 
acceptation.  Thus  we  may  say,  if  we 
like,  that  a  man  who,  moved  by  God's 
grace,  believes,  sorrows  for  his  sin,  re- 
solves to  begin  a  new  life,  hopes  in  God's 
mercy,  &c.,  merits  de  congruo  the  further 
grace  of  justification,  because  these  pre- 
vious works  dispose  the  soul  to  receive 
sanctifying  grace.  But  if  the  question 
be  asked  in  general  terms,  "  Does  a  sinner, 
so  disposed,  merit  God's  pardon  and 
grace  ?  "  the  answer  must  be  "  no,"  and  so 
the  Council  of  Trent  expressly  defines. 

IVIx:TROPOI.ZTAxr  (metropolita, 
vietropolitanus).  The  thirty-third  of  the 
Apostolic  Canons  says  that  the  bishops 
in  every  country  {cujusque  i/cntifi)  ought 
to  know  which  among  them  is  the  first, 
and  take  him  to  a  certain  extent  as  their 
head,  and  do  nothing  unusual  without 
his  consent.  It  was  manifestly  the  in- 
tention of  St.  Paul  that  Titus  should 

1  Pb.  xlix.  8  (in  the  Hebrew)  may  be  quoted 
here,  though  it  really  speaks  of  redeniption 
from  temporal  death,  "  Surely  a  brother  cannot 
redeem  a  man  ;  he  cannot  crive  to  Ood  an 
atonement  for  him  ;  t'  e  ransom  of  his  soul  will 
be  too  precious,  and  he  must  let  that  be  for 
ever." 


stand  in  a  relation  of  this  kind  to  all  the- 
bishops  established  in  the  cities  of  Crete; ' 
and  a  comparison  of  1  Tim.  ch.  iii.  with 
Tit.  i.  seems  to  justify  the  inference  that 
Timothy  bore  a  similar  rank  among  the 
bishops  of  Asia.  This  leading  bishop 
among  his  brethren  would  naturally 
be,  or  come  to  be,  the  prelate  of  the 
most  important  city  {metropolis)  in  the 
province  or  country.  In  the  case  of  an 
entire  country,  such  as  Syria  or  Egypt, 
each  with  its  dependencies,  the  bishop  of 
the  capital  city  (Antioch,  Alexandria, 
&c.)  was  called  the  patriarch;  in  the 
case  of  a  province,  the  metropolitan. 
The  ecclesiastical  divisions,  for  a  long 
time  after  the  conversion  of  Con?.tantine, 
conformed  themselves  closely  to  the 
civil ;  the  same  chief  city  of  a  province 
contained  the  praetor  as  the  head  of  the 
temporal,  and  the  metropolitan  as  the 
head  of  the  spiritual  organisation.  In 
process  of  time  it  often  happened  that 
the  seat  of  the  civil  government  was 
removed  to  another  city,  while  no  corre- 
sponding change  took  place  in  things 
ecclesiastical ;  in  such  cases  the  name 
"  metropolitan"  ceased  to  be  suitable, 
and  was  replaced  by  "  archbishop." 

In  former  times  the  power  of  metro- 
politans over  their  suttragans  was  great ; 
they  could  hear  and  decide  any  charges 
made  against  them,  and  excommunicate 
them  if  they  deemed  it  necessary.  The 
Council  of  Trent  reduced  this  power 
within  strict  limits.  It  enacted  that 
criminal  causes  of  a  more  serious  kind,  in 
which  bishops  were  implicated,  should  be 
tried  and  decided  only  by  the  Supreme 
Pontiff,  with  the  proviso,  however,  that 
if  a  previous  local  inquiry  were  necessary, 
it  should  be  committed  to  none  but  the 
metropolitans,  or  bishops  specially  dele- 
gated by  the  Holy  See.  The  minor 
criminal  causes  of  bishops  are,  under  the 
same  canon,  to  be  tried  by  the  provincial 
council  or  by  persons  deputed  by  it.* 

Metropolitans  cannot  exercise  ordi- 
nary jurisdiction  in  the  dioceses  of  their 
suffragans,  nor  visit  their  cathedrals,  or 
any  portion  of  their  dioceses,  except  on 
the  mandate  of  the  provincial  council. 
Nor  have  they  any  jurisdiction,  pmprio 
jure,  over  monasteries  situated  within 
the  dioceses  of  their  suffragans. 

On  the  rights,  privileges,  and  digni- 
ties still  annexed  to  the  office  of  a  metro- 
politan, see  the  article  Archbishop. 
(Ferraris,  Metropolitnnus;  Soglia,  ii.  5, 
49.) 

'  Tit.  L      '  Sess.  xxiv.  De  Ref.  e.  6. 


MILITARY  ORDERS 


MILITARY  ORDERS  625 


IVXZX.ZTAR7  OBSERS.  H%Ot 
<rnuniei;itt<  between  ninety  and  a  hun- 
dred niilitan,-  orders.  For  the  knights  of 
CiXATRATA.'the  HospiTALLEEs,  and  the 
Templars,  see  those  articles.  For  the 
knights  of  the  Teutonic  order,  see  Mis- 
sioxs  TO  THE  Heathex,  Thirteenth  Cen- 
tury. Of  the  remainder,  particulars 
respecting  a  few  of  the  more  important 
are  here  subjoined. 

(1)  Of  Alcantara. — Founded  in  Cas- 
tile in  1177  :  its  object  was  the  subjuga- 
tion of  the  Moors.  The  knights  -wore  a 
■white  mantle  embroidered  -with  a  green 
cross.  For  a  century  after  their  institu- 
tion they  did  great  service  to  the  Chris- 
tian cause ;  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
their  quarrels  with  the  knights  of  Cala- 
trava,  resulting  in  actual  war,  no  less 
retarded  and  disgraced  it.  The  order 
became  extremely  wealthy ;  the  rents  of 
the  grand-mastership  in  the  time  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  amounted  to 
forty-five  thousand  ducats.'  Castles, 
towns,  and  convents,  belonging  to  this 
and  the  other  military  orders,  were  seen 
in  every  part  of  Spain.  The  election  to 
the  office  of  grand-master,  involving  the 
disposal  of  large  patronage  and  the 
wielding  of  great  power  and  influence, 
became  the  cause  of  infinite  jealousy  and 
contention  ;  and  by  a  prudent  decision  of 
the  Pope  (1494)  the  control  of  the  order 
was  granted  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
for  life.  In  the  reign  of  Philip  11.  the 
grand-mastership  was  annexed  in  perpe- 
tuity to  the  crown ;  the  subordinate 
dignities,  having  survived  the  object  for 
which  they  were  instituted,  became  the 
empty  decorations  of  an  order  of  nobility. 

(2)  The  Anminziata,  or  the  Collar. — 
Instituted  bv  Amadeus,  Count  of  Savoy, 
about  ISnO." 

(3)  The  Bath. — So  named  from  one 
of  the  ceremonies  of  knighthood  accord- 
ing to  the  custom  of  England.  The 
esquire  who  was  to  be  knighted  was  put 
into  a  bath ;  while  he  was  in  it  two  other 
esquires,  experienced  in  chivalry  and  its 
laws,  came  to  him,  and  after  explaining 
the  duties  which  knighthood  would  im- 
pose upon  him,  poured  water  upon  his 
shoulders  and  so  left  him.  After  the 
bath  he  was  taken  into  a  chapel,  and 
continued  in  prayer  the  whole  night, 
"asking  the  Lord  and  his  blessed  Mother 
that  of  their  worthy  grace  they  would 
give  him  power  and  strength  to  receive 
this  high  temporal  dignity  in  honour  of 

*  Prescott's  Ferdinand  and  Jiobella,  i,  278. 


their  holv  Church,  and  of  the  order  of 
chivalry.'' '  At  daylight  he  confe-ssed  to 
a  priest,  and  afterwards  heard  Mass. 
After  the  completion  of  the  ceremony  by 
the  king's  striking  him  on  the  collar  with 
his  right  hand  and  saying  "  Be  a  good 
knight,"  he  was  led  up  to  the  altar, 
knelt,  and  placing  his  right  hand  upon  it, 
promised  to  maintain  the  right  of  Holy 
Church  all  his  life  long.  Geoffrey  of 
Anjou,  the  father  of  Henry  II.,  is  said 
to  have  been  knighted  in  this  manner  by 
Henry  I.  in  1128. 

The  honours  of  the  order  of  the  Bath, 
though  its  religious  meaning  is  now  lost, 
are  highly  prized  in  England  to  this  day. 
The  dignities  are— Knisjht  Grand  Cross 
(G.C.B.),  Knight  Commander  (K.C.B.), 
and  Companion  (C.B.)  In  each  grade 
there  is  a  military  and  a  civil  division. 
The  ribbon  is  crimson  ;  the  motto,  "  Tria 
juncta  in  uno."  Altogether  the  order 
numbers  more  than  1,000  members. 

(4)  Of  Constantine. — This  order  seems 
to  have  been  created  by  the  Emperor 
Isaac  Angelus  Comnenus  about  1190, 
probably  in  imitation  of  the  orders  among 
the  Crusaders.  Innumerable  fictions  and 
forgeries  have  been  set  on  foot  from  time 
to  time,  in  order  to  invest  this  and  other 
military  orders  with  the  dignity  of  an 
antiquity  to  which  they  have  no  claim. 
Thus  the  order  now  in  question,  it  was 
stoutly  maintained,  was  first  founded  by 
Constantine  the  Great.  In  the  opinion  of 
Papebroke  the  Bollandist,  no  military 
order  can  prove  that  it  originated  before 
the  twelfth  century. 

(5)  The  Dannebrog.—This  Danish 
order,  if  it  had  a  medieval  origin  at  all, 
and  was  not,  as  H^lyot  was  inclined  to 
suspect,  manufactured  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  was  founded  by  \Yaldemar  II. 
about  1219.  The  number  of  knights  must 
not  exceed  19. 

(6)  The  (?rtr<er.— Founded  by  Edward 
III.  in  1347.  According  to  the  common 
story,  which  however  appears  to  have 
been  unknown  to  Froissart,  the  Countess 
of  Salisbury  dropped  her  garter  in  the 
court  at  Windsor,  which  the  king  picked 
up  and  bound  round  his  knee,  and  then, 
perceiving  that  the  courtiers  were  inclined 
to  laugh,  said,  "Honi  soit  qui  mal  y 
pense."  "Honi "  is  old  French  for  maudit, 
accursed.  The  number  of  the  knights, 
including  the  king,  was  fixed  at  twenty- 
six,  and  to  this  it  was  limited  for  several 
centuries.    The  number  at  the  present 

'  From  Nicholas  Upton's  book,  written 
about  1441,  Z»e  ReMUitari,  as  cited  by  Hflyot. 


G26       MILITARY  ORDERS 


MILLENNIUM 


time  is  forty-nine.  The  ancient  dress  was 
a  blue  mantle  with  a  fed  cross  on  the  left 
side,  a  collar  whence  depended  a  repre- 
sentation of  St.  George  and  the  Dragon, 
called  a  "  George  "  {cf.  Shakspere's 
"  Now  by  my  George,  my  garter,  and  my 
crown  "),  and  a  blue  garter  round  the  left 
leg. 

(7)  The  Glorious  Virgin  Mary. — 
Founded  at  Vicenza  in  1233.  The 
Imights,  who  must  be  of  noble  blood, 
bound  themselves  (like  a  "  vigOance  com- 
mittee" in  modern  times)  to  take  up 
arms  against  the  disturbers  of  the  public 
peace,  and  against  those  who  committed 
outrages  and  escaped  punishment.  They 
vowed  conjugal  chastity,  obedience  to 
their  commander,  and  to  protect  widows 
and  orphans.  In  course  of  time  they 
became  rich,  and  thought  more  of  enjoy- 
ing themselves  than  of  anything  else ; 
whence  the  people  called  them  in  derision 
the  "  Freres  Joyeux." 

(8)  The  Goldm  J7orsps^oe.— Founded 
at  Paris  by  a  duke  of  Bourbon  in  1414. 
Its  object  seems  to  have  been  to  encourage 
duelling,  since  the  seventeen  knights  of 
whom  it  was  composed  swore  to  fight 
with  each  other,  on  foot  or  d,  outrmice, 
within  two  years,  if  they  could  not  sooner 
find  seventeen  gentlemen  outside  the  order 
who  would  fight  with  them. 

(9)  The  7'/«;s^;/'.— Instituted  by  James 
v..  King  of  Scotland,  in  1534.  The 
collar  of  the  order  is  of  thistles  twisted 
together  ;  from  it  hangs  the  badge  of  St. 
Andrew,  with  the  motto  "  Nemo  me 
impune  lacesset."  Aftei  the  flight  of 
Mary  Stuart  to  England  this  institute  fell 
into  abeyance,  but  was  revived  by  James 
II.  at  Windsor  in  1687,  when  he  made 
several  great  Scottish  noblemen  knights 
of  the  order.  Again  it  came  to  nothing 
in  consequence  of  the  revolution  of  1688, 
but  was  revived  by  Queen  Anne  in  1703, 
on  a  Protestant  basis.  The  order,  which 
luiinliers  at  present  twenty  knights,  is 
acci'-^sililc  only  to  peers. 

(10)  The"  Toison  d'Or,  or  Golden 
JfAY're.— Instituted  by  Pliilip  the  Good, 
Dake  of  P.urgundy,  in  1420,  with  a 
distinctly  religious'  and  Catholic  end. 
Tlie  original  .Matutes  say,  that  out  of  the 
great  and  perfect  love  which  Duke  Philip 
had  to  the  noble  estate  of  chivalry,  "  in 
enlor  that  the  true  Catholic  faith,  the 
estate  of  Holy  Church  our  mother,  and 
the  tranquillity  and  prosperity  of  the 
Commonwealth  may  be  .  .  .  defended, 
guarded,  and  maintained,"  he  had  insti- 
tuted, and  did  institute,  on  that  his 


wedding  day,  to  the  glory  of  God,  in 
reverence  of  his  blessed  Mother,  and  in 
honour  of  the  Apostle  St.  Andrew,  "  an 
order  and  fraternity  of  chivalry  or  ami- 
able company  of  a  certain  number  of 
knights  ...  to  be  called  the  order  of  the 
Toison  d'Or."  Charles  the  Bold,  sou  of 
the  founder,  required  the  knights  to  as- 
sume a  magnificent  dress  of  crimson  velvet. 
The  grandson  of  Charles,  the  .\rchduke 
Philip,  marrying  the  heiress  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  transmitted  the  right  of  con- 
ferring the  order  of  the  Toison  d'Or  to 
the  kings  of  Spain,  who  have  ever  since 
retained  it.  The  figure  of  a  sheep  in 
gold,  hung  round  the  neck  by  a  silken 
ribbon  or  a  small  gold  chain,  is  the  dis- 
tinguishing decoration  of  the  order. 

In  the  long  list  of  these  military  orders 
there  are  several  which  accomplished  in 
their  day  real  work,  and  work  which 
could  not  have  been  accomplished  so  well 
by  any  other  agency.  When  the  organisa- 
tion of  society  as  a  whole  was  still  im- 
perfect, kings  were  glad  to  employ  these 
partial  organisations,  in  which  the  actuat- 
ing principle  was  religious  enthusiasm  or 
love  of  fame,  to  check  enemies  abroad  and 
abuses  at  home  that  otherwise  could  not 
easily  have  been  reached.  Yet  it  is  im- 
possible not  to  suspect  that  a  large  pro- 
portion of  these  institutions  did  more 
harm  than  good — by  fostering  aristocratic 
pride  and  exclusiveness,  and  pandering 
to  social  or  personal  vanity — thus  raising 
barriers  unnecessarily  between  class  and 
class,  and  furnishing  fuel  to  those  smart- 
ing feelings  of  envy  and  alienation  which 
are  wont  only  to  be  appeased  by  revolu- 
tion. (Helyot.) 

JVixz.x.EN'Nivni.  In  the  Apocalypse 
(ch.  XX.)  it  is  said  that  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  God's  enemies,  "  the  beast  and 
the  kings  of  the  earth  and  their  armies," 
with  "the  false  prophet"  and  Satan  him- 
self, will  be  bound  and  cast  into  the  pit. 
The  saints  are  then  to  rise  and  reign  with 
Christ  a  thousand  years.  At  the  end  of 
this  period  Satan  is  to  be  loosed  for  a 
brief  space.  The  nations  deceived  by  him 
will  gather  against  the  "  beloved  city  "  in 
which  the  saints  are  encamped.  Then 
fire  will  descend  and  devour  the  wicked ; 
Satan  will  be  cast  for  ever  into  hell,  and 
the  general  judgment  will  take  place. 
Many  of  the  early  Christians  took  this 
as  a  literal  description  of  events  which 
would  occur  at  the  end  of  the  world's 
history.  Those  who  held  to  such  an  in- 
terpretation were  known  as  Chiliasts  or 
Millenarians — i.e.  believers  in  the  reign  of 


MINIMS 


MINIMS 


627 


a  thousand  years.  This  belief  was  very 
common  in  the  early  Church.  It  was 
held  by  Papias,  bishop  of  Hierapolis, 
earlv  in  the  second  century  (Euseb. 
"  El'.  E."  iii.  39),  by  St.  Justin  Martyr 
("Trj-pho,"  81),  by  St.  Irenaeus  ("Adv. 
Haer."  t.  36),  by  Lactantius  ("  Dir.  Inst." 
vii.  24),  by  Tertullian  and  Victorinus 
Petabionensis  (see  Hieron.  "De  Vir. 
Illustr."  xriii.,  where  he  refers  to  a  lost 
■work  of  Tertullian).  The  opinion  was 
no  doubt  Jewish  in  origin.  (See  Grabe, 
"Spicileg."  vol.  i.  p.  231.)  It  was  also  I 
held  outside  the  Church  in  a  gross  and 
sensual  form  bv  the  Judaislug  Gnostic 
Cerinthus  (Euseb.  "  H.  E."  iii.  28),  and 
opposed  by  the  Roman  presbyter  Caius 
(Euseb.  loc.  cit.)  At  Alexandria  the 
allegorical  mode  of  interpretation  was  of 
coiu-se  unfavourable  to  Chiliasm.  Still, 
even  in  the  Alexandrian  district,  Nepos, 
bisliop  of  Arsinoe,  in  the  middle  of  the 
third  century,  was  a  vehement  Millenarian. 
He  wrote  a  "refutation  of  the  Allegorists" 
{eXeyXos  tojv  dWrjyopicrTSiv),  directed  par- 
ticularly against  Origen,  and  had  a 
powerful  following.  Peace  was  restored 
by  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  who  held  a 
council  on  the  matter  in  255.  (See 
Euseb.  vii.  23,  and  Ilefele,  "  Concil."  p. 
1:M  seq.)  It  was  probably  the  fear  of 
Millenarianism  which  partly  occasioned 
the  objections  long  prevalent  in  the  East 
to  the  authority  of  the  Apocah-pse.  After 
the  establishment  of  Christianity,  the 
belief  in  the  reign  of  the  saints  for  a 
thousand  years  almost  died  out.  But  St. 
Augustine  ("  Civ.  Dei."  xx.  7)  confesses 
that  he  once  held  it.  It  appeared  from 
time  to  time  in  the  middle  ages,  and  is 
still  advocated  by  some  Protestants. 

Muzzarelli  (quoted  by  Jungiuann,  "De 
Xovi5simis,"p.  303)  sums  up  the  common 
judgment  of  theologians  on  the  subject. 
The  theory  as  held  by  the  early  Fathers, 
he  says,  is  not  heretical,  but,  considering 
the  weight  of  authority  on  the  other  side, 
it  is  at  least  improbable. 

MZTTZAXS  (Ordo  Minimorum  Eremi- 
tarum  Sancti  Francisci  de  Paula).  The 
name  commonly  applied  to  members  of 
the  order  of  Minim-Hermits,  an  austere 
order  of  mendicant  friars  founded  by  St. 
Francis  of  Paula.  They  were  known  in 
Paris  before  the  Revolution  as  Bans 
Hommes — "Good  Men" — because,  as  it 
is  supposed,  their  convent  in  Paris  had  at 
one  time  belonged  to  the  monks  of  Grand 
Mont,  who  had  popularly  been  so  called, 
and  in  Spain  as  "  Brothers  of  Victory," 
on  account  of  the  victory  which  Ferdi- 


nand V.  had  gained  at  Malaga  over  the 
Moors  as  a  result,  according  to  the  gene- 
ral belief,  of  the  prayers  of  St.  Francis 
of  Paula.  They  were  called  "  Minims  '' 
{minimi,  the  least)  by  their  founder,  to 
humble  them  even  below  the  Franciscans, 
who  in  humility  caU  themselves  minor 
(Mars  minor),  the  "  less." 

St.  Francis,  their  founder,  was  born 
about  1416  in  Calabria  in  Italy,  at  Paola, 
a  small  city  on  the  western  coast  mid- 
way between  Naples  and  Reggio.  His 
I  parents,  James  Martorillo  and  Vienna 
di  Fuscado,  were  a  pious  couple  of  the 
middle  cla.«s.  \yhen  a  boy  of  thirteen 
Francis  was  sent  to  a  Franciscan  convent 
in  his  native  town,  for  he  had  already 
begun  to  display  the  extraordinary  piety 
which  gave  indication  of  his  future  holy 
career.  He  showed  a  strong  affection 
for  the  Franciscan  rule,  but  it  was  not 
the  will  of  God  that  he  should  become 
a  member  of  that  order.  At  nineteen 
he  was  living  as  a  hermit  in  a  soli- 
tary place  near  Paola,  and  the  fame  of 
his  sanctity  had  already  spread  about  in 
Calabria.  Young  as  he  was  in  year«,  his 
piety  was  so  well  assured  that  he  was 
prevailed  on,  with  the  approbation  of  the 
ordinary  of  the  diocese,  to  receive  some 
disciples,  and  with  them  he  began  a  re- 
ligious community  in  Paola.  Cells  were 
constructed  on  ground  belonging  to  his 
father,  and  the  chapel  of  the  new  com- 
munity was  dedicated  to  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi.  In  1444  he  established  a  colony 
at  Paterno,  and  eight  years  later  he 
finished  on  a  more  splendid  scale  his 
convent  and  church  at  Paola ;  the  next 
year  (1453)  making  a  third  establishment 
at  Spezano  iNIaggiore,  and  in  1460  found- 
ing still  another  convent  at  Cortona.  So 
far  the  new  religious  order  had  been  liv- 
ing without  any  rule,  except  such  as 
their  holy  founder  had  from  time  to  time 
given  them  by  word  of  mouth  and  by  the 
example  of  his  own  life.  But  from  the 
fii-st  a  perpetual  Lent  had  been  observed 
by  them.  In  1464  Francis  founded  the 
first  house  of  his  order  in  Sicily,  at 
Milazzo,  where  he  remained  until  his 
return  to  Calabria  in  1468. 

The  fame  of  his  sanctity  having  reached 
Rome,  a  strict  examination  was  made 
into  the  history  of  his  life  and  into  the 
working  of  his  communities,  and  in  1473 
Pope  Sixtus  IV.  approved  the  new  con- 
gregation under  the  name  of  the  "Her- 
mits of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi."  The  fol- 
lowing year  Francis  was  named  by  the 
Holy  See  its  first  superior-general,  and 


623 


MINIMS 


MINIMS 


tlie  congregation  was  exempted  from  the  | 
jurisdiction  of  the  ordinaries.  But  Six- 
tus  refused  to  sanction  the  perpetual 
Lent,  though  even  this  was  afterwards 
accorded.  In  1493  Francis  composed  his 
first  Rule,  which  was  approved  by  Pope  , 
Alexander  YI.,  who  changed  the  name  of  ; 
the  order  to  the  "  Minim-Hermits  of 
Francis  of  Paola,"  the  name  it  has  re- 
tained ever  since.  In  1495  the  same 
Pope  confirmed  the  privileges  hitherto 
conferred  on  the  order,  also  giving  it  all 
the  privileges  generallj'  possessed  by  the 
mendicant  friars.  In  1501,  having  per- 
fected his  first  Rule  and  having  rear- 
ranged it,  and  having  also  established  his 
perpetual  Lent  as  a  vow,  and  having 
prepared  a  Rule  for  people  of  either  sex 
who  live  in  the  world — that  is  to  say, 
Tertiaries — he  submitted  these  two  Rules 
to  the  Pope,  who  approved  them  the  next 
year  (1502).  The  Rules,  being  again  re- 
touched, were  confirmed  by  a  bull  of 
Alexander  VI.  which  conferred  new  pri- 
vileges ;  all  of  which  was  again  confirmed 
in  1505  by  Pope  JuUus  II.  Finally,  the 
holy  founder  having  put  the  finishing 
touch  to  his  two  Rules,  and  having  added 
a  third  Rule  for  nuns,  all  three  were  ap- 
proved and  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  the 
same  Pope  July  25,  1506.  Besides  these 
three  Rules  Francis  composed  a  Correc- 
tor! m/i,  or  manual  of  penances,  and  a 
Cei-i  ,iin,iial  for  the  recitation  of  the  Di-  : 
vine  <.)lfice,  &c.  ] 
Francis  was  invited  to  France  by  Louis  i 
XL,  whom  he  attended  on  his  death- 
bed ;  and  there  he  spent  the  rest  of  his 
days,  founding  numerous  communities 
in  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Germany.  ; 
The  first  colony  in  Spain  was  made  at 
Malaga  in  1493;  in  Germany,  in  1497. 
The  order  was  never  established  in  the 
North  of  Europe,  nor  in  England,  Scot- 
land, or  Ireland,  for  the  persecution  ,' 
which  soon  set  in  in  all  those  countries 
rendered  them  unfit  fields  for  so  con- 
templative an  order  as  the  Minims.  St. 
Francis  died  in  his  convent  at  Plessis- 
les-Tours,  Good  Friday,  1507,  being  then 
ninety-one.  In  1562  the  Huguenots, 
while  sacking  this  convent,  found  the  i 
saint's  body,  and,  having  fastened  a  rope 
about  its  neck,  dragged  it  to  the  chapel,  t 
where  they  burned  it  along  with  the  cru- 
cifix of  the  high  altai-,  but  some  Catho- 
lics afterwards  recovered  the  saint's  bones 
from  the  ashes. 

January  1, 1508,  Father  Francis  Binet 
■was  elected  general.  At  that  time  the 
order  was  divided  into  five  provinces — 


Italy,  Tours,  France,  Spain,  and  Ger- 
many— but  it  afterwards  had  thirty-one 
provinces.  At  first  the  general  of  the 
order  was  chosen  for  three  years,  but 
since  1605  he  has  always  been  elected  for 
six  years  by  the  general  chapter,  which 
consists  of  the  general,  the  colleagues- 
general,  the  provincial,  and  the  pro- 
curator-general. Each  province  has  its 
chapter  also.  The  superior  of  a  convent 
is  called  the  corrector,  because  he  is  re- 
quired to  correct  himself  and  those  sul)- 
ject  to  him,  and  he  is  elected  for  one 
year,  ordinarily  not  being  eligible  for  re- 
election except  after  an  interval  of  at 
least  one  year.  Formerly  there  were 
visitors-general,  but  these  were  suppressed 
as  unnecessary. 

Like  many  other  mendicant  orders, 
the  Minims  consist  of  First,  Second,  and 
Third  Orders  so  called — that  is  to  say, 
of  friars,  nuns,  and  tertiaries,  these  lat- 
ter being  affiliated  lay  people  living  in 
the  world.  The  Minim  tertiaries  never 
but  once,  and  that  for  a  short  time  only — 
at  Toledo,  in  Spain — have  lived  in  com- 
munity. St.  Francis  of  Sales  is  said  to 
have  been  a  Minim  tertiary.  The  first 
nuns  of  the  order  took  their  vows  in  1495 
at  Andujar,  in  Spain.  The  habit  of  the 
Minim  friars  consists  of  a  gown  of  coarse 
woollen  stuff,  reaching  to  the  ankles,  and 
of  the  natural  colour  of  the  wool  without 
any  dye.  The  chaperon,  or  shoulder- 
piece  of  the  cowl,  of  the  same  colour  as 
the  gown,  reaches  in  front  to  about  half- 
way between  the  waist  and  the  knee.  The 
girdle  is  a  wooUen,  unbleached  and  uu- 
dyed  rope,  and  has  five  knots  for  the 
clerical  and  lay  friars  and  four  for  the 
tertiaries.  Formerly  the  Minims  were 
barefoot,  or  at  most  wore  sandals ;  but 
the  custom  was  relaxed,  and  now  all  are 
shod.  With  the  exception  of  the  head- 
dress, which  resembles  that  worn  by 
most  orders  of  nuns,  the  habit  of  the 
Minim  nuns  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
friars. 

The  vow  of  a  friar  of  this  order  is  as 
follows :  "  I,  Brother  N.,  vow  and  pro- 
mise to  Almighty  God  and  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary,  to  the  whole  heavenly  choir, 
and  to  you,  my  reverend  Father  N., 
and  to  this  sacred  order,  to  remain  stead- 
fast and  to  persist  throughout  the  whole 
of  my  life  in  the  way  of  living  and  in  Ihe 
Rule  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Order  of 
Minims  of  St.  Francis  of  Paula,  which 
has  been  approved  by  our  Holy  Fatlier, 
Pope  Alexander  VI.,  and  afterwards  by 
Pope  Juhus  II.  of  blessed  memory,  per- 


MINISTER 

fiCTering  in  living  under  the  vows  of 
poverty,  chastity,  and  ohedience,  and  of 
the  life  of  Lent,  according  to  the  deter- 
minations and  the  circumstances  indi- 
cated and  prescribed  in  the  same  Rule. 

MZJO'ZSTBR.  Among  the  Franciscans 
and  Capuchins  the  head  of  the  order  is  the 
minister-general,  and  each  province  is 
placed  under  a  minister-provincial.  Again, 
the  general  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  has 
five  assistants,  called  ministers,  who  are 
elected  by  the  general  congregation,  and 
are  empowered,  through  the  admonitm; 
to  represent  to  the  general  anything 
irregular  which  they  may  have  observed 
in  his  government. 

MINZSTEBS  OP  THE  SZCK.  This 
order  was  first  founded  as  a  congregation 
of  priests  and  lay  brothers  by  St.  Camillas 
of  LelUs  to  serve  the  sick  in  hospitals. 
The  approval  of  the  Holy  See  was  given 
in  lobO ;  five  years  later  Gregory  XIV. 
constituted  them  a  religious  order,  under 
the  protection  of  Cardinal  di  Mondovi, 
with  their  principal  establishment  at  the 
Church  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  at  Rome 
and  in  the  houses  adjoining.  The  re- 
ligious, besides  the  thi-ee  ordinary  vows, 
take  a  fourth  vow  to  assist  the  sick  in  the 
hour  of  death.  There  is  a  general  of  the 
order  elected  for  life,  who  is  assisted  by 
four  consultors;  the  chapter-general  meets 
once  in  six  years.  The  dress  is  that  of 
secular  priests,  with  the  addition  of  a 
large  brown  cross  on  the  soutane,  and 
another  on  the  cloak.  The  noviciate  lasts 
for  two  years ;  the  religious  are  exempt 
from  the  obligation  of  singing  office  in 
choir,  and  from  attending  processions,  on 
account  of  the  absorbing  nature  of  their 
<luties  beside  the  sick.  They  only  fast  on 
Fridays,  in  addition  to  the  fasts  prescribed 
hy  the  Church.  At  the  death  of  the 
founder  in  1G14,  there  were  sixteen  houses 
of  the  order,  containing  about  three 
hundred  religious.  [Il^lyot.] 

MXM-ORZTES.   [See  Franciscans.] 

MINOR  ORDERS.  The  inferior 
ranks  of  the  sacred  ministry — door-keep- 
ers (ostiarii),  lectors,  e.xorcists,  and  aco- 
lytes— are  said  to  he  in  minor  orders  (see 
those  articles).  In  the  Greek  Church  there 
are  only  two  minor  orders,  lector  and 
suhdeacon.  Origiually,  when  a  man  be- 
came a  clerk,  he  was  irrevocably  attached 
to  tlie  service  of  the  Church  (Con.  Chalced., 
can.  7),  but  since  the  thirteenth  century 
the  Latin  Cluirch  allows  simple  clerks, 
"below  the  dignity  of  suhdeacon,  to  quit 
the  ecclesiastical  profession  if  they  so 
desire. 


MIRACLES  629 

MZRA.CX.es.  The  Latin  word  mira- 
culum  means  something  wonderful — not 
necessarily   supernatural,   for,  e.f).,  the 
"  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World  "  were 
known  as  the  "  Septem  Miracula."  In 
\  theological  Latin,  however,  and  in  Eng- 
lish, the  words  miraculum,  "  miracle," 
I  are  used  commonly  only  of  events  so 
I  wonderful  that  they  cannot  be  accounted 
for  by  natural  causes.    This  use,  as  we 
I  shall  see  presently,  is  not  sanctioned  by 
1  the  Vulgate  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  is  not  thoroughly  supported  by 
the  language  of  the  original  Greek.  It 
has  its  disadvantages  as  well  as  its  ad- 
vantages, though,  of  course,  the  esta- 
blished terminology  cannot  he  altered 
now,  even  if  it  were  possible— as  we  be- 
lieve it  is  not — to  find  a  more  convenient 
word.    It  will  be  well,  however,  to  say 
something  on  the  Scriptural,  and  parti- 
cularly the  New  Testament  phraseologj-. 

(1)  Miracles  are  called  ripara  (pro- 
digin.  See  Exod.  iv.  21,  where  it  is  the 
rendering  of  D^nSiO,  shining  or  splendid 
deeds) — i.e.  prodigies,  because  of  the  sur- 
prise they  cause.  The  Greek  word  dav- 
fida-ia,  which  would  exactly  answer  to 
miracula,  is  found  in  the  New  Testament 
once  only  (6aifia,^  never).  Matt.  xxi.  15: 
and  there  in  a  wider  sense  than  "miracle." 
There  is  no  great  diflerence,  from  a  theo- 
logical point  of  view,  between  the  words 
"prodigy"  and  "mii-acle."  It  is,  how- 
ever, well  worth  notice  that  the  New 
Testament  never  uses  the  ^^■ord  "  prodigy  " 
by  itself  It  speaks  of  "signs  and  pro- 
digies," &c.,  many  times ;  of  "  prodigies  " 
simply,  never.  Evidently,  the  wonder 
caused  is  not  the  only  or  even  the  chief 
feature  in  a  miracle,  and  this  the  New 
Testament  writers  are  careful  to  note.'' 

(2)  Miracles  are  also  frequently  called 
"  signs  "  {o  r]fieta  ;  an  accurate  rendering 
of  nin'lN,  Ex.  vii.  3),  to  indicate  their 
puqjose.  They  are  "  marvels  "  and 
"  prodigies  "  which  arouse  attention,  but 
the  "  wonder "  excited  is  a  means,  and 
not  an  end,  and  the  "  miracle  "  is  a  tokeu 
of  God's  presence  ;  they  confirm  the  mis- 
sion and  the  teacliing  of  those  who  deliver 
a  message  in  his  name  (see  Acts  xiv.  3  ; 
Heb.  ii.  4).  Of  course,  it  is  only  by  usage 
that  the  word  "  sign  "  acquires  this  tech- 
nical sense,  and  it  does  not  always  in  the 

1  Never,  i.e.  for  a  "  wonderful  thing."  See 
Apoc.  xvii.  7. 

'  The  Hebrew  nixSsj.  "  wonderful  things 
in  the  land  of  Ch.im  "  (Pa.  cvi.  22)  is  the  word 
nearest  to  "  miracula." 


630  MIRACLES 


-MiiJACLES 


New  Testament  mean  a  supernatural 
sign. 

(3)  They  are  often  described  as 
"powers"  (hvvdneis),^  inasmuch  as  they 
exhibit  God's  power.  They  are  evidences 
that  new  powers  have  entered  our  world 
and  are  working  thus  for  the  good  of 
mauliind.  God,  no  doubt,  is  always 
working,  and  He  manifests  his  power  in 
the  operation  of  natural  law.  But  we 
are  iu  danger  of  looking  upon  the  world 
as  if  it  were  governed  by  laws  indepen- 
dent of  God,  and  of  forgetting  that  his 
hand  is  as  necessary  in  each  moment  of 
the  world's  existence  for  each  operation 
of  created  things  as  it  was  for  creation 
at  the  first.  In  a  miracle,  God  produces 
sensible  effects  which  transcend  the  opera- 
tion of  natural  causes.  Men  are  no  longer 
able  to  say,  "  This  is  Nature,''  forgetting 
all  the  while  that  nature  is  the  continuous 
work  of  God  ;  and  they  confess,  "  The 
finger  of  God  is  here."  In  Christ,  miracles 
were  the  "  powers "  or  works  of  power 
done  by  Him  who  was  Himself  the  power 
of  God.  And  so,  miracles  done  tlirougli 
the  saints  flow  from,  and  are  signs  of,  the 
power  of  God  within  them.  "  Stephen, 
full  of  grace  and  power,  did  great  prodi- 
gies and  signs  among  the  people "  (Acts 
vi.  8). 

(4)  Christ's  miracles  are  often  called 
his  "  works,"  as  if  the  form  of  working 
to  be  looked  for  from  Him  in  whom  the 
"fulness  of  the  Godhead  dwelt  bodily." 
They  were  the  characteristic  works  of 
Him  who  came  to  free  us  from  the  bond- 
age of  Nature,  to  be  our  life,  to  overcome 
death,  to  lead  us,  first  to  a  worthier  and 
more  unselfish  life,  and  then  to  a  better 
world  in  wliich  sorrow  and  death  shall 
be  no  more.  They  are  the  first-fruits  of 
his  power  ;  the  pledges  of  that  mighty 
working  by  which,  one  day,  He  will 
subject  all  things  to  Himself  and  make  all 
things  new. 

From  a  different  point  of  view,  then, 
the  same  event  is  a  "  prodigy,"  a  "  sign," 
and  a  "  power  "  ;  each  word  presenting  it 
under  a  distinct  and  instructive  aspect. 

1  ni>133'  "deeds  of  strength,"  is  the 
Old  Testament  word  which  comes  nearest 
Sucojueij,  and  the  Peshito  has  almost  the  same 

but  it  is  used  very  inaccu- 


rately,  for  arjfifM  (Acts  ii.  19,  43  ;  v.  12 ;  2  Cor. 
xii.  12),  for  rfparo  (  Acts  xv.  12),  for  Tf'para /cal 
(7r)/i€ro  (Acts  ii.  22;  iv.  30).  In  Acts  vii.  .'iB 
tht-re  are  three  Syriac  terms  for  two  Greek. 
The  text  of  the  'Peshito  before  us  is  that  of 
Leusden  and  Schiiaf. 


The  three  words  occur  three  times  toge- 
ther— viz.  in  Acts  ii.  22  ;  2  Cor.  xii.  12 ; 
2  Thess.  ii.  9  (in  the  last  passage,  of  the 
false  miracles  of  Antichrist).  In  each 
case  the  Vulgate  has  kept  the  distinction 
with  accurate  and  delicate  fidelity,  and 
we  cannot  help  expressing  our  regret  that 
the  Douay  version,  in  ChaUoner's  recen- 
sion, should  have  obliterated  the  distinc- 
tion and  blunted  the  sense  of  Scripture 
by  translating — e.ff.  Actsii.  22 — "  by  mira- 
cles and  wonders  and  signs,"  as  if 
"  wonder  "  added  anything  to  "  miracle." 

We  cannot  pretend  to  consider  here, 
in  full,  the  objections  made  to  the  possi- 
bility of  miracles,  but  can  only  give  in 
brief  the  teaching  of  Catholic  theologians, 
and  particularly  of  St.  Thomas,  on  the 
matter.  The  latter  defines  a  miracle  as 
an  effect  which  "  is  beyond  the  order  (or 
laws)  of  the  whole  of  created  nature  " — 
"praeter  ordinem  totius  naturae  creatse" 
(I.  ex.  4).  He  explains  further,  that  an 
event  may  transcend  the  laws  of  some 
particular  nature  and  yet  by  no  means  be 
miraculous.  The  motion  of  a  stone  when 
thrown  up  in  the  air,  to  take  his  own 
instance,  is  an  effect  which  exceeds  the 
power  which  resides  in  the  nature  of  the 
stone  ;  but  it  is  no  miracle,  for  it  is  pro- 
duced by  the  natural  power  of  man,  and 
does  not  therefore  exceed  the  power  of 
nature  in  its  entirety.  No  natural  law 
can  account  for  the  sun's  going  back  on 
the  dial  of  Achaz,  for  the  resurrection  of 
Lazarus,  or  for  the  cure  of  Peter's  wife's 
mother  by  Christ  when  she  was  sick  of 
a  fever.  All  these  things  exceeded  the 
powers  of  Nature,  though  in  different 
degrees,  and  they  are  instances  of  the 
three  grades  of  the  miraculous  which  St. 
Thomas  distinguishes  (I.  cv.  8).  In  the 
first  case,  the  very  substance  of  the  thing 
done  is  beyond  the  power  of  Nature  to 
effect  ("  excedit  i'acultatem  naturae,  quan- 
tum ad  substantiam  facti") ;  in  the  second, 
the  recipient  of  the  effect  stamps  it  as 
miraculous  ("  excedit  facultatem  naturae, 
quantum  ad  id  in  quo  fit  "),  since  natural 
powers  can  indeed  give  life,  but  not  to 
the  dead ;  in  the  third,  it  is  the  manner 
and  order  in  which  the  effect  is  produced 
("modus  et  ordo  faciendi ")  that  is  mira- 
culous, for  the  instantaneous  cure  of  dis- 
ease by  Christ's  word  is  very  different 
from  a  cure  effected  by  the  gi'adual  opera- 
tion of  care  and  medical  treatment.  The 
latter  is  natural,  the  former  supernatural. 

The  definition  given  makes  it  un- 
reasonable to  deny  the  possibility  of 
miracles,  unless  we  also  deny  the  existence 


MIRACLES 


MIRACLES 


631 


of  God.  Usually,  He  works  according 
to  natural  laws,  and  this  for  our  good, 
since  we  should  be  unable  to  control 
natural  agents  and  to  make  them  serve 
us,  unless  we  could  count  on  the  effects 
known  causes  will  produce.  But  God  is 
necessarily  free  ;  He  is  not  subject  to 
natural  laws,  and  He  may,  for  wise  reasons,^ 
make  created  thiufrs  the  instruments  of 
effects  which  are  beyond  their  natural 
capacity.  A  miracle  is  not  an  effect 
without  a  cause  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  a 
miracle  because  produced  by  God,  the 
First  Cause.  It  is  not  a  capricious  exer- 
cise of  power.  The  same  God  who  ope- 
rates usuiilly,  and  for  wise  ends,  according 
to  the  laws  which  He  has  implanted  iu 
Nature,  may  on  occasion,  and  for  ends 
equally  wise,  produce  effects  which  tran- 
scend these  laws.  Nor  does  God  in  work- 
ing miracles  contradict  Himself,  for  where 
has  He  bouud  Himself  never  and  for  no 
reason  to  operate  except  according  to  these 
laws  ? 

It  is  also  clear  from  the  definition 
^iven  that  God  alone  can  work  miracles. 
'•  WTiatever  an  angel  or  any  other  crea- 
ture does  ty  his  own  power,  is  according 
to  the  order  of  created  nature,"  and  there- 
fore not  miraculous  according  to  the  defi- 
nition with  which  we  started  (I.  ex.  4). 
It  is  quite  permissible  to  speak  of  saints 
Dr  angels  as  working  miracles  ;  indeed. 
Scripture  itself  does  so  speak.  Still,  we 
must  always  understand  that  God  alone 
really  performs  the  wonder,  and  that  the 
creature  is  merely  his  instrument.  Hence 
it  follows  that  no  miracle  can  possibly  be 
wrought  except  for  a  good  purpose.  It 
does,  not,  how.ever,  follow  that  persons 
through  whose  instrumentality  miracles 
occur  are  good  and  holy.  St.  Thomas, 
quoting  St.  Jerome,  holds  that  evil  men 
who  preach  the  faith  and  call  on  Christ's 
name  may  perform  true  miracles,  the 
object  of  these  miracles  being  to  confirm 
the  truths  which  these  unworthy  persons 
utter  and  the  cause  which  they  represent.' 
Thus  the  gift  of  miracles  is  in  itself  no 
proof  of  holiness.  But,  as  a  rule,  miracles 
are  effected  by  holy  men  and  women,  and 
very  often  they  are  the  signs  by  which 
God  attests  their  sanctity  and  the  power 
of  their  prayer  (2*  "i",  clxxviii.  2).  In 
all  these  cases,  the  miracle  is  a  sign  of 
Grod's  will,  and  cannot,  except  through 
our  own  perversity,  lead  us  into  error. 

•  Sylvius,  one  of"  the  best  known  commeDta- 
tors  on  St.  'riionias,  holils  th:ir  heretics  may 
■work  miracles ;  not,  however,  in  conflrmatiyn 
of  theix  heresy. 


I       It  is  otherwise  with  the  "  lying  won- 

'  ders"  which,  St.  Paul  says,  -Antichrist 
will  work,  or  which  Pharaoh's  magicians 
are  supposed  by  some  to  have  done  by  the 
help  of  devils.  Real  miracles  these  can- 
not be,  for  God,  who  is  the  very  trtith, 
cannot  work  wonders  to  lead  his  creatures 
into  error.  But  the  demons,  according  to 
St.  Thomas,  are  so  far  beyond  us  in  know- 
ledge and  strength,  that  they  may  well 

,  work  marvels  which  woidd  exceed  all 

j  natural  powers,  so  far  as  we  know  theiu, 
and  would  seem  to  us  superior  to  any 
natural  power  whatsoever,  and  so  to  be 
truly  miraculous  (I.  cxiv.  4).  True  mira- 
cles, then,  are  practically  distinguished 
from  false  ones  by  their  moral  character. 
They  are  not  mere  marvels,  meant  to 
gratify  the  curiosity  of  the  spectator  and 
the  vanity  of  the  performer.  They  are  signs 
of  God's  presence  ;  they  bring  us  nearer 
to  Him  with  whom  "  we  ever  have  to  do 
they  remind  us  that  we  are  to  be  holy  as 
He  is  holy,  to  ctdtivate  humility,  purity, 
the  love  of  God  and  man.  The  doctrine 
which  they  contirm  must  appeal  to  us, 
apart  from  its  miraculous  attestation. 
'•  Jesus  answered  them  and  said,  My 
doctrine  is  not  mine,  but  his  who  sent 
me.  If  any  man  will  do  his  will,  he  will 
know  of  the  doctrine  whether  it  be  of 
God,  or  whether  I  speak  from  myself.  He 
who  speaketh  of  himseLt',  seeketh  his  own 
glory,  but  he  that  seeketh  the  glory  of 
Him  that  sent  him,  he  is  true,  and"  in- 
justice is  not  in  him  ''  (John  vii.  16).  So 
our  Lord  appeals,  in  answering  John's 
disciples,  to  Ids  miracles,  not  simply  as 
works  of  power,  but  as  stamped  with  a 
moral  character,  and  in  their  connec- 
tion with  the  rest  of  his  work.  "  Blind 
see  again  and  lame  walk,  lepers  are 
cleansed,  and  deaf  hear,  and  corpses  are 
raised,  and  the  poor  have  the  Gospel 
preached  to  them ;  and  blessed  is  he  whi>- 
soever  shall  not  be  scandalised  in  me  "' 
(^Matt.  xi.  5  se(j.).  In  short,  there  was  a 
witness  within,  as  well  as  without,  to 
Christ's  mission,  and  the  miracles  had  no 
voice  for  those  who  were  deaf  to  the 
voice  within.  Because  they  were  deaf  to 
this  voice  within,  the  Pharisees  ascribed 
Christ's  miracles  to  Beelzebub.  They 
blasphemed,  or  were  in  danger  of  blasphe- 
ming, the  Holy  Ghost  who  spoke  to  their 

I  hearts.  And  precisely  the  same  danger 
which  made  men  reject  Christ's  miracles 

I  will  make  them  accept  the  marvels  of 

]  Antichrist. 

I  So  far,  many  Protestants  are  with  us;. 
J  but  whereas  most  of  them  consider  thau 


632  MIEACLES 

miracles  ceased  with,  or  soon  after,  the 
Apostolic  agp,  the  Catholic  Church,  not, 
indeed,  so  far  as  ^^■e  know,  by  any  formal 
definition,  but  by  her  constant  practice  in 
the  canonisation  of  saints,  and  throujili 
the  teaching  of  her  theologians,  declares 
that  the  gift  of  miracles  is  an  abiding 
one,  manifested  from  time  to  time  in  her 
midst.  This  bi'licf  is  logical  and  con- 
sistent. Miracles  are  as  possible  now  as 
they  were  t-iglilffu  centuries  ago.  Tliey 
werewi'ought  throughout  the  courseof  the 
old  dispensation  and  by  the  Apostles  after 
Christ's  death;  and  although  miracles,  no 
doubt,  were  speciallj'  needed,  and  there- 
fore more  numerous,  when  Christianity 
was  a  new  religion,  we  have  no  right  to 
dii'taif  to  All-wise,  and  maintain  that 
1hcy  have  ciMScd  to  be  required  at  all. 
IIiMtlii'ii  nations  liave  still  to  be  converted. 
Great  saints  are  raised  up  indiflerent  ages 
to  renew  the  fervour  of  Christians  and 
turn  the  hearts  of  the  disobedient  to  the 
wisdom  of  the  just.  Tlie  only  reasonahle 
course  is  to  examine  the  ex  idence  for 
modern  miracles  when  it  pri'sents  itself, 
and  to  give  or  withliold  belief  accord- 
ingly. This  is  just  what  the  Church 
does.  The  Anglican  Bishop  Fitzgerald,  at 
the  end  of  a  m^  st  thoughtful  and  useful 
essay  on  "  Miracles  "  in  Smith's  "  Bible 
Dictionary,"  asserts  that,  according  to 
the  confession  of  their  ablest  advocates, 
ecclt'siastical  miracles  belong  to  the  class 
"  of  miracles  which  may  be  described  as 
ambiguous  and  tentative — i.e.  the  event, 
if  it  occurred  at  all,  may  have  been  the 
result  of  natural  causes.'"  Then,  indeed, 
the  question  would  be  at  an  end.  But 
any  one  who  looks  into  Benedict  XIV. '9 
treatise  on  "Canonisation,"  or  into  Cardi- 
nal Newman's  "  Lectures  on  Anglican 
Dillieulties,"  will  see  what  an  extraordi- 
nary niistalu'  this  is.  This  able  writer  is 
wasting  words  and  exposing  the  weakness 
of  his  own  cause  when  he  argues  that  the 
course  of  Nature  cannot  be  interrupted 
"  l)y  random  .iml  eiiiiricious  variation," 
that  stroll;/  e\ii!eiice  is  needed  to  mal^e 
sujijioseil  luiriicK- i-redihle,  and  that  the 
true  miriic  li  s  of  (  In  i,-,!  iaiiity  at  its  birth 
may  hav>;  oi casi.ined  >piiriMii<  iuutations 
of  fanatical  credulity.  Al,  this  maybe 
admitted,  Imt  it  does  not  loiudi  tlie  ques- 
tion. And  when  Dr.  Fitzgerald  rests  tlie 
belief  in  miracles  upon  the  authority  of 
ius])ired  writers,  and  urges  that  there  is  no 
such  authority  for  ecclesiastical  miracles, 
he  forgets  that  the  fir.st  Christians  must 
have  believed  the  miracles  of  Christ  and 
the  Apostles  before  any  inspired  record  of 


MIRACLES 

them  had  been  made.  In  many  cases,  too, 
the  belief  in  Apostolic  miracles  must  have 
come  first,  that  in  Apostolic  inspiration 
second. 

It  must  be  observed,  however,  that 
ecclesiastical  and  Scriptural  miracles 
claim  widely  different  kinds  of  belief. 
The  Scriptural  miracles  rest  on  divine 
faith,  and  must  be  accepted  without  doubt. 
No  eccle.siastical  miracle  can  become  the 
object  of  faith,  nor  is  any  Catholic  bound 
to  believe  in  any  particular  miivude  not 
recorded  in  Scripture.  He  could  uot, 
j  without  unsoundness  in  doctrine,  deny 
that  any  miracles  had  occurred  since  the 
Apostolic  age,  and  he  owes  a  filial  respect 
to  the  judgment  of  high  ecclesiastical 
autliority  ;  but  within  these  limits  he  is 
left  to  the  freedom  and  to  the  responsi- 
bilities of  private  judgment. 

Lastly,  although  there  is  a  danger  in 
incredulity,  even  when  this  incredulity 
does  not  amcumt  to  abandonment  of  the 
faith,  Catholic  saints  and  doctors  have 
insisted  on  the  opposite  danger  of  cre- 
dulity. To  attribute  false  miracles,  says 
St.  Peter  Damian,  to  God  or  his  saints, 
is  to  bear  false  witness  against  them ; 
and  he  reminds  those  who  estimate  sanc- 
tity by  miraculous  power  that  nothing 
is  read  of  miracles  done  by  the  Blessed 
Virgin  or  St.  John  Ba])tist,  eminent  as 
they  were  in  sanctity,  and  that  the  virtues 
of  the  saints  which  we  can  copy  are  more 
useful  tlian  miracles  \\hich  excite  our 
wonder  (Fleury,  "  H.  E."  Ixi.  '2).  Nean- 
der  ("Kirchengeschichte,"  viii.  p.  i!fi  seg.), 
after  speaking  of  the  popular  taste  for 
legendary  miracles  in  the  middle  ages, 
continues  :  "  Men  were  not  wanting  to 
contend  against  this  spirit,  and  a  catena 
of  testimonies  may  be  produced  from  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  on  the 
true  signiticance  of  the  miraculous  in  re- 
lation to  the  divine  life,  and  against  an 
exaggerated  estimation  of  external  mira- 
cles. Nor  were  such  thoughts  pecuhar  to 
enlightened  men  who  rose  above  their 
age  ;  they  may  be  talcen  as  an  expression 
of  the  common  Christian  feeling  in  those 
centuries."  The  mediaeval  biographer  of 
Bernard  of  Tiron  says  that  for  the  con- 
versions of  fallen  women  which  he  effected 
through  God's  grace  he  was  more  to  be 
admired  than  if  he  had  raised  their  dead 
bodies  to  life.  And  the  biographer  of 
St.  Norbert  writes :  "  It  is  the  visible 
miracles  which  astonish  the  simple  and 
ignorant,  but  it  is  the  patience  and  virtues 
of  the  saints  which  are  to  be  admired  and 
imitated  by  those  who  gird  themselves  to 


MISSAL 


MiRsrox 


r"hrist's  serrice."  (See  the  references  in 
Neander,  loc.  cit.) 

(On  the  subject  nf  miracles  generallj', 
Archbishop  Trencli's  dissertation  at  the 
■beginning  of  his  "  Essays  on  the  Miracles  " 
may  be  consulted.  It  is  specially  valuable 
for  its  Patristic  references.  The  opinions 
of  the  Schoolmen  on  the  nature  of  miracles 
are  well  given  by  Neander,  vol.  viii.  p.  26 
of  the  last  German  edition.  Cardinal 
Newman's  "  Essay  on  Ecclesiastical  Mi- 
racles "  is  well  known.") 

MZSSA^.  The  book  which  contains 
the  complete  service  for  Mass  throughout 
the  year. 

In  the  ancient  Church  there  was  no 
one  book  answering  to  our  Missal.  The 
service  for  Mass  was  contained  in  the 
Antiphonarj',  Lectionary,  Book  of  the 
rjospels,  and  Sacranientary.  This  last, 
besides  matter  relating  to  other  sacra- 
ments, gave  the  collects,  secrets,  prefaces, 
canon,  prayer  wfra  cammem,  and  post- 
communion,  and  from  the  eighth  century 
at  latest  it  was  known  as  Missal  or  Mass- 
book.  There  were  "  Completa  Mi.'^salia," 
— i.e.  Missals  which  contained  more  of 
the  service  of  the  Mass  than  the  Sacra- 
mentaries  ;  but  we  do  not  know  how  far 
this  completeness  went,  for  "  during  the 
ages  which  intervened  between  the  use  of 
the  Liber  Sacramentorum  and  the  general 
adoption  of  the  complete  book  of  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  the 
Missal  was  in  a  transition  state,  .sometimes 
containing  more,  sonictinies  less  of  the 
entire  office.  Thus  the  MSS.  which  still 
exist  vary  in  their  contents"  (Maskell, 
"  Monumenta  Rit."  p.  Ixiii.  seq.).^  There 
are,  of  course,  printed  Missals  according 
to  the  various  rites — Missale  Romanum, 
Ambrosianum,  Missale  ad  u.sum  Sarum 
(first  printed  edition  known,  Paris  1487), 
and  the  various  uses  of  religious  orders 
(Dominicans,  Benedictines,  kc.)  The 
Roman  Missal  was  carefully  rev  >sed  and 
printed  under  Pius  V.,  who  carried  out  a 
decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent  on  the 
matter,  and  strictly  enjoined  the  use  of 
this  Missal,  or  faithful  reprints  of  it,  in  all 
churches  wliicli  could  not  claim  prescrip- 
tion of  two  huDdi'ed  years  for  their  own 
use.  It  was  revised  again  under  Clement 
VIII.  and  Urban  VIII.  New  Masses 
have  of  course  been  added  from  time  to 
time,  and  to  the  Missal  as  to  the  Breviary 
a  "Proper"  may  be  added  by  permission 
of  the  Holy  See,  containing  Masses  for 

'  The  Missale  Plenunnm  C(jutaiH8  all  the 
service  for  Mass — i.e.  it  is  a  Missal  in  the  modem 
«ense. 


the  saints  venerated  in  a  particular 
country,  diocese,  order,  &c. 

MZSSZOM-  OF  SIVZITE  PER- 
SON'S.   [See  Teixitt,  D,  5.] 

IVIZSSZOXI'.  Mission  is  inseparably 
connected  with  jurisdiction,  so  that  he 
wlio  is  validly  "  sent  "  exercises  a  lawful 
jurisdiction  in  the  place  to  which,  and 
over  the  persons  to  whom,  he  is  sent;  and, 
e  converso,  any  person  exercising  a  lawful 
jurisdiction  must  be  held  to  have  received 
true  mission.  Mission  precedes  juris- 
diction in  the  order  of  thought,  but  is 
coincident  with  it  in  practice. 

A  priest  having  the  care  of  souls 
within  a  certain  district  mu.st  be  sent  to 
that  district  by  the  bishop,  who  has  the 
general  charge  of  all  the  souls  within  his 
diocese  :  he  cannot  appoint  himself  to 
it.  "  How  shall  they  preach  unless  they 
be  sent  ?  " '  In  a  regular  parish  there 
may  be  more  priests  than  one  engaged  in 
ministerial  functions,  but  one  alone  has 
the  responsibility,  as  the  curafux,  of  the 
souls  within  it.  He  has  ordinarif,  not 
delegated  faculties ;  other  priests  minis- 
tering within  his  parish  have  not  ordi- 
nary faculties.  In  missions,  as  here  in 
England,  the  head  priest  and  the  others 
usually  differ  only  in  this,  that  the  latter 
receive  their  faculties  to  be  exercised 
"  cum  dependentia  "  of  the  former. 
Priests,  even  parish  priests,  are  not  now 
held  to  have  jurisdiction  in  the  external 
forum  (Soglia,  ii.  §  86),  but  only  in  the 
internal.    [Forum,  &c.] 

Again,  the  bishop  from  whom  the 
mission  of  the  parochvs  is  derived  does 
not  assume  his  pastoral  office  of  his  own 
authority  ;  still  less,  in  consequence  of  a 
call  from  his  flock  ;  his  recognition  or 
confirmation,  if  not  actual  election,  by 
the  Pope  as  the  successor  of  St.  Peter 
constitutes  his  mission  and  the  title  of 
his  jurisdiction.  The  mission  of  the 
Pope  himself  is  from  above,  and  rests  on 
the  divine  promises,  clearly  expressed  as 
they  are  in  Holy  Scripture,  and  certified 
by  the  tradition'of  the  Church.  [Chfech 
OF  Chkist;  Pope.] 

"  The  mission  of  the  priest,"  says 
Bendel,'^  "  has  its  prototype  in  that  of 
Jesus  Christ:  'As  my  Father  hath  sent 
me,  so  send  I  you.'  Jesus  Christ  was 
sent  into  the  world  to  seek-  all  the  souls 
which  were  lost ;  the  Apostles  were  sent 
by  Jesus  Christ  to  all  parts  of  the  earth 
to  continue  his  work  in  his  name  ;  the 
successors  of  the  Apostles,  without  any 

1  Rom.  X.  1,5. 

"  Art.  "  Missions,"  in  Wetzer  and  Welte. 


034 


MISSION 


MISSIONS,  POPULAR 


break  in  the  chain,  are  sent  by  the  Church 
to  fulfil  their  charge,  and  these  send  in 
their  turn  the  confess^ors  and  pastors 
delegated  by  them  to  spread  the  beams 
of  grace  from  the  centre  to  the  extremi- 
ties, and  cause  every  soul  which  desires 
it  to  participate  in  the  benefits  of  their 
ministry."'  ....  "The  Chui-ch  is  the 
visible  institute  of  salvation  among  men  ; 
thr.ingli  her  alone  power  is  given  to  the 
priest,  by  mission,  to  announce  in  the 
virtue  of  the  Holy  Ghost  the  word  of 
God,  as  it  has  been  all  along  preserved 
incorrupt  by  her,  to  transmit  to  the 
faithful  the  graces  of  which,  through  the 
merits  of  Christ,  she  is  the  depositary, 
and  to  direct  them  in  the  way  of  salva- 
tion in  virtue  of  the  sovereign  authority 
which  she  represents.  He  who  is  not 
legitimately  sent  camiot  be,  in  the  full 
force  of  the  words,  '  a  minister  of  the 
Church  having  charge  of  souls.' " 

In  non-Catholic  denominations  the 
mission  to  a  particidar  locality  usually 
proceeds  from  the  governing  body,  such 
as  the  General  Assembly  in  the  Kirk  of 
Scotland,  or  the  Conference  of  a  hundred 
ministei  s  among  the  Wesleyans.  But  if 
it  be  asked  whence  such  governing  bodies 
derived  their  mission,  it  is  invariably 
found  that  they  derived  it  in  the  first 
instance  from  some  heresiarch  or  other 
self-appointed  individual,  who  made  a 
breach  in  ecclesiastical  unity,  or  else 
made  a  fresh  schism  in  that  which  was 
itself  a  schi.sm.  Thus  mission  among  the 
Presbyterians  has  Calvin,  and  among  the 
Methodists,  "S^'esley,  for  its  fountain 
head.  In  the  Angiican  Church  mis-^ion 
is  derived  ostensibly  from  the  Crown, 
which  claims  to  be  "in  aU  causes  and 
over  all  persons,  ecclesiastical  and  civil," 
within  the  British  empire  "  supreme." 
Every  bishop,  on  doing  homage  for  his 
see  to  the  sovereign,  has  to  say,  "  I  do 
acknowledge  and  confess  to  have  and 
liold  the  bishopric  of  it,  and  the  posses- 
sion of  the  same  entirely,  as  well  the 
spiritualities  as  the  temporahties  thereof, 
only  of  your  Majesty,  and  of  the  Imperial 
Crown  of  this  your  Majesty's  realm.'"' 
Those  who  find  this  view  too  Erastian 
hold  that  mission  is  conferred  along  with 
consecration,  in  which  case  Anglican  mis- 
sion must  be  ultimately  derived  from 
Parker,  Elizabeth's  first  bishop,  who  made 
a  breach  in  ecclesiastical  unity.  [See 
Jurisdiction.] 

I  Hutton,  The  Anglican  Ministry,  1870, 
p.  504  n. 


iMZSSZOir  (  =  quasi-parish).  In 
countries  where  the  majority  of  the 
population  is  non-Catholic,  either  through 
having  lost  the  faith  or  not  having  yet 
j  been  converted  to  it,  the  priests  having 
j  charge  of  souls  are  not  inducted  into 
I  parishes,  but  stationed  ou  missions.  In 
^  England,  after  the  change  of  religion, 
many  such  missions  were  entrusted  to 
members  of  religious  orders,  which  en- 
joyed in  a  normal  state  of  things  various 
privileges  and  exemptions.  This  led  to  a 
conflict  of  jiu'isdiction  between  the  mon- 
astic superiors  and  the  vicars- apostolic, 
and  it  was  finally  decided  by  Benedict 
XIV.  that  "  regular  missionaries  in  Eng- 
land are  subject  to  the  vicars-apostolic  in 
I  all  that  concerns  the  care  of  souls  and 
the  administration  of  the  sacraments,"'  ' 
notwithstanding  the  privileges  of  their 
orders.  In  what  relates  to  the  observance 
of  theii-  rule  they  are  subject  to  their 
monastic  superiors.  Leo  XIII.  issued 
m  1881  the  constitution  Romanos  Ponti- 
Jices,  which  makes  further  regulations  on 
the  subject.  Since  the  establishment 
of  the  hierarchy  in  England  in  1850 
the  priests  with  quasi-parishes  still  re- 
main mere  niissioners  removable  at  the 
bishop's  will,  with  the  exception  of  "  Mis- 
sionary Rectors  "  permanently  instituted 
(see  Acts  of  Prov.  Council  of  Westm.  1 
App.),  who,  in  virtue  of  decrees  of  Pro- 
paganda and  synodal  statutes  coufirmed 
by  the  Holy  See,  hold  certain  rights  and 
privileges.  (Ferraris,  Missiones ;  Mi-^- 
sionarii.) 

l«ISSXON-S,POPiri,AR.  Toquicken 
faith  and  piety  among  Christians  whom 
their  hfe  in  the  world  has  made  tepid 
and  careless,  is  for  the  pastors  of  the 
Church  an  object  of  no  less  sohcitude 
than  to  convert  the  heathen.  In  sub- 
stance, mission-preaching  has  been  em- 
ployed in  every  age  of  the  Church ;  it 
was  applied  with  extraordinary  fruit  by 
St.  Francis  and  St.  Dominic;  but  its 
reduction  to  a  system  has  been  the  work 
of  comparatively  recent  times,  and  was 
commenced  by  St.  Vincent  of  Paul,  when 
(1617)  he  preached  his  first  mission  to 
the  peasants  of  Folleville.  [See  Lajiak- 
ISTS.]  The  Jesuits,  Redemptorists, 
Passionists,  and  Rosmiuians  have  applied 
themselves  with  special  earnestness  to 
this  branch  of  pastoral  work  (see  those 
articles).  The  following  sketch  of  a  mis- 
sion and  of  its  fruits  is  from  an  article 
by  Stemmer.*    "  A  popular  mission  con- 

1  Flanagan,  Church  History,  ii.  373. 

»  Wetzer  and  VVelte,  "  Missions." 


MISSIONS,  rOPULAR 

fiists  in  a  series  of  sermons  and  religious 
exercises,  lasting  over  a  certain  number 
of  days,  directed  by  missionary  priests 
■with  the  approbation  of  the  ordinary,  in 
order  to  instruct  and  convert  sinners, 
and  rekindle  Christian  faith  and  Chris- 
tian practice  This  series  or  cycle  of 
meditations,  devotional  exercises,  and 
addresses,  the  general  aim  of  which  is  to 
excite  penitential  feelings,  treats  of  the 
destiny  and  end  of  man,  of  free  will,  of 
the  need  of  grace,  of  the  divine  justice, 
eternity,  the  necessity  of  conversion,  the 
heinousness  of  sin,  its  consequences,  and 
the  misery  of  impenitence  ;  of  the  last 
things — hell,  eternal  punishment,  and 
damnation.  Together  with  these  terrify- 
ing themes  the  preacher  speaks  of  tfie 
mercy  and  love  of  God,  the  graces  stored 
up  in  the  Church,  the  sacraments  of  Pen- 
ance and  the  Eucharist ;  usually  also  of 
lovuig  our  enemies.  Holy  Communion, 
the  renewal  of  baptismal  vows,  and  per- 
severance in  doing  good.  In  this  way 
the  sinner  is  brought  to  contrition,  whence 
come  hope  and  a  moral  change.''  After 
describing  the  availableness  at  this  stage 
of  the  tribunal  of  Penance,  the  writer 
proceeds :  "  The  mission  is  usually  termi- 
nated by  the  renewal  of  baptismal  vows," 
a  general  communion,  "the  dedication  of 
the  parish  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  promises 
of  amendment  and  thanksgiving  before 
the  altar,  the  erection  of  a  cross  or 
stations,  the  solemn  publication  of  the 
indidgence  attached  to  the  mission,  and 
the  celebration  of  Mass  for  the  souls  of 
the  relatives  and  friends  of  the  faithful 
present.  Thus  do  the  few  days  devoted 
to  a  true  popular  mission,  with  all  the 
truths  which  it  proclaims,  all  the  acts 
■which  it  disposes  to  and  realises,  form  a 
real  source  of  benedii-tion  to  the  souls 
that  are  ■willing  to  proht  by  him.  It  is  a 
work  of  teaching  and  conversion  which 
undeceives  those  who  are  misled,  con- 
vinces iliose  who  doubt,  shakes  the  indif- 
ferent in  their  false  seciu'ity,  and  stops 
hardened  sinners  in  full  career ;  it  is  an 
extraordinary  weapon  ■svith  which  false- 
hood and  error  are  attacked  directly, 
boldly,  and  persistently,  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  erroneous  systems  and  the  trium- 
phant erection  of  truth  on  their  ruins. 
Deep-seated  prejudices  and  inveterate 
faults,  though  attacked  at  intervals  from 
the  pulpit,  always  find  some  corner  in  the 
heart  where  they  can  hide  themselves 
Hud  hold  their  ground;  but  the  man  who 
attends  a  mission  meets  an  assailant  who 
deals  blow  after  blow  until  the  convic- 


MISSIOXS  TO  THE  HEATHEN  esn 

I  tion  of  the  enormity  of  his  blindness  and 
i  of  his  faults  is  forced  upon  the  hearer's 
conscience.  lU-gotten  gains  are  re- 
nounced, guilty  practices  and  criminal 
connections  are  broken  ofi",  hatred?  of  old 
;  standing  are  appeased,  separatt- J  (■oii])li's 
i  reconciled,  lawsuits  amicaldy  settlfd  ;  the 
converted  simiers  show  a  change  of  con- 
duct, and  the  face  of  family  and  paro- 
chial life  is  altered ;  through  the  whole 
district  human  existence  is  modilied  for 
the  better ;  sanctitication  spreads :  and 
where  unbelief,  immorality,  discord,  dis- 
obedience, and  antipathy  formerly  pre- 
vailed, the  severity  of  Christian  faith  is 
now  estiiblished,  with  union,  love,  and 
the  peace  of  God." 

MISSION'S  TO  THE  HEA- 
THEN'. The  kingdom  of  God,  begin- 
ning as  a  grain  of  mustard  seed  eighteen 
hundred  years  ago,  has  grown  into  a 
great  tree ;  the  stages  of  its  growth  are 
here  briefly  noticed. 

The  multitude  collected  at  Jerusalem 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  from  whom  the 
first  converts  to  the  Christian  faith  were 
gathered,  belonged  for  the  most  part  to 
countries  bordering  on  the   Levant  or 
lying  still  further  east.    They  came  from 
Persia,  Mesopotamia,  Asia  Minor,  Ai-abia, 
and   North   Africa ;   some   were  from 
Crete  :  the  only  western  country  indica- 
ted is  Italy.     These  converts,  when  they 
returned   to   their  homes,   must  have 
spread  Christian   belief  around  them. 
The  seed  thus  sown  needed  tending ;  and 
the  traditions  as  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Apostles,  which  tell  us  that  the  labours 
of  most  of  them  were  confined  to  these 
very  Eastern  counties,  are  therefore  in 
strict  accordance  with  the  report  in  Acts 
ii.    St.  Thomas,  according  to  a  probable 
tradition,  visited  India,  and  founded  there 
the   Christian    community  which  still 
i  bears  his  name.    The  legend  that  St. 
}  James  the  son  of  Zebedee  passed  into 
I  Spain  and  fotmded  a  Church  at  Santiago 
!  in  Galicia,  is  of  little  authority.'  It 
i  must  have  been  regarded  in  the  Apostolic 
I  circle  as  a  momentous  step,  when  St. 
Paul  (Acts  xvi.   6-10),   crossing  the 
Hellespont,  carried  the  light  of  Chris- 
i  tianity  into  Europe.     St.  Peter,  after 
residing  for  some  time  at  Antioch,  fixed 
[  his  see  about  A.D.  42  at  Rome,  which 
I  from  that   time  became  the  centre  of 
I  Christendom.     But  the  full  bearing  and 
I  import  of  his  primacy  were  only  gradu- 
ally discerned  in  the  Church ;  and  the 
'  Hefele  seems  to  reject  it ;  see  his  article 
I  on  St.  James,  in  Wetzer  and  Welte. 


636  MISSIONS  TO  THE  HEATHEN 


MISSIONS  TO  THE  HEATHEN 


Apostolic  sees  of  Alexandria  and  Aiitim  h, 
with,  later  on,  Constantinople  and  Jeru- 
salem, and  generally  the  greater  sees, 
acted  as  powerful  secondary  centres  to 
diffuse  the  faith  among  the  neighbouring 
countries.  In  Macedonia,  at  Athens  and 
Corinth,  and  in  Greece  generally,  Christi- 
anity was  planted  by  St.  Paul.  A  very 
ancient  legend  carries  Lazarus  and  his 
sister  Martha  to  the  South  of  France, 
near  Marseilles.  A  beautiful  tradition, 
not  however  older  than  the  middle  ages, 
speaks  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea  as  visiting 
Britain  and  founding  a  flourishing  Church 
at  Glastonbury. 

Second  Century.— The  great  work  of 
this  period  was  the  conversion  of  Roman 
Gaul.  Documents  still  extant  describe 
for  us  the  persecution  at  Lyons  in  177, 
when  St.  Pothinus  was  bishop,  and 
Blnndina  sufU'ri'd  martyrdom.  All  along 
the  coast  of  2v(>rth  Al'rica,  and  in  Spain, 
the  faith  must  have  been  silently  spread- 
ing throughout  this  century,  but  details 
are  wanting.  About  182,  Pope  Eleu- 
therus,  at  the  request  of  Lucius,  a  British 
king,  is  said  by  Beda  to  have  taken 
measures  for  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity into  Britain. 

Third  Century.— The  records  of  the 
persecution  of  Severus  disclose  the  exis- 
tence of  a  flourishing  Church  in  North 
Africa.  In  Italy,  Christianity  is  believed 
to  have  been  planted  in  the  principal 
cities,  such  as  Milan  and  Eavenna,  in  or 
soon  after  the  time  of  the  Apostles ;  but 
detailed  information,  except  as  to  the 
names  of  the  bishops,  is  wanting.  In 
Persia,  the  faith  made  rapid  advances  all 
through  this  century,  from  Seleucia  as  a 
centre  of  operations,  where  one  of  the 
.seventy-two  disciples  named  Mares  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  bishop.  About 
220  the  Parthian  monarchy  gave  way  to 
the  dynasty  of  the  Sassanides,  which, 
under  the  belief  that  its  stability  de- 
pended on  its  firm  adhesion  to  the  old 
fire-worshi])  of  the  nation,  produced  after 
a  till:'  ;i  >i  i  ii  s  of  unrelenting  persecutors 
of  Chri.tianilv. 

In  Central  and  Northern  France,  St. 
Denys  made  numerous  conversions  in  the 
years  270-280.  About  the  same  time 
St.  Quentin  planted  the  faith  in  the  Ver- 
mandois,  St.  Lucian  at  Beauvais,  and  St. 
Mellon  at  Rouen. 

Fourth  Century. — The  persecution  of 
Diocletian  showed  that  Spain,  which 
gave  St.  Eulalia  of  Merida,  and  Britain, 
which  gave  St.  Alban,  to  the  roll  of 
martyrs,  both  possessed  a  strongly  rooted 


('  !,•,  i>:  i  inity.  Tht  Armenians  were  con- 
veii(  il  in  great  numbers  by  Gregory  the 
Illuminator.  Frumentius  planted  the 
faith  in  Abyssinia,  and  was  the  first 
bishop  of  Axum  (356).  St.  Martin  of 
Tours  extinguished  most  of  the  paganism 
that  still  lingered  in  Western  Gaul. 

Christianity  at  Zurich,  in  Switzerland, 
dates  from  St.  Felix  and  his  sister  St. 
Regula,  martyred  in  303.  Alemannic 
pagan  invaders  oven-an  the  country  in 
the  fifth  century.  After  the  great  defeat 
of  Zulpich  (496),  the  Alemans  gradually 
became  Christians,  and  a  noble  Aleman, 
Robert,  re-established  the  faith  and  built 
a  chui-ch  at  Zurich  about  692.  His 
brother,  Wichard,  did  the  same  at 
Lucerne  towards  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century.  The  see  of  Martigny  in  the 
Valais,  not  far  from  St.  Maurice,  famous 
for  the  martyrdom  of  the  Theban  legion, 
is  said  to  have  been  founded  about  -300. 
The  see  of  Lausanne  grew  out  of  that  of 
Avenches,  which  is  believed  to  have  been 
founded  about  .350. 

The  Teutonic  Goths,  pressing  south- 
ward from  the  Baltic,  occupied  in  the 
fourth  centurj-  what  is  now  Roumania, 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  Danube,  and 
were  allowed  by  Valens  when  pressed  by 
the  Huns  to  cross  the  river  (376),  and 
settle  in  the  Roman  province  of  Moesia. 
Christianity,  which  had  been  introduced 
among  them  by  some  captives  whom  in 
one  of  their  expeditions  they  had  carried 
away  from  Cappadocia,  appears  to  have 
made  rapid  progress.  Theophilus,  bishop 
of  the  Christian  Goths,  was  present  at 
the  Council  of  Nicasa  and  subscribed  its 
decrees.  A  persecution  arose  about  370, 
of  which  we  have  an  interesting  account 
in  the  acts  of  the  martyrdom  of  St. 
Sabas.'  At  that  time,  according  to  the 
distinct  testimony  of  St.  Austin,^  the 
Christian  Goths  were  all  Catholics.  But 
Ulfilas,  who  was  their  bishop  after  Theo- 
philus, visiting  Constantinople  in  .376, 
was  persuaded  to  embrace  Arianism,  and 
he  introduced  it  among  his  people.  The 
same  Ulfilas  invented  an  alphabet  for  the 
Goths,  and  translated  the  Bible  into 
their  tongue ;  of  this  version,  large  por- 
tions are  extant.  These  Goths  of  Ulfilas 
belonged  to  the  Visigothic  or  Western 
branch  of  the  nation,  and  they  communi- 
cated the  Arian  heresy  to  the  Ostrogothic 
or  Eastern  branch.  In  Theodoric  the 
Ostrogoth  Arianism  mounted  on  the 
throne  of  Italy  ;  but  soon  after  his  death 
»  Alban  Butler,  Apr.  12. 
»  Ve  Civ.  Dei,  xviii.  52. 


MISSIONS  TO  THE  HEATHEN      MISSIONS  TO  THE  HEATHEN  037 


it  was  crushed  by  the  sword  of  Beli.-^arius. 
The  Arian  Visigoths,  driven  out  of  Gaul 
by  the  Catholic  Franks,  founded  a  power- 
ful kingdom  in  Spain ;  their  conversion 
will  lie  noticed  further  on. 

Fifth  Century. — At  its  commence- 
ment the  Persian  king  Izdegerd  listened 
favourably  to  the  teaching  of  St.  Mar- 
nithas,  w  ho  made  many  conversions.  A 
fresh  persecution  raged  between  420  and 
450.  About  this  latter  date  the  Persian 
clergy  began  to  side  with  Nestorius ;  and 
the  kings,  from  motives  easily  understood, 
encouraged  them  to  set  at  nought  the 
decrees  both  of  Ephesus  and  C'halcedon. 
In  400,  through  the  defection  of  Babuseus, 
the  patriarchal  see  of  Seleucia  became 
Nestorian.  The  heresy  obtained  at  one 
time  an  immense  development,  reckoning, 
under  the  Patriarch,  25  metropolitans 
and  140  bishops. 

Many  Jews  were  converted  (418)  in 
Minorca,  and  St.  Euthymius  (421) 
preached  with  success  to  some  Arabian 
tribes. 

Ireland  was  converted  by  the  preach- 
ing of  St.  Patrick.  [See  Irish  Chukch.] 

The  Burgundians,  a  Teutonic  people, 
in  alarm  at  the  approach  of  the  Huns, 
sought  instruction  in  Christianity  from 
the  Romania  (1  Gauls  among  whom  they 
had  settled  ;  and  having  obtained  it,  and 
embraced  the  faith,  they  defeated  the 
invaders.  This  was  about  4.39.'  After- 
•wards  they  lapsed  for  a  time  into  Arian- 
ism. 

The  see  of  Geneva,  where  there  are 
believed  to  have  been  bishops  as  far  back 
as  A.D.  200,  was  subjected  by  Leo  the 
Great  (450)  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Vienne.  The  first  bishop 
of  Coire  in  the  Orisons  was  St.  Asimo, 
for  whom  the  Bishop  of  Como  signed  the 
decrees  of  a  council  at  Milan  in  452. 

The  Franks,  who,  under  Clovis,  had 
invaded  Gaul  from  beyond  the  Rhine, 
and  destroyed  every  vestige  of  Roman 
domination,  embraced  Cliristianity  along 
■with  their  king  in  4!  10,  after  his  great 
victory  over  the  Alemanni. 

The  Southeru  Picts  in  Gallowaywere 
converted  by  St.  Ninian,  a  Briton,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  century. 

Sii  th  Century. — The  Arian  Suevi  of 
Galicia  were  converted,  chiefly  by  the 
preaching  of  St.  Martin  of  Duma,  about 
561.  In  587,  under  King  Recared,  the 
whole  Visigothic  nation  in  Spain  re- 
nounced Arianism   and   embraced  the 

>  Milman,  Lot.  ChrisOnnity,  i.  348. 


orthodox  faith.  Great  progress  was 
made  in  converting  the  Flemings  by  St. 
Vedast  (f  540),  first  bishop  of  Arras  and 
Cambrai,  who  may  be  regarded  as  their 
apostle. 

j  The  commencement  of  the  conversion 
I  of  our  ancestors  in  England,  who,  for  an 
unknown  time  previously  had  worshipped 
the  gods  of  the  North  in  temples  made 
of  timber  or  wicker,  shrouded  within 
thick  groves,  was  made  in  596;  when 
St.  Augustine  witli  forty  monks,  sent  by 
Pope  Gregory  the  (Treat,  landed  on  the 
Isle  of  Thanet,  and  with  the  good  will  of 
King  Ethelbert  announced  the  Gospel  to 
the  men  of  Kent. 

St.   Coliunba,   having  -  founded  his 
monastery  of  lona  (570),  setting  out 
from  thence,  preached  with  signal  fruit 
I  to  the  Northern  Picts  of  Scotland. 

Seventh  Century. — The  conversion  of 
the  Angles  and  Saxons  was  being  regu- 
larly carried  on,  not  by  kings  forcing  the 
creed  upon  unbelievers  at  the  sword's 
point,  but  by  bishops,  monks,  and  secular 
priests  wlio  manifestly  sought  not  their 
goods  but  their  ?ouls  It  is  true  that 
there  were  reaction  and  relapse  here  and 
there,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  pages  of 
Beda ;  but  the  general  movement  of  the 
moral  tide  was  forward.  The  Angles  of 
Deira  (Yorkshire)  with  their  king,  Edwin, 
received  the  faith  (63."))  from  tlie  Roman 
missionary  Paulinus.  The  Angles  of 
Bernicia — i.e.  of  the  eastern  districts  of 
England  and  Scotland  from  the  Tees  to 
the  Forth — were  made  Christians  by  the 
preaching  of  the  Irish  monks  of  lona, 
whom  St.  Oswald  (6^5)  invited  into 
Northumbria.  No  difference  of  doctrine 
divided  the  two  classes  of  missioners  ; 
but  they  were  at  variance  on  an  impor- 
tant point  of  discipline — viz.  the  right 
observance  of  Ea>ter  ^Easter;  English 
Chttrch:  British  "Church;  Ietsh 
Church].  St.  Aidan,  the  first  bishop  in 
Bernicia,  fixed  his  see  at  Lindisfarne  on 
Holy  Isle  ;  in  the  tenth  century  it  was 
removed  to  Durham. 

The  Gospel  was  carried  by  English 
missioners  to  Friesland  and  Holland.  St. 
Wilfrid,  banished  from  his  see  (679), 
dwelt  for  some  time  in  Friesland  and 
converted  manv.  But  the  true  founder 
of  the  Dutch  Church  was  St.  Willibrord, 
who,  landing  in  Holland  in  ()S0.  fixed  his 
see  at  Wiltenburg  or  Utrecht. 

Eighth  Century. — The  German  tribes 
were  still  for  the  most  part  buried  in 
heathenism  ;  only  at  the  north-west, 
throuirh  the  mission  of  Willibrord  and 


nr,P  MISSIONS  TO  THE  HEATHEN 


MISSIONS  TO  THE  HEATHEN 


his  companions,  and  at  the  south-west,  I 
tlmmgh  the  gradual  conversion  of  the  | 
Ali  nianni  of  Baden  and  Siiabia  since 
their  >uhjugation  by  the  Franks,  had  an 
iiujnvi-sion    been    made.      The  eighth 
century  witnessed  the  solid  foundation  of 
the  Gi'vnian  ehurch  tlirough  the  preaching  ; 
of  Wuiirid  (St.  Eoniface).    In  this  great  ! 
aflair  the  blessing  and  sanction  of  the  | 
l!oman  See  were  as  carefully  sought  and  [ 
as  deliberately  given  as  before  the  con- 
version of  England.    St.  Bmiiface  was 
papal  h>gate  in  Gernuni  N  f  >i-  many  years, 
having  been  first  con^^reiated  bishop  by 
Gregory  II.  in  723.    In  745  he  fixed  his 
metropolitan  see  at  Mentz.    Some  time 
before  (740)  he  had  found  his  way  into 
the  vast  region  watered  by  the  Danube 
and   its   tributary  streams,  and  there 
founded  the  sees  of  liegeusburg  (Ratis- 
bon),  Frisingen,  Passau,  and  Salzburg. 
From  the  last  two  sees  Christianity  was 
can-ied  to  the  Teutonic  or  mixed  popula- 
tions further  east. 

The  Saxons  of  Westphalia,  Hanover, 
and  Oldenburg  were  coerced  by  Char- 
lemagne, who  harried  them  with  per- 
petual war  till  they  submitted,  into  the 
reception  of  Christianity.  This  was  the 
commencement  of  the  system,  ton  common 
all  through  the  middle  ages,  by  ^^llicll 
unbelievers  were  scared  by  the  threat  (.'nod 
loss  of  life  or  goods  into  embracing,  or  at 
least  professing,  the  religion  of  Christ. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  treat- 
ment of  the  Saxons  was  a  considerable 
factor  in  the  anti-Christian  ferocity  which 
from  this  time  till  their  tardy  conversion 
two  centuries  later  ])ossessed  their  sea- 
roving  neigliljinnv  of  Scandinavia,  and 
brought  innumerable  miseries,  wrongs, 
and  losses  on  the  innocent  English  and 
Irish  populations. 

Tlie  English  St.  Willehad,  who  had 
been  working  among  the  Saxons  and 
Frisian.^  sincr  770,  was  consecrated  to  the 
see  of  I'.reuu'n  in  787. 

Ninth  Cc/itiiri/. — The  missionary 
efforts  of  the  Cliui-ch  were  now  chiefly 
directed  to  the  rou;;  h  Scandinavian  North, 
and  to  ilie  Sla\  onic  peoples  which  every- 
wlii'iv  Ihii  iI.  iimI  oTi  the  German  tribes  and 
the  llyzaiiliiic  empire.  St.  Anschar 
visited  Sweden  in  8.30  and  made  many 
converts.  In  8o4  he  was  chosen  Ai-ch- 
bisliop  of  PIaml)urg  (with  wliieh  F.ivmen 
was  afterwards  unite,!),  in  fnlfilment  of  a 
grand  x-lieme  of  CI  la  rlen:;r  ■  nr  for  |,lantiiig 
at  the  moutli  of  the  llllie  a  mi.-slonar\ 
centre  for  the  conversion  of  all  the  jiagau> 
of  Northern  l'hiro])e.  In  8.');)  he  was  again 


in  Sweden,  and  from  that  time  the  light 
of  religion  was  never  quenched  there, 
though  it  long  flickered  and  seemed  on 
the  point  of  expiring.  Some  progress  was 
made  under  Charlemagne  in  converting 
the  Slavs  of  Brandenburg.  Again,  on 
the  Danube,  east  of  Passau,  by  the  ex- 
termination of  the  Avars,  Charlemagne 
made  room  for  the  "  Eastern  March  " 
(Austria)  and  the  great  see  of  Vienna. 
The  Slavs  of  Bulgaria  were  converted  by 
the  monk  Methodius  (865),  whom  their 
king  Bogoris  had  invited  from  Constan- 
tinople. Constantine  and  the  same  Metho- 
dius brought  the  faith,  at  the  request  of 
their  duke  Darlilas,  to  the  Slavs  of 
Moravia.  Methodius  about  the  same 
time  visited  IJohemia,  and  baptised  the 
duke  Boriwoy,  with  his  saintly  wife 
Ludmilla.  The  Czech  population  readily 
followed  the  example  of  their  rulers.  The 
country  remained  for  some  time  ecclesi- 
astically subj  ect  to  the  Bishop  of  Rat  isbon ; 
I  the  see  of  Prague  was  not  founded  till 
968. 

I  Tenth  Century. — The  work  of  con- 
verting the  Slav  races  and  the  Northmen 
continued.  The  Normans,  after  the  grant 
of  what  is  now  Normandy  to  their  duke 
lioUo  (911),  embraced  the  faith,  and  soon 
began  to  extend  and  illustrate  it  with  the 
force  and  genius  characteristic  of  the  race. 

!  The  Slavs  of  Brandenburg  were  finally 
converted  under  Henry  the  Fowler  (928), 
who  turned  their  country  into  a  march  of 
the  empire. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  century 
good  progress  had  been  made  in  Russia 
in  the  territory  of  Kiew.  Olga,  the  widow 
of  the  Grajnd  Duke  Igor,  visited  Constan- 
tinople in  057,  and  was  baptised  in  the 
church  of  St.  Sophia.  The  schism  caused 
by  Photius  had  been  heah>d  up,  and  the 
Eastern  church  was  at  this  time  in  com- 
munion with  Rome ;  it  was  not  till  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century  that  the 
breach  was  reopened  under  Cerularius, 
and  became  chronic.  [Greek  Chvrch.] 
Olga's  example  was  not  generally  followed 
by  the  people  ;  it  was  not  till  the  reigu  of 
her  grandson  Vladimir  that  a  strong 
movement  towards  Christianity  took 
])lace  among  the  Russians.  The  see  of 
Kiew  was  founded  in  !i88. 

In  Denmark,  where  many  missioners 
had  laboured  in  tlie  ninth  century  with 
little  outward  fruit,  the  time  liad  at  last 
come  for  sees  to  he  founded.  Sleswig, 
with  Poppo  for  its  first  bishop,  and 
Aarhuus  were  erected  into  bishopries 
about  948.    Luuden,  near  the  mouth  of 


MISSIONS  TO  THE  HEATHEN 


MISSIONS  TO  THE  HEATHEN  039 


the  Eider,  was  made  a  metropolitan  see 
in  1104. 

Misaco  or  Mieceslas,  duke  of  Toland, 
marrying  a  pious  BoLemiau  princess, 
agreed  to  become  a  Christian,  and  was 
baptised  in  9G6  ;  his  subjects  made  little 
difficulty  about  following  his  example. 
Jordan  was  the  first  bishop  of  Poland, 
■which  was  attached  to  the  province  of 
Magdeburg. 

Geisa,  the  duke  or  voyvode  of  the 
Magyars  of  Huui^ary,  became  a  Christian 
about  095.    In  VU6  he  welcomed  into  his 


w  ho,  having  first  obtained  the  sanction  of 
the  Pope,  came  to  Gnesen  in  1125,  and 
thence  passed  into  Pomerauia,  visitiny 
Piritz,  AVollin,  and  Stettin  The  people 
readily  listened  to  him,  and  were  baptised 
in  vast  numbers  by  total  immersion. 
Adalbert  was  appointed  the  first  bishop 
of  Kammin  iu  1128. 

Christianity   was  forced    upon  the 
Finns  by  their  Swedish  masters  about 
1150.    The  see  was  at  first  at  Randa- 
maki,  but  was  removed  to  Abo  in  1300. 
The  Slavs   of  the   Isle   of  Rugeu, 


country  St.  Adalbert  of  Prague,  by  whose   having  been  subdued  by  the  King  of 

Seaching  great  numbers  were  converted.  I  Denmark,  showed  a  readiness  to  embrace 
is  son,  St.  Stephen,  the  first  Christian  I  Chi-lstianity.    They  worshipped  a  mon- 
king  of  Hungary,  married  Gisela,  sister  to  I  strous   wooden   idol  with   four  heads, 
^  —    -       -  which  they  called  Suantovit,  a  corruptinn 

of  "  St.  Vitus,"  the  name  of  the  patron 
saint  of  the  monastery  of  Corbie,  whence 


the  Emperor  Henry  II.  St.  Adalbert  gave 
up  his  life  in  the  attempt  (dd7)  to  con- 
vert the  Prussians  about  Dantzic. 


Shortly  before  the  end  of  the  century    some  monks  had  come  300  years  before, 


•Olaf,  king  of  Sweden  (t  1024),  brought 
over  Siegfried,  the  English  priest,  and  was 
baptised  at  Husaby  in  West  Gotland.  , 
Christianity  became  the  religion  of  the 
kingdom,  but  paganism  lingered  long  in 
remote  districts. 

Thorwald,  an  Icelander,  having  been 
converted  in  Saxony,  took  home  with 
him  the  priest  Friedrich  (9Sl),  and  had 
much  success  in  bringing  over  his  country- 


but  had  been  compelled  to  depart  before 
their  message  was  half  comprehended  by 
the  simple  islandei-s.  Now  (llt)8)  Suan- 
tovit was  broken  up  and  burnt,  and  the 
people  received  baptism.  They  were  the 
last  member  of  the  great  .Slavonic  "family 
to  embrace  the  faith.  The  Pope  placed 
the  island  under  the  Bishop  of  Roskild. 

The  remaining  pagan  population  of 
Livonia,  Courland.  and  Esthonia,  was 


men.  The  conversion  of  the  islanders  i  compelled  by  violence  to  adopt  Chris- 
was  finished,  after  a  rough  fashion,  by  ,  tianity  towards  the  end  of  this  century 
Thangbrand,  an  emissary  of  the  King  of  by  Albert  the  Bear,  margrave  of  Bran- 
Norway,  between  997  and  999.  The  first    denburg,  and  Henry  the  Lion,  duke  of 


liishop  fixed  Jiis  see  at  Skalliolt  in  1056. 
L'l-vf»t/,  Centurt/.—AhoMt  a.D.  1000 


Saxony. 

Thirteenth  Century. — All  the  nations 


the  English  Siegfried  already  mentioned  of  Europe  were  now  Christian  ;  all  be- 
preached  to  the  Norwegians.  01aft"Trygg-  j  longed  to  the  Catholic  Church,  though 
wason,  king  of  Norway,  who  fell  in  battle  j  the  Russians  did  so  in  an  imperfect  seuse, 
in  that  year,  was  a  Christian,  but  his  being  out  of  communion  with  the  Holy 
people  had  not  gone  with  hiiu.  Norway,  See.  Attempts  were  made  by  fervent 
after  being  for  many  yeai-s  under  the  j  preachers  of  the  newlv-tounded  mendicant 
rule  of  the  Swedes  and  Danes,  regained  orders  to  carry  the  I'uiih  among  the  Ma- 
its  independence  thi-ough  the  courage  hometans,  and  the  Christian  populations 
and  endurance  of  Olaf  Haraldson  (St.  |  under  Mahometan  rule  in  Asia  Minor, 
Olaf)  in  1017.    By  a  mixtui-e  of  force  i  Syria,  &c.    These  ell'orts,  owing  to  the 


and  persuasion  Olaf  brought  over  the 
great  majority  of  his  countrj-men  into 
the  pale  of  the  Church.  Grimkele,  an 
Englishman,  was  the  first  bishop  of 
Trondhiem. 

The  Slavs  of  Mecklenburg,  among 
■whom  Christianity  had  been  already 
preached,  but  ineffectually,  all  embraced 
the  faith  about  1050,  under  their  prince, 
Gotschalk. 

Ttci  lfth  Ce^itury. — The  conversion  of 
the  Slavs  went  on.  Boleslas,  duke  of 
Poland,  havin?  conquered  Pomerania, 
sent  for  St.  Otho;  bi.?hop  of  Bamberg, 


pride  and  invincible  prejudice  of  the 
Moslems,  met  with  little  success.  The 
Teutonic  knights,  uniting  themselves  to 
the  Order  of  the  Sword  founded  in  1202, 
carried  on  from  1237  a  long  and  cruel 
■war  against  the  natives  of  East  Pru-^sia. 
These  last  had  been  found  intractable  and 
ferocious,  and  their  rejection  over  and 
over  again  of  the  teaching  of  the  mission- 
aries was  held  to  justify  proceeding  against 
them  by  way  of  a  crusade.  The  war 
lasted  fii'ty-three  years,  and  ended  in  the 
complete  subjugation  of  Pru.ssia,  over 
which  the  Teutonic  order  then  claimed 


GtO  MISSIONS  TO  THE  HEATHEN 

to  exercise  sovereign  rights.  Prussians 
who  were  willing  to  become  Christians 
were  declared  free  men  and  enjoyed  all 
private  rights,  but  those  who  chose  to 
remain  in  unbelief  were  made  slaves  to 
the  conquerors. 

Fourteenth-  Century. — TTiis  was  an 
age  of  lamentable  ri  action.  Crusades  to 
the  Holy  Land  being  now  regarded  as 
impracticable,  Christian  princes  turned 
tlieir  arms  against  one  another.  The 
hundred  years'  war  between  England  and 
France  bt-gan.  The  see  of  St.  Peter 
remained  for  seventy  years  at  Avignon, 
to  the  detriment  of  many  religious 
interests ;  and  soon  after  the  return  of 
Gi-cgory  XI.  (1376)  began  the  Oreat 
Schism,  which  distracted  and  perplexed 
all  Christian  nations  for  nearly  forty 
years. 

The  people  of  Lithuania  (1386),  at 
the  command  of  their  duke,  Jagellon, 
accepted  the  Gospel,  and  were  baptised 
in  vast  numbers. 

Fifteenth  Century. — The  maritime 
nations,  Spain  and  Portugal,  while  ex- 
tending the  limits  of  geography,  were 
full  of  zeal  for  the  propagation  of  the 
faith.  Ihe  people  of  the  Canary  and 
Azore  Islands  were  converted  in  this 
age,  and  under  Portuguese  auspices  three 
Dominican  friars  (1491)  opened  a  pro- 
mising mission  on  the  Congo,  in  Western 
Africa.  Immediately  upon  the  discovery 
of  America  (1492)  the  religious  orders, 
especially  the  Dominicans,  Franciscans, 
Augiistinians,  and  Trinitarians,  hastened 
to  send  labourers  to  the  new  field. 

Sixteenth  Century. — While  some  of 
the  European  nations  were  being  led 
away  by  heretical  teachers  into  revolt  | 
I'rom  the  Church,  new  populations  were  j 
entering  her  fold  in  the  Transatlantic 
regions  opened  out  by  the  energy  of 
Spain.  Cortes,  as  soon  as  he  had  con- 
quered Mexico,  did  all  that  be  could  to 
make  the  people  Christians.  Franciscan 
missioners  appeared  there  in  1523,  fol- 
lowed by  Dominicans  and  Jesuits.  The 
heroic  virtue  of  Martin  de  Valenza,  and 
his  zeal  in  preaching,  converted  great 
numbers  of  the  Mexicans.  At  the  present 
day  but  few  of  the  people  remain  un- 
converted ;  the  country  is  divided  into 
eleven  sees,  that  of  Mexico  being  metro- 
politan. 

In  New  Granada,  Spanish  missionaries 
appeared  very  early  ;  the  first  see  was 
founded  at  Santa  Marta  in  1529.    St.  I 
Louis  Bertrand  laboured  here  from  1561 
to  1569,  and  is  said  to  have  converted 


MISSIONS  TO  THE  HEATHEN 

fifteen  thousand  of  the  Indians.  '  St. 
Peter  Claver,  sometimes  called  th» 
Apostle  of  the  Negroes,  after  extra- 
ordinary labours  and  sufferings,  died  at 
Cartagena  in  1654.  Before  1800  the 
majority  of  the  population,  both  Indian 
and  negro,  had  become  Catholic. 

In  Venezuela  the  see  of  Caraccas  was 
founded  in  1531.  In  1 800  three-fourths 
of  the  Indian  population  of  the  province 
were  computed  to  be  Chi-istians. 

The  conquest  of  Peru  by  Pizarro  was 

I  soon  followed  by  the  estalllishment  of  a 
bishop's  see  at  Lima  (1539),  raised  to 
metropolitan  rank  in  lo4.'^.  St.  Turibius, 
the  tliird  archbishop,  is  regarded  as  the 
apostle  of  that  region.  The  glorious  St. 
Rose  of  Lima,  who  died  in  1617  at  the 
age  of  tliirtj-one,  "bloomed  in  the  Indies 
in  the  flower  of  virginity  and  patience.'"^ 
Dominican,  Franciscan,  and  Jesuit  mis- 
sioners combined  their  eH'orts,  and  by  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 

Iconversion   of    the    Peruvian  Indians, 

\?ithin  all  the  districts  subject  to  Spain, 

i  was  accomplished. 

In  Bolivia,  Chiquisaca  was  erected 

j  into  a  bishop's  see  in  1551.  Jesuit 
missions  made  rapid  progress  in  convert- 
ing the  Indians ;  about  a  hundred  years 
later  not  less  than  100,000  of  them  were 
Christians. 

In  Chili,  the  see  of  Santiago  dates 
from  1561.  Those  of  the  native  tribes 
which  submitted  to  the  Spaniards  soon 
became  Christians;  but  the  nation  of  the 
Araucanos  and  other  tribes,  preserving 
their  independence,  retained  along  with 
it  their  idolatry.  To  this  day  there  are 
many  unconverted  Indians  in  Chili. 

The  vast  and  fertile  plains  of  Brazil 
began  to  be  occupied  by  the  Portuguese 
about  1500.  The  tirst  missionaries  were 
Franciscans.  The  Jesuit  Father,  Nobrega, 
was  sent  to  Brazil  by  St.  Ignatius  in 
1549.  Father  Anchieta  joined  him  four 
years  later,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
in  extending  the  faith  among  the  Indians. 
His  sanctity  was  demonstrated  by  mira- 
cles, and  he  is  often  called  the  Apostle 
of  Brazil.  The  first  see  was  founded  at 
Bahia  in  1561. 

The  first  see  in  La  Plata,  now  the 
Argentine  Republic,  appears  to  have  been 
that  of  Cordova  (1570),  where  the  Jesuits 
had  in  process  of  time  a  magnificent 
college.  St.  Francis  Solano  preached  to 
the  Indians  of  Tucuman'and  the  Chaco 

1  See  his  Life,  in  Enslisli.  rerently  pub- 
lished, by  Father  VVilbertorce,  O.S.D. 
-  Collect  for  St.  liose's  feast,  Aug.  30. 


mSSIOXS  TO  THE  heathen      missions  to  the  heathen  641 


in  loSO,  and  converted  a  great  number  of 
them. 

The  faith  was  brought  into  Central 
America  by  Franciscans.  Alfonso  de 
Betanfos  preached  both  to  Spaniards  and 
Indians  in  Costa  Rica  with  great  fruit 
from  1560  to  his  death  in  1566.  Other 
friars  laWired  successfully  in  Guatemala 
during  the  last  thirty  years  of  the  centuiy. 

Some  Autrustinian  friars,  headed  by 
Alfonso  Gutierrez,  went  out  to  the 
Philippine  Islands  in  1575  at  the  request 
of  Philip  II.,  and  began  to  preach  to  the 
natives.  Three  years  later  they  were 
joined  by  a  party  of  Franciscans  under 
the  B.  Pedro  de  Alfaro.  In  nine  years 
250,000  natives  had  embraced  Chris- 
tianity. At  the  present  day,  out  of  a 
population  variously  estimated  at  from 
live  to  nine  millions,  the  vast  majority 
are  Catholics ;  and  they  have  learnt  the 
arts  of  civilised  life,  along  with  the 
doctrines  of  salvation,  beneath  the  foster- 
ing wing  of  the  Church.  It  is  lamentable 
to  compare  with  this  picture  the  miserable 
condition  of  the  Maorie.s  of  New  Zealand. 
Victimised  by  half  a  dozen  Protestant 
sects,  and  unable  to  decide  for  themselves 
which  of  the  Christianities  offered  to 
them  was  the  true  one,  this  brave  and 
gifted  people,  divided  still  more  than 
when  they  were  heathens  by  the  very 
influence  which  should  have  united  them, 
have  been  unable  to  resist  the  corrupting 
effects  of  the  civilisation  which  has  en- 
folded them  within  its  toils,  and  are  now 
rapidly  perishing. 

The  first  see  in  the  Philippine  Islands 
was  founded  at  Manila  in  1581.  This 
was  made  metropolitan  in  1621,  and 
three  other  sees  have  been  since  erected. 

The  Portuguese  established  their 
power  firmly  on  the  west  coast  of  India 
about  the  beginning  of  the  century,  and 
a  see  was  founded  at  Goa  in  15;J4.  St. 
Francis  Xavier  arrived  in  India  in  1542  ; 
he  preached  on  the  Fishery  Coast,  and  in 
Cochin,  Madura,  and  Travancore,  and 
made  many  thousands  of  converts.  These 
were  chiefly  of  low  caste,  or  of  no  casle 
at  all ;  Brahmin  exclusiveuess  and  Mus- 
sulman rancour  strongly  barred  the  way 
against  the  spread  of  Christianity  among 
the  upper  classes  of  Indian  society. 

Japan  received  St.  Francis,  when  he 
landed  at  Cangoxima  in  1549,  with  open 
arms.  The  progress  of  Christianity  was 
extremely  rapid,  and  kings  and  princes 
embraced  the  faith ;  and  it  seemed  as  if  a 
national  conversion,  like  those  of  which 
eai-lier  ages  afforded  so  many  examples, 


,  were  about  to  be  effected.  Gregory  XIH. 
I  in  1585  forbade  any  missionaries  other 
I  than  Jesuits  to  preach  the  Gospel  in 
•  Japan.  About  the  same  time  a  Japanese 
embassy  visited  Rome.  The  sequel  will 
be  told  in  the  next  section. 

Seventeenth  Century. — Xavier  had 
desired  to  carry  the  Gospel  into  China, 
but  he  died  in  the  neighbouring  isle  of 
Sancian  (1552)  without  having  set  foot 
in  the  empire.  Towards  1600  some 
Jesuit  Fathers  entered  China,  but  little 
effect  was  produced  till  after  Father  Ricci 
had  made  his  way  to  Pekin  (1602)  and 
conciliated  the  goodwill  of  the  emperor. 
The  scientific  attainments  of  Ricci,  and, 
after  him,  of  the  Fathers  Schall,  Verbiest, 
&c.,  were  what  won  from  the  imperial 
house  respect  for  them,  and  some  degree 
of  toleration  for  the  Chinese  converts. 
There  are  said  to  have  been  300,000 
Catholics  in  China  in  1663.  But  several 
causes  combined  to  overcloud  this  bright 
prospect:  (1)  the  dispute  about  the  Chinese 
ceremonies  between  the  Jesuit  and  the 
Dominican  missiouers  Xhixese  Rites]  ; 
(2)  the  persecution,  more  or  less  connected 
with  this  dispute,  raised  by  the  Govern- 
ment against  the  Chriz^tians  towards  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  centurv  ;  (3)  the 
suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus ;  and 
(4)  the  French  Revolution,  which  para- 
lysed the  missionary  energy  of  the  chief 
Catholic  nation  for  many  yeiirs.  Within 
the  last  fifty  years  gi-eat  etl'orts  have  been 
made  to  regain  the  ground  lost.  China  is 
now  divided  into  tliirty-six  sees,  under 
vicars-apostolic,  and  the  total  number  of 
Catholics  can  be  little  less  than  a  million. 
Numerous  conversions  occur  each  year  in 
almost  every  one  of  the  "  Chretient^s," 
or  Christian  settlements,  which  are 
planted  thickly  in  every  province  of  the 
vast  empire. 

The  Seminary  "des  Missions  Etran- 
geres,"  founded  in  1663  in  the  Rue  du 
Bac,  Paris,  has  carried  on  ever  since, 
chiefly  in  Eastern  countries,  a  great  work 
of  evangelisation. 

In  the  course  of  this  century  mis- 
sionaries belonging  to  various  orders, 
chiefiy  Dominicans  and  Jesuits,  carried 
the  Gospel  to  Tonquin,  Cochin-China, 
Camboja,  Siam,  Malaysia,  and  Burmah, 
countries  which  all  lie  within  the  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsida.  The  later  history  of 
these  missions  has  been  of  the  usual 
chequered  character.  In  Tonquin  and 
Cochiu-China  there  have  been  prolonged 
persecutions  and  frequent  martyrdoms. 
At  the  present  day  these  countries  are 
I  T 


■€42  MISSIONS  TO  THE  HEATHEN 

governed  by  twelve  vicars-apostolic,  and 
the  number  of  Catholics  contained  in 
them  may  be  roughly  estimated  at 
280,000.1 

Canada  and  Acadia  (Nova  Scotia) 
were  colonised  by  France  early  in  the 
seventeenth  century;  the  first  bishop's 
see  was  founded  at  Montreal  in  1659. 
The  Jt'suit  Fathers  Brebeuf,  Jogues, 
Lallemant,  and  Daniel  converted  the 
Hurons  to  Christianity.  But  the  enemies 
of  France  instigated  the  Iroquois  to 
attack  the  Hurons ;  all  the  above-named 
missionaries  met  with  violent  deaths,  and 
the  Hurons  were  nearly  exterminated. 
Acadia  was  ceded  to  England  in  1713, 
and  Canada  in  1763.  The  French-speak- 
ing:' pnpnlai  ion  of  Lower  Canada  has 
renin  humI  ( 'atlnilic,  and  the  efforts  of  the 
nii^siDiiarics  Lave  secured  for  the  Chui'ch 
the  large  floating  half-caste  population 
of  "  voyageurs  "  and  traders,  besides  con- 
verting many  of  the  Indian  tribes  which 
roam  over  the  surface  of  British  North 
America. 

In  India,  the  Jesuit  Nobili  (1606), 
assuming  the  dress  and  customs  of  a 
Brahmin,    and    not    associating  with 
persons  of  inferior  caste,  made  a  con- 
siderable   impression.     The    B.  John 
de  Britto,  also  a  Jesuit,  addressed  him- 
self to  the  lower  castes,  and  is  said  to 
have  converted  8,000  idolators ;  he  gave 
his  life  for  the  faith.    The  flourishing 
Christianity  of  Ceylon,  evangeliseil  partly 
by  Franciscans,  partly  by  tlip  Yen.  Jos(5  | 
Yaz,  of  theGoaOi-atory,and  othi^r  Fathers  | 
of  the  same  congregation,  was  injured  and  ■ 
retarded  by  the  Dutch  after  'they  had 
dislodo-ed  (m.-.O)  the  Portuguese  from 
the  island.   Whm  Ceylon  fell  into  British 
hands  equity  was  better  observed,  and  I 
at  the  present  day  there  are  400,000 
Catholics,  governed  by  an  archbishop  and 
two  bisliops. 

The  policy  of  British  rule  in  India, 
with  other  causes,  has  tended  to  keep 
Clnistianity  stationary,  and  at  this  day 
the  total  number  of  Christians  in  British 
India  is  said  to  be  less  than  one  million. 
Of  tliese,  about  250,000  are  believ.-d  to  lie 
Europeans  or  Eurasians  (half-cast  es).  Of 
the  remainder  about  534,000  are  found 
in  tlie  Madras  Presidency,  and  of  these 
about  4ir,,0f)0,  or  four-fifths  nearly,  are 
"returned  as  Roman  Catholics."^  In 
the  Native  States  the  Christians  number 
about   700,000.    Concerning   these  we 

1  Duraiid,  Missions  Franfaises,  ch.  vii. 
^  Parkmaii,  The  Jesuits  in  North  America, 
»  £nc!/cl.  Brit.  9th  ed.  « India." 


MISSIONS  TO  THE  HEATHEN 

have  not  met  with  creed  returns,  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  great  majority 
are  Catholics.* 

The  Goa  schism  arose  in  the  following 
manner.  When  the  see  of  Goa  was 
founded  in  1534,  a  treaty  was  signed 
between  Portugal  and  the  Holy  See, 
giving  to  the  king  of  that  country  the 
right  of  patronage  over  the  churches  of 
India  on  certain  conditions.  After  their 
power  on  the  Malabar  coast  liad  been 
displaced  by  that  of  the  Dutch,  and  the 
circumstances  were  consequently  changed, 
the  Portuguese  still  refused  to  recog- 
nise the  action  of  the  Holy  See  in  en- 
trusting ecclesiastical  interests  in  those 
regions  to  clergy  of  non-Portuguese 
nationality.  A  long  and  painful  history 
is  connected  with  these  disputes,  and  the 
schism  is  not  entirely  healed  to  this  day. 
The  Indian  missions  were  reorganised  bv 
Gregory  XVI.,  who  in  1840,  Portugal 
having  notoriously  failed  or  become 
unable  to  fulfil  its  part  of  the  contract, 
suppressed  the  original  bull  of  patronage. 
In  1886  an  Indian  hierarchy  was  esta- 
blished by  Leo  XIH.,  containing  the 
eight  provinces  of  Goa,  Colombo,  Verapoh, 
Pondich^ry,  Madras,  Bombay,  Agra,  and 
Calcutta. 

In  Japan,  where  a  considerable  section 
of  the  people  had  become  Christians,  the 
Government  took  the  alarm,  and  com- 
menced to  persecute  about  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Xogim  became  tai- 
cosama,  or  supreme  temporal  ruler,  in 
1615,  and  from  that  time  to  his  death  in 
1650  pursued  a  settled  plan  of  extermi- 
nation. In  this  he  was  aided  by  the 
selfish  policy  of  the  Dutch,  who  assisted 
him  in  putting  down  the  revolt  of  the 
Christians  of  a  large  district,  whom  the 
persecution  had  driven  to  despair.  About 
1650  there  were  but  few  professed  Chris- 
tians left.  When,  however,  after  Japan 
was  opened  to  Europeans  a  few  years 
ago,  the  Catholic  missioners  returned, 
they  found  interesting  proofs  of  the  sur- 
vival of  a  pure  Christianity  among  a 
considerable  number  of  the  people.  A 
hierarchy  has  lately  heen  established,  con- 
sisting of  one  archbishopric  (Yeddo)  and 
three  bishoprics.  The  number  of  Catho- 
lics is  about  50,000. 

Eightceyith  Century. — The  celebrated 
Jesuit  missions,  or  "Reductions,"  in 
Paraguay  attained  their  greatest  develop- 
ment in  the  first  half  of  this  century. 

'  According  to  Werner  {Orbit  Terrarum 
Catholicui,  cap.  xxiii.),  the  numlier  of  Catholics 
in  the  whole  of  India  is  about  l,.iO0,OOO. 


MISSIONS  TO  THE  HEATHEN      mSSIOXS  TO  THE  HEATHEN  64-? 


The   Jesuits  had  obtained   permission  ' 
from  the  King  of  Spain  to  isolate  their  | 
Indianconverts  in  the  settlements  founded 
by  them,  and  to  manajre  their  aftairs  i 
independently  of  the  colonial  adminis- 
tration.   A  group  of  theocratic  com-  [ 
munities  was  thus  formed  in  the  plains 
of  the  Parana  and  Uruguay,  in  each  of 
which   the   clergy  were   at   once  the 
spiritual  and  temporal  rulers  of  their  [ 
flocks ;  in  which  crime  was  almost  un- 
kno-wn,  and  industry  universal;  and  a 
community  of  goods  was  established  as  | 
in  the  Apostolic  age.    The  Indians  "in 
medium  quierebant  " ;  the  crops  which 
they  raised  were  thrown  into  a  common 
stock,  and  divided  by  the  clergy  among 
the  different  households ;  not  that  this 
was  regarded  as  a  permanent  arrange- 
ment, but  only  as  that  most  suitable  for 
the  new  Christians  at  the  actual  stage  of 
mental  and  moral   development  which 
they  had  reached.    The  converts  after  a  ; 
time  displayed  an  extraordinary  talent  \ 
for  imitating  any  kind   of  handicraft,  j 
mechanism,    or    artistic  workmanship. 
The  eyes  of  aU  the  philanthropists  of 
Europe  were  turned  upon  this  new  ex- 
periment in  human  education.    Unfortu-  \ 
nately  the  hostility  of  the  colonists,  the 
transfer  of  the  territory  of  Uruguay  from  j 
Spain  to  Portugal,  the  malignant  policy  \ 
of  Pombal,  and  finally  the  suppression  of  ' 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  brought  utter  de- 
struction on  a  work  than  which  the  whole  , 
history  of  evangelic  enterprise  presents 
nothing  more  suggestive  and  encouraging. 

Xirtiteenth  Coituri/.—ln  1822  the 
"  Work  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  " 
was  established  at  Lyons,  with  a  view  to 
assisting  in  the  establishment  and  support 
of  foreign  missions.  It  was  computed 
that  in  the  first  fifty  years  of  its  existence 
the  Church  had  received,  by  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  missions  connected  with 
this  society,  an  accession  of  about  700,000 
neophytes.  It  distributes  at  the  present 
time  an  income  exceeding  200,000/.  a 
year. 

By  the  exertions  of  the  present  Arch- 
bishop of  Westminster  (Dr.  Vaughan) 
"  St.  Joseph's  College  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
for  Foreign  Missions,"  the  chief  object  of 
which  is  to  educate  missioners  to  preach  to 
the  heathen,  was  foimded  a  few  years  ago 
at  Mill  Hill,  near  London.  Its  mission- 
aries already  occupy  important  fields  of 
work  in  the  Madras  Presidency  of  India 
and  Borneo,  besides  the  negro  missions 
in  the  United  States. 

Great  efi'orts  have  been  made  in  recent 


years  for  the  extension  of  the  Gospel  in 
Africa.  Besides  the  titular  sees  in  Algeria 
there  are  vicariates,  administered  by 
bishops,  which  embrace  the  greater  part; 
of  the  seaboard  all  round  the  continent, 
and  also  the  newly-founded  vicariate  of 
Central  Africa,  of  which  its  bishop.  Mgr. 
Comboni,  fixed  the  seat  at  El  Obeid,  in 
Kordofan.    ^See  Afeicax  CnnicH.] 

In  Oceania  there  are,  besides  twenty- 
three  flourishing  dioceses,  fourteen  vicar- 
iates-apostolic,  most  of  which  are  of  re- 
cent creation.  When  the  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries have  not  been  interfered  with 
(as  in  the  Gambier  Islands,  Easter  Island, 
and  Marquesas  Islands)  the  native  popu- 
lation has  sometimes  embraced  Christian- 
ity en  masse  ;  but  in  numerous  instances 
the  work  has  been,  and  is,  made  difiicult 
by  the  opposition  of  Wesleyans,  Baptists, 
and  other  sectaries. 

The  supreme  direction  of  all  Catholic 
missions  rests  with  the  Sacred  Congrega- 
tion of  Propaganda  "PKOrAGA^rDi]. 

It  seems  desirable  to  add  a  few  lines 
on  the  missionary  labours  of  the  last 
few  years,  up  to  the  commencement  of 
1892: 

In  Europe,  we  note  the  restoration  of 
an  ofiScial  and  recognised  Catholicism  at 
Geneva,  where  the  Federal  government 
has  allowed  the  see  from  which  the  late 
Mgr.  MermiUod  was  expelled  to  be  re- 
occupied  by  the  present  bishop.  Mgr. 
Deruaz. 

The  northern  kingdoms  have  become 
more  favourable  to  Catholicism  than  has 
been  the  case  since  the  Eeformation.  The 
Catholic  population  of  Copenhagen  now 
numbers  several  thousands.  Members  of 
religious  orders  expelled  from  France  and 
Italy  have  been  welcomed  in  Sweden, 
Norway,  and  Denmark. 

In  North  America,  great  progress  has 
been  made  in  the  various  missions  in  the 
conversion  of  the  Indian  tribes.  Accord- 
ing to  a  statement  in  the  "  Missions  Catho- 
liques ''  of  Lyons  (quoted  in  "  Illustrated 
Catholic  Missions  for  August  1890),  the 
number  of  Christians  in  British  North 
America,  which  was  137,000  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  century,  exceeded  two 
millions  in  1890. 

In  Asia,  the  record  is  of  a  mixed 
nature ;  with  much  that  is  cheering 
there  is  joined  much  that  is  of  a  sadden- 
ing and  disquieting  character.  In  China, 
where  Christianity  is  of  so  longstanding, 
and  is  found  in  every  province  of  the 
empire,  there  has  been,  and  is,  much 
persecution  and  hindrance,  caused,  not 
X  I  2 


644  MISSIONS  TO  THE  HEATHEN 


MITRE 


by  the  direct  orders  of  the  central  go- 
vernment (which,  80  far  as  words  and 
edicts  go,  is  tolerant  enough),  but  by 
the  open  animosity  of  the  literate  class, 
and  the  veiled  hostility  of  the  mandarins. 
The  literates,  i.e.  the  educated  middle 
clasj,  do  not  so  much  hate  Christianity 
on  its  own  account,  as  in  fear  of  the 
foreign  and  Western  influences  associated 
with  it,  by  which  they  think  their 
national  independence  is  threatened. 
Such  events  as  the  destruction  of  the 
ancient  Burmese  monarchy,  and  the 
French  annexation  of  Tonquin — both 
countries  being  on  the  very  borders  of 
China — natui-ally  fill  the  Chinese,  who 
are  thorough  patriots  in  their  way,  with 
a  dread  of  Europe  and  all  that  comes 
from  Europe. 

In  Japan,  Leo  XUT.  established  in 
1891  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy,  with 
the  archbishop  of  Tokio  as  metropolitan, 
and  the  bishops  of  Niigasaki,  Osaka,  and 
Hukodadi,  as  his  sulFragans.  But  Catho- 
licism has  not  the  field  to  itself;  the 
various  Protestant  bodies,  and  the  Rus- 
sian church,  are  continually  labouring  to 
add  to  their  proselytes,  and  extend  their 
influence. 

In  India  the  movement  towards  Chris- 
tianity, esi^ecially  in  Madura,  and  in  the 
districts  (Chota  Xagpore,  Orissa,  &c.) 
round  Calcutta,  has  been  very  decided 
within  the  last  few  years.  See  "La 
Mission  Beige  du  Bengale  Occidental," 
Brussels,  lf>90.  In  Annam  and  Tonquin 
the  losses  caused  by  persecution  and 
famine  are  being  rapidly  made  good; 
and  when  the  French  have  put  down  the 
brigandage  which  in  Tonquin  is  still 
powerful  for  mischief,  it  is  probable  that 
the  movement  in  favour  of  Christianity 
wUl  take  a  strong  hold  of  the  genersil 
population. 

In  Africa  the  energy  of  Card.  Lavi- 
gerie,  archbishop  of  Algiers,  has  founded 
and  supported  a  body  of  missioners, 
known  as  the  "  White  Fathers,"  for 
carrj'ing  the  Gospel  to  the  tribes  of  the 
Sahara,  the  dark  races  of  the  Soudan, 
and  to  nations  still  further  South.  These 
missioners  are  settled  on  the  shores  and 
islands  of  the  Lakes  Victoria  Is  yanza  and 
Tanganika,  and  elsewhere.  Tlie "Brother- 
hood of  the  Sahara,"  a  lay  institute,  was 
founded  by  the  Cardin.'d,  in  order  by 
degrees  to  irrigate  and  cultivate  the 
Sahara,  thus  making  the  proceedings  of 
the  slave  traders  more  difficult. 

The  mission  of  the  Lazarists  to 
Abyssinia,  presided  over  by  Mgr.  Crouzet, 


now  numbers  30,000  Christiana.  It  ha« 
a  school  at  Keren,  which  turns  out  excel- 
lent interpreters,  the  services  of  whom 
are  in  great  demand. 

Mgr.  Chausse,  whose  residence  is 
usually  at  Lagos,  was  consecrated  last 
year  at  Lyons  for  the  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  Benin. 

The  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  from 
their  establishments  at  Bagamoyo,  oppo- 
site Zanzibar,  continue  to  direct  a  great 
converting  and  civilising  work,  the  extent 
and  importance  of  which  are  ever  in- 
creasing. 

The  Congo,  of  which  only  the  lower 
course  was  known  twenty  years  ago,  has 
missions  now  established  on  many  points 
of  its  vast  stream.  The  Upper  Congo  is 
in  the  hands  of  Belgian  missioners  :  for 
French  Congo,  governed  by  M.  de  Brazza, 
a  bishop  has  been  lately  appointed  in  the 
person  of  Mgr.  Augouard ;  and  the  Lower 
Congo  has  been  formed  into  a  Praefecture 
Apostolic. 

Another  Praefecture  is  South  Africa, 
or  Cimbebasia ;  it  includes  Daiuaralaud 
and  Xamaqualand  in  the  new  German 
protectorate,  north  of  the  Orange  River, 
Bechuanaland,  a  British  protectorate,  and 
the  Kalahari  desert. 

In  Madagascar  a  cathedral  was  inau- 
gurated at  Tananarive,  the  capital,  last 
year. 

According  to  the  statement  in  "  Lea 
Missions  Cath.,"'  quoted  above,  the  African 
CathoUc  missions,  which  contained  48,000 
Christians  in  1800,  contained  362,000  in 
1890. 

[Henrion,  "Hist,  des  Miss.  Cath."; 
Durand,  "  Miss.  Cath.  Fran^aises " ; 
Wetzer  and  Welte,  passim;  Fleury, 
"Hist.  Eccl. ";  "Dublin  Review,"  Jan. 
1879;  "Illustrated  Catholic  Missions," 
1890-1-2 ;  "  Annals  of  the  Propagation 
of  the  Faith,"  1887-1892;  "Atlas  des 

.  Missions,"  French  ed.,  188G,  Friburg; 

i  this  is  a  most  useful  publication,  compiled 
bv  the  Rev.  Father  Werner,  S.J. ;  "  Orbis 

;  Terrarum  Catholicus,"  1890,  by  the 
same.l 

iviiTBE  {Mitra,  infula).  A  head- 
dress worn  by  bishops,  abbots,  and  in 
certain  cases  by  other  distinguished 
ecclesiastics.  Mitra  (jiirpa)  is  used  in 
Greek  and  Latin  for  the  turban  which 
was  worn  by  women,  and  among  the 
Asiatics,  specially  Phrygians,  by  men. 
It  had  no  connection  with  religious  rites. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  band  (infula) 
was  worn  by  heathen  priests  and  by  the 
sacrificial  victims.    The  Jewish  priests 


MITRE 


MIXED  MARRIAGES  045 


•wore  a  cap  (ny33p;  KtBapis  in  the  LXX) 
of  uucertaiu  form,  though  the  root  points 
to  a  round  shape,  and  the  high  priest 
&  turhan  (nSJ>'P),  fiom  a  root  meaning 
"  to  wind  "  (in  LXX,  Ki'Sapts  and  fi'iTpa), 
with  a  plate  of  gold  on  the  front 
;  LXX,  nernXov  ;  Vulg.  "  lamina  "), 
inscribed  with  the  words  "  Holiness  to 
the  Lord."  The  Vulgate  uses  "mitra" 
for  the  high  priest's  head-dress  (Ecclus. 
xlv.  14),  and  for  the  priest's  (Exod.  xxix. 
{) ;  Levit.  viii.  13).  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  the  early  Church  did  not  adopt  the 
head-dress  of  the  Jewi,sh  priesthood  and 
transfer  it  to  her  own  priests  or  chief 
priests.  Polycrates  of  Ephesus,  indeed, 
writing  about  100  (apud  Euseb.  "  H.  E." 
V.  24)  sayt  ot  St.  John  the  Evangelist 
that  he  "  became  a  priest,  having  worn  the 
plate  (n-eVaXoi'),"  and  Epiphauius  (Haer.) 
about  380,  makes  a  similar  statement 
about  St.  James,  except  that  he  makes  it 
in  St.  James's  case  a  mark  of  his  Jewish, 
not  his  Christian,  priesthof  d,  for  he  says 
he  was  allowed  both  to  wear  the  niTaXov 
and  enter  the  Holy  of  Hohes.  This 
accovmt  of  Epiphanius  is  evidently  legen- 
dary, for  on  what  possible  ground  could 
the  authorities  of  the  Temple  treat  James 
as  high  priest?  Bishop  l.ightfoot  (see 
also  Routh,  "  Rell.  Sacr."  ii.  p.  28)  is  pro- 
bably justified  in  re^iardiiig  the  language 
of  Polycrates  on  St.  John's  "plate"  as 
metaphorical.  But,  in  any  case,  such  a 
"  plate  "  auswers  to  no  vestment  now  in 
use ;  and  even  if  we  could  translate  it 
"  mitre  "  (as  we  cannot),  this  use  by  St. 
John  stands  quite  by  itself.  It  would 
have  been  his  custom,  not  that  of  the 
Church.  * 

Hefele,  who  treats  the  above  notices 
of  St.  John  and  St.  James  as  mere  legends, 
contends,  nevertheless,  that  there  are 
clear  traces  of  mitres  used  as  part  of  the 
official  ecclesiastical  costume  from  the 
fourth  century.  After  carefully  consider- 
ing the  proofs  which  he  alleges,  we  can 
see  no  reason  for  abandoning  the  judg- 
ment of  Menard,  the  learned  Benedictine 
editor  of  St.  Gregory's  Sacramentarj-,  viz. 
that  for  the  first  thousand  years  of  her 
history  there  was  no  general  use  of  mitres 
in  the  Church.  All  Hefele's  references 
can,  we  think,  be  explained  as  poetical  or 
metaphorical.  And,  on  the  other  hand, 
Hefele  himself  allows  that  no  Sacramen- 
tary  or  Ritual-book  before  1000  a. d.  men- 
tions the  mitre,  much  less  the  bishop's 
investment  with  it  at  consecration,  though, 
in  a  Mass  for  Easter  Sunday  written 


'  before  980  the  ornaments  of  a  bishop  are 
enumerated.  Again,  liturgical  writers, 
such  as  Amalarius  and  Walafrid  Strabo, 
are  silent  on  the  subject.  "  It  is  not " — 
we  again  quote  from  Hefele — "till  the 
eleventh  century  that  representations 
of  popes,  bishops,  and  abbots  with  the 
mitre  occur  ;  though  from  that  time 
onwards  they  are  very  numerous." 

The  use  of  the  mitre  seems  to  have 
begun  at  Rome,  and  then  to  have  spread 
to  other  churches.  Leo  IX.,  in  1040, 
gave  the  "Roman  mitre"  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Treves,  and  this  is  the  earliest 
instance  known  of  such  a  concession. 
Canons  also,  e.ff.  at  Bamberg,  got  leave 
from  Rome  to  wear  the  mitre  on  certain 
feasts,  and  it  was  used  by  all  cardinals 
tiU,  in  1245,  the  first  Council  of  Lyons 
sanctioned  the  cardinal's  hat.  According 
to  Gavantus  (torn.  i.  149),  the  first  con- 
cession of  a  mitre  to  an  abbot  was  made 
by  Urban  H.  in  1091.  The  straight  lines 
and  sharp  point  familiar  to  us  in  the 
Gothic  mitres  first  appear  in  works  of 
art  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The 
Italian  mitre  with  its  greater  height  and 
curved  hues  came  into  use  in  the  four- 
teenth. 

Bishops  and  abbots  (if  mitred)  receive 
the  mitre  from  the  consecrating  bishop — 
a  ceremony,  as  Catalani  shows,  of  late 
introduction.  The  "  Ca?rimoniale  Epi- 
scoporum "  distinguishes  the  "  precious 
mitre,"  adorned  with  jewels  and  made  of 
gold  or  silver  plate  ;  the  "  mitra  auri- 
phrygiata,"  without  precious  stones  (it 
may,  however,  be  ornamented  with 
pearls)  and  of  gold  cloth  {e.r  tela  aurea)  : 
the  "plain  mitre"  (mitra  simple.r)  of  silk 
or  linen  and  of  white  colour.  The  bishop 
always  uses  the  mitre  if  he  carries  the 
pastoral  staff.  Inferior  prelates  who  are 
allowed  a  mitre  must  confine  themselves 
to  the  simple  mitre,  unless  in  case  of 
an  express  concession  by  the  Pope 
("Manuale  Decret."  870).  The  Greeks 
have  no  mitre.  The  Armenians  have 
adopted  a  kind  of  mitre  for  bishops  and 
a  bonnet  for  priests  since  the  eleventh 
century.  (Hefele,  "Beitrage,"  vol.  ii.; 
Gavantus,  Bona,  "Rernm  Lit."  lib.  i. ; 
Catalani  on  the  "  Poutifiear' ;  Menard  on 
St.  Gregory's Sacrameutary.  Innocent  ITI. 
gives  mystical  meanings  to  the  mitre  and 
its  parts — e.g.  the  two  horns  are  the  two 
testaments  ;  the  strings,  the  spirit  and  the 
letter,  &c.). 

MIXED  lUARRXACES  are  mar- 
riages between  persons  of  ditlerent  reli- 
gions.   A  marriage  between  a  baptised 


646      MIXED  MAEEIAGES 


MONK 


and  unbaptised  person  is  invalid  ;  one 
between  a  Catholic  and  a  person  of 
another  communion — e.g.  a  Protestant — 
is  valid,  but,  unless  a  dispensation  has 
been  obtained  from  the  Pope  or  his  dele- 
gate, unlawful.  This  explanation  has 
been  already  given  in  the  article  on  the 
iMrEDiMENTS  OF  Mareiage.  But  it  will 
be  useful  to  say  something  here  on  the 
legislation  of  the  Church  on  marriages 
between  Catholics  and  other  Christians 
not  Catholics. 

(1)  Benedict  XIV.  (Instruction  on 
Marriages  in  Holland,  1741.  Encyclical, 
"  MagnsB  nobis ")  has  declared  the 
Church's  vehement  repugnance  to  such 
unions,  on  the  ground  that  they  are  not 
likely  to  be  harmonious,  that  they  ex- 
pose the  Catholic  party  and  the  children 
to  danger  of  perversion,  that  they  are  apt 
to  produce  indifference,  &c.,  &c. 

(2)  He  says  the  Church  has  permitted 
them  for  very  grave  reasons,  and  generally 
in  the  case  of  royal  personages  ;  but  even 
then  on  condition  that  the  Catholic  party 
be  free  to  practise  his  or  her  religion, 
and  that  a  promise  be  given  that  the 
children  of  either  sex  be  brought  up 
Catholics. 

(3)  Increasing  intercourse  between 
Catholics  and  Protestants  made  such  mar- 
riages far  more  frequent,  and  the  condi- 
tions insisted  on  by  Benedict  XIV.  were 
neglected.  In  Silesia  a  law  of  the  State 
in  1803  required  the  children  of  mixed 
marriages  to  be  brought  up  in  the  religion 
of  the  father.  In  England,  till  very 
recent  times,  there  was  a  common  arrange- 
ment by  which  the  boys  were  brouglit  up 
in  the  father's,  the  girls  in  the  mother's, 
religion  ;  and  neither  in  Silesia  (see  Her- 
genrother,  "  Kirchengeschichte,"  vol.  ii.  p. 
856  sey.)  nor  in  England  did  the  Catholic 
clergy,  as  a  rule,  oppose  this  state  of 
things.  An  attempt  was  made  by  the 
Prussian  Government  in  ISi'S  to  intro- 
duce the  law  which  prevailed  in  Silesia 
and  the  other  Eastern  provinces  to  the 
Rhineland  and  Westphalia ;  and  this 
order  of  the  Cabinet  was  accepted  by 
Von  Spiegel,  archbishop  of  Cologne,  and 
also,  though  with  some  scruple,  by  the 
Bishops  of  Paderborn,  Miinster,  and 
Treves.  This  led  Pius  VIII.  and  Gregory 
XVI.  to  declare  a  mixed  marriage,  when 
it  was  not  under,>-tood  that  the  children 
of  either  sex  should  be  brought  up 
Catholics,  contrary  to  the  "natural  and 
divine  law."  Otherwise,  the  priest  could 
take  no  part  in  the  celebration.  In 
extreme  cases,  and  to  avoid  greater  evils, 


he  might  passively  assist  at  the  contract;, 
but  more  the  Pope  himself  could  not 
permit.  Obedience  to  these  Papal  briefs 
led  to  the  imprisonment  of  Droste  von 
Vischering,  the  new  archbishop  of 
Cologne,  in  1837,  and  to  that  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Posen  in  1839.  The 
bishops,  even  those  who  had  once  been  of 
a  different  mind,  steadfastly  adhered  to  the 
Papal  regulations.  One  exception,  how- 
ever, must  be  mentioned.  The  Prince- 
Bishop  of  Breslau  resigned  his  see  in 
1840  rather  than  submit,  and  became  a 
Protestant.  He  died  in  1871.  Under 
the  good  king  William  IV.  peace  was 
gradually  restored  between  Church  and 
State. 

(4)  In  England,  as  elsewhere,  the  fol- 
lowing is  the  present  law.  If  a  Catholic 
and  Protestant  desire  to  marry,  they 
must  promise  to  comply  with  the  condi- 
tions given  above.  Then,  if  the  bishop 
is  satisfied  that  some  grave  reason  for  the 
marriage  exists,  he  may  grant  a  dispensa- 
tion, and  the  marriage  is  then  celebrated 
in  the  Catholic  Church.  But  the  nuptial 
benediction  is  not  permitted.  As  the 
Anglican  clergy  are  no  longer  the  obli- 
gatory registrars  for  civil  recognition,  no 
repetition  of  the  ceremony  in  the  Esta- 
blished Church  is  now  tolerated. 
moKiN-xsivi.  [See  Grace.] 
nxoxzM-os.  [See  Quietism.] 
JVIONASTERXES,  Suppression  of. 
[See  Suppression.] 

MOM-ASTER-s-.  [See  OoirvENT  ; 
Monk.] 

ncoio'x  (A.-S.  munuc,  through  the 
Lat.  monachus,  Gr.  fxavaxos,  "sohtary"). 
The  ascetics  of  the  first  Christian  age 
have  been  already  described  [Ascet^]. 
They  did  not,  as  a  rule,  separate  them- 
selves from  men,  but  in  the  world  practised 
a  rigid  mortification,  and  aimed  at  ful- 
filling the  counsels  of  perfection.  Mona- 
chism  commenced  in  Egypt.  In  the 
middle  of  the  third  century  the  persecu- 
tion of  Decius  caused  many  fervent  Chris- 
tians to  leave  the  cities  and  flee  into  the 
deserts,  there  to  find  that  freedom  in  the 
divine  service  which  human  laws  denied 
them.  For  a  long  time  they  lived  apart, 
each  in  his  own  cell,  supporting  them- 
selves by  daily  labour.  The  anchorites 
or  hermits  [Hermits]  were  those  who 
specially  desired  solitude  ;  of  these  St. 
Paul  was  the  founder.  St.  Anthony, 
whose  life  embraces  more  than  a  hundred 
years  (250-356),  chose  for  a  time  absolute 
solitude,  but  in  his  later  years  he  allowed 
a  number  of  disciples  to  gather  round 


MONK 


MONOPIIYSITES 


(347 


him,  who,  though  living-  each  .apart,  were 
eager  to  profit  by  the  depth  and  wisdom 
of  nis  advice,  and  ready  to  practise  what- 
ever rules  he  might  impose.  Thus  St. 
Antony  was  the  t'oiuuler  of  Monachism, 
although  the  ca;nol>itic  life,  which  has 
hoen  a  characteristic  of  nearly  all  the 
monks  of  later  times,  had  not  yet  ap- 
peared. Of  this,  St.  Pachomiusisregarded 
as  the  originator,  who,  about  a.d.  315, 
built  monasteries  in  the  Thebaid.  It  is 
easy  to  conceive  bow  the  common  life 
should  appear,  under  given  conditions, 
more  suitable  as  a  road  to  perfection  than 
the  separate  life  How  one  might  pass 
into  the  other  may  be  seen  from  a  passage 
in  the  "  Orations  "  of  St.  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen.'  Speaking  of  St.  Athanasius  taking 
refuge  with  the  coutemplatives  of  Egypt, 
who,  "withdrawing  themselves  from  the 
world,  and  embracing  the  wildemes.",  live 
to  God,"  he  says  that,  of  these,  "some, 
practising  a  life  absolutely  solitary  and 
unsocial,  converse  with  themselves  and 
God  alone,  knowing  no  more  of  the  world 
than  they  can  become  acquainted  with 
in  the  desert ;  others,  loving  the  law  of 
charity  by  way  of  intercourse  (Koirui'ia), 
at  once  men  of  solitude  and  men  of  society, 
while  dead  to  all  other  men  and  to  worldly 
affairs  in  general  .  .  .  are  a  world  to  one 
another,  and  by  comparison  and  contact 
shai-pen  one  another's  virtue."  Hilarion, 
a  disciple  of  St.  Antony,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  to  introduce  communities 
of  monks  in  Palestine:  Eustathius  of 
Sebaste,  in  Armenia  ;  St.  Basil,  in  Cappa- 
docia.  St.  Athanasius,  by  making  known 
at  Rome  the  story  of  the  wonderful  life  of 
St.  Antony, is  said  to  have  caused  a  great 
movement  towards  monasticism  ;  in  the 
time  of  St.  Jerome  the  city  had  many 
monasteries  both  of  monks  and  nuns. 
St.  Martin  was  a  strenuous  \ipholder  of 
the  ccenobitic  life ;  two  celebrated  French 
monasteries,  Marmoutier,  near  Tours,  and 
Ligug^,  near  Poitiers,  were  of  his  founda- 
tion. The  rule  of  St.  Au.stin  was  perhaps 
rather  dpsigned  for  regular  clerks  than 
for  monks,  who  for  a  long  time  after  their 
institution  were  all  laymen.  At  first  it 
was  nearly  true  that  every  monastery 
followed  its  own  rule;  gradually,  how- 
ever, the  rule  of  St.  Basil  [Basilians] 
obtained  a  preference,  and,  after  its  trans- 
lation into  Latin  by  Rutinus  of  Aquileia, 
was  largely  adopted  in  the  West.  Mona- 
chism lantruisbed  in  Italy  in  the  fifth 
tentury,  owing  to  the  irruptions  of  the 

1  Or.  21. 


barbarians ;  in  the  sixth  (529^,  the  strong 
but  gentle  hand  of  St.  Benedict  of  Xursia 
raised  it  to  a  pedestal  from  which  it  has 
never  since  beeu  aethroned.  [Benedic- 
tines.' The  Benedictine  rule  gradually 
swallowed  up  all  the  others,  being  found 
more  suitable  than  any  to  the  conditions 
of  life  in  Western  Europe.  For  several 
centuries  no  other  rule  was  heard  of.  In 
the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  the 
Orders  of  Cluny,  Camaldoli,  the  Char- 
treuse, and  Giteaux  branched  ofi'  from  the 
parent  stem.  In  the  thirteenth  century 
appeared  the  friars  ;  in  the  sixteenth,  the 
Jesuits,  Theatines,  and  other  regular 
clerks ;  followed  down  to  our  own  day 
by  the  various  congregations  of  bot'li 
sexes,  the  members  of  which,  luider  their 
several  institutes,  devote  themselves  to 
the  glory  of  God  and  the  good  of  their 
neighbour. 

"ivxoiroPHYSZTES.  The  early  his- 
tory of  the  Mouopbysites,  who  held  that 
there  was  but  one  nature  in  Christ,  and 
were  condemned  at  the  General  Council 
of  Chalcedon,  has  been  given  in  a  separate 
article.  [Chalcedon.]  For  two  years, 
Eudocia,  the  widow  of  Theodosius  II., 
was  averse  to  the  Confession  of  Chalcedon, 
and  the  monks  in  Palestine,  counting  on 
her  protection,  drove  Juvenal,  the  Patri- 
arch, from  his  see.  In  Egypt,  Proterius, 
the  orthodox  successor  of  Dioscorus,  was 
murdered  in  457  by  the  fanatical  popu- 
lace, headed  by  Timothy  the  Cat  and 
Peter  the  Stammerer,  of  whom  the  former 
usurped  the  patriarchate,  till  driven  out 
by  the  troops  of  the  Emperor  Leo  I.  In 
Antioch,  another  monk,  Peter  the  Fuller, 
overthrew  the  lawful  patriarch,  on  his 
refusal  to  insert  the  words,  "  "WTio  was 
crucified  for  us,"  in  the  Trisagion. 
Scarcely  were  these  Monophysite  leaders 
removed,  when  their  party  found  a  pro- 
tector in  the  usurping  Emperor  Basiliscus 
(475-477).  Timothy  the  Cat  and  Peter 
the  Fuller  recovered  their  .sees,  and  the 
decision  of  Chalcedon  was  set  aside  in  an 
Imperial  Encyclical. 

The  Catholics  might  have  looked  for 
triumph  when  Zeno  came  to  the  throne. 
The  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  Acacius, 
had  been  hitherto  orthodox,  and  Zeno  re- 
stored an  orthodox  Patriarch  at  Alexan- 
dria— viz.  Timothy  Salifaciolus,  succeeded 
by  Talaja.  But  the  latter  offended  the 
court  and  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  and 
Acacius  leagued  with  Peter  the  Stam- 
merer, who  on  the  death  of  Timothy 
the  Cat  became  leader  of  the  Egyptian 
Monophysites,  and  Zeno  hit  on  a  com- 


648  MONOPHYSITES 


MONOTHETJTES 


promise  meant  to  unite  Catholics  and 
Monophysites.  His  "  Henoticon  "  of  482 
condemned  Nestorius  and  renewed  the 
anathemas  of  St.  Cyril  but  ignored  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon,  ordered  preachers 
to  avoid  the  points  of  controversy  between 
Monophysites  and  their  opponents,  and 
bade  the  churches  confine  themselves  to 
the  Niceue  Creed  with  the  additions 
made  to  it  at  Constantinople.  Peter 
the  Fuller  at  Antiocli,  Peter  the  Stam- 
merer in  Egypt,  on  the  one  hand,  Acacius 
of  Constantinople  on  the  other,  accepted 
these  terms.  But  Rome  would  hear 
nothing  of  the  "Henoticon,"  and  there 
was  a  schism  between  East  and  West 
from  484  to  519.  Even  at  Constantinople 
a  powerful  party,  headed  by  monks, 
Ivuowu  as  the  Accemeti,  rejected  the 
"  Henoticon,"  and  again  many  Monophy- 
sites in  Egypt  abhorred  it,  fell  away 
from  Peter  the  Stammerer,  and  formed 
a  separate  sect,  that  of  the  Acephali. 
Justin  I.  acknowledged  the  authority  of 
Chalcedon,  and  the  Church  of  Constanti- 
nople was  once  more  in  communion  with 
that  of  Rome. 

From  this  time  the  Monophysites  split 
up  into  numerous  sects.  The  Phtharto- 
latrffi,  or  Severiaiis,  fought  with  Aph- 
thartolatrffi,  or  Juliauists,  on  the  corrup- 
tible or  incorrujitible  nature  of  Christ's 
body.  A  subdivision  of  the  latter  held 
that  Christ's  body  since  its  union  with  the 
AVord  was  increate;  the  Ctistolatrie  were 
of  the  contrary  opinion.  The  Themistians, 
or  Agnoetaj,  held  that  the  human  element 
in  Christ  before  His  resurrection  was 
subject  to  ignorance.  A  iMonophysite 
Aristotelian,  Philnponus  (6G0),  argued 
that  the  three  Persons  of  the  Trinity 
•were  three  distinct  individuals,  and  his 
followers  were  known  as  Tritheists. 
Other  Monophysite  sects  are  mentioned 
by  Petavius. 

In  536  Armenia  became  Persian ;  in 
640  the  Saracens  became  masters  of 
Egyjit ;  and  in  these  countries  the  Mono- 
physites were  of  course  freed  from  Byzan- 
tine persecution.  In  Syria  and  Mesopo- 
tamia they  were  harassed  by  Justinian, 
but  their  cause  was  nuiintaiued  by  the 
zeal  of  the  beL'gai  -monk,  Jacobus  Zan- 
galus,  called  1^1  liaradai.  In  all  these 
countries  Monopbysifechurches  still  exist. 
Tiiey  are  re])resented  (1 )  by  the  Armenian 
National  CIuutIi  :  CJ)  by  the  Jacobite 
Christians  of  Syria  and  Mesopotamia;  (3) 
the  ( 'optic  Church  ;  (4)  the  Abyssinian 
Churcii.  The  Schismatic  Christians  of 
Sf.  Thomas  are  now  connected  with  the 


Jacobites.  All  these  sects  are  described 
under  separate  articles.  (Hefele,  "Con- 
cil."  vol.  ii.  For  an  elaborate  account  of 
the  Monophysite  divisions,  see  Petavius, 
"De  Incarnat."  I.  cap.  16,  17.) 

MOxroTHEXiZTES.  A  name  given 
to  those  who  held  that  Christ  had  only 
one  will.  "One  will,"  "one  operation," 
of  the  Word  made  Flesh,  were  t  he  watch- 
words of  their  party.  They  argued,  there 
is  but  one  Person  in  Christ,  therefore  a 
single  will,  and  a  single  operation.  The 
Catholic  doctrine,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
that  there  are  two  natures,  and  therefore 
two  operations  and  two  wills  in  Christ. 
The  will  is  a  faculty  of  the  nature,  and 
if  Christ  had  no  human  will  He  caimot 
have  been  true  man.  He  remains  for  ever 
God  and  Man,  in  two  distinct  natures; 
each  nature  operates  in  the  way  proper  to 
itself,  Nature  being  the  principle  of  opera- 
tion ;  there  are  therefore  two  operations 
and  two  wills  in  Christ,  the  one  Divine, 
the  other  humau,  although  these  wills 
are  in  perfect  harmony  with  each  other — 
since  the  human  will  of  Christ  follows, 
and  is  perfectly  subject  to,  His  Divine 
will.  That  Christ  had  two  wills  is  im- 
plied in  Luke  xxii.  42,  John  v.  30,  where 
He  distinguishes  His  own  (human)  will 
from  that  of  the  Father,  which  is  one 
with  Christ's  Divine  will.  Thus,  Pope 
Agatho's  synodal  letter,  accepted  at  the 
Sixth  General  Council — the  Third  of 
Constantinople — defines  that  Christ  has 
"  two  natural  wills,  without  division, 
change,  partition,  confusion,  not  contrary 
to  each  other,  but  the  human  will  fol- 
lowing and  subject  to  the  Divine."  We 
may  here  add  that  Catholic  theologians 
distinguish  three  kinds  of  operation  in 
Christ ;  those  which  are  purely  Divine — 
e.;/.  creation,  preservation  of  His  creatures, 
&c. ;  those  which  are  purely  humau,  eat- 
ing and  drinking,  weeping,  &c. ;  those  in 
which  each  nature  acts — the  Divine,  as 
the  principal,  the  human,  as  the  instru- 
mental cause — e.</.  raising  the  dead,  giving 
sight  to  the  blind,  &c.  The  last  are 
called  theandric  (d(6i,avr]p)  actions.  We 
proceed  to  the  history  of  the  heresy. 

Heraclius  (610-041)  naturally  desired 
the  reconciliation  of  Monophysites  and 
Catholics,  for  the  Persians  had  pressed 
forward  to  the  Hellespont,  and  there  was 
urgent  need  to  unite  the  Christians  of  the 
I'.mpire  as  one  man  against  them.  In 
622,  Heraclius,  in  an  interview  with  Paul, 
the  head  of  the  Armenian  Monophysites, 
suggested  the  form  "one  energy,"  as  a 
means  of  reconciling  the  contending 


MONOTHELITES 


MONTAXISTS  649 


parties.  He  made  use  of  the  same  ex- 
pedient, taught  him  probably  bv  Sergius 
of  Constantinople,  in  626,  when  he  tried 
to  etiect  a  union  between  Cyrus,  Catholic 
bishop  of  Phasis,  and  Athanasius,  the 
Jacobite  patriarch.  When  Cyrus  became 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  he  taught  in 
nine  Ke(f>a\aia  that  Christ,  because  His 
two  natures  were  united  in  one  Person, 
^'performed  Divine  and  human  acts  by 
Cine  theandric  operation  (i.e.  by  one  opera- 
tion at  once  Divine  and  human)  according 
to  St.  Dionysius  "  {i.e.  Pseudo-Dionysius 
the  Are(^pagite).  Sophronius,  a  monk  of 
Palestine,  when  at  Alexandria,  tried  to 
teep  Cyrus  from  publishing  these  K((f>d- 
Xaia,  and  also  opposed  the  Monothelite 
doctrine  at  Constantinople.  Soon  after, 
Sophronius  was  raised  to  the  patriarchate 
of  Jerusalem,  and  continued  to  oppose  the 
union  which  had  been  efi'ected  with  a 
section  of  the  Monophysites — viz.  the 
Theodosians.  Cyrus  and  Sergius,  occu- 
pying the  two  great  sees  of  Alexandria 
and  Constantinople,  vigorously  supported 
the  Monothelite  compromise,  and  the 
latter  tried  to  enlist  Pope  Honorius  on 
the  same  side — with  what  measure  of 
success  has  been  shown  in  a  separate 
article.  'See  HoxoBirs.]  On  the  other 
hand,  the"  Catholic  doctrine  was  clearly 
formulated  by  the  Synod  of  Jerusalem, 
which  met  under  Sophronius,  in  634. 
Three  years  later  Jerusalem  was  taken 
by  the  S;u-acens,  and  shortly  afterwards  ^ 
Sophronius  died.  In  638  Honorius,  too,  i 
was  gone,  and  a  new  phase  of  the  con-  I 
troversy  began. 

In  638  Heraclius  gave  his  imperial  , 
authority  to  an  Ecthesis  or  exposition  of  , 
tlie   faith   composed  by  Sergius.  This 
document  forbade  either  phrase  "  one  "  or  j 
^'two  energies,"  but  affinned  "  one  will"  | 
in  Christ.    The  Ecthesis  was  supported 
by  Pyrrhus  and  Paul,  successors  of  Sergius  , 
at  Constantinople,  and  by  two  councils  j 
held  there  iu  638  and  639;  but  it  was  [ 
o])i>osed  throughout  the  West,  and  con-  | 
demned  by  the  Popes  John  IV.  and  Theo- 
dore, Paul  of  Constantinople  being  excom- 
municated by  the  latter  Pope.  Moreover, 
the  orthodox  doctrine  found  a  powerful 
champion  in  the  abbot  Maximus,  formerly 
secretary  of  Herachus,  then   abbot  of 
Chrysopolis,  who  was  active  in  defence  of 
the  Catliolic  doctrine  in  Africa  (the  par- 
ticular place  is  uncertain),  where  he  held 
a  dispute  with  PyiThus,  and  at  Rome. 
The  Emperor  Constans  IT.  withdrew  the  j 
Ecthesis  and  enforced  upon  the  empire 
under  strict4|>enaltie8  another  document,  | 


known  ae  the  Type,  which  forbade  aU 
discussion  of  the  number  either  of  the 
energies  or  the  wills.  But  in  the  Lateran 
synod  of  649  Pope  Martin  I.  condemned 
both  Type  and  Ecthesis,  and  anathema- 
tised the  Monothelite  leaders.  Martin 
was  seized,  finally  banished  to  the  Cher- 
sonnese,  where,  after  enduring  much 
misery,  he  died  in  655.  Maximus  also 
died  in  banishment  after  cruel  maltreat- 
ment in  662.  An  approach  to  peace 
between  Rome  and  Constantinople  was 
made  about  this  time,  but  it  was  not 
concluded  till  Constantine  Pogonatus 
(66t-68o)  in  union  with  Pope  Agatho 
convoked  the  Third  General  Council  of 
Constantinople.  It  met  in  680,  detined 
the  existence  of  two  wills  in  Christ  and 
anathematised  Sergius,  Cyrus,  Honorius, 
Pyrrhus,  Paul,  &c.  The  presiding  Papal 
legates  signed  the  decrees,  which  were 
confirmed  by  Pope  Leo  II.  So  ended  the 
last  great  dogmatic  dispute  in  the  East. 
It  was  only  in  a  comer  of  Asia — viz.  in 
the  fastnesses  of  Lebanon — that  the  Mono- 
thelite doctrine  lingered.  The  adherents 
of  this  doctrine  gathered  round  the 
monastery  of  St.  Maro,  acknowledged  its 
abbot  as  their  head,  and  persevered  in 
their  isolation  till,  during  the  Cru-ades, 
they  were  reconciled  to  the  Church. 
[See  Maeoitites."  (Hefele,  "  ConcU." 
vol.  iii.) 

inoK'STR.aNCE.    From  the  Latin 

monstrare, to  show ; "  the  vessel  in  which 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  exposed  at 
Benediction  or  carried  in  procession.  It 
has  a  large  stem  and  base  like  a  chalice, 
and  the  upper  portion  is  generally 
fashioned  to  represent  rays  issuing  from 
the  host  as  a  central  sun.  At  first  it  was 
constructed  like  the  turrets  in  which  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  was  anciently  exposed, 
and  various  other  designs  are  employed. 
^Yhen  F^nelon's  quietism  was  condemned 
by  the  Holy  See  he  had  a  splendid 
monstrance  made,  the  lower  part  of 
which  represented  angels  trampling  on 
bad  books,  one  of  which  bore  the  title  of 
Fenelon's  own  work,  "Maxims  of  the 
Saints."  The  origin  of  the  monstrance  is 
traced  back  to  the  institution  of  the 
festival  of  Corpus  Christi  (q.  v.).  It  is 
also  called  Ostessoeiitji,  from  the  Latin 
ostendere,  and  often,  incorrectly,  Eemon- 
ttrance. 

BKOM'TAM'XSTS.  The  earlier  writers 
call  them  the  men  of  Phrygia  "  (oi  koto 
*pi'7aj)  because  Montanus  belonged  to 
that  cotmtry,  and  it  was  at  Pepuza  that 
he  and  two  women,  Maximilla  and  Pris- 


650  MOXTAXISTS 


MORAL  THEOLOGY 


cilia,  claimed  to  exercise  prophetic  gifts.  ! 
The  great  importance  of  the  movement  is  1 
shown  by  the  facts  that  Tertullian,  the 
ablest  of  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  except 
Origen,  was  won  over  to  Montanism ; 
that  Claudius  Apollinaris,  Miltiades,  and 
Rhodon  exerted  themselves  against  it;  I 
that  the  first  councils  of  the  Church  were  | 
lield  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century  I 
to  stem  its  progress  in  Asia  Minor ;  and 
that  three  bishops  of  Rome,  Soter,  Eleu- 
therus,  and  (probably)  Victor,  pronounced 
themselves  against  it — the  last,  according 
to  Tertullian,  after  some  hesitation  (Ter- 
tuU.  "Adv.  Prax."  1).    Montanus,  if  we 
mny  believe  the  report  mentioned  by 
Euseb.  ("  H.  E."  V.  Ki),  hanged  himself, 
and  so  did  iVJaximilla.    The  power  of 
Montanism  did  not  outlast  the  second 
century,  but  adherents  of  the  sect  are 
mentioned  even  in  edicts  of  Justinian  and 
Leo  the  Isaurian. 

Montanism  was  a  reaction  against  a 
change  which  necessarily  occurred  as  the 
number  of  Christians  increased,  as  the 
extraordinary  gifts,  prophecy  and  the  like, 
became  very  rare,  and  there  was  no  sign 
of  our  Lord's  coming  to  close  at  once  the 
fortunes  of  the  world  and  the  Churcli. 
It  was  this  speedy  coming  of  Christ 
which  the  new  prophets  announced ;  it 
was  the  belief  in  its  nearness  which  they 
endeavoured  to  revive,  "  After  me,"  said 
Maximilla  (Epiphan.  "Heer."  xlviii.  2), 
"there  will  be  no  longer  a  prophetess,  but 
the  consummation."  The  prophets  had 
already  seen  a  miraculous  representation 
of  Christ's  descent  from  heaven  (Tertull. 
"Adv.  Marc."  iii.  24).  It  was  time,  then, 
for  Christians  to  breakutterly  with  a  world 
which  would  ere  long  break  with  them. 
The  concessions  which  the  Apostles  even 
had  made  to  human  weakness  were  to  be 
allowed  no  longer.  The  Paraclete  liad 
appeared  in  the  prophets  and  inaugurated 
tlie  last  and  most  perfect  stage  in  the 
development  of  the  Church  ("De  Virg. 
Veland."  1).  The  new  discipline  now  in 
force  made  second  marriages  unlawful 
(Tertull.  "Adv.  Marc."  i.  29,  and  "De 
Monog."  and  "  Exhort.  Castit."  through- 
out) ;  made  the  fasts  of  the  Stations 
obligatory,  and  prolonged  the  fast  till  the 
evening,  whereas  with  the  Catholics  it 
ended  at  3  p.m.  ("  De  Jejun."  10);  and 
imposed  two  weeks  (.Saturdays  and  Sun- 
days excepted)  of  "xerophagy" — i.e.  of 
abstinence  from  flesh-meat,  wine,  dainties 
of  all  sorts,  and  the  bath  {ib.  16).  No 
flight  in  persecution  was  lawful  ("De 
Fuga,"  6).    But  the  most  serious  djfi'er- 


ence  between  Montanists  and  Catholics 
arose  from  their  diflerent  views  on  abso- 
lution. In  the  "De  Pudicitia"  Tertullian 
combats  the  claim  of  the  Roman  bishop 
to  pardon  grievous  sinners  and  restore 
them  to  the  peace  of  the  Church.  He 
argues  that  tliis  power  belonged  to  the 
Apostles  personally,  just  as  the  grace  of 
miracles  did,  but  denies  that  it  was  trans- 
mitted to  their  successors.  God  alone 
could  forgive  sins,  and  though,  no  doubt, 
He  might  declare  His  will  through  the 
prophets,  and  enable  the  Church  to  ab- 
solve from  adultery,  &c.,  as  a  matter  of 
fact  the  Paraclete  had  said  through  the 
prophets,  "The  Church  can  pardon 
crimes,  but  I  will  not  do  so,  lest  they 
commit  more  crimes "  ("  Pudic."  21). 
"Psychici,"  or  "animal  men,"  is  the 
name  the  Montanists  gave  to  Catholics  ; 
"  spiritual  men "  was  the  title  they 
claimed  for  themselves. 

Except  on  the  power  of  the  Keys 
there  was  no  dogmatic  difference  between 
Montanists  and  the  Church.  Tertullian 
speaks  of  the  Paraclete  as  inaugurating 
new  discipline,  not  new  doctrine  ("  D& 
Pud."  11),  and  the  author  of  the  "  Philo- 
sophumena  "  (viii.  19)  expressly  says  the 
Montanists  held  Catholic  doctrine,  and 
only  attributes  Sabellian '  error  to  some 
of  them  (rivis  avroiv  rrj  raiv  SorjTiavwv 
alpecrei  (Tvvridifxtvoi,  (c.r.A.).  As  the 
Gnostics  undermined  the  dogma,  so  the 
Montanists  the  discipline  of  the  Church. 
The  one  set  individual  wisdom  and  in- 
tellect, the  other  individual  holiness  and 
devotion,  against  the  claim  of  ecclesias- 
tical authority.  And  thus  it  is  that 
Gnostici.sm  and  Montanism  are  two  great 
factors  in  the  development  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  The  opposition  which  they  oc- 
casioned led  the  Church  to  assert  explicitly 
her  double  claim — her  claim  to  teach  the 
absolute  truth  on  the  one  hand  ;  to  try 
the  spirits  and  restore  the  sinner  on  the 
other.  [Schwegler's  work  on  Montanism 
— Tiibingen,  1841 — led  to  a  more  intel- 
ligent appreciation  of  the  subject.  Baur 
has  given  an  interesting  summary  of  his 
views  in  his  "  Kirchengeschichte,  p.  237 
seq.  But  the  best  and  most  careful 
account,  so  far  as  we  know,  is  that  of 
Rit?chl, "  Entstehung  der  Altkatholischen 
Kirche,"  pp.  462  seq7\ 

MOHAI,  THX:ox.oC7  is  the  science 

1  "Patripnssian"  would  be  more  accurate.  No 
one  could  be  more  opposed  to  such  an  error  than 
Tertullian.  The  general  orthodoxy  of  the 
Montanists  is  further  attested  by  Finiiilian,  Ad 
Cyp.  and  Epiphan,  Haer.  xlviii.  1. 


MORAL  THEOLOGY 


MORAL  THEOLOGY  651 


of  the  laws  which  regulate  duty.  It  is 
distingui:«hed  from  moral  philosophy,  or 
ethics,  which  is  concerned  with  the 
principles  of  right  and  wrong,  and  with 
their  application,  so  far  only  as  they  can 
be  discovered  from  the  light  of  nature ; 
whereas  moral  theology  estimates  the 
moral  character  of  actions  by  their  con- 
formity, or  want  of  conformity,  not  only 
to  the  natural  standard  of  ethics,  but  also 
to  the  Christian  revelation  and  positive 
law  of  the  Church.  It  is  different  from 
dogmatic  theolojry,  which  investigates 
the  truths  of  revelation,  their  connection 
with  each  other,  and  the  conclusions 
which  may  be  drawn  from  them  ;  moral 
theology,  on  the  other  hand,  looks 
primarily  to  duty  and  practice,  not  to 
speculative  truth ;  it  considers  faith  as  a 
moral  obligation,  and  the  truths  of  faith 
as  principles  of  conduct.  But  perhaps 
we  shall  give  a  better,  if  a  less  scientific, 
idea  of  moral  theology  by  describing  it 
as  the  science  of  priests  sitting  in  the 
confessional,  the  science  which  enables 
them  to  distinguish  right  from  wrong, 
mortal  sin  from  venial  sin,  counsels  of 
perfection  from  strict  obligation,  and  so 
to  administer  the  sacrament  of  Penance. 
Indeed,  it  is  because  moral  theology  has 
arisen  from  the  wants  and  is  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  priests  in  the  confessional, 
Ijecause  it  is  directed  to  the  solution  of 
cases  more  or  less  likely  to  occur,  that 
treatises  on  the  subject  are  mostly  de- 
ficient in  scientific  unity.  They  draw 
from  philosophers  and  dogmatic  theolo- 
gians, canon  and  civil  law,  ascetical  and 
liturgical  authors,  vtc.,the  material  which 
a  priest  wants  that  he  may  know  when 
to  give,  when  to  refuse,  absolution,  what 
conditions  he  is  to  exact  from  his  peni- 
tents, how  he  is  to  advise  and  exhort 
them. 

In  the  first  centuries  of  the  Church 
{lublic  penance  was  in  force.  This  was 
regulated  by  the  canons  :  much  less  was 
left  to  the  judgment  of  the  bishop  or  the 
priest,  and  therefore  there  was  no  pressing 
need  for  compendiums  of  moral  theology. 
The  administration  of  the  sacrament  of 
Penance  was  regulated  by  conciliar  de- 
cisions or  by  collections  of  penitential 
canons,  such  as  those  attributed  to  St. 
Gregory  Thaumaturgiis,  St.  Peter  of 
Alexandria,  St.  Basil,  and  St.  Gregory 
Xyssen.  From  the  seventh '  to  the 
thirteenth  century  the  use  of  penitential 

1  They  were  introduced  rather  earlier  in 
the  East;  see  the  article  on  Pexitentiai, 
Books. 


books  prevailed  in  the  Latin  Church — 
that  is  to  say,  from  the  whole  body  of 
decrees,  canons,  and  sentences,  those 
things  which  pertained  to  the  sacrament 
of  Penance  were  gathered  in  one  book, 
known  as  "  Extracts  from  the  Canons  of 
the  Fathers  for  the  Healing  of  Souls," 
"On  Remedies  for  Sins,"  or,  simply, 
"Penitential  Book."  In  the  thirteenth 
century  moral  theology  arose.  Up  to  that 
time  the  confessor  had'to  be  guided  purely 
by  his  own  reason  and  the  authority  of 
ecclesiastical  decisions  contained  in  his 
"  Penitential  Book."  But  now  scholastic 
theologians  and  canonists  began  to  discu.s^ 
the  sense  of  ecclesiastical  decisions,  to 
harmonise  them,  to  draw  inferences  from 
them  and  from  the  principles  of  the 
natural  and  revealed  law.  "  Cases  of 
conscience  "  were  considered  and  decided 
on  the  private  judgment  of  theologians, 
and  not  merely,  as  before,  by  councils  and 
bishops,  though  the  name  of  "  casuist " 
began,  apparently,  some  centuries  later. 
Collections  were  made  of  the  things 
a  confes.<or  should  know  when  he  had 
to  decide  cases  and  doubts  proposed  to 
him. 

Among  the  earliest  works  on  moral 
theology  are  the  following,  which  belong 
to  the  thirteenth  centurv* :  "  Summa  de 
Casibus  Penitentialibiis,"  by  St.  Raymund 
of  Pennafort  (floruit  12_''^).  Its  foui- 
books  treat  (1)  of  sins  against  God ;  (2) 
of  sins  against  our  neighbour;  (.3)  of 
ecclesiastics,  their  rights,  privileges, 
duties  ;  (4)  of  marriage.  It  was  printed 
at  Louvain,  1480;  Cologne,  1495;  Paris 
1500.  "Summa  de  Virtutibus "  and 
"Destructorium  Vitiorum,"  are  two  works 
attributed,  on  doubtful  grounds,  to 
Alexander  of  Hales.  The  "  Speculum 
Morale,"  by  Vincent  of  Beauvais.  The 
"  Liber  Penitentianim,"  by  John  of  God, 
written  in  1247.  Glosses  on  the 
"  Summa  "  of  St.  Raymund  of  Pennafort 
were  written  by  a  Dominican,  Gulielmus 
Redonensis,  about  1250,  and  widely  circu- 
lated under  the  name  of  "John  of  Frei- 
burg." A  little  later  came  St.  Bonaven- 
ture's  "  Confessionale." 

The  chief  productions  of  the  fourteenth 
century  were :  the  "  Summa  Major  "  and 
"  Quastiones  Casuales,"  by  the  Dominican, 
John  of  Freiburg;  the  "Summa  de 
Casibus  Conscientise,"  by  a  Franciscan, 
Astesanus  or  Astensis  ;  "  Summa  Casuum 
Conscieutiae,"  by  Monaldus,  another 
Franciscan,  who  flourished  about  1330 ; 
"  Summa  Casuum  Conscientise,"  by  Bar- 
tholomaeus  a  S.  Concordia,  a  Dominican 


652       MORAL  THEOLOGY 


MORAL  THEOLOGY 


of  Pisa,  vrho  wrote  in  L338  :  "Speculum 
Ciiratorum/'  by  a  Benedictine,  Ranulphus 
Higdenus  (1357).  But  the  most  famous 
book  of  this  a<re  appeared  in  1385  from 
the  pen  of  Joannes  de  Burgro.  It  is  en- 
titled "  Pupilla  Oculi  omnibus  Sacer- 
dotibus  tarn  Ciiratis,  quam  non  Curatis, 
suDime  necessaria,  in  qua  tractatur  de 
septem  sacramentorum  administratione, 
de  dtct-m  prseceptis  decnlogi,  et  de  reliquis 
ecclesiasticorum  officiis." 

iMany  famous  work>  on  moral  theology 
are  due  to  author?  of  thp  fifteenth  century. 
Gerson's  "  0[>usculum  Tripartitum  de 
pr.-efcpti^  (lecalngi,  de  confessione,  de  arte 
moricndi,"  had  so  pr^at  a  reputation  that 
sevHiitt  fii  synod?  ordfT'-d  priests  to  use  it 
in  .  I"  'ii  J  thp  Di  t-alocTue,  hearing 
CO!;.  •  :■  d  ^isiting  the  sick.  Three 
oni-<'i; :  -  ,  111  I  St.  Benwrdine  of  Sienna 
("  I'.-  (  '.inle^sir.ne  "),  St.  John  Capistran 
("  .'Speculum  Conscientise,"  traetatus  "  De 
Cniioiie  Poeniteiitiali,"  "De  Usuris,"  "  De 
Contractihu.?/'  &c.),  and  St.  Antoninus, 
archbishop  of  Florence,  wrote  on  moral 
subjects.  The  "Summa  Theologica  et 
Summa  Confessionalis "  of  the  last  has 
often  been  republished,  and  is  still  quoted. 
Many  other  names  might  be  given.  Nor 
niu,-t  it  be  supposed  that  an  idea  can  be 
formed  ofmedic'eval  moral  theology  from 
an  account,  even  if  an  exhaustive  one,  of 
boolcs  exclusively  devoted  to  this  .science. 
On  the  contrary,  the  greatest  moral  theo- 
logian of  the  middle  ages,  and  the  one  who 
has  had  the  most  enduring  influence,  is 
St.  Thomas  of  Aquin.  But  he,  especially 
in  the  "Secunda  Secundae,  '  treats  moral 
theology  in  its  organic  connection  with 
dogmatic  theology.  His  example  has  been 
followed  by  many  later  -^Titers  ;^  and  this, 
we  venture  to  think,  is  the  true* scientific 
method,  thougli  far  less  convenient  for 
practical  purposes.  Scotus,  on  tlie  other 
hand,  scarcely  touched  on  moral  questions; 
perhaps  because  lie  found  the  ground  suffi- 
ciently occupied  by  Alexander  of  Hales 
and  St.  Thomas. 

From  the  sixteenth  century  moral 
theology  has  been  treated  with  greater 
completeness,  and  its  order  has  been  per- 
fected for  practical  use.  But  the  great 
char)ge  which  has  occurred  con.sists  in 
this,  that  theories  affecting  the  whole  sv.s- 
tem  of  moral  theology  arce,  and  divided 
CHsui.sts  into  schools  clearly  separated 
from  and  often  bitterly  hostile  to  each 
other.  Medina,  a  Spanish  Dominican 
(1528-1581)  and  professor  at  Salamanca, 
first  (in  his  "  Exposition  of  St.  Thomas  ") 
propounded  the  theory  since  known  as 


'  Probabilism  *  in  set  terms,  and  kindled  a 
controversy  which  raged  for  two  cen- 
turies after  his  death,  and  is  not  yet  quite 
extinct. 

A  probable  opinion  is  one  which  rests 
on  reasons  which  are  good  and  solid,  but 
not  so  strong  as  to  exclude  all  doubt. 
Hence,  in  many  matters  of  conscience 
there  may  be  a  probable  opinion  according 
to  which  I  am  fi-ee  to  choose  a  particular 
course  of  action,  and  another  opinion,  also 
probable,  that  1  have  no  such  Jibertv,  the 
law,  human  or  divine,  having  already 
decided  the  matter  for  me.  Alter  doing 
my  best  to  ascertain  the  real  extent  of 
the  obligation,  I  am  still  in  doubt.  The 
opinion  which  favours  the  law  and  that 
which  favours  my  liberty  both  seem  pro- 
bable. In  such  cases,  Probabi lists  hold 
that  I  am  free  to  use  my  libei-ty.  A 
doubtful  law,  they  urge,  is  not  binding. 
A  man's  conscience  can  be  bound  by  a 
law  only  so  far  as  he  knows  of  its  exist- 
ence ;  and  in  this  case  I  do  not  know  for 
certain  the  exi.stence  of  the  law,  nor  have 
I  the  means  of  doing  so.  Therefore  I 
may  act  with  safety,  because  I  am  certain 
that  practically  the  law  does  not  bind  me. 
l>ut  several  limitations  must  be  made. 
First,  I  must  be  sure  that  the  opinion  on 
the  side  of  liberty  rests  on  a  firm  basis  in 
the  reason  of  the  thing,  in  the  authors  of 
great  name  and  weight  who  support  it,  or 
in  both.  The  proposition  that  I  may 
follow  a  probability,  however  slight,  in 
favour  of  liberty,  belongs  to  lax,  not  to 
Probabilist  theologians,  and  was  con- 
demned by  Innocent  XI.  (Prop.  3).  Next, 
if  a  man  is  under  the  obligation  of  attain- 
ing to  some  definite  external  end,  he  is 
bound  to  take  all  reasonable  means  of 
securing  that  end,  and  may  by  no  means 
follow  an  opinion  probable,  or  even  more 
probable,  that  the  end  will  be  secured. 
He  must  take  the  most  certain  means 
open  to  him.  For  example,  a  priest  must 
not  confer  the  sacraments  after  a  fashion 
which  leaves  doubt  as  to  their  validity,  if 
a  safer  path  is  open  to  him.  A  man  must 
not  pay  a  debl  with  money  or  a  cheque 
which  he  knows  may  prove  worthle.ss, 
though  he  has  strong  reasons  for  thinking 
them  good.  A  doctor  must  not  use 
doubtful  remedies  if  he  has  better  ones  at 
command.    A  man  may  not  fire  at  game 

I  This  is  the  account  generally  given. 
Echard  (Script.  Dnminican.  torn.  ii.  p.  257; 
quoted  by  Billuart,  JJe  Act.  Human.yi.  I)  tries 
to  sliiiw  that  Medina  was  not  really  a  Pr.lja- 
bilist,  though  he  admits  that  he  made  way  for 
the  thin  end  of  the  wedge. 


MORAL  THEOLOGY 


MORAL  THEOLOGY  653 


if  he  knows  there  is  even  a  slight  danger 
of  wounding  a  fellow-creature.  Such 
opinions,  again,  are  lax,  not  Probabilist, 
and  are  contrary  not  onlr  to  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  Christianity,  but  also 
to  the  natural  conscience  and  common 
sense  of  maukind. 

Laxity  manifests  itself  in  many  ways, 
and  the  reader  may  form  some  idea  of  the 
scandalous  excesses  into  which  it  has  run 
by  reading  the  list  of  propositions  con- 
demueil  by  the  Popes,  especially  by 
Innocent  XI.  We  need  not  say  more 
about  it  here ;  and,  on  the  other  side,  we 
may  also  dismiss  the  opinion  of  the 
Rigorists,  or  Tutiorists,  who  held  that 
we  must  always  take  the  safer  way, 
always  sacrifice  our  freedom,  howsTcr 
small  the  probability  that  our  freedom  is 
restrained  by  the  law.  This  opinion  was 
proscribed  by  Alexander  VHI.  A  kindred 
opinion  that  we  must  not  take  advantage 
of  our  liberty  unless  we  can  point  to  an 
opiniou  of  the  highest  probability  in  its 
favour  may  also  be  dismissed,  for  it  never 
found  any  considerable  support  among 
theologians.  Very  ditferent  is  it  with 
another  system  of  moral  theology,  known 
as  Prokibiliorism,  for  long  the  powerful 
and  even,  for  a  time  and  in  a  certain  de- 
gree, the  triumphant  rival  of  Probabilism. 

The  Probabiliorists  put  no  restraint  on 
liberty,  where  a  man  was  convinced  on 
solid  groimds  that  the  bilance  of  evidence 
was  decidedly  in  favour  of  his  liberty.  Li 
such  a  case,  they  said,  he  acted  prudently 
and  as  became  a  Christian.  He  was  doing 
his  best  to  ascertain  the  truth,  and,  after 
weighing  the  reasons,  had  decided  that 
he  might  do  this  or  that  without  sin.  He 
judged  according  to  the  merits  of  the 
case  and  decided  according  to  the  rules  of 
evidence,  just  as  an  honest  judge  would 
do.  He  chose  the  way  to  which  he  was 
inclined,  not  solely  because  of  his  inclina- 
tion, but  because  of  the  prepoud'^^rating 
evidence.  On  the  other  hand,  a  mau  who 
used  his  liberty  wheu  the  prob;ibility  of 
the  opinions  for  and  agjiinst  his  right  to 
exercise  it  were  evenly  balanced,  wantonly 
exposed  himself  to  danger  of  material 
sin.  If  he  acted  against  an  opinion 
which  he  himself  allowed  to  be  more 
probable,  alleging  an  opinion  also  probable 
on  his  o^Ti  side,  he  was  judging  against 
the  weii^ht  of  evidence,  and  therefore  sin- 
ning against  the  truth.  If  the  Proba- 
bilists  quoted  the  maxim,  "A  doubtful 
law  does  not  bind,"  the  Probabiliorists 
retorted,  "In  doubtful  matters  choose  the 
safer  side."    If  the  Probabilists  pleaded 


that  they  acted  with  safe  and  sure  con- 
science, since,  doubtful  as  they  might  bt 
as  to  the  absolute  lawfulness  of  a  particu- 
lar action,  they  could  be  certain  in  prac- 
tice that  the  action  was  lawful  to  them, 
since  the  law  was  uncertain,  and,  not 
being  certain,  had  no  binding  force,  the 
Probabiliorists  replied,  "  You  cannot  feel 
certain  of  this  without  culpable  presump- 
tion. The  reflex  principle  which  you  as- 
sume to  be  morally  certain  and  make  the 
basis  of  your  conviction  that  in  the  par- 
ticular case  you  are  certainly  free  to  act, 
is,  in  fact,  contested  by  all  Probabiliorists 
— i.e.  by  a  vast  number  of  grave  and 
learned  theologians  from  all  nations, 
orders,  and  ranks  in  the  Church.  Yet,  if 
this  reflex  principle  be  doubtful;  if  your 
argument,  '  The  law  is  uncertain,  and 
therefore  I  am  certain  it  does  not  bind,' 
is  itself  not  absolutely  and  evidently  co- 
gent, then  the  question  is  at  an  end.  You 
yourselves  admit  the  wickedness  of  act- 
ing with  a  conscience  practically  doubt- 
ful. '"Whatsoever  is  not  of  faith  is  of 
sin.'" 

From  loSO  till  about  1650  Probabilism, 
as  even  Billuart  does  not  venture  to  deny, 
held  possession  of  the  schools.  The  great 
theologians  prior  to  Medina's  date  did  not 
treat  the  question  formally,  and  arequoted 
on  both  sides.  From  about  1650  a  power- 
ful reaction  set  in.  In  France,  Zaccaria 
writes,  Probabilism  was  hated  as  *'the 
pest  of  morality,"  and  in  17(.X)  it  was  con- 
demned in  the  Assembly-General  of  the 
French  clergy.  The  learned  Benedictines 
of  St.  Maur  and  St.  Vannes  and  the 
Fathers  of  the  French  Oratory  were 
notoriously  hostile  to  it.  Nor  must  it  be 
thought  that  this  hostility  was  peculiar 
to  French  ecclesiastics  or  to  Galileans. 
Most,  according  to  Billuart.  of  the  Do- 
minicans, some  distitiguished  Jesuits  (e.y. 
Gonzalez,  General  of  the  Society),  and 
many  Itahau  writers  (e.y.  the  Dominican 
Concina,  the  brothers  Peter  and  Jerome 
Ballerini,  Berti,  Fag-nanus,  many  years 
secretary  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Council^  were  in  the  hostile  ranks.  Bene- 
dict XIV.  made  the  moral  theology  of 
the  Jesuit  Antoine  (in  the  Roman  edi- 
tion of  the  Franciscan  Carbognano),  an 
author  rigid  even  among  the  Probabi- 
liorists, the  text-book  at  the  Propaganda. 
And  it  may  j)erhaps  be  worth  mention 
that  Bishop  Mihier  recommended  Collet, 
another  Probabiliorist,  for  the  use  of  his 
clergy.  It  was  the  text-book  at  Oscott 
within  the  memory  of  priests  still  alive. 
Henno,  a  well-known  Franciscan,  calcu- 


654       MORAL  THEOLOGY 


MOZZETTA 


lated  that  -when  he  wrote — viz.  in  1710 — 
there  were  twenty  Probnbiliin-ist?  for  one 
Probabilist;  while  the  Flt-mi.-h  thedloo-ian 
Billuart,  in  1747,  thdU'jht  the  prei)iMKler- 
ance  of  number;^  on  tb.e  .<ide  of  Prolia- 
biliorism  had  been  douWed  in  the  interval. 
No  faith  can  be  placed  even  in  the  proxi- 
mate accuracy  of  these  estimates.  Still, 
they  may  be  fairly  accepted  as  evidence 
that  numbers  were  on  the  side  of  Proba- 
biliorism. 

The  proportion  is  now  reversed,  and 
Probabilism  is  the  popular  theory  through- 
out the  Church.  It  may,  indeed,  be  re- 
garded as  the  only  existent  theory.  Car- 
riere  (died  ISG-l),  a  distinguished  Sulpician, 
who  wrote  "De  Contractibus  et  Matri- 
monio,"  is  the  only  recent  writer  on  moral 
theology,  so  far  as  we  know,  who  is  not 
a  Probabilist.  This  chauo'e  is  due  partly, 
we  think,  to  the  force  of  reason,  for  we 
cannot  see  that  Probabiliorism  is  logical 
and  consistent,  and  the  arguments  ad- 
duced by  its  advocates  really  tend  to 
Tutiorisni;  partly  to  the  disappearance  of 
the  old  French  Chiu  eli  and  many  Catholic 
universities  wlirr..' the  stricter  doctrine  on 
morals  had  a  .-tiniiii-  hold;  partly  to  the 
great  influence  ol'  St.  Liguori's  works  on 
moral  theology.  His  "  Theologia  Moralis" 
and  "Homo  Apostolicus"  appeared  about 
the  middle  of  last  century,  and  have  often 
been  republished.  At  present  the  Proba- 
bihst  theology  of  this  writer  is  accepted 
almost  everywhere  in  the  Church,  and 
the  recent  works  ('fSeaviiii  and  (^ury  are 
little  more  than  adajit  ai  imis  d'  St.  Lii^uori 
though,  of  course,  thes'-  aulhnrs  dd  nni 
follow  him  blindly,  and  the  .lesuit  IJallc- 
rini  (in  his  notes  to  Gury)  often  dinars 
from  his  conclusions.  Moreover,  the  Con- 
gregation of  Rites,  in  a  deei'ee  confirmed 
by 'the  Pope  in  Iso;',.  d..clar.'d  that  St. 
Liguori's  works  conl.'iiui'il  "nothing 
worthy  of  censure."  This,  as  Ileilig,  the 
Redeniptorist  iMliiiir,  ixp'ains.  In'  no 
means  implies  that  each  >tati'ment  of  St. 
Liguori  is  true,  or  even  that  none  of  them 
will  ever  be  condemned  by  the  Church. 
It  only  means  that  his  works  are  free 
from  any  "error  alipmly  rrt'ogniscd  as 
sucli  by  the  Chureli."  S.i,  a-aiii,  in  ls.31, 
the  Sacred  Penil  eiitiar\  aniniu'd  I  hat  a 
coid'.-ssor  nii-ht  saf.'ly  I'ollnw  :dl  St. 
Liguori's  (ipinii.iis  nu  aci-iaiiit  of  tlir  judg- 
menl  i.fthr  Ihily  S.'ejii-I  i|imled.a(idin-', 
howrvrr,  (hat  'til. 're'  ^va^  no  I'aiill  in 
adoi)ting  llir  niMiiioiis  ui.  liv  othiT  ap- 
proved authors.  The  reei'iii  .■levaliou  of 
St.  Liguoi-i  to  the  rank  of  Doctor  of  tlie 
Church  makes  no  formal  difference  in  the 


authority  of  bis  system,  though  it  is 
clearly  another  mark  of  the  Church's 
approbation.  The  Pope  would  not  have 
made  St.  Liguori  a  Doctor  of  the  Church 
had  he  regarded  the  great  literary  work 
of  his  life  in  defending  and  expounding 
Probabilism  as  a  mistake. 

We  passed  over  by  design  a  subdivision 
which  exists  among  Probabilists  them- 
selves, .^qui-probabilists  hold  that  a 
man  may  use  his  Uberty,  if  the  reasons  in 
favour  of  his  right  to  do  so  are  at  least 
equal  in  probabihty  to  those  on  the  other 
side,  but  not  otherwise.  Probabilists 
pure  and  simple  would  allow  a  man  to 
take  advantage  of  his  liberty  if  he  has 
really  probable  grounds  for  thinking  that 
the  law  does  not  bind  him,  even  if  the 
argument  on  the  other  side  is  more  pro- 
bable. This  subdivision  of  Probabilists  is 
an  old  one,  but  it  has  attracted  more 
attention  of  late,  now  that  Probabilists 
are  in  possession  of  the  field  and  have 
time  for  disputes  with  each  other.  The 
Redemptorist  authors  of  the  "  Vindiciae 
Alphonsianse "  try,  we  believe,  to  show 
that  St.  Liguori  was  an  .Equi-probabilist. 
The  object  of  their  book  is  to  correct 
Ballerini,  who  edited  the  Moral  Theology 
of  his  brother  Jesuit  Gury,  with  elaborate 
notes,  in  which  he  not  only  assumes  that 
St.  Liguori  was  a  Probabilist  jjure  and 
simple,  but  often  defends  the  probability 
of  opinions  which  St.  Liguori  rejected. 
In  his  thii-d  edition  Ballerini  replies  to 
the  eliargr-  of  laxity  A\  liieli  the  Redemp- 
toiists  inaili'  against  him.  A  posthumous 
worli  on  moral  theology  written  by  him 
has  lately  (lSiJ2)  been  published. 

(The  historical  part  of  this  article  is 
drawn  from  Zaccaria's  learned  dissertation 
prefixed  to  some  editions  of  St.  Liguori's 
"  Theologia  Moralis.''  "We  have  said 
nothing  of  the  great  moral  theologians 
who  have  written  during  the  last  three 
centuries,  De  Lugo,  Sporer,  La  Croix,  &c., 
because  a  useful  list  of  them  is  prefixed  to 
Gury's  work,  and  is  sure  to  be  in  the  hands 
of  those  whom  the  subject  interests.) 
nxoRTAl.  siwr.  [See  Sin.] 
TCORTAZAIN'.  [See  Will  (2).] 
MOZZETTA.  (from  mozzo,  mntilus; 
cf.  j.uTv\iti  and  fxvTiXfis.  curtailed).  A  short 
ve.^tiuent.  quite  ojicn  in  front,  which  can, 
hoMevt-r,  be  buttoned  i_>\vi-  tlir  Ijreast, 
covering  the  shouhlers,  and  w  ith  a  little 
hood  behind.  It  is  worn  by  the  Pope, 
by  cardinals,  bishops,  abbots,  and  others 
who  do  so  by  customer  Papal  privilege — 
e.ff.  in  England  by  canons.  A.«  it  is  the 
usual  state  dress  of  a  bishop  when  he  is 


MUNDATORY 


MYSTICAL  TliEOLOGY  G56 


not  saying  Mass  or  performing  other 
sacred  functions,  bishops,  Sec,  are  usually 
painted  with  the  mozzetta.  The  mozzetta 
leaves  the  greater  part  of  the  rochet  un- 
covered, hence  it  is  either  not  worn  at  all 
or  worn  only  over  the  mautelletta  by  car- 
dinals, bishops,  and  others  where  they 
have  no  juriiidiction.  Thus  the  cardinals 
wear  the  mozzetta  and  rochet  only  in 
the  churches  from  which  they  take  their 
titles ;  but  throughout  Rome  during  a 
vacancy  of  the  Holy  See,  especially  at 
Conclaves. 

Tlie  Pope  wears  five  different  mozzetta. 
In  the  liotler  part  of  tlie  year — viz.  from 
the  first  vesjiers  of  the  Ascension  to  the 
feast  of  St.  Catliarine,  his  mozzetta  is  of 
red  satin  e.xcept  on  vii^iis,  ember  days, 
Masses  of  the  dead,  and  other  penitential 
occasions,  when  it  is  of  red  serge  or 
camlet  ("  di  saia  ro,-sa  o  cammellotto.") 
The  other  half  of  the  year,  he  wears  a 
mozzetta  of  red  velvet,  except  as  a  mark 
of  sorrow  or  penance  in  Advent,  Septua- 
gesima  to  the  end  of  Lent,  vi<iils,  &c., 
when  his  mozzetta  is  of  red  woollen  cloth 
(j)anno  rosso).  On  a  feast,  such  as  those 
of  the  Annunciation  and  Conception,  the 
anniversary  of  his  election  and  consecra- 
tion, on  visiting  a  church  where  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  is  exposed,  &c.,  he 
puts  aside  the  mourning  mozzetta  even 
during  jienitential  sea.sous.  From  Holy 
Saturday  till  Saturday  in  Low  Week,  his 
mozzetta  is  of  white  damask.  The  car- 
dinals liave  four  mozzette — viz.  of  red 
■or  purple  silk,  violet  silk,  rose-coloured 
silk,  violet  serge.  (Moroni,  "  Dizionario 
Istorico.") 

IVXVN-OATORY  or  Purificatory.  A 
cloth  of  linen  or  hemp  (S.  C.  R.  May  18, 
1819),  u.xed  for  cleansing  the  chalice.  It 
has  a  small  cross  in  the  middle  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  Lavabo  towel.  It  is 
mentioned  in  the  "  Cifiremoniale  Epi- 
scoporum,"  but  its  use  is  of  recent  date 
and  it  is  not  blessed.  The  Greeks  use  a 
sponge  instead.  (Benedict  XIV.  "De 
Miss."  i.  v.  o.) 

MYSTXCAX.  SENSE  OF  SCRZP- 
TVRE.  In  the  historical  or  literal  sense 
words  signify  things ;  but  sometimes  God 
ordained  that  the  things  signified  by  the 
•words  should  signify  other  things,  and  so 
we  get  the  mystical  or  spiritual  sen.se. 
St.  Paul,  for  example,  tells  us  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians  that  Ismael  and 
Isaac  were  types  of  .Jewish  bondage  and 
Christian  liberty.  The  mystical  sense  is 
subdivided  into  the  allegorical,  where  the 
things  of  the  old  signify  the  mysteries  of 


the  new  law,  the  moral  where  they 
signify  moral  precepts,  the  anagogical 
where  they  signify  future  glory  (St. 
Thomas,  1.  Qu.  I.  a.  10).  The  mystical 
interpretation  is  by  no  means  peculiar  to 
Christians.  Philo,  St.  Paul's  contem- 
porary, found  in  the  allegorical  interpre- 
tation of  the  Old  Testament  an  easy 
means  of  reconciling  it  with  Greek  phi- 
losophy, and  allegorical  intei^jretation 
has  been  systematised  by  the  Rabbins.' 
St.  Paul's  authority  proves  that  there  is  a 
mystical  sense  in  Scripture;  but  common 
sense  warns  us  of  the  dangers  attached 
to  such  a  method  of  intei-pretation.  And 
St.  Thomas,  following  St.  Augustine, 
teaches  that  arguments  can  be  drawn 
from  the  literal  sense  alone  {loc.  cit.). 

nivsTZCAi.  THEOI.OCY.  One 
of  the  subdivisions  of  theology  classed 
under  the  more  general  division  of  Moral 
Theology.  It  is  sometimes  identified 
with  Ascetical  Theology,  but  it  seems 
more  proper  to  confine  its  definition  in 
such  a  way  as  to  distinguish  it  precisely 
by  its  specific  name  of  "  Mystical,"  from 
that  which  is  more  properly  called  "  As- 
cetical "  (q.  v.).  According  to  this  stricter 
definition  it  is  described  as  comprising 
two  parts — viz.  the  doctrinal  and  the  ex- 
perimental. The  experimental  is  defined 
as  "  a  pure  knowledge  of  God  which  the 
soul  ordinarily  receives  in  a  luminous 
darkness  or  obscure  light  of  sublime  con- 
templation, together  with  an  experi- 
mental love  so  intimate  that  the  soul, 
losing  itself  altogether,  is  united  to  God 
and  transformed  into  Him."  This  is 
called  Theology  because  it  contains  acts 
proximately  referred  to  God  as  their 
object ;  Mystical  because  acquired  by  a 
secret  operation  known  only  to  God  and 
the  recipient  of  His  Divine  favom-s  ;  and 
experimental,  because  it  is  only  by  per- 
sonal spiritual  experience  that  such  a 
knowledge  of  God  can  be  gained.  Doc- 
trinal Mystical  Theology  is  '■  a  science 
which  considers  the  acts  of  the  experi- 
mental, and  discusses  their  essence,  pro- 
perties, and  efl'ects,  according  to  the 
authoi-ity  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  con- 
templative saints,  giving  practical  rules 
for  the  guidance  of  those  who  have 

'  Tljey  also  recognise  four  modes  of  inter- 
preting Scripture — viz.  the  literal  (0^5),  the 
seeking  of  hints  for  laws,  precepts,  &c.  (tp'^)! 
the  deduction  of  dogma  and  legal  determina- 
tions (cyTi),  the  interpretation  of  mystical 
theology  (nioV  Hamburger,  Real-Eicycl. 
fur  Bibel  und  Talmud ;  art.  "  Exegese." 


Co6  NA3IE,  CHRISTIAI^,  ETC. 


NATIVITY  OF  THE  B.  V. 


attained,  or  are  in  the  way  to  attain,  the 
state  of  high  contemplation." 

The  most  eminent  mystical  writers 
in  the  Catholic  Church  are  Pseudo- 
Diouysius  the  so-called  Areopagite,  St. 
Bernard,  St.  Thomas,  St.  Anselm,  St. 
Buouaventura,  Hugh  and  Richard  of  St. 
Victor,  Gerson,  Ilui-phius,  Tauler,  St. 
Teresa  and  St.  John  of  the  Cross,  and 
others.  The  great  modern  Doctor  in 
Mystical  Theology,  whose  works  are  the 
most  complete  and  luminous,  the  most 
sublime,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most 
philosophically  exact  and  precise,  and 


whose  authority  is  the  highest  which  any 
private  theologian  can  have,  is  St.  John 
of  the  Cross.  His  works  have  been 
translated  into  English  in  the  best  manner 
by  Mr.  Lewis.  A  more  unpretending 
!  but  very  solid  and  useful  treatise  is  the 
I  "  Sancta  Sophia"  of  F.  Baker,  an  English 
Benedictine.  As  scientific  and  methodi- 
cal treatises  for  the  use  of  directors  and 
jirofessed  theologians,  the  "  Institutioues 
Theologiie  Mysticae"  of  F.  Schram, 
O.S.B.,  and  the  "  Directorium  Mysticum  " 
of  F.  Scaramelli,  S.J.,  are  in  the  highest 
i  repute. 


N 


ITAMZ:,  CHRXSTZAir,  ETC.  [See 
Baptismal  Name.]  | 

WAiWE  or  TESTTS.    [See  Jesus.]  I 

xr.asxE  OF  nxART.  [See  Mary, 
Feast  of  the  Name.]  i 

XJ-ARTHEX  (vdp6r]^,  the  giant - 
fennel).  In  the  ancient  basilicas  a  long 
narrow  space,  from  which  outer  doors 
led  into  the  portico,  and  inner  doors 
into  the  body  of  the  church,  was  known  \ 
by  this  name.  In  it  stood  the  Au- 
dientes  (penitents  allowed  to  enter  the 
church,  but  only  the  part  farthest  from 
the  altar),  the  Possessed  (xfifidC^'tJ-ei'oi), 
and  the  Catechumeus,  who  had  not  yet 
been  biiptised.  The  oblong  shape  of  this 
space,  which  extended,  the  whole  width 
of  the  building,  suggested  the  name. 
(Smith  and  Cheetham ;  Wetzer  and 
Welte.) 

N-ATAI.S,  NATAXXTZA.  The  day 

on  which  a  saint  is  bom  into  eternal  life 
— i.e.  the  day  of  his  death.  The  Church 
does  not  celebrate  the  natural  birthday  of 
the  saints  because  they  were  born  in  sin, 
and  the  fact  that  she  keeps  the  birthday 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist  is,  as  St.  Augus- 
tine points  out,  an  exception  which 
proves  the  rule,  for  St.  John  was  cleansed 
from  original  sin  before  his  birth.' 

The  use  of  Nnnile,  Nutalitia,  &c._,  for 
the  day  of  a  saint's  death  is  very  ancient. 

'  Apparently,  however,  even  the  heathen 
Romans  used  "natale"  as  a  euphemism  for  the 
flay  of  death.  This,  at  least,  seems  to  follow 
from  Mommsen  ( De  Cnllegiis,  p.  127),  as  f|Hot' d 
bv  Probst  ( Kirchliche  Disciplin  der  rlrei  erslen 
Jahrhunderte,  p.  127).  A  quotation  iciven 
from  Statutes  of  the  Lanuvian  Colleyiiim,  with 
lists  of  feasts  for  the  "  natalia "  or  days  on 
which  the  members  had  died. 


Thus  the  Church  of  Smyrna  says  of  their 
bishop  Polycarp,  "We  keep  the  birthday  of 
his  martyrdom  "  (rfjv  tov  fxaprvpLov  avTov 
rjfxepav  yevi6\iov)  ("Mart.  Polyc."  18), 
and  Tertullian  speaks  of  the  Mass  said  on 
the  feasts  of  martyrs  as  "  oblationes  pro 
natalitiis  "  ("De  Corona," 3).  The  Church 
still  retains  the  use  of  the  word  in  her 
collects.  Thence  Natale  came  to  mean 
a  feast  generally — e.g.  "  Natale  Petri  de 
Cathedra"  in  the  ancient  Kalendarium 
Becclerianum  is  the  feast  of  St.  Peter's 
Chair.  It  was  also  used  for  the  anniver- 
sary of  a  bishop's  consecration.  (Probst, 
loc.  cit. ;  Smith  and  Cheetham.) 

HATZOSTAI.  STXJOD.  [See  CotTN-- 
CIL.] 

XO-ATZVZTT  OF  THE  BX.ESSED 
VZRCZxr.  Nothing  is  known  about  the 
place,  date,  or  circumstances  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin's  birth.  Joachim  and 
Anne  are  believed  to  have  been  her 
parents,  and  this  belief,  the  earliest 
authority  for  which  is  the  "  Protevan- 
gelium  Jacobi,"  an  apocrjq)hal  Gospel  of 
early  date,  was  current  in  the  East  and 
West  during  the  eighth  century.  It  is 
recognised  by  St.  John  of  Damascus  and 
.Tames,  bishop  of  Edessa,  while  the  "  Liber 
Pontificalis,"  mentions  in  the  life  of  Pope 
Leo  III.  that  he  had  the  history  of  St. 
Joachim  and  St.  Anne  painted  in  the 
Basilica  of  St.  Paul.  The  feast  of  St. 
Anne  on  July  ^6,  which  is  mentioned  in 
the  Roman  and  other  ^lartyrologies,  was 
sanctioned  for  the  whole  Church  by 
Gregory  XIII.  in  15^:4.  Leo  XIII.  has 
lately  raised  both  feasts  (St.  Joachim  and 
St.  Anue)  to  be  doubles  of  the  second 
class. 


NAVE 


NESTORIAXS  G57 


It  is  very  vmcertain  when  the  feast  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin's  nativity  was  intro- 
duced. The  Breviary  lessons  for  the 
feast,  said  to  be  taken  from  St.  Augustine, 
are  of  course  spurious.  The  mention  of 
the  feast  in  Sacramentaries  of  St.  Leo 
and  St.  Gregory  proves  little,  considering 
the  changes  and  fretjuent  recensions 
which  books  of  that  sort,  intended,  as 
they  are,  for  practical  purposes,  are  sure 
to  undergo.  It  is  not  mentioned  by  the 
Council  of  Mayence  in  813,  though  it 
gives  a  list  of  the  feasts  then  celebrated ; 
nor  again  in  the  capitularies  of  Charle- 
magne and  Louis  the  Pious.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  mentioned  by  Walter, 
bishop  of  Orleans,  in  871,  and  in  a  work 
on  the  virginity  of  Mary  ascribed  to  St. 
Udefonsus,  but  really,  as  Dachery  thinks, 
written  by  Paschasius  Radbertus,  in  the 
middle  of  the  ninth  century.  It  is  placed 
in  the  list  of  holidays  by  the  Emperor 
Manuel  Comnenus  in  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century,  and  the  Copts  as  well  as 
the  Greeks  have  adopted  it.  Both  Greeks 
and  Latins  now  keep  it  on  September  8, 
though  at  one  time  this  was  not  every- 
where the  day  fixed  for  the  celebration. 
The  octave  was  added  by  Innocent  IV. 
'in  consequence,  it  is  said,  of  a  vow  made 
by  the  cardinals  at  the  election  of  Celes- 
tine  IV.  The  dissensions  between  the 
Church  and  Frederic  II.  made  it  difficult 
to  secure  the  peace  necessary  for  an 
election,  and  in  this  extremity  the  Con- 
clave begged  the  Blessed  Virgin's  prayers, 
and  promised,  in  case  the  favour  was 
granted,  to  have  an  octave  added  to  the 
feast  of  her  nativity. 

DTAVS.  That  portion  of  the  church 
reserved  for  the  laity.  Though  the  name 
is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
comparison  of  a  church  to  a  ship  [see 
CnrECH],  and  the  use  of  the  correspond- 
ing words  in  French  and  other  languages 
seems  to  justify  this  derivation,  yet  many 
make  it  to  be  from  vaos,  a  temple.  It 
was  variously  called  oratwium  laicii, 
fKKKrjata,  and  quadratum  populi.  In 
English  it  was  sometimes  called  nef. 

iffECROIiOGir.  A  book  containing 
the  names  of  the  dead,  especially  of 
bishops  who  had  built  the  church  to 
which  the  necrology  belonged,  of  bene- 
factors, friends,  &c.,  that  they  might  be 
prayed  for.  Such  a  book,  as  Meratus 
shows,  is  mentioned  by  Bede '  ("  II.  E." 
iv.  14).    According  to  Mr.  Maskell  it 

'  "  Quaerant  in  suis  codicibus  in  quibus 
defunctorum  est  annotata  depositio."  Bede,  loc. 
eit. 


seems  also  to  have  been  called  Album  or 
"  White  Book,"  Obituarium,  Mortilegium, 
(Meratus  on  Gavantus,  tom.  II.  §  v.  21 ; 
Maskell, "  Monumenta  Ritualia,"  cLcxvii. 
seq.) 

XTEOPBTTE  (Gr.  veo^vTos,  newly 
grown,  of  new  nature).  The  term  was 
applied  in  the  primitive  Church  to 
converts  newly  baptised.  They  were 
dressed  in  white  garments,  and  continued 
to  wear  them  for  eight  days  after  their 
baptism.  Thus  of  the  West  Saxon  king 
Cedwalla,  who,  renouncing  his  crown, 
went  to  Rome  to  be  baptised,  and  died 
soon  after,  we  hear  that  he  died  while 
still  in  his  white  garments,  "in  albis 
adhuc  positus.'"  The  Nicene  Council 
ordered  (Can.  2)  that  neophytes  should 
not  be  hastily  admitted  to  Holy  Orders, 
but  should  imdergo  a  probation  of  con- 
siderable length.  This  canon  was  evi- 
dently founded  on  the  prohibition  of 
St.  Paul  (1  Tim.  iii.  6),  and  occasioned 
by  the  ill  effects  which  had  arisen  from 
neglecting  it.  In  later  times  the  neo- 
phytes commonly  met  with,  at  least  in 
Europe,  were  converts  from  heresy, 
Judaism,  or  Islam.  For  these  Gregory 
XIII.  founded  an  ecclesiastical  college. 
The  matrimonial  relations  between 
spouses,  of  whom  one  has  become  a 
neophyte  but  the  other  refuses  to  leave 
bis  or  her  original  persuasion,  give  rise 
to  many  difficult  questions  in  canon  law. 
The  Catholic  missionaries  still  use  the 
term  for  their  converts  from  the  heathen, 
whose  fervour  and  steadfastness  are  often 
found  to  equal  anything  recorded  of  the 
primitive  neophytes.  (Ferraris,  Neo- 
phyti.) 

ZTESTORZAirs.  A  name  given  to 
the  Christians  who  follow  the  doctrine 
of  Nestorius,  and  hold  that  there  are  two 
persons  as  well  as  two  natures  in  Jesus 
Christ.  These  two  distinct  persons,  the 
person  of  God  and  that  of  man,  were,  he 
said,  bound  together  in  Jesus  Christ  by 
a  merely  moral  union — i.e.  there  was  a 
conformity  of  will  between  the  man 
Christ  and  God  the  Word,  who  dwelt  in 
Him,  and  hence  the  properties  of  one 
nature  or  person  could  not  be  ascribed 
to  the  other.  He  rejected,  e.g.,  such 
expressions  as  "  the  Word  suffered,"  on 
the  ground  that  it  was  the  man  Christ 
and  not  God  the  Word  who  was  capable 
of  suffering;  "Mary  is  the  mother  of  God," 
since  Christ  indeed  had  a  mother,  but 
God  had  none  (Petav.  "De  Incarnat." 

I  Bede,  H.  E.  v. 


668  KESTORIANS 


NESTORIANS 


i.  9).  But  a  full  account  of  the  doctrine 
and  history  of  Nestorius  has  been  given 
in  the  article  on  the  Council  of  Ephesus, 
and  we  confine  ourselves  to  the  history 
of  the  Nest()i-i;in  Church. 

The  N'estorians  had  their  original 
home  and  ci'iitre  in  Chahhea  and  Meso- 
potamia. Clirijtiaiiity,  it  is  said,  was 
first  preached  there  by  Mar  Addai  and 
Mar  Mari,  of  the  number  of  the  Seventy. 
The  Bishop  of  Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon 
held  the  chief  see  in  these  parts,  and 
after  the  schism  became  independent  of 
Autioch.^  The  famous  school  of  Edessa 
and  the  writiniis  of  Theodore  of  Mop- 
suestia  pre]iared  the  way  for  Nestorian- 
ism,  and  when  in  498  Babseus,  whom 
the  metropolitan  Barsumas  of  Nisibis 
had  won  over  to  Xestorianism,  ascended 
the  throne  of  Seleiicia-Ctesiphon,  Catho- 
lici>ni  <li>a]i])eared  almost  entirely  in 
Me-M]hitaii)iii,  The  Persians  for  obvious 
rea-(ai>  encourag'ed  the  schism  which 
sepai-ated  their  Christian  subjects  from 
the  Greek  (Jhurch  of  the  Byzantine 
empire.  The  Persian  kingdom  was  the 
reluoe  of  Xe.-tDriaiiism.  Thence  it  spread 
not  only  through  Mesopotamia,  Chaldtea, 
and  Persia,  iiut  al.~o  to  Arabia,  Egypt, 
Media,  Baetria.  Ilyrcania,  India,  and  even 
China.  Tiie  Ne>t(irian  Patriarch  in  the 
eleventh  century  had  twenty-five  metro- 
politan,>  uniler  him:  the  Nestorian  " com- 
munion e.xteniled  from  China  to  Jerusa- 
lem, and  Its  muubers,  with  those  of  the 
Monopliysites,  are  said  to  have  surpassed 
those  of  t!ie  (ire^di  and  Latin  Churches 
together    ( .Xewuiun's  "  Arians,"  p.  425).  [ 

Toward.-  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century    lln-     Xi->ioiian    numbn-s  fell 
ra])idlv,  o-,\  in:;-  to  tlie  pi-oseeution  )jv  the 
M.u,-nl  km,.  Timour.    Later,  the'Xes- 
ton.iii-  -u'l.-ivd  from    internal  schism. 
On  iii;,  a-iiai  of  a  contested  election  to  the 
Patriarchate   three  bishops  and  many 
priests  appealed  to  Pope  Julius  IL,  who  ! 
in  1553  proclaimed  Sidaka  "  Patriarch  of 
the  Chaldeans,"  and  thus  began  the  series 
of  patriarchs  for  the  ChaMeans  or  de- 
scendants of  Xestorians,  who  have  re-  [ 
nounced  Nestorian  doctrine  and  are  in  ! 
union  with  the  Pope.    In  lo'^2  an  arch-  [ 
bi.«hop,  Simeon,  who  had  separated  some  j 
years   previously  from    the  Nestorian 
Patriarch,  and  called  him.self  Patriarch 
of  Kurdistan,  also  submitted  to  the  Pope, 

•  Asstmani  holds  it  for  ceit.'un  tliat  till  the 
schism  the  Bishop  of  Seleucia  was  a  mere 
metropolitan  subject  to  the  Patriarch  ot  Antioch. 
He  ma^t,  however,  have  been  superior  in  e.*ti- 
mation  to  the  other  metropolitans.  j 


and  he  too  received  from  Rome  the  title 
of  Chaldean  Patriarch.  These  re-unions 
•with  the  Catholic  Church  did  not  last 
long.  But  since  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century  there  were  two  Nestorian 
Patriarchs,  one  residing  at  Mosul,  another 
in  Central  Kurdistan,  and  the  constant 
intestine  strife  favoured  the  efi'orts  of  the 
Roman  missionaries.  In  '\7tiO  the  Nes- 
torian Patriarch  Mar  Elias  at  Mosul 
became  a  Catholic,  and  con.sequently  it  is 
only  by  the  Lake  of  Urumiah  and  among 
the  mountains  of  Kurdistan  that  Nes- 
torians  are  found.  The  Christians  in  the 
low  countries  by  the  banks  of  the  Tigris 
are  Chaldeans — i.e.  the  descendants  of 
Nestorians,  now  re-united  to  the  Cathohc 
Church.  The  Nestorians  proper  call 
themselves  Suraya  (Syrian)  Christiane, 
Meshihaye  (Christians)  Nestoraye,  but 
never  Clialdeans,  which  name  is  ex- 
clusively reserved  to  Catholics.  It  is 
true  the  Nestorian  Patriarch  calls  him- 
self "  Patriarch  of  the  Chaldeans  in  the 
East,''  but  this  title  he  only  assumes  in 
Older  to  place  himself  on  a  level  with  the 
Catholic  Patriarch  at  Mosul,  and  to 
avoid  being  regarded  by  the  Latins  as  the 
head  of  an  heretical  sect. 

The  Bishop  of  Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon 
received  the  title  of  Catholicos  in  the 
fourth  century — as  representative  in  the 
East  of  the  Antiochene  Patriarch.  He 
himself  assumed  the  title  of  Patriarch 
after  the  schism.  Till  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century  he  was  chosen  by  the 
metropohtans  and  other  bishops.  These 
last  assembled,  with  the  archdeacon  of 
the  former  Patriarch  and  with  the  chief 
laity,  and  chose  the  new  Patriarch 
unanimously.  In  ditficulty,  recourse 
was  had  to  the  lot,  and  from  98"  the 
secular  power  confirmed  the  election. 
Since  1450  the  Patriarch  has  been  chosen 
from  one  family,  aud  generally  the  ofiice 
has  descended  from  uncle  to  ne])hew. 
The  indispensable  qualification  for  a 
Patriarch  is  that  his  mother  during  her 
pregnancy  and  while  suckling  her  child, 
and  the  new  Patriarch  himself  tiU  the 
time  of  his  election,  should  never  have 
tasted  flesh-meat.  The  Patriarch  con- 
firms the  election  of  bishops,  translates 
and  deposes  them.  He  alone  consecrates 
the  holy  oils ;  no  book  can  be  published 
without  his  approbation.  He  prescribes 
the  liturgical  rules  and  his  name  is  always 
mentioned  in  the  daily  otHce.  The 
Patriarch  also  exercises  civil  jurisdiction 
in  cases  where  Nestorians  only  are  con- 
cerned, and  though  there  is  a  right  of 


NESTOFJANS 


NICENE  COUNCILS  Go<> 


appeal  to  the  Emir,  it  is  seldom  used. 
In  872  the  residence  of  the  Patriarch  was 
transferred  from  Seleucia  to  Bagdad; 
from  1258  onwards  he  resided  in  various 
places;  after  15()0  he  lived  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Mosul.  After  Ellas  XI., patri- 
arch of  Mosul,  had  been  reconciled  to  the 
Catholic  Church  in  1780,  the  Bishop  of 
Urumiah,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of 
Patriarch  long  before,  in  1582,  became  the 
only  Nestorian  Patriarch.  In  1590  he 
withdrew  to  Kochanes,  in  Kurdistan. 
In  1842  his  residence  was  burnt  by  the  I 
Emir,  Nurallah  Beg;  next  year  he  was 
driven  by  the  Kurds  to  Mosul;  but  in 
1848  he  returned  to  Kochanes.  (Badger, 
vol.  i.  pp.  258,  374.)  His  income  is  got 
from  a  poll-tax,  levied  every  three  years, 
from  coniinutation  of  excommunications 
into  fines,  and  from  a  tithe  on  the  first- 
fruits  contributed  for  the  support  of  the 
churches. 

The  new  bishops  used  to  be  chosen  by 
clergy  and  laity  in  the  presence  of  the  \ 
provincial  bishops.  At  present  the}-  are  j 
chosen,  if  any  suitable  candidate  can  be 
found  in  this  way,  from  the  relatives  of 
the  former  bishop.  The  bishop  is  conse- 
crated by  the  Patriarch  and  sometimes  by 
the  mrtropolitan ;  but  in  the  latter  case 
he  mii>t  re(fi\e  the  completion  of  the 
rite,  involving  the  confirmation  of  the 
election,  from  the  Patriarch  himself. 
Diocesan  synods  are  to  be  held  twice  a 
year,  those  of  the  metropolitan  province 
annually,  those  of  the  Patriarchate  every 
four  years.  Bishops  in  distant  places 
may,  instead  of  personal  appearance,  send 
an  account  of  their  dioceses  and  letters  of 
union  to  the  Patriarch  once  every  six 
years.  Married  men  or  widowers  cannot 
become  bishops,  metropolitans,  or  patri- 
archs. A  law  of  the  Patriarch  Babseus 
in  490  permitted  the  reiterated  nuptials 
even  of  the  highest  ecclesiastics ;  but  it 
was  repealed  by  the  Patriarch  Mar-Abas 
in  514.  Still,  the  letter  of  two  canons 
in  the  Sinhados  assumes  that  bisliops  may 
be  married  (Badger,  vol.  ii.  ch.  36,  p. 
180).  The  metropolitan  {matron)  has 
no  power  over  his  suffragans,  except  that 
of  summoning  them  to  synods  and  con- 
secrating them.  The  usual  title  of  the 
bishop  is  "  Abuna "  (Father).  He  is 
supported  by  an  annual  poll-tax,  gifts  in 
kind  at  harvest-time,  fees  for  ordination, 
consecration  of  churches,  dispensations 
for  marriage,  &c.  The  diocese  of  the 
Patriarch  is  in  Central  Kurdistan.  There 
are  eight  metropolitans  with  seven 
bishops.   The  whole  Nestorian  popula- 


tion amounts  to  about  70,000  (Silber- 
nagl,  p.  222).  The  archdeacon  is  the 
bishop's  vicar  in  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral matters.  The  chorepiscopus  {sauro 
or  visitor,  corresponding  to  the  Greek 
Trepto^fVTrji)  visits  the  country  churches. 
He  instructs  the  country  clergy  in  their 
functions,  sees  that  the  episcopal  dues  are 
collected,  superintends  the  election  of 
parish-priests,  See.  His  place  is  at  the 
bishop's  left,  that  of  the  archdeacon  at 
his  right.  Next  comes  the  arclipriest, 
who  is  the  chon  piscopus  of  the  city. 

The  parish  priests,  -who  are  married 
and  may  even  marry  again  after  ordina- 
tion, are  cliosen  by  the  people,  the  bishop 
confirming  the  choice.  An  office  peculiar 
to  the  Nestorians  is  that  of  the  Sciahara 
or  cleric  who  is  responsible  for  the  night- 
hours  of  the  Breviary  office.  He  is  only, 
as  a  rule,  a  cantor  {amura)  by  ordination, 
although  he  is  called  deacon  or  priest. 
The  parish  priests,  though  they  have 
great  influence  and  are  consulted  in  all 
political  and  domestic  affairs  of  import- 
ance, get  very  little  money  and  follow  a 
trade.  There  are  two  minor  orders, 
reader  and  subdeacon  ;  three  higher, 
deacon,  priest,  bishop.  The  tonsure  is 
given  before  the  lectorate. 

The  monasteries,  once  numerous 
among  the  Nestorians,  are  now  extinct. 
The  only  old  monastery  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  Chaldeans — i.e.  Catholics  of  the 
same  rite,  and  no  new  ones  have  arisen. 
The  monastic  profession  declined  after 
the  fourteenth  century,  when  vows  of 
chastity  were  no  longer  regarded  as 
irrevocable.  The  canons,  however,  re- 
quired monks  and  nuns  who  married  to 
do  so  privately  and  with  the  bishop's 
leave.  A  monk  and  nun  before  their 
marriage  were  subjected  to  penance. 
Although  there  are  now  no  nunneries, 
there  are  women  under  temporary  '  vows 
of  chastity  who  occupy  themselves  in 
works  of  Christian  charity  (Badger,  vol. 
ii.  p.  179). 

[Assemani,  "  Bibl.  Orient."  P.  ii. 
cap.  1-6.  Badger,  "  The  Nestorians  and 
their  Rituals,"  London,  1852.  Silbernagl, 
"Kirchen  des  Orients,"  pp.  202  xeg.'] 

nrzcEN-i:  COTTIO'CZI.S.  The  main 
history  of  the  Nicene  councils  has  been 
already  given — that  of  the  former  in  the 
articles  Akius  and  Creeds,  that  of  the 
latter  under  Iconoclasts.  Little  need 
be   added  here.    For  the  convocation, 

lit  appears,  however,  to  be  very  possible 
to  obtain  release  from  these  vows"  (Badger 
vol.  ii.  p.  179). 

TJ  u  2 


660 


NIMBUS 


NORBERTINES 


presidency,  &c.,  of  both,  see  the  article 
CoimciLs. 

1.  The  First  Niceue  and  First  General 
Council  met  in  325,  after  Constantine 
had  sent  Hosius  to  Alexandria  in  order 
to  reconcile  the  Catholics  and  Arians, 
and  the  mission  had  proved  unsuccessful. 
The  bishops — according  to  Athanasius, 
who  was  present — were  318  in  number, 
mostly  from  the  East,  though  Hosius  of 
Cordova  played  a  great  part  in  the  coun- 
cil, and  the  Roman  bishop  was  represented 
by  the  priests  Vitus  aud  Viiicentius. 
Besides  asserting  the  full  and  consub- 
stantial  divinity  of  the  Son,  the  council 
dealt  with  various  matters  of  discipline, 
especially  the  Paschal  controvei-sy  [see 
Easter]  and  the  Meletian  schism.  The 
canons  are  twenty  in  number,  for  the 
eighty  Arabic  canons  are  mostly  of  much 
later  date.  Neophytes  were  not  to  be 
ordained  (Canon  2) ;  clerics  not  to  live 
with  subintroductce  (3)  ;  the  metropolitans 
to  confirm  and  superintend  episcopal 
elections  (4) ;  no  bishop)  to  receive  persons 
excommunicated  by  another,  but  an  ap- 
peal might  be  made  to  the  provincial 
council  (5)  ;  the  patriarchal  rights  of 
Rome,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch  were  to 
be  maintained  (6) ;  decisions  follow  on 
the  rights  of  the  Bishop  of  Jerusalem 
[see  Jerusalem]  ;  on  the  reconciliation 
of  the  Cathari  or  Novatians  (8) ;  then 
come  penitential  canons  (9-14) ;  canons 
on  usury,  change  of  place  by  the  clergy, 
&c.  (15-17) ;  subjection  of  deacons  to 
priests  (18) ;  the  disciples  of  Paul  of 
Sauiosata  were  to  be  rebaptised  before 
they  were  received  into  the  Church  (19) ; 
prayer  was  to  be  made  standing  on  Sun- 
days and  during  Easter  time.  [See  also 
Celibacy.] 

2.  The  Second  Nicene  Council,  the 
Seventh  General,  met  in  787  under 
Tarasius.  Besides  defining  the  venera- 
tion due  to  holy  images,  the  council  pub- 
lished twenty-two  canons,  in  which  the 
so-called  Apostolic  Canons,  and  the 
oecumenical  character  of  the  Council  in 
Trullo  were  recognised,  clerics  forbidden 
to  leave  the  church  where  they  had  been 
stationed,  the  lives  of  bishops,  the  i-elations 
oi'  clerics  and  nuns  regulated,  double 
monasteries  forbidden,  &c.,  &c.  For  the 
position  taken  by  Rome  with  reference 
to  some  of  these  enactments,  see  Trullo, 
Council  in. 

zrznxBVS.    [See  Aubbolb.] 
M-ocTURM-.    [See  Bebviart.] 
n'onxzM'iiTZOxr.    One  of  the  ways 
by  which  the  designation  of  a  bishop  to 


a  see  may  be  efl'ected.  The  ordinary 
mode  is  that  of  election  by  the  chapter ; 
this  has  been  the  rule  ever  since,  in  the 
Empire,  the  Concordat  of  Worms  (1122) 
put  an  end  to  the  abuse  of  the  emperor's 
inve.sting  bishops  by  "  ring  and  crosier," 
and  since,  in  England,  the  Papal  inter- 
dict compelled  King  John  to  cease  from 
forcing  his  nominee  upon  the  see  of 
Norwich.  In  France,  by  the  Concordat 
of  1515  [Concordat],  the  Holy  See  con- 
ceded the  nomination  to  bishoprics  to  the 
Kings  of  France,  but  the  persons  chosen 
were  to  be  conHnned  by  the  Pope,  after 
due  inquiry  into  their  canonical  qualifi- 
cations. Under  the  Concordat  of  1802 
the  nomination,  with  a  similar  proviso, 
continues  to  be  in  the  hands  of  the  French 
Government.  Not  the  King  of  France 
only,  but  the  Kings  of  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  the  House  of 
Austria,  obtained  this  right  of  nomination. 
It  was  extended  even  to  the  President  of 
Hayti,  by  a  Concordat  signed  in  1860. 
Yet,  as  Buss  well  remarks,'  the  monarch- 
ical principle  does  not  imply  or  require 
such  a  right ;  and  if  it  be  said  that  it  is 
part  of  that  su?-veillance  which  a  civil 
ruler  must  exercise  over  all  that  passes 
within  his  dominions,  "  one  may  answer 
that  it  is  solicitude  for  ecclesiastical  inter- 
ests which  ought  to  determine  the  elec- 
tion of  a  bishop,  and  that  this  solicitude 
is  more  to  be  expected  in  an  ecclesiastical 
body  than  in  the  government." 

NOTfLOCA-NON  (uoixos,  law  ;  Kavau, 
rule).  Collections  of  the  canons  of  re- 
cognised councils,  and  of  such  portions  of 
the  civil  law  as  refer  to  Church  matters, 
are  called  by  this  name.  The  earliest  is 
that  of  Fulgentius,  a  deacon  of  the  Ohu  rch 
of  Carthage  in  the  sixth  century.  The 
best  known  is  that  compiled  in  the  ninth 
century  by  the  celebrated  Photius,  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople ;  it  contains  the 
ancient  canons  down  to  and  including 
those  of  the  Seventh  General  Council,  or 
second  of  Nicaea  (787),  and  the  imperial 
constitutions  affecting  the  Church  to  the 
same  date.  Balsamon,  chartophylax  at 
Constantinople  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
added  a  commentary  to  the  work  of  Pho- 
tius. The  Nomocanon  which  goes  under 
the  name  of  St.  Wladimir,  and  is  accepted 
as  the  basis  of  canon  law  in  Russia,  con- 
tains canons  which  are  not  recognised  by 
the  Western  Church. 

HONS.    [See  Brbtiakt.] 

WORBSRTZM'ES.    [See  Premon- 

8XBATENSIANS.] 

'  Art. "  Bishop,"  in  Wetzer  and  Welte. 


XOVATIAMSM 


NOVICE,  NOVITIATE  GGl 


NOVATZAM-xsm.  Novatian,  a 
<Stoic  philosopher,  was  delivered,  as  is 
said,  from  demoniacal  possession  by  the 
«xorcisms  of  the  Church,  and  became  a 
cateciuimen.  In  danger  of  death,  he  re- 
ceived clinical  baptism,  and  afterwards, 
without  being  confirmed,  was  ordained 
priest.  During  persecution  he  refused  to 
assist  his  brethren,  but,  later  on,  he  pro- 
tested against  the  laxity  of  the  Roman 
■clergy  in  receiving  the  lapsed  to  penance, 
and  led  away  many  Roman  priests. 
Afterwards,  he  was  a  bitter  opponent  of 
Pope  Cornelius,  on  the  ground  that  he 
was  a  libelloticus;  persuaded  three  country 
bishops  to  consecrate  him  in  the  year  251, 
and  thus  became,  in  Fleury's  words,  "  the 
first  Anti-Pope  "  (Fleury,  ii.  p.  220).  He 
consecrated  new  bishops  and  sent  them 
as  emissaries  to  various  parts  (Cyprian, 
Ep.  It.). 

He  added  heresy  to  schism,  for  he 
■denied  the  Church's  power  to  absolve  the 
lapsed  '  (Pacian,  "Ad  Symphor."  Ep.  3). 
He  was  condemned  in  councils  at  Rome 
and  Carthage,  and  by  Diouysius  of  Alex- 
andria. His  sect,  however,  continued, 
and  won  adherents  in  Constantinople, 
Asia  Minor,  and  especially  Phrygia.  Like 
the  Montanists,  they  condemned  second 
mari'iage,  and  they  rebaptised  Catholics 
who  joined  them.  They  called  themselves 
''the  pure"  {Kadufjovs,  Euseb.  "H.  E." 
t'i.  43).  Even  at  the  Nicene  Council, 
Ascesius,  a  Novatian  bishop,  defended 
these  severer  principles  on  penance 
(Socrates,  "  H.  E."  i.  10). 

A  modern  historian  (Baur,  "Kirchen- 
^eschichte,"  i.  p.  367)  has  said  with 
justice  that  the  Cathari,  or  Novatians, 
sacrificed  the  catholicity  to  the  sanctity  of 
the  Church.  Undoubtedly,  the  full  privi- 
leges of  the  Church  are  for  the  pure,  and 
the  pure  alone.  But  the  Church  is  the 
steward  of  the  Divine  mysteries,  and  it  is 
her  office,  through  the  means  of  giace  en- 
trusted to  her,  to  effect  and  to  renew  that 
punty  of  heart  which  she  requires  from 
her  children.  The  Church  has  neither 
the  power  nor  the  will  to  exclude  those 
who  truly  repent.  Hatred  of  sin  and 
mercy  to  sinners  is  the  double  lesson 
taught  by  her  Divine  Founder.  If  she 
refused  to  receive  sinners,  she  would 
cease  to  be  catholic ;  if  she  received  them 

'  It  must  be  remembered  how  strict  tlie 
discipline  of  the  Chiircli  was  in  those  days. 
Thus  Cyprian  (Ep.  1  v.")  tells  us  thnt  some  of  the 
Catholic  bishops  absolutely  refused  to  accept 
•the  repentance  of  anyone  who  had  committed 
adultery  :  •'  totum  poeniteutife  locum  contra 
«dulteria  cluserunt." 


I  without  true  repentance,  she  would  cease 
to  be  holy. 

[The  principal  authorities  on  the  No- 
vatian schism  are  Euseb.  "H.  E."  vi. 
43  seq. ;  Cyprian's  niunerous  Epistles  to 
Cornelius.  Pacian,  Ep.  3,  "  Ad  Sym- 
phorian."'  thus  sums  up  the  doctrine 
of  Novatian :  "  Quod  mortale  peccatum 
i  ecclesia  donare  non  possit,  imo  quod  ipsa 
peccat  recipiendo  peccantes."  For  the 
later  history  of  the  Novatians,  see  Socrat. 
"  H.  E."  V.  21,  22.] 

xrovzcE,  irovxTZATE  (Lat.  novi- 
tius).  The  name  uf  '•  novice  "  is  given  to 
tho.se  persons,  whether  men  or  women, 
and  whatever  their  age  may  be,  who  have 
entered  some  religious  house  and  desire  to 
embrace  its  rule.  Upon  entering,  they 
assume  the  habit  of  the  order  or  congre- 
gation, and  follow  the  community  life 
and  customs.  The  term  of  probation,  or 
"  novitiate,"  is  at  least  for  one  year ; ' 
sometimes  it  extends  to  two  or  three  years. 
During  that  period  neither  is  the  order 
bound  to  the  novice  nor  tlie  novice  to  the 
order.  At  the  end  of  the  term  the  order 
is  in  no  way  bound  to  allow  the  novice  to 
make  his  profession,  if  he  does  not  seem 
to  those  in  authority  likely  to  adorn  the 
religious  life  ;  and  the  novice,  on  the  ol  her 
hand,  may  quit  the  order  withoutcensure, 
and  retains,  should  he  do  so,  the  property 
which  he  possessed  at  the  time  of  his  ad- 
mission, or  wliich  he  may  have  subse- 
quently become  possessed  of.  Nor  can 
he,  while  a  novice,  legally  renounce  such 
property  in  favour  of  the  oi'der,  unless 
with  the  licence  of  the  bishop  and  within 
the  two  months  next  preceding  his  pro- 
fession.* But  he  may  make  a  will  in  favour 
of  the  order  which  he  has  joined,  and  for 
this  reason — because  it  is  in  his  power 
at  any  time,  if  he  decides  not  to  go  on  to 
profession,  to  cancel  his  will.  The  fact  of 
his  havlngmade  it  is  therefore  no  restraint 
upon  his  leaving  the  order  if  he  thinks 
himself  unfit  for  it ;  whereas,  if  he  had 
renounced  his  property  altogether  in 
favour  of  the  order,  or  his  ])arents  had 
renounced  it  for  him,  this  fact  would  tend 
to  restrain  his  freedom  in  the  event  of  a 
sudden  reaction  of  feeling  coming  upon 
him  soon  after  his  becoming  a  novice. 

The  earliest  age  at  which  profession  L<j 
allowable  was  fixed  by  the  Council  of 
Trent  at  sixteen  years. 

1  Cone.  Trid.  sess.  xxv.  c  16,  De  Reg.  et 
Mon. 

2  Cone.  Trid.  sess.  xxv.  cap.  16,  De  Reg.  et 
Man.  But  this  veto  upon  renunciation  does 
not  apply  to  novices  in  the  Society  of  Jesus. 


662 


NUN 


NUN 


The  uame  "  novitiate "  is  also  some- 
times given  to  the  liouse,  or  separate 
building,  in  which  novices  pass  their  time 
of  probation.    (Ferraris,  Xovitiiis.) 

NVN  (Lat.  nonna.  From  the  fifth 
century  nonnus  and  nonna  occur  pretty 
frequently  in  relation  to  monks  and  nuns, 
a  sense  of  quasi-filial  respect  being 
attached  to  the  words.  Comp.  the  Gr. 
vavva,  aunt,  and  the  It.  nonno  and  nonna, 
grandfather  and  grandmother).  A  nun 
is  a  maid  or  widow  who  has  consecrated 
herself  to  God  by  the  three  vows  of 
poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  and 
bound  herself  to  live  in  a  convent  under 
a  certain  rule. 

1.  Historical.  —  H6lyot  and  other 
French  ecclesiastical  writers  of  the  last 
century  were  of  opinion  that  the  founder 
of  the  first  nunnery  was  St.  Syncletica  of 
Egypt,  of  whom  an  ancient  life 'is  extant, 
written  not  later  than  the  end  of  the 
foui'th  century.'  This  opinion  was  chielly 
grounded  on  the  belief  that  the  author  of 
that  life  was  St.  Athanasius,  who  thus 
would  have  been  the  biographer  both  of 
the  first  monk  (St.  Antony)  and  of  the 
first  nun.  But  the  dillerence  of  style  is 
too  great  to  allow  us  to  ascribe  the  latter 
work  to  St.  Athanasius.  No  earlier 
notice  of  a  nunnery  occurs  than  that 
found  in  the  saint's  life  of  St.  Antony, 
who,  wlicn  he  was  renouncing  the  world 
(about  '270),  placed  his  sister  in  a  house 
of  viigins  {naf)diva>v),  and  many  years 
afterwards  rejoiced  to  find  her  persevering 
in  a  chaste  and  holy  life,  and  ruling  other 
virgins  similarly  minded.  But  long  before 
the  institution  of  nunneries,  and  even 
side  by  side  with  them  long  after  their 
first  establisliment,  the  Church  recog- 
nised and  encouraged  several  classes  of 
pious  women,  such  as  widows,  deacon- 
esses, hospitallers,  canonesses  {canonivce ; 
their  principal  duty  was  the  care  of 
funerals),  ascetriee,  and  consecrated 
virgins  living  with  their  parents.^  The 
letters  of  St.  Jerome'  give  us  a  clear 
view  of  the  austere  and  exalted  life  led 
by  these  last.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century  nunneries  began  to  be 
multiplied  at  Rome.  St.  Augustine 
i'ciunded  one  at  Hippo  under  his  own 
.sister  as  superior,  and  gave  to  it  a  rule 
which  is  extant  in  his  100th  Epistle. 
St.  Scholastica,  the  sister  of  St.  Benedict, 

'  Alhaii  Butler,  Jan.  5;  H%ot,  Dissert. 
Prelim.  §  8. 

-  (Mali  those,  see Thomassin,  Vetuset  Nooa 
Z>isc>/il.  I.  iii.  51-2. 

5  "  Ad  Eustochium,"  "Ad  Marcellam,"  &c. 


j  founded  and  governed  a  nunnery  under 
her  brother's  direction.  The  rule  of 
I  enclosure  [Enclosure]  was  gradually 
j  enforced  on  nunneries  with  more  and 
more  of  strictness.  A  French  council 
(755)  says:  ' — "Nuns  must  not  go  forth 
out  of  their  monastery  ;  but  if  any  among 
them  have  fallen  into  a  fault,  let  her  do 
penance  within  the  monastery  under  the 
direction  of  the  bishop."  The  chapter 
Periculoso  "  of  Boniface  VIII.  settled 
the  question  irrevocably ;  enclosure  has 
been  since  imposed  on  all  nuns  taking 
solemn  vows.  Nevertheless  some  con- 
vents have  evaded  the  rigour  of  the  rule, 
and  the  Holy  See  has  tolerated  their 
conduct. 

The  primitive  practice  in  the  Church 
was,  that  virgins  becoming  nuns  should 
be  veiled  and  consecrated  by  the  bishop. 
In  process  of  time,  "  through  oversight, 
occasionally,  but  more  frequently  owing 
to  absence  or  pressure  of  occupation  on 
the  part  of  the  bishops  "  (Thomassin),  the 
ancient  practice  ceased  to  be  strictly  ob- 
served, and  great  numbers  were  veiled  by 
the  abbesses,  or  by  simple  priests.  This 
was  strongly  condemned  as  an  abuse  by 
several  French  councils,  and  the  right  of 
veiling  virgins  was  reserved  to  the 
bishops ;  presbyters,  however,  might  give 
the  veil  to  widows.  Thomassin  infers 
from  a  canon  of  the  Council  of  Tribur 
(895),  that  the  Fathers  of  that  council 
recognised  two  veils — one,  that  of  pro- 
bation, with  which  a  young  girl  might 
clothe  herself  as  early  as  twelve  years; 
the  other,  the  veil  of  consecration,  to  be 
given  by  the  bishop,  and  not  to  be  as- 
sumed till  she  was  twentv-five  years  old. 

The  capitularies  of  Charlemagne  and 
his  son  order  the  suppression  or  consoli- 
dation of  small  nunneries,  in  which  it 
was  thought  the  rule  could  not  be  per- 
fectly observed. 

It  may  be  stated  as  a  general  fact, 
applicable  to  nearly  all  the  great  orders 
of  men,  that,  soon  after  the  foundation  of 
each,  an  order  or  orders  of  women,  sub- 
ject to  or  in  comiection  with  it,  was 
established,  in  which  the  rule  and  statutes 
of  the  founder  were,  so  far  as  the  dirt'e- 
rence  of  sex  permitted,  punctually  ob- 
served. Even  the  Society  of  Jesus  is  not 
an  exception,  for  although  the  founder 
obtained  a  prohibition  from  the  Pope 
against  the  company's  undertaking  the 
direction  of  nuns,  the  "Dames  Anglaises," 
and  several  more  recent  institutes,  though. 

>  Thomassui,  I.  iii.  47. 


NUN 


NUN 


663 


flot  otherwise  comiected  with  the  Society, 
follow  the  rule  of  St.  Ig^natius. 

If  we  coiijider  the  four  principal 
monastic  rules  separately,  we  find  that — 

a.  The  rule  of  St.  Basil  TBasiliaits] 
was  the  busis  of  that  framed  by  Albert, 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  for  the  order  of 
Mount  Carmel  [CARMELiTEs],andadopted 
in  its  (irijjinal  rigour  by  St.  Teresa,  for 
the  order  of  Discalced  Carmelites,  which 
she  founded  in  1562. 

b.  The  rule  of  St.  Austin  is  followed 
by  communities  of  nuns  annexed  to  every 
congregation  of  Austin  canons  and 
hermits;  also  by  Dominican  nuns  and 
the  Ursulines.  All,  or  nearly  all,  the 
communities  of  women  founded  since  the 
Council  of  Trent  follow  the  rule  of  St. 
AugTistine,  but  have  in  addition  a  body 
of  constitutions  or  customs  suited  to  their 
special  end  and  spirit,  and,  in  some  cases, 
taken  from  the  rule  of  St.  Ignatius. 

c.  The  rule  of  St.  Benedict  is  followed 
by  the  nuns  of  Camaldoli,  Yallombrosa, 
and  Fontevrault.    (See  Hdlyot.) 

d.  The  rule  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  is 
embraced  by  the  order  of  niuis  called 
Poor  Clares,  founded  by  St.  Clare ;  this 
is  the  second  order  of  St.  Francis. 

The  nuns  of  St.  Jerome  follow  a  rule 
found  in  the  works  of  that  doctor ;  the 
nuns  of  the  Visitation  (1610),  one  given 
them  by  St.  Francis  de  Sales :  it  is  the 
rule  of  St.  Austin  with  a  number  of 
slight  modifications. 

2.  Riyhtt-  and  Obligations.— Oi  the 
numerous  and  minute  regulations  con- 
tained in  the  canon  law  touching:  the 
rights,  obligations,  and  privileges  of 
religious  women,  a  few  of  the  more  im- 
portant are  here  subjoined.  The  general 
du-ection  of  all  their  houses  is  vested  in 
the  Sacred  Congi-egation  of  Bishops  and 
Regulars  [Coxgrbgations,  Homaii].  The 
orders  and  congregations  of  recent  origin 
are  usually  under  the  ordinary  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  bishops ;  of  the  older  orders, 
some  are  under  the  jurisdictionof  regulars. 
It  is  an  exceptional  case  when,  as  with 
the  Brigittines,  and  the  order  of  Fontev- 
rault, the  homes  of  the  connected  congre- 
gation of  men  are  (or  were)  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  superior  general  of  the 
nuns.  Nearly  all  nuns  who  are  bound 
by  solemn  vows  are  under  the  obhgation 
of  performing  the  divine  ofhce  in  choir, 
and  tlii.s  they  must  do  for  themselves; 
their  chaplains  may  not  undertake  it  for 
them.  The  bi^hop  may  control  their 
music.  They  use  either  the  Roman 
Breviary  or  that  approved  for  some  order 


of  men.  They  may  solemnise,  so  it  be 
done  moderately  and  discreetly,  their 
titular  feast.  The  number  of  religious 
who  can  be  received  in  any  convent  is 
determined  according  to  the  amount  of 
revenues,  or  of  customary  alms,  available 
for  their  support.  Nuns  are  allowed  to 
receive  young  girls  as  boarders  for  edu- 
cation, but  upon  many  conditions — e.g. 
the  consent  of  the  Sacred  CongTegatiou 
must  be  obtained;  the  boarders  must 
sleep  in  a  separate  building  or  wing ; 
they  must  not  be  under  seven  or  above 
twentj-five  years,  and  if  any  one  of  them 
desires  to  bccnme  a  nun,  she  cannot  do 
so  without  being  tirst  interrogated  by  the 
bishop  or  his  deputy,  so  that  no  sincere 
and  voluntary  charaeter  of  her  wish  may 
be  tested.  Tlienovitiale,  which  ])o>tulant» 
in  early  times  often  p.i-^ed  bel'm-e  they 
took  the  habit,  cannot  now  be  jiassed  in 
a  secular  dress.  Nuns  cannot  stand  in 
the  relation  of  sponsors.  While  on  the 
one  hand  those  are  excommunicated  who 
attempt  to  force  any  virgin  or  widow  to 
become  a  nun  against  her  will,  those  on 
the  other  are  visited  with  the  same  penalty 
who,  without  just  cause,  hinder  any 
woman  from  assuming  the  religious  habit 
and  taking  vows. 

Thecon^V•^sors  of  nunsmustbe  selected 
and  approved  by  the  bishop  for  convents 
subject  to  him.  For  convents  subject  to 
regidars  the  regular  prelate  appoints  con- 
fessors, subject  to  the  approbation  of  the 
bishop.  In  either  case  a  confessor  caimot 
hear  confessions  in  the  same  monastery 
for  a  period  exceeding  three  years. 

3.  Government,  Mode  of  Life,  the  Veil, 
^■c. — The  superiors  of  nuns  are  elected  in 
chapter  by  secret  voting  '  [see  Abbess], 
in  some  cases  for  life,  but  generally  for  a 
term  of  years.  In  every  convent  there  is 
a  superior  and  a  mistress  of  novices ;  the 
other  offices  vary.  The  bishop  often  ap- 
points a  canon,  or  an  experienced  priest, 
to  exercise  his  authority  in  regard  to 
the  external  government  of  the  convent. 
Nuns  take  their  meals  in  common,  but 
each  must  have  her  separate  cell.  With 
regard  to  diet,  fasting,  clothing,  taking 
the  discipline,  mode  of  saying  office,  Ac, 
there  is  an  infinite  diversity  of  practice  in 
the  diflerent  orders  and  congregations. 
In  primitive  times,  when  a  virgin  conse- 
crated herself  to  God,  her  hair  was  cut 
ott';  this  is  expresslj'  mentioned  in  the 
hves  of  St.  Syncletica  (fourth  century) 
and  St.  Gertrude  of  Nivelle  (seventh  cen- 

1  Cone.  Trid.  sets.  xxv.  6,  De  li^.  et  Mon 


NUNCIO 


OATH 


tury).'  The  white  veil  of  reception  is 
given  to  the  postulant  either  by  the  bishop 
or  the  superior  ar  the  commencement  of 
her  novitiate  :  the  veil  of  profession  (which 
is  black  in  some  orders,  white  in  others) 
is  given  by  the  bishop  at  the  end  of  it. 
[See  Peofessiox,  Religious.]  The  veil 
of  a  Christian  nun  symbolises  continence 
in  tlesh  and  spirit,  holiness  to  the  Lord. 
It  signifies  an  espousal,  not  that  har- 
monious union  of  two  unlike  human 
beings  on  which  conjugal  happiness 
depends,  but  a  far  more  perfect  union  of 
two  uulikes — viz.  of  the  human  soul  and 
Christ,  ertected  by  means  of  prayer, 
obedience,  and  the  sacraments.  (Fen-aris, 
Moniales;  Thomassin,  "  Vetus  et  Nova 
Eccl.  Disc."  Part  I.)  [See  Sistebhoods.] 
TtVNCZO  {/iiintitis,  messenger).  A 
Legate  a  latere  of  the  Roman  see  [Legate] 
dischargesa  commission  directed  to  special 
ends,  and  in  its  nature  temporary ;  a 
Nuncio  of  the  same  see  is  its  permanent 
official  representative  at  some  foreigii 
court.  The  diplomatic  agen^^s  of  the 
Pope  are  of  three  classes:  nuncios,  inter- 
nimcios,  and  apo-tolic  delegates.  In  1800 
there  were  nuncios  at  the  Courts  of 
Vienna,  Madrid,  Lisbon,  Munich,  and 
"Brussels,  and  to  the  republican  govern- 
ment in  Paris;  internuncios  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  and  the  Hague;  and  apostolic 
delegates  to  the  goveniments  of  Ecuador, 
Bolivia,  Peru,  Colombia,  San  Domingo, 
Hayti,  and  Venezuela.  The  Gerarciiia 
Caitolica  for  1891  includes   Chili,  the 

I  Alban  Butler,  Jan.  5,  Mar.  17 ;  Wetzer  and 
Welte,  "  Gertrude." 


Argentine  Republic,  Uruguay  and  Para- 
I  giiay,  Costa  Rica,  and  Switzerland  in  the 
j  list,  but  does  not  give  the  names  of  any 
I  envoys  to  these  States.   In  18G5,  besides 
j  the  capitals  named,  there  were  nuncios  at 
i  Mexico  and  Naples,  and  an  internuncio  at 
Florence.    Before  the  French  Revolution 
nuncios   resided  at    Warsaw,  Venice, 
liuceme,  Naples,  Florence,  Cologne,  and 
Brussels.    To  the  last  named  Clement 
VIII.  committed  the  oversight  of  the 
Dutch  and  English  missions.     A  consti- 
tution  of  Benedict   XIV.  enjoins  all 
nuncios  to  watch  over  the  residence  of 
bishops  within  their  dioceses. 

Papal  nuncios  were  formerly  invested 
with  an  extensive  jurisdiction;  their 
triljunals  were  courts  of  appeal  from  the 
ordinary  ecclesiastical  comts  of  the 
countries  in  which  they  resided.  From 
the  language  of  one  of  the  Tridentine 
decrees,'  it  would  appear  that  they  some- 
times encroached  on  the  rights  of  the 
bishops,  and  tried  causes  in  the  first 
instance.  In  (Germany,  the  Archbi.shops 
of  Mentz,  Colog-ne,  and  Treves,  who  were 
Electors  of  the  empire  and  legati  nati, 
resented,  and  often  thwarted,  the  exercise 
of  jurisdiction  by  the  nuncios :  and  the 
establishment  of  a  nunciature  at  Munich 
in  1785  by  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  was 
the  signal  for  an  acrimonious  controversy. 
The  troubles  arising  out  of  the  French 
Revolution  soon  absorbed  the  attention  of 
the  disputants  ;  and  the  Munich  nuncia- 
ture was  abolished  in  1799.  (Ferraris, 
NuntiuB.) 

1  Sess.  zxiv.  20,  De  Be£. 


o 


OATH.  The  calling  on  God  to  wit- 
ness that  the  statement  made  is  true  or 
to  make  the  fulfilment  of  a  promise  bind 
under  a  more  solemn  obligation.  Oaths 
were  required  on  certain  occasions  in  the 
Hebrew  law  (see,  e.g.,  Exod.  xxii.  10, 11 ; 
Deut.  vi.  13,  X.  20),  and  the  prophets 
{e.g.  Amos,  iv.  2 ;  Is.  xiv.  24 ;  Jer.  li.  14) 
speaks  of  God  Himself  as  swearing.  Two 
places  (only  two,  as  far  as  we  remember) 
in  the  O.T.  seem  at  first  sight  to  condemn 
swearing — viz.  Zach.  v.  3 ;  Ecclesiast.  ix. 
2 ;  but  it  is  clear  from  the  context  that 
false  and  perhaps  rash  swearing  is  meant. 

There  is,  however,  much  more  diffi- 
culty about  our  Lord's  teaching  on  oaths, 


and  it  is  well  known  that  some  sects — e.g. 
the  "Waldeuses,  the  Hussites,  the  "  Society 
of  Friends,'"  have  believed  that  oaths  are 
forbidden  to  Christians.  In  Matt.  v. 
33-37,  Christ  certainly  seems  to  forbid 
all  oaths,  whether  direct — i.e.  by  the  name 
of  God  Himself — or  indirect — i.e.  by 
objects  related  to  God,  such  as  the 
temple,  heaven,  &c.  "  Let  your  word  be 
yea,  yea,  nay,  nay,  but  what  is  beyond 
this,  is  from  the  evil  one."  St.  James's 
words  (v.  12)  are  to  the  same  effect.  On 
the  other  hand,  St.  Paul,  far  from  con- 
tenting himself  always  with  a  simple 
"yea,"  or  "nay,"  most  distinctly  calls 
God  to  -witness  the  truth  of  his  assertions 


OATir 


DELATES 


065 


(RoDi.  i.  9 ;  2  Cor.  xi.  31 ;  Gal.  i.  20 ; 
Philip,  i.  8 ;  and  especially  2  Cor.  i.  23), 
and  the  fact  seems  to  he  that  our  Lord 
desired  a  state  of  perfection  in  his  fol- 
lowers -which  would  make  oaths  unneces- 
sary, and  therefore  wrong,  so  lono-,  at 
least,  as  they  were  a  "  little  flock  "  known 
to  one  another.  A  Christian's  character 
was  to  make  his  word  as  good  as  his  oath. 
In  dealing,  however,  with  the  heathen 
world,  Christians  could  not  expect  their 
word  to  be  taken  in  this  way,  and  the 
presence  of  bad  Christians  in  the  Church 
made  its  actual  state  very  different  from 
that  ideal  which  Christ  set  before  his 
disciples.  Many  who  could  not  be 
trusted  to  avoid  the  shameful  sin  of  ly- 
ing, might  still  shrink  from  the  greater 
sin  and  shame  of  perjury ;  and  hence  the 
Church  not  only  maintained  the  obligation 
of  taking  an  oath  when  it  was  required 
in  civil  courts,  but  also  herself  exacted 
outbs  on  certain  solemn  occasions  from 
her  children.  She  bus  ever  taught  the 
lawfulness  of  oaths,  provided  always  that 
they  are  taken  with  judgment — i.e.  for  a 
grave  cause :  in  justice — i.e.  provided  the 
thing  sworn  be  lawful ;  and  in  truth — i.e. 
provided  the  thing  swoni  be  true  (Jer.  iv. 
'2).  (See  the  profession  of  faith  imposed 
by  Innocent  III.  on  converted  AValdenses; 
the  Constitution  of  .John  XXII.  asraiust 
the  Fraticelli,  anno  1318;  Prop.  43 
among  the  propositions  of  Wyclitfe  con- 
demned by  Martin  V.  and  the  Council  of 
Constance,  anno  1418.) 

Although  it  is  always  wicked  to  swear 
without  a  conviction  that  the  thing  sworn 
is  true,  it  is  not  always  wrong  to  break 
a  promise  made  on  oath.  A  promissory 
oath  to  commit  a  crime  is  sinful,  and  to 
keep  the  promise  is  an  additional  sin. 
Again,  notable  change  of  circumstances 
may  excuse  from  the  keeping  of  an  oath. 
Further,  though,  generally  speaking,  no 
earthly  power  can  dispense  from  keeping 
an  oath  made  in  favour  of  another,  still, 
in  other  cases  a  dispensation  may  be  valid. 
Thus,  a  superior  may  dispen.se  in  an  oath 
concerning  things  subject  to  hisauthority, 
because  such  an  oath  is  unlawful,  except 
with  an  implied  condition — viz.  if  the 
person  who  has  authority  in  the  matter 
consents.  A  parent,  p.//.,  may  annul  the 
promissory  oaths  of  his  children  below 
the  age  of  puberty.  So,  again,  an  oath 
against  the  common  good,  or  an  oath  ex- 
torted by  fear  or  fraud,  maybe  dispensed 
by  tlie  bishop  or  by  tliose  who  have 
(ju:  si-ei)iscopal  jurisdiction — e.g.  by  a 
chapter  in  the  vacancy  of  a  see,  or  again 


by  confessors  with  power  to  dispense  from 
vows.  (St.  Liguori,  "  Theol.  Moral."  lib. 
iv.  tract.  2.) 

Many  solemn  oaths  ordered  by  the 
Church  are  made  more  solemn  by  touch- 
ing the  Gospels  ;  and  in  the  middle  ages 
persons  swearing  often  touched  the 
Blessed  Sacrnment,  relics,  the  sacred 
vessels,  &c.  Such  an  oath  was  called 
"  Corporal,"  a  term  which  has  nothing  to 
do  with  the  "  corporal,"  or  Unen  cloth  on 
which  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  laid,  but 
}  simply  refers  to  corporal  or  bodily  contact 
with  the  sacred  object.  (See  Maskell, 
"  Monument.  Rit."  vol.  ii.  p.  li.  seq.) 

OBESZEzrcE.   [See  Evakgelicax 

COTIXSELS.] 

OBI.ATES.    Oblates  of  St.  Charles. 

This  is  a  congregation  of  secular  priests, 
who  "  offer "  themselves  (whence  the 
j  name)  to  the  bishop,  to  be  employed  by 
him  in  any  part  of  the  diocese  he  may 
choose,  and  upon  any  work  which  he 
may  commit  to  them.  St.  Charles  Bor- 
roraeo,  archbishop  of  Milan,  having  found 
in  his  large  diocese,  parts  of  which  were 
greatly  neglected  or  totally  abandoned, 
the  need  of  a  band  of  zealous  self-sacri- 
ficing labourers,  who  would  be  ready  to 
go  and  do  at  once  whatever  he  com- 
manded them  to  do,  founded  this  congTe- 
gation  of  "  Oblates  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
and  St.  Ambrose"  in  1578.  He  estab- 
lished them  in  the  church  and  presbyteiy 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Milan.  Dividing 
the  congregation  into  six  "  assemblies, ' 
he  directed  that  two  of  these  should 
always  remain  in  the  community  house 
in  the  city,  while  the  four  others  were  at 
work  in  other  parts  of  the  diocese.  There 
is  a  house  of  this  congregation  at  Bays- 
water,  having  several  affiliations  in  other 
parts  of  London. 

Oblates  of  St.  Frances  of  Rome.  A 
community  of  religious  women,  boimd 
only  bv  simple  vows,  established  at  Rome 
in  i433. 

Oblates  of  Italy.  An  association  of 
secular  priests  founded  by  some  zealous 
ecclesiastics  at  Turin  in  1816.  They  have 
the  charge  of  the  mission  of  Eastern 
Bui-mah. 

Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate.  A 
society  of  priests  founded  at  Marseilles  in 
1815  by  Charles  de  Mazenod,  afterwards 
bishop  of  the  diocese.  The  superior- 
[  general  is  elected  for  life  by  a  special 
general  chapter.  Their  numbers  have 
increased  greatly,  and  they  have  been  of 
inestimable  service  by  placing  themselves 
at  the  disposal  of  the  bishops  to  be  em- 


660 


OBLATI 


OFFERTORY 


ployed  on  the  mission  in  Canada,  British  I 
India,  and  the  United  States.    There  are  I 
at  present  nine  houses  of  these  Oblates  in 
Great  Britain — at  Birkenhead,  Jersey  (2),  ' 
Kilburn,  Leeds,  Leith,  Liverpool,  Sick- 
lin^iiall,  and  Tower  Hill:  and  two  in 
Ireland— at  Ineliicore  and  Stillorgan.  The 
reformatories  at  Gleneree,  near  Dublin, 
and  Philipstown  are  also  in  their  charge, 

OSXiATX.  Children  dedicated  in 
their  early  years  to  the  monastic  state. 
[See  Br.xFDicTiNES;  Schools.] 

OBSiATi.  A  class  of  persons  of 
■whom  ecclesiastical  annals,  especially  in 
the  middle  ajres,  furnish  frequent  ex- 
amjilcs,  who  "offered"  and  gave  them- 
selves and  their  property  to  a  monastery 
for  the  glory  of  God  and  their  own 
spiritual  improvement.  The  father  of 
St.  Hugh  of  Lincoln  was  an  "  oblatus  " 
in  the  monastery  of  the  Great  Chartreuse, 
in  which  the  saint  himself  was  a  monk, 
and  tenderly  watched  over  his  father's 
old  age.  Benedict  XIV.  ("  De  Synodo 
Dioeces."  vi.  3)  says,  that  although  oblafi 
are  not  religious,  yet  if  they  have  trans- 
ferred their  entire  property  to  the  monas- 
tery, retaining  neither  capital  nor  rent, 
they  are  ecclesiastical  persons,  and  enjoy 
the  privilegium  fori,  and  immunity  from 
secular  burdens.  (Ferraris,  Oblati  Monas- 
teriorum.) 

OBSESSXOMT.   [See  Possession.] 

O  c  T  A.  VARZ  vra.  The  purpose  of  the 
book  is  explained  by  its  title,  "  Octava- 
rium  Romanum  sive  octavae  festorum, 
lectiones  secundi  scilicet  et  tertii  nocturni 
singulis  diebus  recitandae  infra  octavas 
sanctorum  titularium,  &c."  Mr.  Maskell 
knows  of  no  edition  prior  to  the  seven- 
teenth century.  The  use  of  the  book  is 
not  obligatory  on  those  who  have  to  say 
the  divine  office,  though  it  is  sometimes 
referred  to  in  the  Ordo. 

OCTAVE.  The  Christian,  following 
the  example  of  the  Jewish,  Church,  cele- 
brates certain  feasts  till  the  eighth  or 
octave  day.  The  number  eight  is  sup- 
posed to  represent  perfection,  for  the 
seven  days  of  the  week  are  taken  as 
figures  of  the  ages  of  the  world,  and  the 
eighth  of  the  eternal  rest  which  is  to 
follow  them. 

Octaves  are  privileged  or  non-privi- 
leged ;  and  the  former,  again,  are  sub- 
divided into  classes.  In  the  octaves  of 
Easter  and  Pentecost,  no  other  feast 
may  be  kept  and  no  commemoration 
made,  except  of  a  simple,  if  it  falls 
after  the  first  three  days.  In  the  octave 
of  Epiphany  (not,    however,  on  the 


octave-^ay)  the  feast  of  the  patron  saint, 
title,  or  dedication  of  the  Church  may 
be  kept.  In  the  octave  of  Coi-pus  Christi 
doubles  may  be  kept  (only  doubles,  how- 
ever, of  the  first  and  second  class  can  be 
transferred  to  this  octave),  but  the  octave 
day  only  gives  place  to  a  double  of  the 
first  class.  During  non-privileged  octaves 
even  semi-doubles  are  celebrated.  Those 
last,  to  which  all  octaves,  except  those 
already  enumerated,  belong,  are  again 
arranged  in  order  of  dignity,  so  that  the 
lesser  gives  way  to  the  greater  in  case 
of  concurrence.  (Gavantus,  torn.  ii.  §  3,. 
cap.  8.) 

OFFERTORV.  (I)  An  antiphon 
which  used  to  be  sung  by  the  choir 
while  the  faithful  made  their  ofieriiigs  of 
bread  and  wine  for  the  Mass,  of  gifts  for 
the  support  of  the  clergy,  &c.  From 
St.  Augustine's  time  verses  of  the  Psalms 
were  sung  in  North  Africa  during  the  pre- 
sentation of  the  gifts,  and  the  Ofi'ertory  in 
the  Roman  Missal  has  been  in  use  from 
ancient  times,  being  found  in  the  Anti- 
phonary  of  St.  Gregory,  though  the  pre- 
cise date  at  which  it  was  introduced 
is  uncertain.  The  oblations  of  bread  and 
wine  by  the  faithful  began  to  fall  into 
disuse  from  about  the  year  1000,  but  the 
antiphon  and  its  name  are  still  retained. 
The  Oflertoiy  is  said  immediately  after 
the  Creed.i    (Le  Brun,  Benedict  XIV.) 

(2)  The  oblation  of  bread  and  wine 
by  the  priest,  made  after  the  recitation 
of  the  antiphon  just  mentioned.  "The 
Church  does  really  offer  bread  and  wine, 
but  not  absolutely  and  in  themselves; 
for  in  the  new  covenant  no  oblation  is 
made  of  lifeless  things  :  indeed,  no  obla- 
tion is  made  other  than  that  of  Jesus 
Christ;  wherefore  the  breadand  wine  are 
offered  that  He  may  make  them  his  body 
and  blood."  (Bossuet,  "Explic.  des  Prieres 
de  la  Messe.'")  In  the  oblation  the  priest 
speaks  of  the  bread  as  "the  spotless 
victim,"  and  of  the  chahce  as  the  "  chalice 
of  salvation"  by  anticipation — i.e.  he  looks 
forward  to  the  moment  when  they  will 
be  changed  into  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ.  All  the  ancient  liturgies  contain 
an  oblation  of  the  gifts  before  consecra- 
tion (see  the  comparative  table  in  Ham- 
mond's "  Ancient  Liturgies,"  p.  xxvi.  seq.) ; 
but  the  five  prayers  with  which  the  ob- 

'  Why  does  the  priest  say  "  Oremus  "  before 
the  offertory  ?  Prob.ibly  because  some  prayer 
like  th.it  "  Super  Sindonem  "  in  the  Ambrosiiin 
Mass  has  lallen  out.  This  is  Mr.  Hammond's 
solution.  See  also  "Oremus"  in  Smith  and 
Cheetham. 


OFFICE 


OLD  CATHOLICS  667 


lation  is  made — "Suscipe,  Sancte  Pater," 
"Ort'erimus  tibi,"  "In  spiritu  humilitatis," 
"Veni,  Sanctiticator,"  "Suscipe,  Sancta 
Trinitas,"  are  of  recent  date,  as  ap- 
pears "  from  the  silence  of  Walafrid, 
Amalarius,  Rupert,  and  Innocent  III." 
concerning  them  (Benedict  XIV.  "  De 
Miss."  II.  X.).  The  incensation  of  the 
oblata  or  gifts  in  solemn  Masses  seems  to" 
have  been  little  known  in  the  West  till 
the  ninth  century,  when  it  was  intro- 
cluced  in  France.  The  ceremony  occurs 
in  the  Greek  liturgies  (Le  Brun,  torn.  ii. 
2  P.  a.  7).  The  gi-eat  oblation  of  Christ's 
body  and  blood  must  be  careful'.y  distin- 
guished from  the  Otlertory  or  anticipatory 
oblations  of  bread  and  wine. 
OPriCE.  [See  Beetiart.] 
OZXiS,  HOliT.  There  are  three  holy 
■oils,  consecrated  by  the  bishop  on  Holy 
Thursday,  and  received  from  him  by  the 
priests  who  have  charge  of  parishes  and 
districts. 

(1)  The  oil  of  catechumens,  used  in 
blessing  fonts,  in  baptism,  consecration  of 
churches,  of  altars  whether  fixed  or  port- 
able, ordination  of  priests,  blessing  and 
coronation  of  kings  and  queens. 

(2)  Chrism  [see  Coxtikmation],  used 
in  blessing  the  font,  in  baptism  and  con- 
firmation, consecration  of  a  bishop,  of 
paten  and  chalice,  and  in  the  blessing  of 
bells. 

(3)  Oil  of  the  sick,  used  in  extreme 
unction  and  the  blessing  of  bells. 

The  Rituale  Romanum  requires  these 
oils  to  be  kept  in  vessels  of  silver  or 
alloyed  metal  [stannum — properly  a  mix- 
ture of  silver  and  lead),  in  a  decent  place, 
and  under  lock  and  key.  The  S.  Cong. 
Rit.  strictly  forbids  the  pastor  to  keep 
them  in  his  house,  except  in  cases  of 
necessity.  (See"Manuale  Decret."2,670- 
2).  The  oils  of  the  past  year  must  not 
be  used,  but  common  oil,  in  lesser  quan- 
tity, may  be  added  to  the  blessed  oils  if 
neeessarj-.  For  the  bisto^  of  the  use  of 
these  oils,  see  Bai'tism,  Co^TIE3IATIO^', 
&c.  .tc. 

OZ.X>  CA.Tnoi.XCS{Alt-Kat/)oh'ken). 

A  name  assumed  by  various  priests  and 
lay-people  in  Germany  who  protested 
ag.-iiiist  the  Vatican  definition  of  Papal 
infallibility,  and  formed  themselves  into 
a  si'parate  body. 

Scarcely  was  the  Vatican  definition 
issued,  when  Dr.  DoUinger  solemnly  pro- 
tested against  it,  as  an  innovation  on 
Catholic  doctrine.  He  found  large  sup- 
port in  the  universities.  Nearly  all 
Catholics  in  the  teaching  body  of  Miinich 


'  (44  Docenten),  professors  from  Freiburg, 
Breslau,  Prague,  Miinster,  and  four  pro- 
fessors from  Bonn,  joined  the  opposition. 
Some  of  them,  such  as  Reusch,  Langen, 
,  Friedrich,  were  men  of  considerable  repu- 
1  tation  for  ability,  learning,  and  character. 
Nothing  of  course  need  be  said  of  Dol- 
linger.    The  party  looked  for  encourage- 
ment to  those  German  bishops  who  had 
been  opposed  to  the  definition,  but  in 
this  they  were  disappointed    The  leaders 
i  of  the  protesting  movement  were  excom- 
■  munioatt-d. 

j      In  1871,  at  an  Old  Catholic  Congress 
I  in  ^Miinicli,  but  against  the  declared  wish 
I  of  Dolliiifrrr,  the  resolution  of  forming 
Old  Catholic  congTegations  was  formed, 
I  and  on  Jiuie  4,  1873,  Dr.  Reinkens  was 
I  consecrated     bishop    by  Heydekamp, 
[  Jansenist    bishop    of    Deventer.  The 
bishop  had  a  salary  allotted  him  by  the 
Government  (16,000 1 balers  from  Prussia, 
2,000  from  Baden):  but  his  jurisdiction 
over  his  adherents  is  very  limited ;  the 
real   power  is  vested   in  a   synod  of 
Deputies   from    the    congregations,  of 
whom   the   majority   are   laymen.  In 
many  cases  the  Catholic  churches  were 
made  over  to  the  Old  Catholics  by  the 
Government,  a  result  which  was  accele- 
j  rated  by  a  decree  of  Pius  IX.  forbidding 
j  Cathohc   rites   in   all   churches  where 
;  partial  possession  had  been  granted  to  the 
new  body.    The  cause  of  "  Old  Catholic- 
ism "  enjoyed  the  special  favour  of  the 
i  Government  then  engaged  in  a  contest 
'  with  the  Church. 

Facts,  however,  have  proved  that  so 
inconsistent  a  position  could  not  be  main- 
tained.   The  first  synod,  in  1874,  changed 
,  the    Tridentine   doctrine   on  am-icular 
]  confession,  and  made  fasting  and  ab- 
1  stinence  voluntary ;  the  second,  in  1875, 
reduced  the  number  of  feasts,  and  set 
aside  nearly  all  the  canonical  impediments 
I  of  marriage,  except  those  recognised  by 
j  the  State ;  the  third,  in  1876,  permitted 
I  priests  to  marry  and  receive  the  nuptial 
i  blessing,  but  forbade  them  to  officiate 
after  marriage ;  the  fifth,  in  1878,  allowed 
,  persons  in  holy  orders  to  marry,  and  to 
perfonn  all  the  functions  of  the  ministry. 
This  resolution  was  passed  in  spite  of  a  pro- 
test from  the  Jansenist  Bishops  of  Holland. 
Friedrich  andtheBonnprofessors,Langen, 
Menzel,  and  Reusch  (previously  vicar- 
general   to   the  Old   Catholic  bishop), 
withdrew  from  their  former  associates. 
Reusch  continued  to  oHiciate  at  Bonn, 
and  thus  formed  a  schism  within  a  schism. 
I  There  is  no  official  census  of  the  German 


668 


OLD  CATHOLICS 


ONTOLOGISM 


Old  Catliollcs,  for  in  1880  Dr.  Reinkens 
told  his  adherents  to  return  themselves 
simply  as  Catholics;  but  it  maybe  safely 
said  that  their  number  in  the  whole 
empire,  to  judge  even  by  their  ovm  state- 
ments, does  not  reach  50,000. 

In  Austria  they  are  a  very  insignificant 
body,  though  they  have  two  men  of 
learning-  among  them— viz.  the  Canonists 
Von  Schulte  and  Maassen.  In  Switzer- 
land only  three  priests  refused  submission 
to  the  ^'atiean  Council;  but  a  "Christian- 
Catholic  ''  Chiu-ch  was  formed,  in  great 
part  from  the  most  disreputable  elements, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  cantonal 
governments.  Edward  Herzog  was 
consecrated  bishop  by  Dr.  Reinkens  in 
September,  1876.  The  "Christian-Catho- 
lic "  Cliurch  has  a  married  priesthood,  a 
vernacular  liturgy,  and  has  made  con- 
fession voluntary.  This  body  is  visibly 
dwindling  away.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  erect  schismatical  churches  by 
the  ex-Dominican  Prota-Giurleo  at 
Naples,  in  Spain  by  the  priest  Aguazo,  in 
Mexico  by  eigliteen  priests,  in  France  by 
the  eloqui'iit  ex-Carmelite  Loyson  ("  Rec- 
teur  df  l'I  ]-li>-e  Catholique  Gallicane  ")  ; 
but  tliey  do  not  deserve  serious  notice. 

Since  the  above  was  written,  Pope 
Leo  XIII.  has  brouglit  the  Culturkampf 
to  a  happy  end.  In  Prussia  and  Baden, 
however,  the  laws  in  favour  of  the  Old 
Catholics  remain  unaltered,  and  the  sect, 
in  pi  inciple,  enjoys  the  same  protection 
as  before.  The  Catholics  have  re-obtained 
possession,  at  the  cost  of  great  sacrifices 
on  their  part,  of  a  few  of  the  churches 
which  the  Prussian  Government  had 
handed  over  to  the  Old  Catholics,  e.g.  in 
Neisse,  Cochum,  Wiesbaden.  In  Baden, 
also,  the  sectaries  were  obliged  to  restore 
several  of  the  principal  churches  to  their 
legitimate  owners,  e.g.  in  Mundelfingen, 
Thiengen,  Siicklngen,  Fiitzen,  Kappel. 
In  Bavaria  a  ministerial  decree  dated 
March  10,  1890,  deprived  the  Old  Catho- 
lics of  the  Government  protection  they 
.  enjoyed;  they  are  no  longer  treated  as 
members  of  the  Church  acknowledged  by 
the  State,  but  as  a  purely  private  sect. 
DoUinger,  the  author  of  tl'ie  ( )ld  ditliolic 
movement  in  Germany,  died  .Tiinuaiy  10, 
and  Baron  von  Liitz,  the  Minister  of 
Worship,  who  all  along  had  been  its 
staunchest  supporter,  retired  from  office 
on  May  31  and  died  September  3  of  the 
.same  year,  1890.  The  few  Old  Catholics 
still  found  in  some  Austrian  towns 
(Vienna,  Ried,  Warmsdorf)  have  never 
been  able  either  to  elect  a  bishop  or  to 


obtain  support  from  the  State.  In  Switzer- 
land negotiations  with  the  Holy  See  have 
rendered  the  position  of  Catholics  more 
tolerable.  In  1879  the  Bishop  of  Fribourg, 
Mgr.  Marilley,  resigned,  Mgr.  Casandy 
succeeded  him  as  Bishop  of  Fribourg, 
Lausanne  and  Geneva,  and  in  1883  Mgr. 
Mermillod  was  appointed  in  the  room  of 
Mgr.  Casandy.  The  Federal  Council  had 
banished  Mgr.  Mermillod  from  the 
country  when  he  was  vicar-apostolic  of 
Geneva;  it  allowed  him  to  return  aa 
bishop,  and  left  it  to  the  several  cantons 
to  acknowledge  his  new  dignity.  Geneva 
alone  refused  the  acknowledgment.  In 
189(»  Mermillod  was  created  cardinal 
and  received  all  the  honours  due  to  his 
rank  from  those  same  authorities  who  a 
few  years  before  had  sent  him  into  exile. 
Peace  was  likewise  restored  in  Basle  on 
the  resignation  of  Bishop  Lachat.  In 
consequence  of  the  activity  of  the  Catho- 
lics and  of  the  falling  away  of  its  own 
members,  the  Old  Catholic  sect  in  Switzer- 
land lost  much  of  their  influence ;  in  many 
parishes  they  had  to  give  up  their  right 
to  use  the  Catholic  churches  for  their 
worship.  A  bill  for  the  suppression  of 
the  "  Theological  Faculty  "  at  Bern  was 
indeed  thrown  out  by  the  Council  (1883), 
but  the  Faculty  is  dying  a  natural  death ; 
in  eleven  years  it  had  but  57  students. 
Meanwhile  a  Cathohc  university,  sup- 
ported by  the  State,  has  been  founded  at 
Fribourg  and  is  very  prosperous.  In 
Italy,  Spain,  and  Mexico  the  Old  Catholic 
movement  never  acquired  the  slightest 
importance.  There  are  no  reliable  statis- 
tics of  the  present  number  of  Old  Catho- 
lics. An  almanack  published  by  the  sect 
gives  their  number  for  1891  in  Germany 
as  34,893,  whereas,  according  to  Schulte 
("History  of  Old  Catholicism,"  1887),  in 
1879  they  were  53,640.  In  Bavaria 
there  were  6,173  of  them  in  1883,  against 
11,388  in  1877  (Schulte,  op.  eit.).  In 
1891  they  are  estimated  at  about  5,000. 
Outside  of  Germany  a  similar  rapid 
decrease  has  taken  place. 

[From  the  art.  "Alt-Katholiken"  in  the 
new  edition  of  the  "  Kirchen-Lexikon," 
with  additional  information  kindly  sup- 
plied by  Dr.  Wildt,  the  writer  of  the 
article.    See  also  Armexiaxs.] 

OMOPHORXOM'.  [See  Pallium.] 
Ol«rTOX.OCXSlVX.  This  is  the  name, 
first  given  by  Gioberti,  which  designates 
a  form  of  Platonic  Mysticism  whose 
principles  were  inculcated  by  Marsiliua 
Ficinus,  systematically  constructed  by 
Malebranche,  and  again  recast  by  the 


OXTOLOGISM 


OXTOLOOIS.M 


aboTe-mentioned  Gioberti.  The  name  | 
deudtes  that  it  is  a  first  principle  of  the 
theory  of  cognition  which  lies  at  the  basis 
of  the  system  :  that  tlie  order  of  intel- 
lectual apiprehension  follows  the  order  of 
real  beius.  The  necessary,  self-existing 
being  is  tirr.t  in  the  real  order  ;  therefore 
it  is  the  first  object  of  intellectual  vision, 
and  is  that  in  and  by  wliich  every  con- 
tingent and  created  existence  becomes 
visible.  Gioberti's  theory  was,  for  a 
time,  very  attractive  to  many  Catholics,  j 
and  seemed  likely  to  gain  an  i  xtiiisive 
sway.  It  was  very  vigi^roiijly  ci  intro-  I 
verted  by  Liberatore  and  others  as  con- 
trary to'the  doctrine  of  St.  Tlioina-,  us 
rationally  groundless,  and  as  It  aJiiiL;'  loiri- 
cally  to  consequences  which  are  theo- 
logically unsound  and  incompatible  with 
dogmas  of  faith.  On  account  of  this 
dangerous  theological  tendency  seven 
propositions,  embracing  the  fundamental 
tenets  of  Ontologism,  were  censured  by 
the  Holy  See,  as  propositions  which  can- 
not safely  be  taught,  in  a  decree  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Inquisition  bearing 
date  September  18,  18f5l. 

Prop.  I.  An  immediate  cognition  of 
God,  at  least  habitual,  is  essential  to  the 
human  intellect,  so  that  without  this  it 
can  have  cognition  of  nothing,  inasmuch 
as  it  is  the  intellectual  light  itself 

II.  The  lieing  which  we  perceive  by 
the  intellect  in  all  things,  and  without 
which  we  intellectually  perceive  nothing, 
is  the  divine  being. 

in.  Universals,  considered  a  parte 
rei,  are  not  really  distinguished  from 
God. 

IV.  The  congenital  knowledge  of  God 
as  being  in  the  simple  sense  of  the  term, 
involves  in  an  eminent  mode  every  other 
cognition,  so  that  by  it  we  possess  an 
implicit  cognition  of  every  being  under 
every  respect  in  which  it  is  cognoscible. 

V.  All  other  ideas  are  nothing  but 
modifications  of  the  idea  in  which  God 
is  intelUctually  perceived  as  being,  in  the 
simple  sense  of  the  term. 

VI.  Created  things  are  in  God  as  a 
part  is  in  a  whole,  not  indeed  in  a  formal  ] 
whole,  but  in  one  which  is  infinite  and 
most  simple,  which  places  its  quasi  parts 
outside  of  itself,  without  any  di^rision  or 
diminution  of  itself. 

VII.  Creation  can  be  thus  explained  : 
God,  in  tlie  special  act  in  which  He  intel-  j 
lectually  cognises  and  wills  Himself  as 
distinct  from  any  determinate  creature— 
e.ff.  man— produces  that  creature. 

Various  attempts  were  made  by  par 


tisans  of  Ontologism  to  maintain  that  this 
censure  of  the  Holy  See  was  not  directed 
against  this  .system,  but  against  another 
species  of  Pantheistic  Ontologism  taught 
in  Germany.  But  one  of  their  number, 
M.  Brancherau,  having  a  conscientious 
doubt  on  the  subject,  drew  up  a  summary 
of  the  doctrine  contained  in  a  text-book 
which  he  had  himself  composed,  com- 
pri.-ed  in  fifteen  theses,  which  he  submitted 
to  the  Uoman  Congregation  for  judgnu'nt. 
The  decision  was  i^ixen  in  Septeniljer, 
18G2, pronouncing  till'  .substantial  identity 
of  these  propositions  with  the  se\eu 
already  disapproved,  and  declaring  that 
they  fell  under  the  same  cen-ure,  that 
they  consequently  could  not  lie  taught, 
and  that  the  text-book  itself,  which  was 
only  a  development  of  the  same  theses, 
could  not  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  pupils. 
On  February  '22,  1  S6(i,  a  decree  of  the 
united  Congi.  -ations  of  the  Inquisition 
and  of  the  Index,  formally  approved  by 
the  Holy  Father,  censured  the  writings 
of  Prof.  Ubaghs,  of  Louvain,  another  dis- 
tinguished Ontologist,  as  containing  the 
same  doctrine  condemned  in  the  seven 
propositions.  During  the  same  year  M. 
Hugonin,  who  had  bi  en  nominated  to  an 
episcopal  see  in  France,  was  required  by 
the  Papal  Nuncio  at  Paris,  as  a  condition 
of  receiving  the  confirmation  of  his  ap- 
]iointment,  to  publish  a  retractatjon  of 
the  doctfiiie  ciiiitalned  in  his  "Etudes 
PhilofOjihiqi  I.  ^ :  (Jntologie,"and  to  promise 
to  do  all  which  depended  on  him  in  the 
episcopal  ofiice  to  prevent  the  teaching  of 
this  same  doctrine  in  the  schools  of 
France.  All  these  distingui.-hed  persons 
submitted  with  docility  to  the  sentence 
of  Home.  Since  it  has  become  manifest 
that  the  Holy  See  did  intend  to  condemn 
as  unsafe  the  fundamental  doctrine  of 
Ontologism  proper — viz.  that  the  human 
intellect  has  an  immediate  cognition  of 
God  as  its  proper  object  and  the  principle 
of  all  its  cognitions — the  system  has 
fallen  dead,  so  far  as  Catholics  are  con- 
cerned. It  still  lingers,  imder  various 
modifications,  by  which  the  genuine  idea 
which  lies  at  its  basis  is  so  far  altered  or 
obscured  as  to  be  comparatively  harmless, 
and  really  or  apparently  exempt  from 
positive  censure.  In  such  shapes,  how- 
ever, it  is  no  longer  potent  to  attract 
thoroughgoing  thinkers,  and  is  of  smaU 
moment. 

( Kleutgen  gives  a  brief  but  thorough 
exposition  of  the  seven  propositions,  with 
a  refutation  of  the  errors  contained  in 
them,  in  a  work  which  in  the  French 


C70         OrrS  OrEL.ATUM 


ORATORY,  THE  FREXGIl 


translation  i>  -iiiitlt  .1  ■■  ( intolcgisme  jug6 
par  le  Saint-^^irgr."  Paris:  Gaume 
Freres  et  J.  Duprev,  3  liiu-  de  rAbbave, 
1867.]  The  works  of  Cardinal  Deciiamps 
■may  also  be  consulted  for  information 
concerning  the  controversy.) 

OPVS  OPSltiVTVlvi.  A  word  used 
by  mediaeval  theologians  and  adopted  by 
the  Council  of  Trent  (sess.  vii.  can.  S) 
to  express  the  nature  of  the  effects  which 
the  sacraments  produce.  Man  has  the 
power  by  the  perversity  of  his  will  to  stay 
theetlicacy  of  the  sacraments;  and  certain 
dispositions — such  as  the  love  of  God  and 
man,  or,  again,  true  repentance  and  sincere 
pur]><i>e  of  amendment — are  absolutely 
necessary,  in  those  who  have  the  use  of 
reason,  in  order  that  they  may  derive 
benefit  from  the  sacraments.  These 
dispositions,  however,  are  only  conditions 
without  which  the  grace  of  the  sacra- 
ments cannot  be  received.  The  grace 
itself  comes  not  from  them,  but  from  the 
institution  of  Christ. 

Tile  fdllowing  clear  explanation  is 
given  by  Jjellaruiine  ("  Pe  Sacramentis," 
lib.  ii.  1).  In  justification,  he  says,  as 
received  throngh  the  sacraments,  many 
causes  concur:  on  God's  part,  the  will  to 
employ  the  sensible  sign ;  on  Christ's  part, 
his  Passion  and  merits;  on  the  part  of 
the  minister,  power  and  intention;  on 
the  part  of  the  recipient,  the  will  to 
receive  the  sacrament,  iaifli,  and  re- 
pentance; on  the  part  of  the  sacrament, 
the  a]iplieatiou  of  tlie  sensible  sign.  "  But 
of  all  these,  that  which  actively,  proxi- 
mately, and  instrumentalh"  eil'ects  the 
grace  of  justification,  is  only  that  external 
act,  called  sacrament,  and  this  is  the 
sense  of  '  Opus  OiJeratuui,'  the  word 
operatum  being  tahen  passively,  so  that 
when  we  say  the  sacrament  confers  grace 
ex  opere  opcrato,  our  meaning  is  that 
grace  is  conferred  by  virtue  of  the  sacra- 
mental act  itself  iii>iituted  by  God  for 
this  end,  not  hy  the  merit  of  the  minister 
or  the  reei](ient." 

ORAitiiTZH:.    [See  Stole.] 

FKATRES,  &.C.     So  the 

addie.-s  begins  in  which,  after  the  Offer- 
tory iind  Lavabo,  tli(>  jiriest  bids  the 
jjeojjle  pray  that  liis  sarrilici'  and  theirs 
may  be  acceptable  to  God.  Originally 
the  priest  simply  said  "Orate,"  or  "Orate 
]>i'o  me,"  "Orate  pro  me  pecc;i1ore." 
ilemi  of  Auxerre,  in  a.d.  ^.--0,  is  the  lirst 
to  give  a  fuller  form,  but  lie  a])])ends  it 
mei-ely  as  an  explanation,  "  (Ji  ate,  fratres" 
— i.i .  "  ut  meum  ac  vestnim  pariter  sacri- 
ficium  acc(!ptum  sit  Domino."    In  tho 


churches  of  Paris  and  Meaux  down  to 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  in  our  own 
Missals  of  Sarum,  Bangor,  and  York,  the 
words  ran,  "  Orate,  Iratres  et  sorores," 
&c.  The  answer  which  the  server  makes 
is  "  Suscipiat,"  &c. ;  but  the  response  is 
given  in  a  vast  variety  of  forms  by  the 
mediaeval  Missals,  and  it  still  varies  much 
in  the  rites  of  different  religious  orders. 
(Le  Brun,  torn,  ii.,  iii.  Part.  art.  x. 
Maskell,  "  Ancient  Liturgies.") 

ORATORY.  In  the  earliest  times 
Mass  could  only  be  said  in  private  houses, 
and  after  the  erection  of  cimrches  it  was 
still  often  said  in  private  dwellings.  The 
growth  of  the  parochial  system  led  to  a 
shaiper  distinction  between  parochial 
churches  and  oratories  or  chapels.  Thus 
the  Council  of  Agde,  canon  24  (anno  506), 
permits  Mass  to  be  said  in  oratories,  but 
not  on  the  great  feasts  of  Easter,  Christ- 
mas, &c.  So  the  Council  of  Clermont, 
can.  14  (anno  535).  In  the  East,  the 
Synod  in  Trullo,  can.  31  (anno  692),  pro- 
lubiti'd  service  in  oratories  without  the 
1  lishi  ip's  leave,  and  many  AVestern  councils 

1  issued  similar  edicts. 

I       An  oratory  is  public  or  private,  ac- 

'  cording  as  it  has  or  has  not  a  door  opening 
into  the  public  road.  The  older  canon 
law  allowed  Mass  to  be  celebrated  in 
either  with  the  bishop's  leave.    But  the 

1  Council  of  Trent  limited  episcopal  powers 
in  the  matter,  and  the  following  is  the 

!  present  state  of  the  law. 

A  bishop  may  always  permit  Mass  in 
a  public  oratory,  blessed  and  set  apart  for 
divine  service. 

In  the  oratories  of  religious,  seminaries, 
hospitals,  &c. 

In  his  own  palace. 

In  the  house,  wherever  it  may  be,  in 
which  he  resides  at  the  time.  (This  privi- 
lege was  taken  away  by  Clemeut  XL, 
but  restored  by  Innocent  XIII.) 

In  private  oratories  for  just  cause  and 
for  a  time. 

But  a  i)ernianeut  privilege  of  celebrat- 
ing in  a  private  oratory  can  be  granted 
by  the  Pope  alone.  (Concil.  Trident,  i. 
sess.  xxii. ;  Liguori,  "  Theol.  Moral."  lib. 
vi.  Tract  .'),  cap.  .3,  dub.  4.) 

ORATORY,  THE  FRElfl-CH.  A 
society  ol'  pri!->ts  founded  ]>\  (Jardinal  de 
Berulie  at  Paris  in  i,  with  the  advice 
i.f  Cesar  de  I'.us.  the  IV'ie  Cotton,  and 
othfr  eminent  men,  in  order  to  strengthen 
ecclesiast  ieal  discipline,  which  had  been 
weaiiened  during  tbe  troubles  of  the 
League.  Bossuet  says  that  Mons.  de 
B^rulle  "  preferred  to  give  no  other  spirit 


ORATORY,  THE  FRENCH 

1o  his  company  but  the  spirit  of  the 
Church  itself,  no  other  rule  than  her 
■canons,  no  other  superiors  than  her 
bishops,  no  other  bond  but  charity,  and 
no  vows  but  those  of  baptism  and  ordina- 
tion." To  deepen  devotion,  promote  pro- 
fessional studies,  and  spread  an  ecclesias- 
tical spirit  among'  the  st'cular  clergy,  that 
through  tliem  the  whole  population  might 
be  reached  and  influenced,  were  the  prin- 
cipal objects  of  tlie  institute.  In  1612  it 
was  declared  a  royal  foundation.  After 
some  hesitation  Paul  V.  (1614)  approved 
the  society,  under  the  title  of  "  Congre- 
gation of  the  Oratory  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  in  France."  fn  1616  a  residence, 
with  chapel  annexed,  was  occupied  in  the 
Rue  St.  Honors.  The  fathers  paid  much 
attention  to  music,  and  wi-re  called  "  les 
peres  du  beau  chant."  The  favourite 
work  of  the  founder  was  the  institution 
of  seminaries  for  the  training  of  priests ; 
■of  these  he  lived  to  see  six — at  Langres, 
Nevers,  &c. — in  working  orilt  r.  lie  was 
the  friend  and  supporter  of  D'  ^curtt  s,  and 
the  congi-egation  alwaj's  had  the  rejaita- 
tion  of  being  rather  favourable  to  Car- 
tesianism.  The  Cardinal  died  in  lG:iO, 
leaving  fifty  se-niinaries,  colli'tres,  and 
houses  of  retreat  in  the  erei-riiin  of  wliich 
he  had  been  instiumnital,  all  in  full 
activity.  The  saintly  Teiv  de  Oondreu 
•succeeded  him  in  the  government  of  the 
congregation  ;  h*^  was  followed  by  Bour- 
goiiig,  Senault,  Sainte-]\Iarthe,  and  De  la 
Tour.  Jansenism  took  a  strong  hold  of 
the  congregation,  and  the  bull  "  Unigeni- 
tus  "  was  long  a  bone  of  contention  among 
the  members ;  but  the  sounder  portion  at 
last  prevailed,  and  the  bull  was  accepted 
by  the  society  in  1746.  At  the  Revolu- 
tion the  educational  functions  discharged 
by  the  congie_;at ion  saved  it  for  a  time; 
but  the  Fatheis  tirmly  resisted  the  Civil 
Constitution  of  the  Clergy,  and  when  the 
ceremony  of  consecrating  the  constitu- 
tional bishops  was  appointed   to  take 

flace  in  their  church  in  the  Rue  St. 
Ionor(5,  they  all  refused  to  be  present. 
Later,  a  few  gave  way  and  took  the  oath. 
The  "Oratory  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception," founded  at  Paris  in  1852  by 
M.  P(5tetot,  cui6  of  St.  Roch,  and  the  abb6 
Gratry,  adopted  the  rule  of  the  ancient 
«ociety. 

Among  the  eminent  men  whom  the 
French  t)rafory  produced  were  Thomassin 
(a  name  often  (juotixl  in  these  pages), 
Lejeune,  Richard  Simon,  Malebranche, 
■Quesnel,  Pouget,  Massillon,  Renaudot, 
Jean  Morin,  commonly  called  Morinus, 


ORATORY  OF  ST.  PmT>IP  NERI  671 

I  Le  Brun,  Lami,  and  Duhamel.  ("En- 
j  cycl.  du  XIX"'  Siecle,"  1852,  art.  by 
:  Jules  Sauzay.) 

ORATORY     OP     ST.  PHZX.ZP 
NERX.      Phihp    Neri,    a    native  of 
Florence,  remarkable  from  his  childhood 
upwards  for   the  singular  beauty  and 
purity  of  his  character,  came  to  reside  at 
Rome,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  in  1538. 
For  some  years  he  was  tutor  to  the  chil- 
dren of  a  Florentine  nobleman  living  in 
Rome.    His  life  was  one  of  habitual  self- 
denial,  penance,  and  prayer.    A  thirst  for 
doing  good  consumed  him ;  and  by  degrees 
he  gathered  round  him  a  number  of  men, 
'  young  and  old,  whom  he  animated  by  his 
discourses  to  a  greater  zeal  for  God  and 
hatred  of  evil,  and  to  a  more  exact  regu- 
larity of  life  than  they  had  known  before. 
This  he  did  while  still  a  layman ;  but  on 
the  advice  of  his  confessor  he  received 
holy  orders,  and  was  ordained  priest  in 
1551.    For  a  short  time  after  his  ordina- 
tion he  received  in  his  own  chamber  those 
whom  he  had  won  to  God,  and  instructed 
!  them  on  spiritual  things  ;  then,  during 
'  seven  years,  in  a  larger  room.  Out  of  these 
colloquies  was  gradually  perfected  the 
plan  of  evening  exercises  which  is  to  this 
day    practised    by   the   congregation — 
jilain   sermons  being  preached,  hymns 
sung,  and  popular  devotions  used,  in  a 
regular  order,  on  every  week-day  evening 
except  Saturday.    The  numljer  of  persons 
attending  the  exerci  ses  still  increasing,  he 
obtained  (lo5x)  from  the  administration 
j  of  the  Church  of  St.  Jerome  leave  to  build 
']  over  one  of  the  aisles  of  that  church  a 
I  chapel,  to  which  he  gave  the  modest  name 
of  an  "  orator}',"  whence  arose  the  name 
I  of  the  congregation.    About  this  time 
many  persons  afterwards  eminent  in  the 
Church  and  the  world  joinedhim, amongst 
whom  were  Caesar  Baronius,  the  ecclesias- 
tical historian,  and  Francis  Maria  Tarugi, 
afterwards  Cardinals,  Lucci,  Tassone,  Sec. 
Six  years  later,  the  Florentines  living  in 
Rome  having  rei^uested  him  to  underlake 
I  the  charge  of  the  Church  of  St.  John  the 
i  Baptist  which  they  had  just  built,  the 
saint  (1504)  caused  Baronius  and  others 
I  of  his  followers  to  remove  thither  and  to 
I  receive  ordination.    From  this  date  the 
commencement  of  the  congregation  is 
reckoned.    Tlieir  numbers  inereasing,  it 
1  seemed  desirable  to  the  Fathers  to  have 
a  house  of  their  own.    The  old  church 
of  the  Vallicella,  situated  in  the  heart  of 
Rome,  was  ceded  to  them  in  1576;  and 
St.  Philip  at  once  caused  the  present 
I  magnificent  church,  called  the  "  Chiesa 


072  ORATOEY  OF  ST.  PHILIP  NERI 


ORDER,  HOLY 


Xuova,"  to  bo  commenced  on  the  site. 
The  Fathers  removed  to  the  Vallicellain 
1577  on  the  completion  of  the  church; 
St.  Philip  joined  them  in  IS-^S.  Gregory 
Xin.  had  approved  and  confirmed  the 
erection  of  the  congregation  in  1575.  The 
constitutions  of  the  society — which  St. 
Philip  desired  should  be  composed  of 
simple  priests,  without  vows,  but  agreeing 
to  a  rule  of  life— were  approved  by  Paul  V. 
in  1612.  St.  Philip  died  in  1595,  was 
beatified  in  1615,  and  canonised  iu  1622. 
The  rule  of  the  congregation  from  the 
first  was  that  each  house  should  be  in- 
dependent, the  only  exception  being  made 
iu  favour  of  certain  Itahan  oratories 
(Naples,  San  Severino,  and  afterwards 
Lanciano),  which  were  at  first  adminis- 
tered by  the  mother  house  at  Rome. 

The  Oratory  was  introduced  into 
England  in  1847  by  Dr.  (afterwards 
Cardinal)  Newman,  who,  during  his  long 
sojourn  in  Rome  following  upon  his  con- 
version, had  studied  closely  the  work  of 
the  holy  founder  and  become  deeply  im- 
Inied  with  the  spirit  of  his  institute.  The 
first  house  was  at  Mary  "Vale,  i.e.  Old 
Oscott,  and  was  transferred,  after  a  tem- 
porary sojourn  at  St.  Wilfrid's,  Staflbrd- 
shirc,  to  Alcester  Street,  Birmingham,  in 
January,  l^-l'.l  A  short  time  later  a 
hous.'  was  opened  at  King  William  Street, 
Strand,  Loudon,  by  F.  Faber,  with  several 
other  fathers  who  belonged  to  the  Birm- 
ingham congregation,  and  were  still  sub- 
ject to  Father  Newman.  In  October,  1850, 
the  London  house  was  released  from 
obedience  to  Birmingham,  and  erected 
into  a  congregation  with  a  superior  of  its 
own.  It  was  finally  transferred  to 
Brompton,  where  it  has  erected  a  large 
domed  church.  The  Oratory  at  Birming- 
ham remained  under  the  direction — even 
after  his  elevation  to  the  purple — of  its 
illustrious  founder,  and  has  become  a 
great  centre  for  the  midland  counties  of 
Catholic  preaching  and  education. 

The  followmg  passage  embodies  a 
portion  of  the  Cardinal's  conception  of 
St.  Philip's  work.  "  He  was  raised  up," 
writes  Cardinal  Newman,  "  to  do  a  work 
almost  peculiar  in  the  Church."  Instead 
of  combating  like  Ignatius,  or  being  a 
hunter  of  souls  hke  St.  Cajetan,  "  Philip 
preferred,  as  he  expressed  it,  tranquilly  to 
cast  iu  his  net  to  gain  them  ;  he  preferred 
to  yield  to  the  stream  and  direct  the 
current — which  he  could  not  stop — of 
science,  literature,  art,  and  fashion,  and  to 
sweeten  and  sanctify  what  God  had  made 
very  good  and  man  had  spoilt.    And  so 


he  contemplated  as  the  idea  of  his  mis- 
sion, not  the  propagation  of  the  faith,  nor 
the  exposition  of  doctrine,  nor  the  cate- 
chetical schools  ;  whatever  was  exact  and 
systematic  pleased  him  not ;  he  put  from 
him  monastic  rule  and  authoritative 
speech,  as  David  refused  the  armour  of 
his  king.  No :  he  would  be  but  an  ordinary 
individual  priest  as  others;  and  his 
weapons  should  be  but  unaffected  humihty 
and  unpretending  love.  All  he  did  was 
to  be  done  by  the  light,  and  fervour,  and 
convincing  eloquence  of  his  personal 
character  and  his  easy  conversation.  He 
j  came  to  the  Eternal  City  and  he  sat  him- 
i  self  down  there,  and  his  home  and  his 
family  gradually  grew  up  around  him,  by 
the  spontaneous  accession  of  materials 
from  without.  He  did  not  so  much  seek 
his  own  as  draw  them  to  him.  He  sat  in 
his  small  room,  and  they  in  their  gay 
worldly  dresses,  the  rich  and  the  well- 
born as  well  as  the  simple  and  the 
illiterate,  crowded  into  it.  .  .  .  And  they 
who  came  remained  gazing  and  listening 
till,  at  length,  first  one  and  then  another 
threw  ofi"  their  bravery,  and  took  his  poor 
cassock  and  girdle  instead  ;  or,  if  they 
kept  it,  it  was  to  put  hair-cloth  under  it, 
or  to  take  on  them  a  rule  of  life,  while 
to  the  world  they  looked  as  before."  ' 
OROEAXi.  [See  Judicium  Dei.] 
ORDER,  HOX.T.  Holy  Order,  "ac- 
cording to  Catholic  doctrine,  is  a  sacra- 
ment of  the  new  law,  by  which  spiritual 
power  is  given  and  grace  conferred  for  the 
performance  of  sacred  duties. 

I.  The  Meaning  of  the  Word  "  Ordo  " 
is  explained  by  St.  Thomas  ("Suppl." 
xxxii.  2,  ad  4),  and  the  investigation  of 
modern  scholars  has  proved  his  view  to 
be  substantially  correct.  "  Ordo  "  means 
"rank,"  whether  high  or  low,  but  the 
meaning  was  restricted,  much  as  our  own 
word  "  rank  "  often  is,  to  "  eminent  rank  " 
— i.e.  the  clerical  position  as  distinct  from 
that  of  laymen.  Salmasius  suggested 
(see  Ritschl,  "Entstehunff  der  Alt- 
katholischen  Kirche,"  p.  388)  that  the 
earliest  Christian  writers  in  Latin  bor- 
rowed the  word  from  the  municipal  con- 
stitution of  the  Romans,  so  that  •'  ordo" 
would  mean  "  magistracy."  But  it  is 
much  more  likely  that  they  adopted  it  as 
a  version  of  x'Xrjpos ;  and,  as  the  reader 
will  presently  see,  it  was  only  by  degrees 
that  it  acquired  the  exclusive  sense  of 
"  eminent  '  or  "  magisterial  rank."  Thus, 
though  TertuUian  implies  that  the 
•  Scope  and  Nature  of  University  KductUion. 
Disc,  viii. 


ORDER,  HOLY 


ORDER,  HOLT  678 


"  ecclesiae  ordo  "  is  distinct  from  the  laity 
("De  Moaog."  7),  though  he  speaks  of 
persons  who  "  are  chosen  into  the  eccle- 
siastical order''  ("  De  Idololatr."  T\,  and, 
again,  of  "the  priestly  order"  ("ordo 
sacerdotalis,"  "  De  E.xlim  t.  Cast."  7)  ;  he 
also  recognises  "  widows  "  as  an  "  order  " 
of  the  Church  ("Ad  Uxor."  i.  7;  and  cf. 
"ordines,"  in  the  plural,  "De  Monog." 
12).  Even  Jerome  uses  "  ordo  "  in  its 
•wide  and,  as  we  believe,  original  sense. 
For  ("  In  Jesaiam,"'  Lib.  V.  cap.  xix.  18) 
he  enumerates  five  "  orders "  of  the 
Church  ("  ecclesiiE  ordiues")  — viz.  bishops, 
presbyters,  deacons,  the  faithful,  cate- 
chumens. 

II.  The  Number  of  Orders. — In  the 
Latin  Church  the  ecclesiastical  orders 
are  those  of  bishops,  priests,  deacons, 
sub-deacons,  acolytes,  exorcists,  readers, 
ostiarii,  or  door-keepers.  The  first  three 
are  as  old  as  the  time  of  the  Apostles ; 
and  all  must  be  very  ancient,  for  they 
are  mentioned  incidentally  by  Cornelius, 
bishop  of  Rome,  in  the  middle  of  the 
^hird  century  (apud  Euseb.  "  H.  E."  vi. 
43).  Nor  is  there  any  reason  to  think 
that  their  institution  was  recent  even 
then.  Some  canonists  add  another  order, 
that  of  the  tonsure,  but  it  is  generally 
regarded  as  a  mere  introduction  to  the 
clerical  state,  and  this  view  is  consonant 
to  the  language  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
(sess.  xxiii.  cap.  2).  Apart  from  this, 
very  many  theologians,  among  whom  is 
St.  Thomas,  do  not  regard  the  episcopate 
as  a  separate  order,  but  only  as  the  com- 
pletion and  extension  of  the  priesthood, 
and  hence  reckon  the  number  of  the 
orders  as  seven.  The  title  of  the  Triden- 
tine  chapter  already  referred  to,  "De 
Septem  Ordinibus,"  favours  this  view; 
but,  according  to  the  eminent  canonist 
Philips,  it  is  not  found  in  the  earlier  edi- 
tions. The  theory  rests  on  the  assump- 
tion that  all  orders  are  referred  to  the 
Eucharist,  and  thus  the  bishop  has  no 
power  which  a  simple  priest  has  not  also, 
except  that  the  former  can,  the  latter 
cannot,  convey  this  power  to  others  by 
ordination.  Those  who  hold  the  episco- 
pate to  be  a  distinct  order  not  unnaturally 
reject  this  exclusive  reference  of  holy 
order  to  the  Eucharist  as  arbitrary,  and 
argue  that  the  power  of  ordination  and 
confirmation  suiliciently  justifies  the 
position  of  the  e})iscopate  as  separate 
order.  The  orders  of  bishop,  priest, 
deacon,  and  (but  only  since  the  thirtecmth 
century)  subdeacon  are  called  "sacred" 
or  "gi'eater,"  those  of    acolyte,  &c., 


"  minor  "  orders.  In  the  Greek,  Coptic, 
and  Nestorian  Churches  the  orders  re- 
cognised are  those  of  bishop,  priest, 
deacon,  subdeacon,  and  reader,  to  which 
that  of  "  singer  "  {-^okTris)  is  sometimes 
added.  Great  variety,  however,  has  pre- 
vailed in  the  East,  both  as  to  the  number 
and  classification  of  the  orders,  and  we 
must  refer  the  reader  for  fuller  informa- 
tion to  Goar  ("  Euchologion  ") ;  to  Denz- 
inger  ("  Ritus  Orientalium,"  vol.  i.  p. 
116  seq.)\  and  to  the  articles  on  the 
individual  orders  in  this  work. 

HI.  Holy  Order  as  a  Sacrament. — 
The  Council  of  Trent  defines  (sess.  xxii. 
De  Sacr.  Ord.  can.  3)  that  order  is  "  truly 
and  properly  a  sacrament  instituted  by 
Christ,"  and  that  by  means  of  it  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  given  (Canon  4).  Evidently,  in 
ordination  there  is  an  external  sign,  but 
the  question  at  issue  between  Catholics 
and  most  Protestants  turns  on  the  grace 
which,  as  Catholics  believe,  accompanies 
the  sign.  A  priest,  as  the  Church  teaches, 
receives  supernatural  power  in  his  ordin- 
ation, an  indelible  character  [see  the 
article  on  Cha.kacter],  and,  if  rightly 
disposed,  grace  to  support  him  in  the 
exercise  of  his  ministry.  If  this  question 
be  settled,  the  rest  of  the  contention  fol- 
lows. A  sign  which  necessarily  conveys 
grace  cannot  have  been  instituted  by 
authority  which  is  merely  human,  and 
the  external  sign,  grace  given,  institution 
by  our  Lord,  are  the  three  constituents  of 
a  sacrament. 

That  grace  is  given  follows  from  the 
clear  statements  of  Scripture.  Christ 
"breathed  on"  his  Apostles  and  said, 
"  Receive  the  Holy  Ghost ;  whosesoever 
sins  ye  remit,  they  are  remitted  unto 
them ;  whomsoever  sins»'ye  retain,  they 
are  retained"  (John  xx.  23).  St.  Paul 
twice  reminds  St.  Timothy  of  the  grace 
he  had  received  at  ordination.  "Do  not 
neglect  the  grace  which  was  given  through 
prophecy,  with  laying  on  of  the  hands  of 
the  presbytery"  (1  Tim.  iv.  14) ;  "  I  put 
thee  in  mind  to  rekindle  the  grace  [or 
rather  gift,  xup'o-^a]  of  Go"!*  which  is  in 
thee  through  the  laying  on  of  my  hands  " 
(2  Tiui.  i.  6).  St.  Timothy  was  marked 
out  for  his  office  by  some  one  who  had 
the  prophetic  spirit,  common  in  the  early 
Church,  and  the  presbyters  joined  St. 
Paul  in  the  imposition  of  hands,  just  as 
presbyters  unite  with  our  bishops  in  the 
same  way  at  the  present  time.  But  the 
former  was  an  accidental,  the  latter  an 
unessential  circumstance,  and  hence  St. 
Paul  omits  the  mention  of  both  in  the 

X  X 


674  ORDER,  HOLY 


ORDER,  HOLY 


second  passage.  The  grace  was  conveyed 
by  the  imposition  of  Apostolic  hands 
(observe  the  contrast,  "  tcith,"  fxera,  the 
laying  on  of  the  hands  of  the  presbytery, 
and  "  through  [St<i]  the  laying  on  of  my 
hands  "),  and  the  context  leaves  no  doubt 
that  the  grace  given  was  for  the  right 
administration  of  the  ecclesiastical  office. 
St.  Timothy  is  to  remember  the  grace 
received,  and  to  let  no  one  dc-pise  his 
youth,  to  be  the  example  of  the  faithful, 
&c.  &c. ;  he  is  to  "  rekindle  it,"  for  the 
Spirit  given  is  one  of  power,  love,  temper- 
ance, &c.,  and  he  must  not  be  ashamed 
of  the  "  testimony  of  the  Lord."  It  is  in 
vain  that  an  able  writer  (Hatch,  "  Orga- 
nisation of  the  Early  Christian  Church," 
p.  l-'io)  urges  that  xap'o'^a  has  a  latitude 
of  meaning,  and  may  be  rendered  "  talent." 
This  is  not  a  fair  account  of  its  meaning 
in  the  New  Testament ;  but  if  it  were, 
what  then?  Plainly  Timothy  did  not 
receive  a  natural  "  talent  "  by  laying  on 
of  hands.  Nor  was  it  merely  the  office 
entrusted  to  him,  for  it  would  be  sense- 
less to  speiik  of  "  rekindling  "  an  office. 
It  was,  then,  just  what  Mr.  Hatch  denies 
that  ordination  can  give — viz.  an  interior 
quality,  the  fire  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the 
heart,  ever  present  to  empower  and 
quicken  St.  Timothy  in  the  exercise  of 
his  duties.  It  did  not  come  from  man, 
though  man  liad  it  in  his  power  to  "  re- 
kindle "  and  correspond  to  it.  It  is  well 
to  notice  tliut  an  interpretation  substan- 
tially identical  with  ours  is  given  and 
ju~tilic(l  from  the  context  by  one  of  the 
best  Protestant  cnmnientators  on  the 
Pastui^il  Ky\>\]r<{]lnt]H-i,ri,Uoc.).  Fur- 
thrr,  ir,  a-  Ml-.  IJatch  ^i;])posos,  the 
clfri; >■  had  licen  originally  mere  rejire- 
se'iitaii\'s  ol'  the  people,  deriving  all 
theii'  ]i(i\\cr  from  them,  and  only  doing 
for  thi-  sakr  (>r  order  and  convenience 
what  laymen  might  do  also,  then  indeed 
it  would  be  hard  to  believe  in  the  sacra- 
mental character  of  the  rite.  St.  Paul, 
ho\\e\  (M-,  ,'-])eaks  of  eViVfcoTroi  (the  precise 
meanMin  ofllie  word -does  not  concern  us 
here)  .K-  ilei.-i.  whniii  "  the  IIolyGhosthad 
apiH,i,,ie.iiuien<llhernnircl)ofGodwhich 
IJe  a(.|inrea  t  l,r.„,ul,  His  own  blood" 
(Act.-  x.v.l'-^).  ir  llie  Holy  (Jlinsla])pointS 
tlio-e  who  are  ordained' to  tlieir  .sacred 
fuiii-l  ion,  1  he  jirojihecy  or  po]inhir  election 
whic.ii  de>.^n.-  them  for  the.-e  functions 
being  a  separable  accident,  then  we  are 
not  surprised  to  find  St.  Paul  assuming 
that  the  same  Holy  Ghost  endowed  them 
with  grace  and  power.  It  is  quite  true 
that  Jewish  Rabbis  were  set  apart  by 


imposition  of  hands,'  and  "Sir.  Hatch  has 
collected  many  interesting  and  instructive 
parallels  to  different  parts  of  the  ordina- 
tion rite  from  the  customs  of  the  Roman 
magistracy  &c.  These,  however,  in  no 
way  affect  the  main  question.  No  one 
supposed  that  the  imposition  of  hands 
would  of  itself  prove  the  grace  of  orders, 
while  the  other  rites  to  which  Mr.  Hatch 
refers  are  allowed  on  all  hands  to  be  of 
merely  human  institution.  Our  appeal 
is  to  the  grace  which  Scripture  assures 
us  is  attached  to  the  imposition  of  hands 
for  holy  orders,  and  we  fail  to  see  that 
the  appeal  can  be  set  aside  on  the  grounds 
which  Mr.  Hatch  and  so  many  other 
learned  Protestants  allege. 

Such  is  the  value  assigned  to  the 
Sacrament  of  Holy  Order  in  the  Scripture, 
and  the  burden  of  proof  lies  on  our  adver- 
saries if  they  maintain  that  the  clergy, 
having  first  received  their  power  from 
God,  sank  after  the  ApostoUc  age  to  mere 
representatives  of  the  congregation.  As 
a  matter  of  fact.  Christian  antiquity  is  in 
harmony  with  Scripture.  Only,  the  ques- 
tion of  election  or  designation  to  office 
must  not  be  confused  with  the  power 
given  in  ordination  to  the  office ;  and 
again,  we  must  not  expect  full  and  dog- 
matic statements  on  the  nature  of  Holy 
Order  in  the  brief  and  occasional  writings 
of  the  early  Fathers.  Their  main  conten- 
tion against  heretics  did  not  turn  on  the 
question  of  their  orders  or  want  of  orders — 
in  many  cases  heretics  did  possess  true 
orders— but  on  the  fact  that  they  were 
outside  the  one  Church.  Still,  St.  Ignatius 
speaks  of  the  bishop  as  having  "  acquired 
his  ministry,  not  from  himself,  nor  through 
men"  (Philad.  i.).  The  bisliop  is  to  be 
regarded  as  "the  Lord  Himself"  (Ephes. 
vi.).  "Let  that  be  considered  a  vahd 
Eucharist  which  is  under  the  bishop  or 
one  commissioned  by  him  "  (Smyrn.  viii.) 
— a  rule,  however,  which  in  all  Ukehhood 
was  meant  as  a  warning  against  aU  schis- 

i  See  Buxtorf,  Lexicon  Chald.  et  Rabbin. 
art.  n2''PP  ;  'I'^d  for  full  information,  with 
aliundant  i  i  l'erencesto  the  Talmud,  Hamburger, 
lhal-Enciicl.  th::    Jiiihiilhums.  art.  "Ordina- 
tion."   The  ordination  was  ^nven  sduietimes  on 
the  authoritv-  of  the  Prince  of  the  S.'inhedrim, 
sometimes  on  the  authority  ef  the  Prinee  ;inil 
i  Sanhedrim  ooiijiiintly.    The  rite  is  as  old,  pro- 
I  bahh  ,  us  tlie  Sanhedrim,  and  was  the  rule  till 
I  the  fifth  century  A.D.    Instances  of  ordination 
occurinuch  later — e.j. one  in  the  sixteenth.  It 
is  remarkable  that  the  O.T.  books  after  the 
Pentateucli  (Num.  xxvii.  11 ;  Deut.  xxxiv.  9) 
contain  no  instance  of  ordination  by  imposition 
of  hands. 


ORDER,  HOLY 


ORDER,  HOLY 


675 


matical  rites,  even  if  celebrated  by  a  ' 
priest,  for  the  word  3e3«ia  can  scarcely  be 
pressed.  True,  Tertullian  ("  De  Exhort. 
Cast."  7,  "  Monog."  7,  12)  holds  very 
ditVerent  language,  asserts  the  uuiversal 
prie?thood  of  Christians,  aud  reduces  the 
diU'erence  between  clergy  and  laity  to  one 
of  ecclesiastical  institution.  But  then 
Tertullian  was  a  bitter  Montanist  when 
hi'  thus  wrote,  and  it  was  the  character-  j 
istic  of  Montauism  to  set  the  claims  of 
individual  piety  against  the  claims  of  the 
hierarchy.  Aud,  although  he  does  cer- 
tainly a^sume  that  his  premiss — viz.  that 
all  Christians  are  priests — w  ill  be  accepted 
by  Catholics,  it  is  quite  in  the  manner  of 
ttis  exaggerated  writer  to  take  the  Catho- 
lic and  Scriptural  doctrine  that  all  Chris- 
tians are  priests  in  a  sense,  just  as  Israel 
was  in  a  sense  a  nation  of  priests,  and  to 
distort  it  into  the  admission  that  even 
Catholics  made  no  essential  ditlerence 
between  j.riest  and  layman.  (See  Dol- 
linirer,  •'  Hippolytus  and  Callistus,"  Eng- 
lish translation,  p.  o^Osfj.)  His  rec■kle^s 
use  of  Scripture  aud  misrepieseutation 
of  fact,  to  enforce  his  Montanist  views 
(see  e.g.  "  Exhort.  Cast."  7  and  9),  shows 
how  little  he  can  be  trusted.  Nothing  of 
the  sort  can,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  be 
found  in  a  Catholic  bishop  who  called 
Tertullian  his  master;  we  mean  Cyprian. 
He  speaks  of  the  bishops  as  successors  of 
the  Apostles  (Ep.  xliv.  Ixvi. ;  see  also 
Clarus  a  Mascula,  "  In  Seutent.  Episc." 
70,  and  this  bj-  ordination,  as  he  expressly 
says);  he  derives  the  power  of  the 
Episcopate  (xxxiii.)  not  from  the  people 
but  from  Christ's  commission  to  Peter  (i6.). 
Just  as  much  to  the  point  is  a  passage  of 
Cyprian's  contemporary-  Fiimiliau,  who 
says  the  power  of  forgiving  sins  has  been 
bestowed  on  the  Apostles,  then  on  the 
churches  and  the  bishops,  who  have  suc- 
ceeded the  Apostles  by  successive  ordiua- 
tiou  {ordinntione  vxcariii,  inter  "  0pp. 
Cypr."  Ep.  Ixxv.).  So  again  in  the  Apo- 
stolic Constitution,  whicb  belongs  to  the 
same  period,  we  read,  "Neither  do  we 
permit  laymen  to  perform  any  of  the 
priestly  functions  (I'e^arixo)!'  Ipycof) — e.g. 
sacrifice,  baptism,  onlination,  blessing 
great  or  small.  For  through  the  imposi- 
*ion  of  the  bishop's  hands  such  dianutv  is 
given."  ("  Const.  Ap."  iii.  10.)"  This 
rule  is  attributed  to  the  Apostles.  The 
Council  of  Nicjea  forbade  deacons  to  give 
communion  to  presbyters,  and  this  on  the 
ground,  which  is  taken  for  granted,  that 
the  former  had  no  authority  or  power  to 
oti'er  sacrifice.    "Neither  the  rule  nor 


custom  has  handed  down  that  those  who 
have  no  authority  to  offer  (f.6.  to  offer 
sacrifice,  npoa-(f)(peiv,  this  principle  being 
assumed)  should  give  the  body  of  Christ 
tu  those  who  do  offer."'  (Can.  18.)  Later 
Fathers  who  treated  of  doctrine  at  greater 
length  furnish,  as  we  should  expect, 
more  explicit  statemeuts.  "Who  gives,'' 
says  the  author  of  a  work  falsely  attri- 
buted to  St.  Ambrose/  "the  episcopal 
grace  ?  You  answer  without  doubt, 
God.  But  still  God  gives  it  through  man. 
Man  imposes  the  hand,  God  gives  the 
grace."  (•'  De  Saeenlot.  Digii."  cap.  5.) 
St.  Augustine  ("Contr.  Epist.  Pai-men."' 
ii.  13)  compares  the  Sacrament  of  Order 
to  that  of  Baptism  ;  neither  can  be  reite- 
rated ;  ordination,  even  when  given  by  a 
sehismaticiil  bishop,  is  valid,  and  again 
("  De  Bono  Conjugali,"  cap.  24),  he 
maintains  the  indelible  character  of  order. 
It  is  not  lost  if  the  flock  is  withdrawn 
from  the  pastor;  it  abides  in  spite  of  the 
pastor's  crimes,  though  of  course  its  per- 
manence increases  t'.ie  culprit's  guilt. 
( "  Sacramento  domini  semel  imposito  uou 
carebit  quamvis  ad  judicium  perma- 
neiite").  This  indelible  cbaiaeter  of  order 
follows  from  the  principle;  I'or  which  we 
have  been  contending.  Man  cannot  take 
away  what  he  did  not  give.  And  further, 
if  a  wicked  or  schismatical  bishop  ordain, 
after  all  it  is  God  who,  in  the  words  of 
the  author  quoted  above,  "  bestows  the 
gTUce."' 

We  will  only  add  that  the  existence 
of  the  sacrifice  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ  natui-ally  inclines  us  to  believe  in 
the  Sacrament  of  ( >rder.  God,  who  in  the 
old  law  appointed  a  priesthood  to  ofier 
sacrifices  which  could  not  take  away  sin, 
did  not  surely  leave  the  sacrifice  in 
which  the  "Word,"  as  St.  Irena?us  says, 
is  "offered  up  "'  to  Him  without  appointed 
ministers  and  guardians.  Nor  does  Ca- 
tholic belief  foster  priestly  pride.  Such  an 
abuse  may  and  does  occm-,  for  here,  as 
elsewhere,  man's  weakness  and  sin  mar 
the  work  of  God.  But  the  very  fact  that 
bishops  and  priests  hold  a  commission 
frnm  God  and  not  from  their  flocks  is  a 
preservation  against  the  temptation  to 
please  men  at  the  expense  of  virtue  and 
truth.  A  man  who  holds  his  ^lace  be- 
cause of  his  popularity  has  tar  more 
temptation  to  vanit}'  than  a  priest  who 
knows  he  is  nothing  except  for  a  grace 

•  It  is  printed  in  all  eilitions  of  the  saint's 
works,  but  the  Bentilictiiies  have  shown  it 
cannot  be  his.  Petavius  quotes  it  as  the  work 
ol  St.  Ambrose. 

xx2 


676  ORDER,  HOLY 


OFcDER,  HOLY 


he  has  received  beyoud  any  mei  it-i  of  bis, 
and  in  common  with  multitudes  of  others; 
that  he  can  only  use  this  grace  in  accord- 
ance with  laws  which  man  cannot  change, 
and  that  it  involves  dread  responsibilities. 
It  needs  no  great  piety  or  humility  to  feel 
the  contrast  between  the  trust  reposed 
in  him  and  his  own  weakness.  It  is  the 
contrast  between  God  and  man,  not  be- 
tween men,  which  is  the  true  source  of 
humility ;  and  what  is  said  of  Christians 
generally  is  specially  applicable  to  priests. 
"  We  have  the  treasure  in  earthen  vessels, 
that  the  excellence  may  be  God's,  and  not 
Jrom  )is "  (2  Cor.  iv.  7).  Priests  and 
jieople  alike  sink  into  nothing  before 
Iliui.  "  The  eyes  of  man's  pride  shall 
be  humbled,  and  the  loftiness  of  men 
shall  be  bowed  down,  and  the  Lord 
alone  shall  be  e.xalted  in  that  day  "  (Isa. 
ii.  11). 

IV.  The  Orders  in  which  the  Sacrament 
is  given. — St.  Thomas  ("  Suppl."  xxxvii. 
a.  ."j)  holds  that  each  order  is  a  sacra- 
ment, and  this  apparently  was  the  common 
o])iiiion  in  the  middle  ages.  But  historical 
St  udy  and  knowledge  of  the  Eastern  rites 
do  not  favour  this  view,  which  is,  we 
believe,  no  longer  common.  Probably, 
tlie  orders  lower  than  the  diacouate  are 
only  of  ecclesiastical  institution,  and  are 
not,  therefore,  accom])anied  by  sacra- 
meutiil  grace.  It  is  certain  from  tlie 
prcjiifs  gi\eu  above  and  from  t 'le  Triilentine 
fi"linition  (sess.  xxii.  especially  Ciiiions  4, 
7),  tliat  the  episcopate  and  priesthood 
lire  sacraments;  and  it  is  all  but  uni\er- 
sally  held  (Durandus  and  Cajetan  are 
quoted  on  the  other  side)  that  the  diaco- 
n  ite  is  so  also.  Indeed  this  seems  to 
be  a  clear  consequence  from  Oanon  4, 
just  quoted,  and  Billuart  calls  this 
opinion  that  the  diaconate  is  a  sacra- 
ment "  so  common  and  certain  that  se- 
veral theologians  charge  the  contrary 
sentiment  of  Durandus  and  Cajetan  with 
rashness "  (Billuart,  "  De  Ord."  I.  a.  3, 
§  !)• 

V.  The  Minister  of  Orders.— T\iq  dis- 
tinction by  Divine  right  between  bishops 
and  pre>1)yters  has  been  sufficiently  ex- 
plained in  the  article  on  the  former.  Here 
it  is  enough  to  say  that  the  ordinary 
inini>tei-  of  Millers  is  tlie  bishop.  Priests, 
liowe\  er,  lu.-iy,  Ijy  concession  of  the  Pope 
or  Chiircli,  i-onl'er  minor  orders,  and 
certain  abbots  exercise  this  privilege, 
though  the  Council  of  Trent  (sess.  xxiii. 
cap.  10,  "  De  Reform.'")  withdrew  from 
them  the  right  of  doing  so,  except  in  the 
■case  of  their  own  subjects.    Those  who 


hold  the  subdiaconate  to  be  of  merely 
ecclesiastical  institution  would  naturally 
allow  that  the  Pope  might  permit  a 
simple  priest  to  give  that  order.  It  is 
much  harder  to  believe  that  the  Pope 
could  empower  a  priest  to  ordain  anyone 
deacon.  Theologians  of  name  assert  that 
such  a  privilege  was  given  in  1489  to  a 
Cistercian  abbot,  and  used  by  the  Cis- 
tercian General  at  Rome  in  IQQ'l  with 
the  Pope's  knowledge,  but  the  alleged 
fact  is  disputed.  (See  Billuart,  loc.  at. 
diss.  ii.  a.  1.)  A  bishop  cannot  lawfully 
ordain  any  except  those  who  belong  to 
his  diocese  by  birth,  domicile  (see  the 
Article),  possession  of  a  benefice,  or  by 
having  lived  in  his  house  for  three  years. 
In  Ibis  last  case  the  bishop  must  at  once 
confer  a  benefice  on  the  person  ordained. 
A  bishop  may  give  letters  dimissorial, 
enabling  another  bishop  to  ordain  the 
bearers  of  them,  and  if  the  see  has  beeu 
vacant  a  whole  year,  then,  but  not  till 
then,  the  chapter  may  give  such  letters. 
The  superiors  of  Regulars  must  send 
their  subjects  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese, 
but  in  case  he  is  absent,  then  the  superior 
may  send  his  subjects  with  dimissorials 
to  any  bishop.  The  dimissoiials  must, 
however,  be  accompanied  with  a  certilicate 
from  the  bishop's  vicar-general,  chancellor, 
or  secretary  (Gury,  "Theol.  Moral."  De 
Ord.  cap.  3).  The  episcopate  may  be 
conferred  on  any  Sunday  or  feast  of  an 
Apostle,  the  other  holy  orders  on  Ember 
Saturdays,  Saturday  before  Passion  Sun- 
day and  Holy  Saturday.  ]\Iinor  orders 
may  be  given  on  the  days  mentioned  last, 
and  also,  if  the  ordination  is  not  a  general 
one,  "  on  Smidays  and  other  festivals  " 
(Liguori,  "Theol.  Moral."  De  Ord.  §  7!»4). 
'Tliese  rules  as  to  the  time  of  ordination, 
and  in  particular  the  greater  freedom  as 
to  the  time  allowed  for  consecration  of 
bishops  and  conferring  minor  orders,  are 
very  ancient.  The  only  change  con.^ists 
in  this,  that  the  ordinations  used  to  be 
held,  not  as  now,  in  the  morning  of 
Saturday,  but  on  the  evening  of  Saturday 
or  on  Sunday  morning.  They  were  held 
in  the  church  in  the  presence  of  the  people, 
j  As  a  rule,  a  bishop  was  consecrated  in 
I  his  own  church  or  that  of  his  metro- 
1  politan.  (Gbardon,  "  Hist,  des  Sacr." 
tom.  V.  ch.  vi.) 
I  We  have  seen  that  Augustine  recog- 
I  nised  the  validity  of  heretical  and  schis- 
matical  ordinations,  provided,  of  course, 
the  ordaining  bishop  had  used  the  essen- 
tial matter  and  form.  Tlie  same  pruiciple 
had  been  followed  by  the  Council  of 


ORDER.  HOLY 


ORDER,  HOLY  677 


Nicfea  in  dealinjr  witli  tlie  Meletians  and 
Novatians  (see  Hefele,  "  Concil."  vol.  i. 
pp.  .'553,  407  -leg.),  and  by  Popes  Leo  I., 
Anaj?ta.<iiis  II ,  and  Innocent  I.  But  in 
the  eighth  and  foUowincr  centuries  this 
point  of  doctrine  was  ob.scured.  The  fact 
that  persons  ordained  in  conscious  scliism 
could  receive  no  sacramental  grace,  though 
tliey  did  receive  character  and  power, 
that  they  had  no  jurisdiction,  that  they 
were  reconciled  to  the  Church  by  an 
imposition  of  hands,  mistaken  perhaps 
for  re-ordination,  led  to  tlie  error.  The 
deci.«ion  of  a  Roman  council  in  7()9  against 
the  Anti-Pope  Constantine  has  been 
variously  inteqireted.  But  in  any  case, 
"after  the  denth  of  Pope  Formosus,  his 
adversaries, Stephen ^^I.  and  SergiusIII., 
regarded  the  orders  given  by  him  as  in- 
valid.'" (The  words  are  Cardinal  Her- 
genrother's,  *'  Kirchengescliichte,"  vol.  i. 
p.  712.)  In  the  tenth  century,  persons 
ordained  by  the  Aiiti-Pope  Leo  VIII. 
were  required  to  say  at  their  degradation 
"My  Father  Leo  had  nothing  to  give, 
and  has  given  me  nothing."  In  the 
eleventh  century,  simony  was  known 
as  the  "  heresy  of  Simon,"  and  many 
maintained  that  ordination  by  bishops 
siuioniacaUy  elected  was  invalid  (Hergen- 
rother,  ib.).  St.  Peter  Damian  defended 
the  true  doctrine,  but  Peter  Lombard 
found  the  diversity  of  opinion  on  the 
validity  of  heretical  oi-dination  so  great 
that  he  considered  the  question  to  be 
almost  insoluble.  Even  in  the  thirteenth 
century  William  of  Paris  believed  that 
the  Church  could  withdraw  the  character 
of  holy  order  by  degnidatiou ;  while  others, 
starting  with  the  view  that  the  episcopate 
was  a  mere  extension  of  the  presbyterate, 
suppo.sed  that,  although  a  degraded  priest 
could  still  say  Mass,  a  degraded  bishop 
could  not  validly  ordain.  As  a  rule, 
however,  the  great  scholastics  adhered  to 
the  teaching  of  St.  Augustine,  which  in 
the  end  was  accepted.  (Hergenrother, 
ib.  p.  087  seq.) 

VI.  The  Matter  and  Form  of  Holy 
Order. — An  account  of  the  rite  of  ordi- 
nation will  be  found  under  the  different 
articles,  De.\con,  Lector,  &c.  This,  how- 
ever, seems  the  fitting  place  to  discuss  the 
theological  question  as  to  the  essentinl 
matter  and  form  of  the  orders  in  which 
the  sacrament  is  undoubtedly  given — viz. 
the  orders  of  bishop,  priest,  and  deacon. 
There  are  three  opinions. 

(a)  "  Nearly  all  the  scholastics,"  says 
Catalani  ("Comm.  in  Pontif."  torn.  i.  p. 
107).  "  who  discuss  the  matter  and  form 


of  the  episcopate,  make  its  form  consist  in 
these  words,  '  Receive  the  Holy  Ghost.' 
which  are  uttered  by  the  consecrating  and 
assisting  bishops,  touching  the  head  of  the 
person  to  be  consecrated,  just  as  the  book 
of  the  Gospels  is  placed  on  his  head." 
Many  scholastics  hold  that  the  mutter 
and  form  of  ordination  to  the  priesthood 
consists  in  the  bishop's  handing  to  the 
new  priest  the  paten  and  chalice — an  act 
commonly  called  the  "  tradition  of  the 
instruments,"  and  the  form  in  the  accom- 
panying words.  The  scholastics  i'At 
special  difficulty  about  the  diaconate,  but 
some  of  them  placed  the  matter  and  form 
in  the  giving  of  the  dalmatic,  or  else  of 
the  book  of  the  Gospels.  (See  Chardon, 
tom.  V.  "  De  I'Ordre,''  ch.  v.)  And  St. 
Thomas  ("  Supp."  xxxiv.  a.  4,  5)  im])lies 
that  he  held  one  or  other  of  these 
theories. 

(/3)  We  do  not  tliink  any  theologian 
at  the  present  day  would  defend  the 
theory  just  stated.'  The  objection  to  it 
will  presently  appear,  itany  of  the  later 
scholastics,  however,  hold  a  doctrine 
which  has  some  resemblance  to  it.  They 
suppose  that  Christ  left  the  Church  to 
determine  the  specific  matter  and  form  of 
holy  order,  and  that  this  determination 
has  been  different  for  different  places. 
According  to  them,  the  matter  and  form 
for  the  West  consist  partly  in  the  words 
and  rites  just  enumerated,  partly  in  the 
imposition  of  hands  (for  the  ordination  of 
priests  the  third  imposition  in  the  Roman 
Pontifical),  and  in  the  accompanying 
words,  \Yhicli  ilenote  the  reception  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  for  the  office  given. 

The  following  reasons  tell,  as  we  ven- 
ture to  think,  with  fatal  effect  against 
either  of  these  theories,  the  latter  of 
which  has  the  additional  defect  of  resting 
on  arbitrary  assumption. 

The  words  "Receive  the  Holy  Ghost," 
cannot  be  the  necessary  form  of  episcopal 
consecration.  They  are  unknown  in  the 
Greek  and  Syriac  rites,  and  not  only  so, 
but  they  are  of  recent  introduction  in  the 
West.  "They  do  not  occiu","  says  Char- 
don, writins:  in  1745,  "  in  Latin  Rituals 
which  are  older  than  400  years,  and  they 
are  wanting  even  in  several  modem  ones "' 

1  Still,  even  the  Cannelite  Thomas  a  Jesu. 
in  his  le.nrned  work,  De  P'ocuranda  salute 
omnium  Gentium  (Antwerp,  1613  ;  it  is  a  i;"i'le 
for  missionaries,  with  special  relpremv  to 
Oriental  rites),  says  (lib.  vii.)  that  Orient.il 
orders,  accordmi;  to  the  truer  opinion,  are 
invalid,  because  given  wit  boat  b'adition  of 
instruments. 


678  OEDKi;,  HOLY 

{loc.  cit.  cli.  i.).  Tlie  tistimoiiy  of  Mori- 
nus  and  Marteiie  is  suli-tantially  tlu' 
same.  "  None  of  (he  English  rontitieuls, 
exce])t  the  Exeter,  contain  this  form" 
(Maskell,  "  Minumu'iit.  Hit."  vol.  ii.  p. 
274).  A^rain,  the  tradition  i if  instruments 
for  the  ordination  of  jirie^ts  is  unknown 
at  this  day  to  the  (xreel;.-,  and  was  un- 
known to  the  Latins  till  the  tenth  (so 
-Morinus)  or  eleventh  (Chankm)  century. 
The  last  iinjiosition  of  liau<ls  in  the 
Roman  Pontifical,  that  after  the  commu- 
nion, and  also  the  words  '■  Receive  the 
Holy  (jhost,  whose  sins  ye  remit,"  kc, 
were  uuknowm, according  to  Morinus  and 
Chardon,  even  in  the  "West,  for  1,L'(H) 
years.  Ajrain,  Western  Rituals  previnu.^ 
to  th(^  ninth  century  say  nothing  ahout 
the  placing  of  the  Gospels  in  the  hands  of 
the  iJian  to  be  ordained  deacon,  and,  of 
course,  do  not  contain  the  firm  of  words 
with  which  the  hook  of  the  Gospels  i> 
presented.  The  rite  began  in  England 
(Cliardon,  ch.  v. ;  Maskell,  p.  210),  and  is 
not  to  be  found  in  any  Poutitical  before 
the  tenth  century,  those  of  English  use 
alone  excepted.  Even  in  the  tweil'ih 
century,  Latin  writers  who  treat  in  detail 
about  the  rite  for  ordination  of  deacims 
are  silent  aluiut  the  iVirm  ''Receive  the 
Holy  Gho.-t,  for  stren-th,"  kc.  It  is 
scarci'ly  necessar\-  to  add  that  investing 
of  the  deacon  with  the  d.alniatic  cannot 
be  traced  beyond  the  nnddl-  a-.'s.  Th.'se 
facts  are,  we  beliexe,  aci  i  pti'd  by  all  the 
most  eminent  critics,  Morinus,  Martene, 
Chardon,  &c.  It  is  only  in  slight  details — 
e.g.  as  to  the  precise  date  of  introduction — ■ 
that  they  differ,  and  thus  we  are  led  to 
the  third  theory,  wdiich  we  state  chiefly 
in  tile  words  of  Chardon. 

(y)  The  Inrni  need  not  be  imperative — 
"Receive  the  Holy  Ghost,"  or  the  like: 
no  tradition  of  instrimients  is  needed  for 
validity.  "The  essential  matt(>rand  form 
of  iird.inatidU  consist  (inly  in  the  inipdsitinn 
of  till'  bisho])'s  hands,  joined  to  the  invo- 
cation of  the  Holy  Sjiirit."'  Moriinis 
was  led  to  adopt  this  opinion  by  the 
Ivnowledge  he  gained  when  member  of  a 
Roman  congregation  formed  by  Urban 
YIII.  to  examine  the  Greek  ]'Au;hologium. 
It  has  been  adopted,  scarcely,  as  Chardon 
asserts,  by  nearly  all  theologians  of  re- 
pute, but  certainly  by  nearly  all  critics 

'  Thus,  in  ,T  ci  rtain  sense,  (he  necessary  form 
is  iu'l'  li  riiiiiinte  ;  it  iii:iy  be  precatory,  iniper  i- 
(ivc,  lint,  .■i.cnrihiiLC  (0  (liis  (ii'iiuicm.  (he 

Churcli  has  uot  (Ictcnniiied  .■uul  cannot  clelcr- 
niine,  so  far  a.s  concerns  validity,  what  Christ 
icft,  indeterminate. 


ORDER,  HOLY 

[  and  .sclu liars.  It  is  in  h=irmony  with  the. 
statements  of  Scriiiture,  of  the  Fathers,, 
and  the  ancient  Ritual  books.  It  in  no 
way  contradicts  the  statements  of  the 
Tri'dentine  Council,  as  Morinus  .shows, 
nor  the  practice  of  the  Church  in  re- 
quiring those  who  have  not  touched  the 
instruments  to  be  re-ordained  condition- 
ally. For,  so  long  as  there  is  no  antlnu-i- 
tative  decision  on  the  point,  the  Church 
rightly  insists  that  the  safer  course  be 
taken. 

Thus  the  matter  of  the  consecration  of 
a  bishop  would  lie  in  the  imposition  of 
hands  v\  hen  the  (iospels  are  jilaced  on  his 
lir.ad  and  ihf  form  in  the  invocation  of 
the  Holy  (Thost  which  is  ])receded  in  the 
present  Latin  rite  by  the  words  "Receive 
the  Holy  Ghost."  A  priest  is  ordained 
when  the  bishop,  with  the  assistant 
]iriHsts,  imposes  his  hands  and  says, 
"(Jremus,  fratres,"&c.,  "Exaudi  nos,quae- 
sumus,"  &c.  {i.e.  when  the  second  im- 
l)osition  is  made).  A  iloacon  is  made  by 
the  imposition  of  the  Viislmp's  right  hand, 
and  the  form  lies  in  the  prayer  "  Emitte 
in  eos,  quresumus,"  Sec.  But  the  other 
ceremonies  and  ])rayers  seem  to  determine 
and  sjieciticato  the  meaning  of  these 
forms,  and  mark  the  .s]iecial  pui-pose  (the 
ottii'e  of  a  deacon,  kc)  for  which  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  invoked.  Hence,  though 
these  particidar  rites  are  not  absolutely 
necessary,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  if 
1  all  were  omitted  and  nothing  left  in  any 
way  corresponding  to  them,  the  grace  of 
orders  would  be  conveyil.  (( )n  the 
question  of  the  matter  and  I'orm  w-e  have 
followed  Tournely,  "  Prelect.  Theol.,"  De 
Ordine.') 

YII.  The  Subjects  oi-  Recipients  of  the 
Sacrcnnent. — Any  liaptised  male  capable 
of  intending  to  receive  the  sacrament 
may  do  so  validly.  We  make  the  limi- 
tation as  to  intention  on  the  authority  of 
Tournely  {hic.  cit.  qu.  iv.  a.  4,  "  Aci  lsi- 
milius  videtur"),aiid  because  it  commends 
itself  to  us  on  grounds  of  history  and 
reason.  It  is  right,  however,  to  say  that 
the  Thoniists  generally  believe  tliat  an 
infant,  or  those  who  are  hopelessly  mad, 
might  validly  receive  any  order  exce])t 
the  episcopate,  to  which  last  cure  of  souls 

>  Our  own  view  would  rather  be  that 
whereas  the  form  may  be  ci(her  precatory  or 
imiK  rative,  the  Latin  Church  has  now  adopted 
an  imperative  form,  "  Accipe  Spiritnm,"  in  or- 
dainiiiu-  bishops  .nid  deacons.  The  chani;e  in 
the  form  ot  .■liisohitiou  wonld  thus  otter  a  com- 
plete anilogy.  But  we  have  thought  it  safer 
to  follow  a  recogIli^ed  authority. 


ORDERS,  RELIGIOUS 


ORDERS,  RELIGIOUS  679 


is  necpssarilv  attached.'  All  admit  that 
in  adults,  \nth  the  exception  just  men- 
tioned, intention  is  required. 

To  be  ordiuned  lawfully  a  person 
must  have  the  due  age  and  knowledge ; 
he  must  have  observed  the  interstices:  he 
must  be  free  from  irregularity,  suspension, 
exeommuuication ;  he  must  be  of  goiul 
life,  and  have  the  signs  of  a  call  or  vo- 
cation from  God.  tor  holy  orders  he 
needs  a  title.  For  these  re  juisites  we 
refer  to  the  articles  devoted  to  them. 
But  the  mention  of  interstices  suggests 
the  questions  raised  on  ordmations  per 
saltum — i.e.  ordination  to  a  higher  order 
of  a  person  who  has  not  received  a  lower 
one. 

The  Church  has  always  disapproved 
such  ordinations,  except  in  rare  cases, 
and  looked  on  the  exercise  of  lower  orders 
as  the  best  preparation  for  ascending 
higher.  Still,  St.  Cyprian  was  made 
priest  and  bishop  without  passing  throusrh 
the  lower  grades  ("Vita  Pontii, '  cap.  3). 
St.  Augustine  received  the  priesthood  in 
the  same  way  ("  Vita  Possidii,"  cap.  4). 
Moriims,  a  very  high  authority,  denies 
that  antiquity  furnishes  any  instance  of 
a  person  who  was  not  abeady  a  priest 
being  consecrated  bishop.  But  clear 
cases  are  produced  by  Chardon  (ch.  v.), 
and  Martene  ("De  Antiq.  Eccles."  lib.  i. ; 
"  Rit.''  cap.  8,  a.  3).-  The  lower  order  is 
contained  in  the  higher,  and  Church 
historj-  records  sudden  elevations  justified 
by  extraordinary  merit  and  emergency, 
just  as  secular  history  records  sudden 
elevations  like  that  of  Xanthippus  the 
Lacedaemonian  in  the  first  Punic  war 
(Polyb.  "  Hist."  i.  32),  or  of  Spinola  to 
the  rank  of  general. 

ORDERS,  KEX.X6ZOnS.  The 
fimdameutal  conceptions  which  lie  at 
the  root  of  the  religious  life  (in  the 
technical  sense  of  the  word  "religion") 
have  been  more  or  less  examined  in  the 
articles  Ascet.d,  HxRiiiTS,  Mokk,  and 
NuiT.  On  the  extemid  development  of 
that  life  within  the  Church,  since  the 
time  when  religious  orders  first  arose,  a 
few  general  remarks  will  tind  here  their 
appropriate  place. 

The  conception  of  orders  of  monks  did 

I  So  St.  Thomas,  Suppl.  xxxix.  2.  But 
Billiiart,  diss.  iii.  a.  3,  §  1,  with  some  other 
Thomists,  will  not  admit  this  exception;  and, 
inderd.  it  cm  scarcely  be  maintained. 

-  ••  Ccrte  .J».mnes  S.  Galli  discipnlus, 
diaconua  ordinntu'J.  episcopns  Constantiensis 
factns  est,  presbvteiatu  non  snscepto,  ut  satis 
dare  docet  Strabo  in  Vit.  S.  Galli,  c.  23." 
Martene,  loc.  cit ;  he  gives  other  instances. 


'  not  arise  so  long  as  every  monastery  was 
an  independent  entity,  managing  its  own 
attairs  without  reference  to  any  other 
authority  but  the  general  law  of  the 
Church.  Beda  speaks  of  monasterins 
following  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  but  he 
never  speaks  of  the  order  of  St.  Benedict. 
I  It  was  only  when,  commencing  in  the 
I  tenth  century,  separate  communities  such 
as  those  of  Climy,  Citeaux,  and  the 
I  Chartreu>e.  were  formed  within  the  great 
Benedictine  brotherhood,  and  these  com- 
mimities,  however  widely  scattered,  sub- 
mitted to  the  ride  of  a  single  superior 
(usually  the  abbot  of  the  mother  house), 
and  met  periodically  in  order  to  settle 
their  common  atl'airs,  that  the  term 
"  order  "  came  into  use.  A  completely 
new  order — the  Trinitarians — was  founded 
by  St.  John  of  Matha  towards  the  close 
of  the  twelfth  century  for  the  redemption 
of  Christians  held  in  captivity  by  the 
infidels.  The  institution  of  our  Ladv  of 
Mercy,  founded  (1218)  by  Sc.  Peter 
Nolasco  as  an  order  of  chivalry,  but 
afterwards  transformed  into  a  religious 
order,  had  the  same  end  in  view.  Early 
in  the  thirteenth  century  the  mendicant 
orders — Franciscan,  Dominican,  and  Car- 
melite friars  (see  those  articles)— were 
either  fotmded  or  came  into  distinct 
prominence ;  in  the  second  half  of  the 
century  they  were  joined  by  the  Augus- 
tinian  friars.  These  four  orders,  having 
no  landed  property,  but  subsisting  on 
alms,  preached  in  all  parts  of  Europe, 
but  especially  in  cities,  where  luxury  and 
civic  pride  were  beginning  to  show  them- 
I  selves,  the  humbling  and  fortifying  doc- 
I  trines  of  the  Cross.  The  Servites,  foimded 
by  seven  merchants  of  Florence  and  pro- 
;  pagated  by  St.  Philip  Beniti,  after  a 
struggling  e.xistence  of  more  than  two 
centuries,  were  recognised  by  Innocent 
Vin.  (1487)  as  a  fifth  mendicant  order, 
with  privileges  in  all  respects  equal  to 
those  of  the  other  four.  The  Jeronymites 
and  Bridgittines  were  founded  in  the 
fntirteenth  century.  The  founder  of  the 
3Iinims  (1473),  a  filiation  of  the  order 
of  St.  Francis,  was  St.  Francis  of  Paula. 

The  movement  of  the  Reformation, 
of  which  the  mainspring  was  the  rebellion 
of  man's  lower,  against  the  restraints 
imposed  upon  it  by  his  higher  nature, 
I  was  met  on  the  Catholic  side  partly  by 
direct  antagonism,  partly  by  argument, 
I  and  partly  by  the  reassertion,  under  new 
I  forms  adapted  to  the   altered  circum- 
1  stances  of  the  time,  of  the  unchanging 
]  Christian  ideal  of  the  moral  and  religious. 


ORDINATION 


end  of  mail.  And  since  the  spirit  of  the 
Church  is  most  clearly  seen  in  the  re- 
ligious orders,  it  ■w'as  to  be  expected  that 
the  conflict  with  Protestantism  would 
fall  to  a  large  extent  into  the  hands  of 
men  bound  by  the  three  vows.  The 
Society  of  Jesus  (1540)  opposed  to  the 
indiscipline  and  licence  of  Protestantism 
a  more  rigid  and  unquestioning  obedience 
to  authority  than  had  yet  been  known 
in  the  Chui-eh.  The  Theatines  (1524), 
Capuchins  (1528),  and  Barnabites  (1533) 
■were  founded  in  order  to  wage  war  against 
the  corruption  of  morals  which  prevailed, 
and  to  promote  the  religious  education  of 
the  i^eople.  The  Uiscalced  Carmelites, 
men  and  women  (1580,  1563),  practised 
the  full  austerities  prescribed  by  the 
original  rule.  On  the  movement  among 
the  Benedictines,  see  that  article  and 
jMaxirists.  In  the  following  century  an 
austere  reform  of  the  Cistercian  order 
was  established  in  the  monastery  of  La 
Trappe  by  Dom  Armand  de  Rancy 
(1062).  [Trappists.] 

In  the  middle  ages,  when  the  power 
of  law  was  still  weak,  and  society  was 
often  a<j-itated  by  unpunished  acts  of 
turbulence  and  injustice,  the  sight  of  the 
peaceful  and  orderly  life  of  a  monastery, 
spent  in  a  round  of  ceaseless  prayer, 
praise,  and  study,  was  by  the  very  con- 
trast deeply  refreshing  and  stimulative 
to  the  higher  characters  among  the  laity. 
But  M'hen  in  process  of  time  the  "reign 
of  law"  was  firmly  estalilislunl,  this  C(Ui- 
trast  lost  much  of  its  slinr])iiess,  and,  so 
far  as  ininiunitv  from  iUc-al  vinlence  was 
ooncenied,  cea>ed  to  exist.  It  was  there- 
fore fiti  iiig  that  religious  society,  in  order 
to  niaiiitalii  its  ground  in  advance  of 
civil,  and  imt  only  "allure  to  brighter 
worlds."  but  also  "  lead  the  way,"  should 
produce  new  manifestations  of  the  old 
endeavour  after  perfection.  Coining  forth 
from  the  clmsti  i-  iiitn  the  world,  but  still 
not  of  tlie  world,  the  religious  life  has 
sanctified  and  enilu-aced  all  those  varied 
activities  which  have  the  relief  of  human 
suffering,  and  the  dispelling  of  that  ignor- 
ance wliich  is  an  obstacle  to  salvation,  as 
their  end.  Hence  has  arisini  the  multitude 
of  congregat  ions  which  adorn  the  Catholic 
Church  of  our  own  day.  A  few  of  these 
are  iioticecl  in  the  article  Conokugations, 
Religious. 

The  opj)osition  of  the  governing  class 
in  nearly  all  the  countries  of  Europe  to 
the  religious  orders — an  opposition  lately 
carried  in  France  to  the  length  of  an 
'Cnoble  persecution — is  grounded  not  oil 


'  anything  political,  but  on  fundamental 
divergence  in  moral  and  religious  ideas. 
The  governing  classes  appear  to  think 
that  man  has  no  hereafter,  and  that  his 
business  is  to  get  as  much  enjoyment  out 
of  his  short  term  of  hfe  here  as  he  can. 
j  Religious  men  and  women  know  that  the 
'  case  is  far  otherwise ;  they  cannot  cease 
j  therefore  to   hold  up  the   teaching  of 
Christ  and  the  practice  of  the  saints  for 
human  instruction,  in  spite  of  any  im- 
pediments which  statesmen  may  throw 
in  their  way. 

ORSHO-ARY,  THE.  By  this  name, 
in  the  language  of  the  Church,  is  denoted 
the  diocesan  bishop,  "who,  in  union  with 
the  common  Father  of  Christendom,  in 
virtue  of  the  mission  and  the  powers 
which  he  holds  from  our  Lord,  as  a  law- 
ful successor  of  the  Apostles,  is  called  of 
common  right,  jure  ordinai  io,  to  accom- 
plish the  Divine  work  of  the  sanctification 
of  the  faithful  in  the  diocese  over  which 
he  presides."'  The  ordinary  performs  all 
ecclesiastical  functions — teaching,  ad- 
ministering the  sacraments,  governing  the 
flock  of  Christ — in  his  own  right ;  priests 
perform  them  by  virtue  of  the  delegated 
rigiit  which  they  derive  from  their  bishop. 
[See  Bishop,   Sufieagan,  and  (^oad- 

JUTOE.] 

ORBZir  ATZON-.  The  chief  rules  of 
law  concerning  the  collation  of  holy 
orders,  in  relation  to  Persons,  Times,  and 
Places,  form  the  subject  of  the  present 
article. 

I'er.tons. — Women  are  incapable  of. 
beino-  validly  ordained,  inasmuch  as  both 
the  healthy  nat  ural  instincts  of  mankind 
and  positive  Apostolic  injunction  (1  Cor. 
xiv.  34 ;  1  Tim.  ii.  11)  require  that 
women  should  be  "silent  in  the  churches." 
When  mention  is  made  in  the  "  Corpus 
Juris,"  of  the  ordination  of  deaconesses,'' 
this  is  to  be  understood  not  of  ordination 
properly  so  called,  but  of  a  special  bene- 
diction in  virtue  of  which,  in  convents  of 
women,  those  receiving  it  were  em- 
powered to  read  homilies  or  gospels 
before  the  community. 

To  receive  holy  orders  validly,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  been  baptised  and,  at 
least  for  adults,  to  be  acting  voluntarily. 
To  receive  them  licitly,  it  is  necessary  to 
be  in  a  state  of  grace,  to  have  been  con- 
firmed,^ to  take  tliem  in  regular  order  and 
not  per  saltum,  not  to  be  irregular  [Ieee- 

>  Wetzer  and  Welte,  art.  by  Permaneder. 

*  Cap.  23,  caus.  27,  quaest.  1. 

5  Cone.  Trid.  pess.  xxiii.  4,  De  Ref. 


ORDINATION 


ORGAN  681 


evLAEiTT],'  to  have  attained  the  canonical 
age  required,  to  be  under  no  censure,  to  be 
sutficiently  educated,-  to  be  ordained  either 
by  one's  own  bishop,  or,  if  otherwise,  with 
his  licence  and  after  the  production  of  his 
dimissorial  letters  [Dimissortals],  and, 
lastly,  to  have  a  legitimate  and  sufficient 
title,  by  which  is  understood,  either  a 
benefice,  or  a  patrimony  adequate  to  a 
man's  support,  or  religious  poverty — i.e. 
the  poverty  which  religious  men  embrace 
by  vow.  AU  orders  in  the  regular  course 
of  things  are  confened  by  bishops ;  but 
abbots  also  have  the  power — in  some 
<:ases  even  before  they  have  been  blessed — 
of  conferring  minor  orders  on  their  own 
subjects  (subditi). 

Times. — The  canonical  age  required 
for  the  tonsure  and  the  three  lowest 
grades  of  orders  (ostiarius,  lector,  and 
exorcist)  is  seven  years  completed  ;  for 
the  acolyteship,  twelve  years  completed. 
For  the  subdiacouate,  the  canonical  age 
is  22,  for  the  diaconate  23,  and  for  the 
priesthood  25 ;  in  these  three  cases  it  is 
the  commenced  not  the  completed  year 
that  is  meant.  For  the  episcopate  the 
full  ajre  of  30  years  is  required. 

The  tonsure  can  be  conferred  on  any 
day,  at  any  hour,  and  in  any  place. 
Minor  orders  can  be  confen-ed  at  general 
■ordinations,  and  also  on  any  Sunday  or 
holiday,-'  and  not  necessarily  during  Mass. 
Sacred  orders,  according  to  the  law,  can 
only  be  conferred  on  the  Saturdays  in 
the  four  Ember  weeks,  on  the  fifth 
Saturday  in  Lent,  or  on  Holy  Saturday, 
.and  always  during  Mass.  But  since  tiie 
plenitude  of  the  Papal  authority  can  dis- 
pense with  any  positive  law,  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  orders  are  legally  confen-ed  on 
the  members  of  all  those  religious  orders 
which  have  received  a  special  privilege  of 
snch  a  tenor  from  the  Holy  See  at  times 
other  than  those  named  by  the  law.  The 
episcopate  is  conferred  on  a  Sunday,  or 
on  the  festival  of  an  Apostle,  unless  a 
Papal  indult  has  authorised  the  choice  of 
some  other  day. 

Two  grades  of  sacred  orders — e.g.  the 

1  There  are,  however,  certain  cases  of  ir- 
legularitv,  incurred  for  no  A-erv  grave  cause,  in 
which  the  bishop  can  give  a  dispensation,  and 
then  ordain  lioitly. 

In  the  Corpus  Juris  Pope  Gelasius  says: 
Let  none  presume  to  promote  illiterate  p  rsons 
to  the  clerical  order,  for  one  who  is  destitute  of 
learning  cannot  be  fit  for  sacred  functions." 
See  als'i  Cone.  Trid.  sess.  xxiii.  4,  De  Kef. 

3  In  dioceses  where  a  special  custom  pre- 
•vails  to  that  efi'ect,  minor  orders  can  be  given 
«n  Fridays  or  on  an  Ember  Wednesday. 


I  diaconate  and  the  subdiaconate — cannot 

be  conferred  on  the  same  day. 
I       On  the  intervals  to  be  observed  be- 
tween the  collation  of  the  various  grades, 
see  Inxekstices. 

Place. — The  Council  of  Trent  enjoined 
(sess.  XXV.  8,  De.  Ref.)  that  sacred  orders 
should  be  publicly  conferred  in  the  cathe- 
dral or  in  one  of  the  principal  churches  of 
the  diocese  in  the  presence  of  the  canons. 
Minor  orders  the  bishop  can  confer  in  his 
own  palace.  But  notwithstanding  the 
injimction  of  the  council,  custom  has  long 
sanctioned  the  collation  of  sacred  orders 
by  the  bishop  in  his  own  house  or  chapel, 
if  any  reasonable  cause  can  be  shown  for 
the  non-compliance  with  the  law.  (Fer- 
raris, Ordo,  Ordinare.) 

ORSO  RonXAifVS.  Certain  ancient 
collections  of  ritual  prescriptions,  or 
rubrics,  as  observed  in  the  Roman  Church, 
bear  this  name.  They  are  represented  at 
the  present  day  by  the  Ceremoniale  and 
the  Pontificale  Romanum  (q.v.).  The 
first  of  these  collections  which  appeared 
in  print  was  the  "Ordo  Vulgatus"  (1559) 
of  Melchior  Hittorp.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  seventeenth  century  Mabillon,  in 
his  "Museum  Italicum,"  edited  fifteen 
"  Ordines,"  the  first  ten  '  of  which  are  of 
great  but  uncertain  antiquity ;  of  the  last 
five  the  authors  and  dates  are  known. 
The  rubrics  and  directions  which  they 
contain  relate,  some  to  ordinary,  others 
to  extraordinary  ceremonies.  Of  the 
former  class  are  the  Papal  Mass,  the  Epi- 
scopal Mass,  the  celebration  of  Baptism 
and  Extreme  Unction,  Ordinations,  the 
Communion  of  the  sick,  the  ceremonial  of 
the  last  three  days  of  Holy  Week,  Papal 
and  cardinalitiai  functions  during  the 
offices  of  the  whole  year,  sacerdotal  fimc- 
tions  on  all  ferias,  benedictions,  kc,  &c. 
Of  the  second  class  are  the  election 
and  consecration  of  a  Pope,  the  corona- 
tion of  the  emperor  and  of  kings,  the 
creation  of  cardinals,  the  nomination  of 
legates,  cannnisatidn,  &c.  (Wetzer  and 
Welte,  art.  by  Kober.) 

ORG  AN  (opyavov,  organum)  is  used 
in  the  LXX  for  instruments  of  any  kind, 
but  especially  of  musical  instruments. 
It  occurs  not  only  as  the  rendering  of 
3J!|y,  the  "pipe"  or  "flute,"  but  also 
of  "1133  and  ^33,  which  were  stringed  in- 
struments (Ps.  cl.  4,  cxxxvii.  2 ;  Amos 
V.  23,  vi.  5).  Our  Latin  psalms  naturally 

'  The  first  ten  are  at  least  older  than  the 
ninth  century,  for  they  are  mentioned  by 
Amalarius. 


682  ORGAN 


ORGAN 


conform  to  the  Septuagint  use ;  but  the 
Vulgate,  so  far  as  it  is  Jerome's  indepen- 
dent work,  employs  the  word  much 
more  carefulh'.  There  "  organum  "  never 
means  a  stringed  instrument.  It  occurs 
fourteen  times  in  Jerome's  rendering  of 
the  Hebrew  text ;  three  times  it  repre- 
sents 33-iy,  a  "  pipe  "  (Gen.  iv.  21  ;  Job 
xxi.  12,  XXX.  31)  ;  in  the  other  places  it 
is  the  generic  word  for  instruments  of  all 
kinds,  a  very  accurate  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  wbj,  to  which  in  this  latter  case 
it  always  answers.  (So  1  Paral.  xv.  16  ; 
xvi.  5,  42 ;  xxiii.  5 ;  2  Paral.  v.  13 ;  vii. 
6;  xxiii.  13;  xxix.  20,  27;  xxx.  27; 
xxxiv.  12).  Aquila,  so  far  as  we  have 
observed,  anticipated  Jerome  in  accuracy 
on  this  point,  for  he  did  not  fall  into  the 
blunder  of  mistaking  with  the  LXX  the 
"pipe"  of  Job  xxi.  12  for  a  harp  (see 
Field,  "  Hexapl.  Orig."  tom.  ii.  p.  80). 
Nor,  again,  does  he  in  Amos  v.  23  and 
Ps.  cxxxvii.  2,  use  opyava  for  the  stringed 
instruments  mentioned  there  (Field,  tom. 
ii.  pp.  974,  2it0).  Jerome  not  unfrequently 
imitated  Aquila,  and  he  may  have  done 
so  in  this  case. 

The  organ,  then,  in  the  Vulgate,  so  far 
as  it  means  a  definite  instrument  at  all,  is 
equivalent  to  pipe.  But  in  St.  Augus- 
tine's time,  as  appears  from  his  com- 
mentary on  Ps.  Ivi.  (Heb.  Ivii.),  it  was 
already  used  in  its  modern  sense.  He 
speaks  of  it  as  a  large  instrument  in 
which  the  wind  was  supplied  from 
bellows.  It  arose  from  a  development  of 
the  syrinx,  or  set  of  pipes  bound  together. 
First  these  pipes  were  placed  in  a  box 
and  sounded  by  means  of  a  slide  which 
opened  the  hole  with  which  the  pipe  was 
connected.  The  invention  of  this  per- 
forated slide  is  attributed  to  Ctesibius. 
Then,  as  the  breath  of  the  musician  was 
not  enough  to  play  so  many  pipes,  wind 
was  supplied  by  bellows  worked  by  the 
hand  or  by  water.  Such  an  hydraulic 
organ  ("  organum  hydraulicum  ")  is  de- 
scribed by  TertuUian  ("  De  Anima,"  14^, 
who  attributes  the  invention  to  Archi- 
medes; and  there  is  also  a  well-known 
account  of  an  organ  with  a  bellows 
of  bull's  hide  in  an  epigram  by  Julian 
the  Apostate.  The  hydraulic  organ  is 
also  mentioned  by  Talmudical  writers, 
who  retain  the  word  v8pav\it  (dSqIIN), 
and  the  legend  adds  that  it  was  not 
allowed  in  the  temple  because  ils  soft 
tones  spoilt  the  singing  (Hamburger, 
"  Real-Encycl.  fiir  Bibel  and  Talmud," 
p.  886).    In  757  the  Byzantine  Emperor 


Constantine  Copronymus  sent  an  organ 
to  Pepin,  and  another  was  sent  to  Charle- 
magne by  Constantine  Michael  (references 
in  Ducange,  sub  voc.  "  Organum ").  A 
little  later  Pope  John  VIII.  begged  Anno, 
bishop  of  Freising,  to  send  him  an  organ, 
with  someone  able  to  manage  it  (Mausi, 
"  Concil."  tom.  xvii.  col.  245).  The  de- 
velopment of  the  instrument  does  not 
concern  us  here.  We  only  observe  that 
keys  were  introduced  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury and  pedals  invented  in  the  fifteenth, 
by  Bernard,  a  German  in  the  service  of 
the  Doge  of  Venice,  and  pass  on  to  the 
ecclesiastical  use  of  the  organ. 

It  has  never  been  adopted  among  the 
Greeks  or  Orientals.  Chrysostom  in  (Ps. 
cl.)  speaks  of  musical  instruments  gene- 
rally as  only  "  permitted "  in  Jewish 
worship  "  on  account  of  their  weakness." 
Theodoret  (in  Ps.  cl.  5  and  6)  holds 
much  the  same  language,  while  the  author 
of  "  Qurest.  et  Respons.  ad  Orthodox.," 
once  attributed  to  Justin  Martyr,  but 
certainly  written  after  the  conversion  of 
the  empire,  says  expressly  that,  whereas 
instruments  were  allowed  in  the  temple, 
singing  only  without  instruments  is  per- 
mitted in  Christian  Churches  ("Respons. 
ad  Qusest."  107).  The  Greeks  and  Rus- 
sians at  this  day  rigidly  follow  the  same 
rule. 

As  to  the  "West,  we  may  at  once  put 
aside  the  fables  that  the  organ  was  intro- 
duced into  the  churches  by  Pope  Vitalian 
or  even  Pope  Damasus.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  it  was  the  presents  of  organs 
made  to  Pepin  and  Charlemagne  which 
led  to  the  church  use  of  the  instruments. 
For  Walafrid  Strabo  in  the  middle  of  the 
ninth  century  gives  an  account  of  the 
organ  in  the  church  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
probably  the  very  organ  sent  to  Charle- 
magne from  Constantinople.  Its  tunes 
were  so  sweet  and  powerful,  according  to 
this  writer,  that  they  caused  a  woman  to 
faint  and  die  (Walafr.  Strabo,  "  Carm. 
de  Apparatu  Eccles.  Aquisgranensis"). 
Further,  it  has  been  shown  from  ancient 
charters  that  there  was  an  organ  in  the 
church  of  Verona  in  Charlemagne's  time, 
(Ughelli,  "Italia  Sacra,"  tom.  v.  pp.  604, 
GlO.)  A  great  organ  with  fourteen  bellows 
and  400  pipes  was  built  by  Elfeg,  bishop 
of  Winchester,  for  the  Benedictine  abbey 
there  (Mabillon,  "  Aunal.  Benedict."  torn, 
vi.  p.  0.30),  and  another  at  Ramsey  is 
mentioned  in  the  life  of  Oswald,  arch- 
bishop of  York.  (Mab.  ib.  p.  727.) 
From  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries 
organs  were  usual  in  cathedral  and  mon- 


ORIGINAL  SIN 


ORIGINAL  SIN  688 


astic  churches,  and  Bingham's  assertion 
("Antiq."  vii.  7,  §  14)  that  they  were 
unknown  there  till  after  the  time  of  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas  is  quite  erroneous. 
True  it  is,  however,  that  protests  were 
occasionally  made  against  the  u.se  of 
organs.  "  "Whence,"  says  Aelred  ("  Spe- 
culum Caritatis,"  ii.  23),  "  whence,  now 
that  types  and  figures  are  over,  so  many 
organs  and  cymbals  in  the  church? 
AVberefore  that  horrible  sound  of  bellows, 
more  like  thunder  than  the  sweetness  of 
the  voice?"  More  remarkable  still  is  the 
opinion  of  St.  Thomas  (2*  2*,  xci.  2). 
lie  is  answering  the  objection  that  as 
^'the  Church  does  not  use  musical  in- 
struments for  the  praise  of  God,  lest  it 
should  seem  to  Judaise,  so  by  parity  of 
reasoning  "  it  should  not  permit  singing. 
He  replies,  "musical  instruments,"'  such 
as  pipes,  harps,  &c.,  "  minister  to  de- 
light and  do  not  promote  virtue,  and 
were  only  permitted  to  the  Jews  because 
of  their  cai-nal  dispositions  ;  whereas 
siugiiii:  ilin's  help  devotion."  It  is  evi- 
dent that  he  did  not  approve  of  instru- 
mental music.  In  the  Papal  chapel  it  has 
never  been  employed.  At  Trent  elForts 
were  made  to  banish  all  music  from 
Mass,  but  the  majority  of  the  bishops, 
especially  the  Sjiaiii.-ads.  opposed  this 
measure  (Tallax  i.  ino,  -'Istoria  del  Concil. 
di  Treuto,"  xviii.  G),  and  the  Council 
(sess.  xxii.  Decret.  de  Observ.  in  Celebr. 
3Iiss.)  simply  reijuired  that  the  music 
should  be  grave  and  devout.  Similar 
injunctions  were  made  by  Benedict  XIV. 
in  1749. 

The  use  of  the  organ  is  rejected  in 
orthodox  synagogues.  The  Protestants 
were  divided  ou  the  matter;  the  Luther- 
ans and  Anglicans  retaining,  the  "Re- 
formed" at  first  rejecting  it.  Thus,  it 
was  not  till  the  close  of  the  last  century 
that  organs  were  introduced  at  Berne,  and 
they  are  still  absent  in  most  of  the  Scotch 
Presbvterian  churches,  thoujjh  even  there 
a  chan-e  lias  l.-iiu. 

11  -l'a;i  .  -Hid  the  articles  in  Wetzer 
iind  \\  lii  .  Shiith  and  Cbeetham,  Mr. 
Grove's  "iJictmuary  of  Music,"  have  been 
consulted.  But  we  have  found  by  far 
the  most  fuU  and  accurate  information 
in  Ersch  and  Griiber,  "Conversations- 
lexicon,"  article  On/el.] 

ORXCZSrAX.  SZI4-  is  the  sin  which 
we  inherit  by  natural  descent  from  Adam, 
our  first  father.  The  Council  of  Trent 
(sess.  V.  Decret.  de  Peccato  Orig.)  defines, 
as  of  faith,  that  Adam  lost  original 
justice  not  only  for  himself  but  also  for 


us;  that  he  "poured  sin,  which  is  the 
death  of  the  soul,  into  the  whole  human 
race,"  and  that  this  sin  comes,  not  by 
imitation  of  Adam's  transgression,  but  by 
propagation  from  him.  Further,  the 
couijcil  teaches  that  original  sin  does  not 
consist  in  those  desires  and  temptations 
which  are  common  to  our  fallen  nature, 
because  the}-  remain  even  after  baptism, 
which  takes  away  original  sin  ;  and  the 
conned  condemns  the  error  of  Lutherans 
and  others  who  supposed  that  original  sin 
destroyed  free  will  and  made  man  in- 
capable of  good  actions.  The  Fathers  of 
Trent,  as  Pallavicino  informs  us,  carefully 
abstained  from  interfering  in  the  scholastic 
disputes  on  this  point.  They  appeal  to 
St.  Paul,  particularly  in  Romans  v.  12 
seq.,  and  do  not  go  beyond  the  plain 
statements  of  Scripture.  But  it  will  be 
well  to  draw  out  the  common  teaching  of 
theologians,  putting  aside  for  the  present 
points  on  which  they  differ. 

God  made  Adam  the  representative  of 
all  who  were  to  descend  from  him  by 
natural  generation.  "  God,  who  had  made 
him  our  beginning,  had  made  all  depend 
on  him  for  himself  and  us.  .  .  .  In  sin- 
ning he  lost  all,  as  well  for  himself  as  for 
us."  (Bossuet,  "D(5fense  de  la  Tradition," 
p.  ii.  liv.  ix.  ch.  12).  Had  he  persevered,  we 
should  have  been  bom  in  original  justice. 
As  it  is,  we  are  conceived  and  born  in  sin 
and  the  children  of  wrath.  Oar  nature 
and  faculties  remain  entire  and  we  are 
still  capable  of  natural  good,  but  we  are 
left  without  grace,  and  therefore  without 
the  means  of  reaching  that  supernatural 
end  to  which  God  has  ordered  us.  "  The 
remission  of  this  sin  consists  in  being 
ti'ansplanted  into  Jesus  Christ  as  the  Just 
One,  and  the  Author  of  all  justice."  Thus 
St.  Thomas  places  the  essence  of  original 
sin  in  "  the  privation  of  original  jus- 
tice," the  privation,  not  the  mere  nega- 
tion, because  the  gifts  of  grace  are 
absolutely  necessary  for  us  in  order  that 
we  may  prepare  ibr  heaven.  Concu- 
piscence, or  the  rebellion  of  the  senses, 
though  not  original  sin,  or  in  itself  a  sin 
at  all,  is  still  a  consequence  of  the  fall. 

Such  is  the  common  teaching  of  Catho- 
lic theologians,  for  the  opinion  of  Gregory 
of  Rimini  and  others,'  that  it  consists  in 
a  morbid  quality  transmitted  by  Adam,  is 
universally  rejected  ;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  views  held  by  Gatharinus  and 

'  "Nullo  modo  dofcndi  potest,"  Bellarmine 
s.avs  ;  but  he  admits  it  was  hold  by  Peter  Lom- 
bard, Heiiricus.  (Ircsoryof  Rimini,  and  Diiedo. 
Bellarm.  De  Amiss.  Grat,  lib.  v.  cap.  1£ 


684  ORIGINAL  SIN 


ORIGINAL  SIN 


Pighius,'  that  it  is  merely  the  actual  sin 
of  Adam  imputed  to  us,  does  not  seem  to 
satisfy  the  requirements  of  the  Triden- 
tiue  definition.  And  so  understood,  the 
Catholic  doctrine,  mysterious  though  it 
is,  does  not,  like  that  of  the  Reformers, 
present  insuperable  difficulties  to  the 
moral  sense. 

For,  whereas  it  would  have  been  im- 
iust  had  God  deprived  us  of  the  gifts 
proper  to  our  nature,  without  actual  guilt 
on  our  part,  Catholics  hold  that  He  did 
nothing  of  the  sort.  Grace  is  in  no  way 
a  part  of,  or  due  to  human  nature.  It  is 
God's  free  gift.  He  gives  it  and  with- 
draws it  according  to  His  own  will.  We 
have  no  claims  to  possess  it,  no  ground 
of  complaint  if  it  is  taken  away.  Our 
natural  faculties  enable  us  to  know  and 
love  God  as  our  Creator  and  constant 
Benefactor,  and  to  order  our  Uves  aright. 
"\Ve  have  no  title  to  more. 

It  may  be  objected  that  God  has 
ordered  us  to  a  supernatural  end,  that  we 
camiot  choose  one  which  is  simply  natural, 
and  that  gTace  is  our  only  means  of 
escaping  utter  misery.  This  is  true. 
But  God  condemns  none  to  misery  be- 
cause of  original  sin.  He  deprives  us  of 
original  justice  to  which  we  had  no  title, 
and  then  He  gives  all  abundant  oppor- 
tunity of  recovering  grace  and  entering 
heaven  by  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ,  by 
becoming  new  men  in  Him.  God  ordered 
us,  tirst  of  all,  to  an  end  infinitely  above 
our  nature,  and  gave  us  by  His  free  gift 
original  justice  to  attain  it.  Adam  for- 
feited the  original  gift,  and  then  God, 
still  ordering  us  to  a  supernatural  end, 
and  ha\  ing  no  will  to  impose  impossible 
commands,  gave  us  the  grace  of  our 
Redeemer  as  the  means  of  reaching  it. 
The  only  exception  occurs  in  the  case  of 
infants  who  die  without  baptism  ;  and 
they,  according  to  the  belief  now  uni- 
versally received,  far  from  being  miser- 
able, attain  natural  happiness  in  the  next 
world.    [See  Limbo.] 

The  doctrine,  then,  of  original  sin  is 
mysterious,  but  by  no  means  cruel  or 
unreasonable.  We  cannot  fully  under- 
stand the  manner  in  which  it  is  trans- 
mitted, for  the  soul  comes  directly  from 
God,  not  from  the  parents.  But  here, 
too,  the  Catholic  doctrine  that  original 
sin  is  a  mere  privation,  not  a  positive 
quality,  comes  to  our  help.  God  cannot 
be  the  author  of  sin,  nor  can  He  stain 
the  soul  which  comes  from  Him.  But 

>  See  Bellarm.  loc.  cit.  cap.  16. 


He  can  and  does  infuse  souls  deprived  of 
original  justice ;  and  since  the  infusion 
follows  by  a  natural  law  on  the  generation 
of  the  body,  in  that  sense  natural  propa- 
gation may  be  rightly  called  the  cause  of 
original  sin. 

Theologians  differ  widely  on  the  con- 
sequences of  original  sin.  Undoubtedly 
concupiscence  flows  from  the  depriva- 
tion of  original  justice.  Had  Adam 
persevered,  our  bodily  appetites  would 
have  been  in  perfect  subjection  to  reason, 
our  reason  itself  to  God.  But  according 
to  the  stricter  Thomists,  by  the  rebeUion 
of  the  flesh  consequent  on  original  sin, 
man  sinks  below  his  natural  state. 
Thomas  de  Lemos  ("Panopl.  Grat."  tract, 
de  Leesione  Lib.  Arbitr.)  insists  that, 
although  after  the  fall  nature  remains 
entire  "  as  to  its  essence  and  faculties,  it 
is  not  so  with  respect  to  the  natural  in- 
clination to  good."  (So  also  Alvarez,  "De 
Auxil.  Grat."  hb.  vi.  disp.  45.)  Both 
these  quotations  are  from  Kuhn("  Dog- 
mat  ik:  Lehreder  Gnade,"  i.  p.  269).  Other 
great  theologians,  and,  as  we  think,  more 
reasonably,  look  on  man's  ignorance,  the 
rebelUon  of  his  appetites,  &c.,  as  con- 
natural to  his  finite  and  composite  nature. 
In  Adam,  an  extraordinary  grace  perfectly 
restrained  appetites  which  reverted  after 
the  fall  to  their  natural  condition.  This 

'  opposite  theory  is  well  put  by  Bellarmine. 

j  When,  he  says,  the  supernatural  gift  was 
removed,  "  human  nature,  left  to  itself, 

1  began  to  experience  that  struggle  between 
the  lower  and  higher  part,  which  would 
have  been  natural — i.e.  would  have  fol- 
lowed from  the  condition  of  matter,  had 

I  not  God  conferred  on  man  the  gift  of 
justice  over  and  above."   Human  nature, 

I  he  continues,  "  does  not  sufi'er  more  from 

!  ignorance  and  infirmity  than  it  would  do 
had  it  been  created  in  a  purely  natural 
state."  And  he  concludes,  "  The  corrup- 
tion of  nature  does  not  come  from  the 
want  of  any  natural  gift,  or  from  the 
accession  of  any  evd  quahty,  but  simply 
from  the  loss  of  a  supernatural  gift  on 
account  of  Adam's  sin."  ("De  Gratia 
Primi  Hominis,"  apud  Mohler  "Sym- 
bohk,"  p.  64.) 

The  Doctrine  in  Scripture.— The  Old 
Testament  never  asserts  that  we  sinned 
in  Adam,  or  even  inherited  sinfuhiess 
from  him.  But  Ps.  h.  (1.)  7,  "Behold,  in 
guilt  I  was  brouglit  forth,  and  in  sin  my 
mother  conceived  me,"  "  contains  the 
basis  of  the  doctrine,  inasmuch  as  it  re- 
gards sinfulness  as  something  inborn,  and 
80  not  as  resulting  from  the  abuse  of  free- 


OIUGIXAL  SIN 


ORIGLS  AL  SIN  685 


don:  *  (Hupfeld,  nd  loc).  Job  expresses 
the  same  idea,  though  less  distinctly. 
"  Who  can  bring  pure  from  unclean  ?  Not 
one''  (xiv.  4'>.  In  Wisdom  ii.  23,  24, 
death  is  said  to  have  entered  into  the 
world  "by  the  envy  of  the  devil,"'  and 
the  Rabbins'  developed  the  doctrine  that 
aU  had  sinned  and  incurred  death  because 
represented  by  Adam,  and  so  implicated 
in  his  sin.  Even  this,  however,  is  less 
than  the  doctrine  of  original  sin. 

In  St.  Paul  we  have  the  first  explicit 
etatement  of  the  doctrine.  "  As  through 
one  man  sin  came  into  the  world,  and 
death  by  sin,  and  so  death  penetrated  to 
all  men,  because  -  all  sinned.  [The  con- 
struction breaks  oft'  here.]  For  until  the 
law,  sin  was  in  the  world,  but  sin  is  not 
reckoned  if  there  is  no  law;  but  sin 
reigned  from  Adam  to  Moses,  even  on 
those  who  did  not  sin  after  tlie  likeness  of 
the  transgression  of  Adam,  who  is  a  type 
of  the  one  to  come.  But  not  as  the 
trespass,  so  also  the  gift  of  grace.  For  if 
by  the  trespass  of  one  the  many  died, 
much  more  the  grace  and  the  gift  in 
the  grace  of  the  one  man  Jesus  Christ 
aboiuided  to  the  many," 

It  may  safely  be  maintained  that 
Pelagius  and  many  other  writers  ancient 
and  modern,  who  understand  St.  Paul  to 
speak  only  of  actual  sin  by  which  men 
imitate  Adam,  distort  the  STammar  and 
sense  of  the  passage.  For  (<i)  St.  Paul 
describes  a  momentary  act  of  sin  "  because 
all  sinned"  (rjfiapTov) — i.e.  in  Adam.  Not 
"  have  sinned,  or  were  sinning."  (jS)  It  is 
not  true  that  death  is  universal  because  all 
have  actually  sinned.  Millions  have  died 
before  they  were  capable  of  sin.   (y)  The 

1  The  Rabbinical  n-imes  for  original  sin  are 
"the  sin  of  the  first  man"  NUH 
pSJ'Sin),  '"the  pollution  of  the  serpent "  (X!2nT 
K'nj  ^l^)-  The  Tari;um  on  Ruth  iv. 
alleges  that  Davitl's  father,  having  no  .s.nof  his 
own,  died  on  account  of  the  counsel  given  to  Eve 
bv  the  si-rpeut,  for  which  all  the  :;enerations  of 
the  earth  wpre  condemned  to  death.  Levy, 
Chatdaisches  Worterhiich,  sub  voc.  }{^<y,  quote 
a  similar  statement  from  Baha  Bathra,  17  a, 
respecting  Benjamin.  .Vnirani.  father  of  Moses, 
Jesse,  father  of  David,  and  Kilab,  David's  son. 
These  four  were  personally  sinless,  and  died  for 
th>-  counsel  of  the  serpent. 

-  Itp'  ^  cannot  mean  in  qitn,'-in  whont " (iv 
as  the  \  ulgate  renders  it.  But  the  Vulgate 
rendfriii_'  does  not  alter  the  dogmatic  sense. 
li*tius  defends  the  Vulgate  rendering  on  insuf- 
ticient  grounds,  but  with  great  moderation. 
"  Tolerari  potest "  is  his  verdict  on  our  render- 
ing. Bossuet  (/oc.  cit.  liv.  vii.  ch.  12  seq.)  is 
far  more  sevei-e. 


parallel  between  the  two  Adams  would 
be  destroyed  on  the  Pelagian  interpreta- 
tion. Not,  in  the  first  insta'  ce,  by  the 
imitation  of  Christ,  hut  by  the  reconcilia- 
tion (see  V.  11)  which  Christ's  death 
eff'ected,  we  are  saved;  just  so,  not  by  fol- 
lowing Adam's  example,  but  by  an  act 
external  to  us  on  the  part  of  the  former 
Adam,  we  were  lost.  (S)  St.  Paul  argues 
that  there  could  be  no  trespass  against 
hiw — i.e.  law  externally  promulgated  — 
between  Adam  and  Moses,  because  no  such 
law  was  given  except  to  a  few.  Men 
in  that  interval  did  not  sin  like  Adam 
by  actual  transgression  of  positive  law. 
Yet  they  died  because  they  sinned  in 
Adam  their  head. 

The  Tradition  of  the  Church. — The 
forcible  teaching  of  St.  Paul  was,  as 
everybody  knows,  fully  appreciated  by 
St.  Augustine.  It  is  useless  to  multiply 
citations,  but  we  may  give  one  passage 
("Enchirid."  cap.  10)  which  fairly  repre- 
sents the  form  in  which  he  constantly 
expresses  the  doctrine.  "He  [Adam], 
exiled  after  sin,  bound  his  ofi'spring  also, 
which  by  sinning  he  had  corrupted  as  it 
were  in  the  root,  under  the  penalty  of 
death  and  condemnation,  so  that  all 
progeny  born  of  himself  and  his  wife 
the  occasion  of  his  sin  and  partner  of 
his  condemnation  by  concupiscence  of  the 
flesh,  in  which  concupiscence  his  dis- 
obedience met  a  punishment  like  itself, 
should  draw  to  itself  original  sin,  and 
thence  be  drawii  through  diverse  errors 
and  pains  to  that  last  and  endless  torture 
with  the  angels  who  deserted  and  cor- 
rupted [others],  and  with  those  who 
inherit  and  share  in  their  portion.'' 

Here  we  have  the  doctrine  distinctly 
formulated  that  all  men  sinned  in  Adam, 
and  that  we  are  condemned  because  of  him, 
and  it  is  very  hard  to  produce  testimonies 
which  touch  this,  the  central  point  at 
issue,  from  Ante-Nicene  Fathers.  Iren- 
aeus  (ii.  22,  4)  speaks  of  "  infants "  as 
bom  again  to  God,  and  of  Christ  as 
"  sanctii'yinar  infants."  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria ("  Strom."  iii.  9,  p.  540)  connects 
the  fact  of  physical  death  with  Adam's 
sin.  Tertullian  holds  that  Adam  not  only 
imparted  death  to  his  descendants,  but 
also  infected  all  who  sprang  from  him 
with  lust,  and  generally  with  a  morbid 
inclination  to  sin  ("  Testimon.  An."  3 ; 
"De  Pud."  6;  "  De  Jejim."  3;  "Adv. 
Marc."  i.  22,  v.  17).  Urigen  admits  a 
natural  inclination  to  sin  (irdvres  fiev 
ol  ilvdpoJTToi  Trpos  T6Ap.apTav(ivn(<^vKafi(v) 

j  "C.  Cels."  iii.  62-64,  iv.  40  (where  see 


ORTHODOX  CHURCH 


PALLA 


a  catena  of  passages  from  Ante-Nicene  I 
Fathers  in  Spencer's  note) ;  and,  "  In 
Levit."  Horn.  viii.  wliich  only  exists 
in  the  Latin  version,  lie  infers  from  the 
custom  of  baptising  infants  tlieir  need 
of  purification.  "  In  Levit."  xii.  4,  he 
attributes  the  corruption  of  nature  to  the 
fact  that  men  derive  their  bodies  from 
their  parents  by  natural  generation.  Cy- 
prian, like  Tertullian,  traces  sin  and  death 
to  the  Fall  ("  De  Bono  Patient."  17 ;  cf. 
"Testimon."  iii.  54),  but  he  goes  in  one 
passage  far  beyond  Tertullian.  Adults, 
he  says,  be  their  sins  ever  so  great,  are 
not  to  be  deterred  from  baptism,  much 
less  infants,  who  "  have  committed  no 
sin,'"  but  only  "by  carnal  descent  from 
Adam  have  contracted  the  infection  of 
ancient  death."  and,  in  whose  case,  "not 
their  own  sins,  but  those  of  another,  are 
remitted  ("  remittuntur  non  propria  sed 
aliena  peccata,"  Ep.  Ixiv.). 

The  above  account  has  been  made 
fi-om  private  notes,  and  the  conclusion  to 
which  it  leads  is  confirmed  by  the  greatest 
historical  authorities.  Petavius  ("De  Li- 
carnat."  xiv.  2)  says  the  Greek  Fathers 
speak  little,  and  then  not  clearly,  about 
original  sin,  and  that  Augustine  was  the 
first  among  the  Latins  to  treat  the  matter 
accurately.  Cardinal  Newman  is  of  the 
same  mind,  and  he  quotes  Petavius, 
Jansenius,  Walch,  "men  of  such  different 
schools  that  we  may  surely  take  their 
agreement  as  a  proof  of  the  fact."  ("  De- 
velopmont,"  p.  22.)  Bossuet,  indeed  {loc. 
cit.  liv.  viii.),  argues  vigorously,  but  with 
small  success,  on  the  other  side.  It  is 
enough  for  Catholics  to  show,  as  they 
certainly  can,  that  their  belief  in  the 
doctrine  is  due,  not  to  St.  Augustine,  but 
to  St.  Paul. 

ORTHODOX  CHURCH.  [See 
Geeek  Schismatic  Chuech.] 


ORTHODOXT,  FEAST  OF.  [See 

Iconoclasts.] 

osTExrsoRziTM.      [See  Moirs- 

TEANCE.] 

osTZARZxrs,  or  Doorkeeper,  holds 
the  lowest  of  the  minor  orders  in  the 
Latin  Church.  His  office  was  more  im- 
portant in  ancient  times  before  the  con- 
version of  the  Roman  Empire.  He  had 
to  prevent  the  heathen  from  entering  and 
disturbing  the  service,  to  keep  the  laity 
separate  from  the  clergy,  men  from 
women,  and  to  see  generally  that  decorum 
was  maintained.  He  had  to  guard  the 
church  and  all  that  it  contained,  to  open 
the  church  and  sacristy  at  certain  hours, 
to  open  the  book  for  the  preacher,  &c. 
(Chardon,  "Hist,  des  Sacr."  torn.  v. 
ch.  2.) 

The  office  is  mentioned  by  Pope 
Cornelius  in  the  middle  of  the  third  cen- 
tury (Euseb.  "  H.  E."  vi.  43),  and  in  the 
very  ancient  collection  of  canons  com- 
monly but  wrongly  attributed  to  the 
Fourth  Council  of  Carthage,  in  398.  The 
lite  of  ordination  is  the  same  as  that  in 
the  Roman  Pontifical.  The  bishop  gives 
the  keys  to  the  persons  ordained,  saving, 
"  Go  act,  as  having  to  render  God  an 
account  of  the  things  locked  by  these 
keys."  In  the  present  rite  the  ostiarius 
is  led  by  the  archdeacon  to  the  church 
doors ;  he  locks  and  opens  them  and  rings 
the  bells.  Neither  of  these  two  ceremonies 
is  mentioned  in  the  Carthaginian  canons 
or  in  the  Gelasian  Sacramcntary.  The 
former,  however  (the  opening  of  the 
doors),  is  very  ancient,  being  given  in 
the  Gregorian  Sacramentary  and  in  some 
very  ancient  I\ISS.  Of  the  latter  (ringing 
the  bells)  no  trace  is  found  in  ancient 
Pontificals.  In  the  time  of  Charlemagne 
and  Amalarius  (a.d.  820),  it  was  the 
priest's  business  to  ring  the  bells. 


PAKEA.  Certain  canons  in  the  De- 
cretum  in  (Ti-atian  [C.vnon  Law],  about 
fifty  in  numljcr,  have  the  superscription 
"  Palea."  Some  have  considered  this  to 
be  a  part  of  the  word  "  Pauco])alea,"  the 
name  of  one  of  Gratian's  disciples;  others 
have  thought  that  these  canons  (which  in 
the  MSS.  of  the  Decretum  usually  appear 
in  the  margin),  as  treating  of  matters 
of  slight  importance,  were  hence  called 
"palea."  chaff.    But  as  many  of  these 


canons  refer  to  matters  of  the  highest 
importance,  this  derivation  appears  inad- 
missible. Whatever  be  the  origin  of  the 
name,  it  is  certain  that  in  the  oldest 
MSS.  of  the  Decretum  the  Palese  are  few, 
that  in  those  of  later  date  they  become 
numerous,  and  that  in  practice  they  are 
of  equal  authority  with  the  canons  known 
to  have  been  compiled  by  Gratian  himself. 

PAlb&A.  A  small  cloth  of  linen 
used  to  cover  the  chalice,  and  usuallv 


PALLIUM 


PALLIUM  687 


stiffened  with  cardboard,  &c.  The  upper 
part  may  be  covered  with  silk  (S.C.K., 
January  10,  18o->).  Part  of  the  corporal 
used  to  be  employed  for  the  covering  of 
the  chalice,  but  Innocent  TIL  mentions 
the  palla  as  distinct  from  the  corporal. 
(Benedict  XIV.  «  De  Miss."  L  v.  0.) 

PAI.&ZVM.  A  band  of  white  wool 
worn  on  the  shoulders.  It  has  two 
strinffs  of  the  same  material  and  four 
purple  crosses  worked  on  it.  It  is  worn 
by  the  Pojie  and  sent  by  him  to  patriarchs, 
primates,  archbishops,  and  sometimes, 
though  rarely,  to  bishops  as  a  token 
that  they  possess  the  "  fulness  of  the 
episcopal  office."  Two  lambs  are  brought 
annually  to  the  Church  of  St.  Agnes  at 
Rome  by  the  Apostolic  subdeacons  while 
the  "  Ag-nus  Dei  "  is  being  sung.  These 
lambs  are  ])resented  at  the  altar  and  re- 
ceived by  two  canons  of  the  Lateran 
Cliurch.  From  this  wool  the  palha  are 
made  by  the  nuns  of  Torro;  de'  Spocchi. 
The  subdeacons  lay  the  pnllin  nn  tlie  tomb 
of  S*".  Peter,  where  they  rennim  nil  niu'lit. 
Abishop  cannot, strictly  speak liiir,  assume 
the  title  of  patriarch,  archbislioj),  &c., 
cannot  convoke  a  council,  consecrate 
bishops,  ordain  clerics,  consecrate  chrism 
or  churches,  till  he  has  received  the  pall. 
He  is  bf)und,  if  he  is  elected  to  a  see  of 
met ro po  1 1 1 an  or  h  i gh er  ra n k,  t  o  beg  t li e  pal- 
lium from  the  Pope,  '-iiistanter,  instautius, 
instantissme,"  within  three  months  after 
his  consecration  or  from  his  confirmation, 
if  he  was  already  a  bishop  and  has  come 
to  the  metropoiitan  see  by  translation. 
Meanwhile,  he  can  di'pute  anotlier  bishop 
to  consecrate  if  he  has  in  due  time  ap- 
plied for  the  pallium.  Tie  receives  it 
from  the  hands  of  anotlier  bishop,  dele- 
gated by  the  Pope  after  taking  an  oath 
of  obedience  to  the  latter,  and  wears  it  on 
certain  great  feasts,  a  hst  of  which  is 
given  in  the  Pontifical.  He  cannot  trans- 
mit it  to  his  successor  or  wear  it  out  of 
his  own  patriarchate,  province,  &c.  If 
translated,  he  must  beg  for  another 
pallium.  The  pallium  or  palha,  if  he 
has  received  more  than  one,  are  buried 
with  the  bishop  to  whom  they  were  given. 

The  early  history  of  the  pallium  is 
involved  in  hopeless  obscurity,  ^^'e  take 
the  following  facts  from  Cliardon  ("Hist, 
des  Sacr."  torn.  v.  De  I'Ordre,  ch.  ix.). 
Pallium  is  the  Latin  name  for  the 
IfidTiou  or  loose  upper  garment  of  the 
Greeks  '    Among  the  Romans,  the  use 

1  It  was  tucked  round  the  neck  in  running 
or  other  active  exercise.  Hence  perhaps  the 
origin  of  the  present  form. 


I  of  the  pallium  was  specially  affected  by 
philosophers,  and  afterwards  by  Christian 
ascetics  (see  Tertuliian's  treatise  "  De 
Pallio").    Two   great   critics — viz.  De 

•■  Marca  and  Baluze — believed  that  the  pal- 
lium was  first  given  to  bishops  as  a  mark 
of  special  dignity  by  the  emperors.  It  is 
true  Pope  Vigilius  would  not  grant  the 
pallium  to  Auxanius  and  Aureliau,  arch- 
bishops of  Aries,  without  the  emperor's 

j  consent.  Griyory  the  Great  took  the 
same  precaution  in  granting  it  to  Syagrius, 
bishop  of  Aiitun.  ]3ut  this  deference  to 
the  imperial  will  arose  from  the  difficult 
circumstani^i's  of  the  time,  and  De  Marca 
admits  that  'ireirory,  before  he  had  been 
calumniated  to  Maurice,  gave  the  pallium 
to  Vigilius  of  Aj'les  without  consulting 
the  emperor.* 

We  may  dismiss  the  doubtful  state- 
ment of  Anastasius  (^ninth  century)  that 
the  Pope  Marcus  (d.  3:M>)  gave  the  pal- 
lium to  the  Bishop  of  Ostia,  and  the 
mention  of  the  pallium  iu  the  spurious 
donation  of  Constantine.  In  all  proba- 
bihty  the  pallium  was  at  first  an  orna- 
ment of  ])relates  (probably  of  metro- 
])olitans),  and  had  no  special  connection 
with  liome.  See  the  synod  of  Macon 
(anno  o81),  cation  H,  which  forbids  arch- 
bishops to  say  Mass  without  the  pallium, 
though  it  is  certain  that  then  the  French 
metropolitans,  as  such,  did  not  get  their 
pallia  from  Home. 

The  Pope  then  wore  the  palhum  as  a 
mark  of  his  own  authority,  and  an  ex- 
amination of  the  Liber  Diurnus  makes  it 
])robable  that  he  sent  it  to  snburbican 
bishops — i.e.  bishops  in  the  provinces  near 
Ivome,  over  whom  the  Pope  exercised  a 
.s])ecially  imiriediate  authority.  The  send- 
ing of  it  marked  the  special  dependence  of 
these  bishops  on  the  Pope.  Next,  the 
Popes  granted  the  Roman  pallium  to 
vicars-apostolic — i.e.  to  their  representa- 
tives in  distant  provinces.  The  first  certain 
example  of  such  a  concession  is  the  grant 
of  a  pallium  to  St.  Cffisarius  of  Aries  by 
Pope  Symmachus  in  51S.  Thus  the 
Roman  pallium  came  to  be  regarded  as  a 
special  mark  of  honour,  and  was  eagerly 
coveted  by  ))isliops.  (4regory  the  (ireat 
granted  it  "to  Syagrius  of  Ant  un,  to  the  two 
metropohtan  bishops  in  I'.ngland  (Canter- 
bury and  York),  &c.  This  Chardon  calls 
"  the  third  degree  in  the  fortunes  of  the 

I  A  decree  of  Valentinian  IIL  (anno  432  ) 
grants  the  dignity  of  nrclilii.shop  and  himor 
pallii  to  the  prelate  holding  the  see  of  Ravenna. 
Baronius  and  IJona  deny  the  authenticitj'  of 
this  decree 


688  PALM  SUNDAY 


PARACLETE 


pallium."  Kext  a  rule  was  made  at  a 
general  synod  of  Franks  under  St.  Boni- 
face in  747,  that  metropolitans  must  ask 
the  pallium  from  Rome.  This  law  was 
not  always  regarded.  It  was  enforced, 
however,  in  a  capitulary  of  Charlemagne, 
and  after  that  always  or  nearly  always 
observed  in  the  Fnaikish  Empire. 

In  877,'  the  great  synod  of  Ravenna 
under  John  VIII.,  representing  aU  Italy, 
required  (cap.  i.)  metropohtans  to  de- 
mand the  Roman  pallium  personally  or 
hy  deputy  within  three  months  of  their 
consecration.  Otherwise,  they  could  not 
consecrate  other  bishops,  and  were  liable, 
after  three  monitions,  to  deposition.  The 
Pope  insisted  on  this  rule  being  kept  in 
France.  The  rule  was  soon  afterwards  es- 
tabli>hed  throughout  the  West,  except  in 
Ireland,  where  the  pallium  was  uukuowu 
even  in  St.  Malachi's  time,  as  appears 
from  St.  Bernard's  life  of  that  s^aint. 
Innocent  III.  forbade  even  the  assump- 
tion of  the  name  of  archbishop  till  the 
pallium  had  been  obtained,  and  the  decree 
forms  part  of  the  "  Corpus  Juris." 

In  the  East,  the  patriarchs  gave  a 
sort  of  paUium  (M^o<p6fiiov)  to  their 
metropolitans.  After  the  time  of  the 
Cru.-aties,  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council 
(^canon  5)  required  even  patriarchs  to 
receive  the  pallium  from  the  Pope. 

To  sum  up,  the  pallium  was  an  orna- 
ment of  metropolitans,  given  to  them 
perhaps  from  early  times  by  the  patri- 
archs and  by  the  Pope  in  that  compara- 
tively narrow  district  which  was  under 
his  most  immediate  supervision.  Then 
the  I'ope  gave  it  to  his  vicars  in  distant 
parts,  then  as  a  mark  of  special  honour 
to  some  bishops,  then  he  reqxured  all 
Western  metropohtans  to  ask  it  from 
liim  before  exercising  their  functions  as 
archbishops,  and  tinally  the  rule  was 
extended  even  to  patriarchs. 

PAZ.nx  STTsrSAV.  The  Sunday 
before  Easter,  on  which  the  Church  cele- 
brates Christ's  entry  into  Jerusalem.  The 
name.  "  Palm  Sunday  "  ("  Dominica  in 
Palmis,"  or  "ad  Palmas,"  ^at<iiv  eopTrj), 
is  ancient,  for  it  occurs  in  the  "Life  of 
Euthymius"  (died  47i!),  and  is  spoken 
of  as  a  great  day  by  Isidore  of  Seville. 
According  to  our  present  rite,  palms  or 
olive-branches  are  blessed  by  the  celebrant 
before  Ma,ss,  and  distributed  to  the  faith- 
ful ;  the  clergy  walk  in  procession  through 
the  church  and  pass  outside.  Then  can- 
tors enter  the  church,  leaving  the  rest 

■  Nicholas  I  had  made  a  still  more  stringent 
rule,  but  only  for  Bulgaria. 


without ;  the  hynm  "  Gloria,  laus,  et 
honor  "  is  sung,  both  parties,  those  within 
and  those  without,  taking  part.  At  last 
the  subdeacon  knocks  at  the  door  with 
the  shaft  of  the  processional  cross,  and 
the  whole  body  march  up  the  church. 
The  Greeks  have  a  procession  with  palms 
at  matins. 

Martene  denies  that  any  trace  of  :ha 
procession  can  be  found  before  the  eighth 
century,  and  he  seems  to  be  perfectly  right, 
in  spite  of  Merati's  elaborate  attempt 
(Tom.  II.  pars.  iv.  tit.  7)  to  produce 
earlier  testimonies.  Merati  shows  that 
the  name  Palm  Sunday  occurs  in  an 
ancient  Roman  Calendar  pubUshed  by 
Martene  himself  in  his  "  Anecdota,"  and 
dating  from  the  fourth  or  fifth  century  ; 
that  St.  Adhelm  (709)  mentions  the 
singing  of  the  "  Ozanna  " ;  and  that  in  a 
prayer  in  the  most  ancient  MS.  of  the 
Greguriau  Sacramentary  (tenth  centurj-) 
there  is  an  allusion  to  the  practice  the 
faithful  had  of  coming  to  the  church  with 
palms.  These  instances  clearly  are  not  to 
the  point.  In  an  "order"  observed  in 
a  German  monastery,  and  ascribed  by 
MabiUon  to  the  year  800  circ,  the  pro- 
cession is  mentioned,  and  so  in  Pseudo- 
Alcuin  (tenth  century). 

In  ancient  times  those  who  were  to  be 
baptised  ou  Holy  Saturday,  called  "  com- 
petentes,"  heard  the  whole  Creed  ex- 
plained on  this  Sunday.  Hence  its  old 
name,  "  Pascha  petitum  s.  competen- 
tium." 

PA.HABOX.AN'Z  (Gr.  napa^aWea-Bai, 
"  to  expose  oneself  to  danger."  The  word 
"  parabolani,"  with  its  Latin  suffix,  was 
evidently  formed  from  -rrapaiioKoi,  "  dare- 
devils," the  men  who  for  money  fought 
with  wild  beasts  in  the  amphitheatre). 
The  "parabolani,"  a  class  of  lay  assistants 
to  the  clergy,  principally  engaged  in 
looking  after  the  sick  and  attending  to 
funerals,  are  frequently  mentioned  by 
writers  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 
centuries.  Gibbon  describes  them  as  a 
charitable  corporation  originally  founded 
in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Gallienus.' 
They  were  very  numerous  at  Alexandria, 
and  seem  to  have  formed  a  kind  of  body- 
guard to  the  patriarch  Cyril  at  the  time 
of  his  contest  with  the  prefect. 

P  ABACI.ETE  (jrapaKkrjTos).  A  word 
used  four  times  in  St.  John's  Gospel  (xiv. 
10,  26;  XV.  26;  xvi.  7)  as  a  name  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  once  in  his  first  Epistle 
(ii.  1)  of  Christ.  It  is  found  nowhere 
else  in  the  N.T.  and  nowhere  in  the  LXX. 
»  Decline  and  Fall,  ch.  xlvii. 


PAUALUSE 


PARISH  689 


The  "Vulgate  rendering  in  the  Gospel  is 
Paracletus,  in  the  Epistle  Advocatus ;  and 
Paraclete  (usually  Paraclitus)  is  a  common 
title  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  Breviary. 
The  Rhemish  follows  the  Latin. 

Aquila  gives  irapuKKriToi  as  a  rendering 
of  "comforters"  (D'pnjp),  Job  xvi.  2, 
where  the  LXX  more  riglitly  has  Trapa- 
KXijropey.  Origen,  "  De  Princip."  ii.  4, 
in  the  version  of  Rufinus,  says  the  word 
when  used  of  the  Holy  Ghost  means 
comforter  ("  a  consolatione  dicitur,  Para- 
clesis  enim  Latine  consolatio  dicitur"). 
This  interpretation,  though  widely  adopted 
by  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers,  is  surely 
erroneous.  The  word  means  "  one  called 
in,"  an  advocate  or  pleader.  This  appears 
from  the  passive  form,  the  constant 
classical  use,  the  undoubted  sense  in 
1  John  ii.  1  (though  even  there  the 
Greek  Fathers  take  it  as  "  comforter "), 
and  the  use  of  the  word  in  Rabbinical 
writers  (see  t3*^p"1D  in  Buxtori).'  The 
Holy  Ghost  pleads  the  Christian  cause 
against  the  world  (John  xv.  8),  and 
Christ's  with  the  Christian  (xiv.  26 ;  xv. 
26  ;  xvi.  14). 

PARADISE  (Dll^).  An  old  Persian 
word  adopted  at  an  early  date  by  the 
Hebrews.  It  only  occurs  three  times  in 
the  Old  Testament,  and  always  means 
simply  "  a  park "  (Cant.  iv.  13  •  Neb.  ii. 
8 ;  Eccl.  ii.  5).  In  the  LXX  (Gen.  ii.  8) 
and  Peshito  it  is  used  for  that  par- 
ticular garden  or  park  in  which  Adam 
and  Eve  were  placed  ;  and  in  the  later 
Jewish  theology  for  that  part  of  Hades 
which  was  inhabited  by  the  souls  of  the 
just,  and  which  we  call  "Limbo."  In 
this  sense  it  occurs  in  Luke  xxiii.  43. 
Lastly,  in  2  Cor.  xii.  4 ;  Apoc.  ii.  7,  it 
means  "  heaven,"  or  **  a  part  of  heaven." 
[See  Hewkx,  and  Limbo.] 

PARASCEVE  [TTapaa-Kfvrj),  "  pre- 
paration''— i.e.  for  the  Sabbath  and  so 
equivalent  to  Friday.  It  is  retained  in 
the  Mis!;al  as  a  name  for  Good  Friday. 

PARISH  [See  CiJEE  OP  Souls, 
Patkox,  Pateonage,  Tithes].  During 
the  first  three  Christian  centuries  country 
and  town  parishes  as  now  understood, 
each  with  its  settled  incumbent,  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  have  existed  in  the 
Church.    "  In  the  earliest  times  there 

1  He  quotes,  e.t/.,  a  gloss  on  the  Pirke  Avoth 
ii. ;  "A  pnraclete  is  a  gond  mediator  for  a  man 
to  a  king  ";  "  If  he  has  good  paracletes  he  will 
be  delivered  ";  "Penance  and  good  works  are 
a  man's  paracletes  in  the  heavenly  judgment," 
&c. 


were  no  churches,  no  presbyters,  except 
in  cities,  and  with  the  bishop"  (Thomassin). 
The  diocese  was  then  called  irapoiKia, 
parcecia ;  it  was  the  rrapoiKia  both  of  the 
bishop  and  of  the  presbyters  and  deacon< 
surrounding  him.  No  other  name  than 
this  for  the  episcopal  district  occurs 
in  the  Apostolic  Canons  or  Constitutions. 
The  ground  notion  was,  either  that 
Christians  were  TiapoiKoij  ju.rtahabitnntes, 
dwellers  among  the  non-Christian  masses, 
or  that  they  were  "  sojourners,"  without 
any  fixed  abode  in  this  life,  passing  on- 
wards towards  a  better.  The  word 
parcBcia  was  gradually  supplanted  by  the 
barbarous  form  parocMa,  still  meaning  a 
diocese.  Thus  in  the  eighth  century  St. 
Boniface  writes  to  Pope  Zachary,  "  Pro- 
vinciam  iu  tres  parochias  discrevimus " 
(We  have  divided  the  province  into  three 
dioceses);  and  Zachary  often  uses  the  word 
in  the  same  sense. 

Separate  parishes  or  districts  within 
the  diocese,  to  which  the  bishop  appointed 
resident  presbyters,  removable  at  his 
pleasure,  began  to  be  common  in  the 
fourth  century.  The  change  is  attributed 
by  Anastasius,  in  his  "Lives  of  the  Roman 
Pontiffs,"  to  Dionysius,  who  was  Pope 
from  261  to  272.  "This  Pope,"  says 
Anastasius,  "assigned  churches  to  the 
presbyters,  and  established  cemeteries, 
parishes  {parochias),  and  dioceses."  In 
the  northern  countries  of  Europe,  the 
difficulties  of  communication  being  greater 
than  in  the  south,  and  the  population 
more  sparse,  the  plan  of  separate  parishes, 
each  with  its  own  priest  responsible  for 
the  souls  of  all  persons  living  within  the 
limits,  necessarily  prevailed  over  the 
earlier  state  of  things.  The  zeal  of  lay- 
men [Patkon,  Patronage]  did  much  to 
spread  a  network  of  subordinate  centres 
of  religion  and  civilisation  over  each 
Christian  country.  A  parish  in  the 
modern  sense  is  "a  defined  district  of 
territory,  the  boundaries  of  which  are 
settled  by  the  Pope  or  by  the  bishop  of 
the  diocese,  having  one  fixed  rector,  with 
power  to  rule  and  judge  the  people  living 
within  it,  and  to  administer  to  them  the 
sacraments  and  other  divine  things" 
(Ferraris). 

Parishes  are  properly  conferrible  on 
secular  priests ;  if  regulars  hold  them 
they  are  removable  by  the  bishop,  or  by  the 
superiorof  the  order  to  which  they  belong. 
There  is  an  exception  to  this  rule  in  the 
case  of  the  regular  canons  of  Pr^montr^ 
(see  Peemonsthatensians,  note). 

Parishes  in  lay  patronage  are  treated 
X  X 


690  PARISH  PRIEST 


PARISH  PRIEST 


tenderly  by  the  canon  law;  thus  the 
Council  of  Trent  (sess.  xxiv.  cap.  18) 
orders  that  the  presentees  of  lay  patrons, 
after  due  examination,  be  admitted  by 
the  bishop  without  concursus,  if  found 
"idonei"  (Ducange,  Parochia;  Ferraris, 
Parnchia ;  Soglia,  Instit.  Canon,  ii.  8, 
§§  84-87). 

PARISH  PRISST.  The  word 
parocJius,  for  parish  priest,  is  of  late 
introduction  ;  it  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  ancient  pa?-ochi,  or  purveyors  men- 
tioned by  Horace : — 
Proxima  Campano  ponti  quse  villula  tectum 
Prabuit ;  et  parochi,  qua  debent,  ligna  salem- 

que. — Serm.  I.  v.  46. 

See  also  Cic.  ad  Att,  xiii.  2.  2. 

Early  in  tlie  fifteenth  century,  Gerson, 
Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
taught  that  parish  priests  were  of  divine 
iubtitution,  and  were  the  successors  of 
the  seventy-two  disciples;  he  also  held 
that  they  were  members  of  the  hierarchy 
and  had  a  right  to  vote  in  councils.  His 
opinions  were  adopted  by  the  Sorbonne, 
and  long  afterwards  by  the  Jansenists, 
such  as  S.  Cyian,  Richer,  Bailly,  and 
Van  l^spen.  But  it  is  now  acknowledged 
that  there  were  no  country  parishes  until 
the  fourth  century,  and  that  there  were 
none  in  cathedral  cities  (except  perhaps 
in  Rome  and  Alexandria)  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eleventh  century  [see  Paeish], 
The  Council  of  Trent  teaches  that  the 
hierarchy  consists  of  bishops,  priests,  and 
ministers — making  no  mention  of  parish 
priests  as  such.  As  to  the  right  of  voting 
in  councils,  the  bull  Auctorem  jidei, 
directed  against  the  synod  of  Pistoja, 
condemns  the  doctrine  whereby  parish 
jiriests  and  other  priests  in  synod  as- 
.sembled  are  declared  to  be,  together  with 
the  bishops,  judges  of  faith,  and  whereby 
it  is  insinuated  that  judgment  belongs  to 
them  of  their  own  right  conferred  by 
ordination — as  false,  rash,  subversive  of 
the  hierarchy,  &c.,  &c. 

Tlie  true  definition  of  a  parish  priest, 
according  to  Bouix  (De  Parocho,  p.  1H4), 
"  is  a  person  lawfully  deputed  and  bound 
to  minister  in  his  own  name  the  word  of 
God  and  the  sacraments  to  certain 
members  of  a  diocese,  who  in  their  tm-n 
are  to  a  certain  extent  bound  to  receive 
them  from  him."  Hence  from  the  very 
fact  that  a  man  is  instituted  as  parish 
priest  he  has  ordinary  jurisdiction  in  foro 
interno,  and,  it'  he  is  a  priest,  can  give 
absolution.  Vacant  parishes  are  to  be 
tilled  by  competitive  examination  (Cone. 
Trid.  Sees.  xxiv.  De  Ref.  c.  18).  The 


method  to  be  observed,  as  laid  down  by 
the  council  and  modified  by  subsequent 
papal  enactments,  is  as  follows: — The 
bishop  must  give  public  notice  of  the 
examination.  Candidates  should  have 
reached  their  twenty-fifth  year,  and  should 
excel  in  virtue  and  learning.  The  ex- 
amination should  be  conducted  by  three 
examiners  in  the  presence  of  the  bishop 
or  vicar-general.  The  same  questions 
should  be  put  to  each  candidate,  and  the 
same  text  of  Scripture  given  for  the 
sermon  to  be  written  by  each.  The 
candidate  who,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
bishop,  has  passed  the  best  examination 
should  receive  the  parish.  There  are 
many  exceptions  to  the  rule  of  examina- 
tion, e.ff.  when  the  parish  has  a  lay 
patron.  The  new  parish  priest  is  bound 
to  make  a  profession  of  faith  within  two 
months  of  obtaining  possession  of  his 
parish.  His  duties  are  to  reside  among 
his  flock  and  to  feed  them,  that  is,  to 
ofier  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  for  them  on 
all  Sundays  and  days  of  obligation  ( festtg 
de  prcBcepto),  to  preach  and  to  administer 
the  Sacraments  to  them.  The  chief  rights 
of  the  parish  priest  are :  (1)  the  reserva- 
tion of  the  holy  oils;  (2)  to  confer  the 
nuptial  blessing,  the  blessing  of  women 
after  childbirth,  and  the  blessing  of  houses 
j  on  Holy  Saturday ;  (3)  to  administer 
i  Communion  at  Easter ;  (4)  to  administer 
the  last  sacraments,  i.e.  Viaticum  and 
ExtremeUnction ;  (5)  to  perform  the  burial 
service  for  his  parishioners.  He  has  also 
the  right  to  tithes  and  funeral  dues. 
Wherever  the  decree  of  the  Coimcil  of 
Trent  concerning  clandestinity  has  been 
published,  no  marriage  is  valid  unless 
celebrated  in  the  presence  of  the  parish 
priest,  or  his  delegate,  or  superior.  It 
should  be  noted  that  some  parish  priests 
are  removable  at  the  will  of  the  bishop 
(ad  riutum  amovihiles) ;  while  others,  who 
are  styled  " perpetui  et  inamovibiles,"  can 
be  removed  only  for  some  grave,  notorious 
crime. 

For  a  long  time  before  the  Reforma- 
tion parish  priests  in  England  were 
called  persones  or  parsons,  because  they 
were  personcB  eeclesice,  the  representatives 
of  the  Church  in  the  parish.  The  word 
was  not  in  use  before  the  Conquest; 
but  persona,  as  equivalent  to  rector 
ecclesiee,  occurs  frequently  in  the  treatise 
of  Bracton,  wi-iting  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  From  the  law  courts  it 
probably  passed  into  the  speech  of  the 
people,  and  Chaucer  naturally  speaks  of 
the  parish  priest,  introduced  into  the 


PASCHAL  CANDLE 


PASSIONISTS  G91 


"Caiitevburv  Tales,"  as  "a  poore  persoun 
of  a  toiui." 

The  "  parish  priest,"  or  "  parson,"  of 
England  nnd  Ireland,  corresponds  to  the 
cure  of  France,  the  Pfairer  of  Germany, 
the  paroco  of  Italy,  the  pastoor  of  Hol- 
land, and  the  pdrroco  of  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal. (See  Ferraris,  Parockm;  Bouix, 
"De  Parocho";  Craisson,  "Manuale  Juris 
Canonici,"  nn.  1287-1514.) 

PASCBA.X.  CAUOi.li.  [See  Holy 
"Week." 

PASCBAXi  COWTHOVERST.  [See 

Eastek." 

PASCKAI.  FRECSPT.    [See  COM- 

PASSXOxr  svnOATT.  The  Sunday 
before  Palm  Sunday.  "With  Passion  Sun- 
day tlie  move  solemn  part  of  Lent  begins ; 
the  imaires  are  veiled  with  violet  at  the 
first  vespers;  the  Judica  psalm  and  the 
Gloria  Patri  are  omitted  at  the  Introit 
&c.  The  name  Passion  Sunday  is  ancient, 
but  we  liave  been  able  to  find  no  ancient 
or  even  medireval  author  who  mentions 
the  veiling  of  the  images.  None  is  quoted 
by  Gavantus  or  Meratus.  It  is  said  to 
refer  to  the  last  words  of  the  Gospel  for 
the  day.  "  Jesus  autem  abscond  it  se  et 
exivit  a  templo." 

PASSIONISTS.  Their  full  title  is, 
"  Congregation  of  the  Discalced  Clerks 
of  the  most  holy  Cross  and  Passion  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  Their  founder, 
St.  Paul  of  the  Cross,  born  near  Genoa 
in  1694,  put  on  the  habit  of  the  order  in 

1720,  with  the  sanction  of  the  Bishop  of 
Alessandria,  Monsignor   Gattinara.  In 

1721,  having  compiled  the  constitutions 
which  he  wished  his  followers  to  observe, 
Paul  went  to  Rome  in  order  to  obtain 
sanction  for  his  proceedings.  This  sanc- 
tion was  withheld  for  many  years,  in  the 
course  of  which  Paul  was  ordained  priest 
and  employed  on  various  works  of  charity 
in  Rome.  All  obstacles  being  at  length 
removed,  he  established  the  first  monastery 
of  his  congregation  at  Monte  Argentaro, 
near  Orbitello,  in  1737.  Tlie  rules  of  the 
society  were  confirmed  by  Benedict  XIV. 
in  1746.  Clement  XIV.  showed  the 
Fathers  marked  favour,  and  conferred  on 
them  the  house  and  church  of  SS.  Giovanni 
e  Paolo  on  the  Ccelian  Hill.  Here  the 
holy  founder  took  up  his  abode,  and  here 
(1775)  he  died.  In  1867  he  was  canon- 
ised by  Pius  IX.  The  con^egation 
rapidly  extended  itself  after  his  death, 
but  for  some  time  within  the  limits  of 
Italy  only.  But  Paul's  most  settled  pur- 
pose, and  the  subject  of  his  impassioned 


longing,  had  been  to  work  and  pray  foi* 
the  conversion  of  England.  His  desire 
was  in  part  fultilled  when,  in  1842,  his 
followers  obtained  a  footing  in  this 
country.  There  are  now  eight  Pas-sioiiist 
houses  in  England — at  Highgnte,  Broad- 
way, Carmarthen,  "Wareham,  Herne  Bay, 
Harbome,  Sutton,  and  St.  Helen's ;  two 
in  Ireland — Mount  Argus,  near  Dublin, 
and  Belfast ;  and  one  in  Scotland — Glas- 
gow. 

The  whole  order  comprises  nine  pro- 
vinces, of  which  three  are  in  Italy,  one 
in  France,  one  in  England  and  Ireland, 
one  in  America,  one  in  Spain,  one  in 
Mexico  and  Buenos  Ayres,  and  one  in 
Bulgaria  and  Wallachia.  This  last  pro- 
vince is  governed  by  a  Passionist  bishop, 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Propaganda. 
Altogether  there  are  about  70  houses, 
and  between  800  and  900  religious. 

The  life  of  a  Passionist  is  very  austere. 
They  fast  three  days  in  every  week, 
besides  Advent  and  Lent ;  they  wear 
nothing  on  their  feet  but  sandals;  they 
rise  at  night  to  say  Matins,  and,  indeed, 
recite  the  office  in  choir  at  all  the  canoni- 
cal hours.  They  divide  their  time  between 
contemplation  and  action ;  being  inde- 
fatigable in  giving  missions  and  retreats, 
especially  to  persons  living  in  community. 
Besides  the  three  usual  vows,  they  make 
a  fourth — that  they  will  do  their  utmost 
to  keep  alive  in  the  hearts  of  the  faithful 
the  memory  of  our  Lord's  passion.  On 
the  day  of  their  profession  they  make  a 
vow  of  perseverance  in  the  congregation. 
Nevertheless,  they  only  take  simple  vows. 
(H^lyot,  "  Contin.") 

T/ie  Passiomsts  in  America.  —  Aji 
American  correspondent  has  furnished  us 
with  the  following  account  of  the  intro- 
duction of  the  order  into  the  United 
States,  and  of  its  present  condition 
there  : — 

"  The  Passionists  were  introduced 
into  the  United  States  in  1852  by  the 
Right  Rev.  Michael  O'Connor,  bishop  of 
Pittsburg.  The  first  colony  consisted  of 
three  priests  and  one  brother.  The 
superior  was  Father  Anthony  Calandri, 
who  died  April  27.  1 87S.  A  retreat  was 
soon  built  in  a  suitable  location  on  a  hill 
to  the  south  of  Pittsburg,  which  is  still 
the  novitiate  of  the  order  in  the  United 
States.  Applications  for  admission  were 
not  wanting,  and  in  1859  the  Fathers 
were  able  to  establish  a  second  house  in 
Dunkirk,  diocese  of  Buffalo,  N.Y.  In 
1861  a  third  foundation  was  made  in  West 
Hoboken.  N.J.,  which  has  since  become- 
Y  T  2 


693 


PASTOR 


PATER  NOSTER 


the  residence  of  the  provincial.  These 
three  houses  were  erected  into  a  province 
in  1863,  with  Father  Dominic  Tarlattini 
as  fii-st  provincial.  Since  then  three  more 
retreats  were  added — one  near  Baltimore, 
Md. ;  another  in  Cincinnati,  O. ;  the  third 
near  Louisville,  Ky.;  to  say  nothing  of  the 
foundations  in  Mexico  and  Buenos  Ayres. 
The  American  Province  of  St.  Paul  of  the 
Cross  numbers,  at  present  (1883),  about 
150  religious — viz.  70  priests,  40  clerical 
students,  and  40  lay  brothers. 

"  Although  missions  and  spiritual  re- 
treats are  the  principal  external  works 
for  the  good  of  souls  prescribed  by  the 
rule  of  the  Passionist  Fathers,  still  the 
necessities  of  the  faithful  and  the  scarcity 
of  priests  in  this  country  compelled  them 
at  first  to  undertake  the  spiritual  charge 
of  the  Catholics  living  in  the  vicinity  of 
their  foundations,  who  otherwise  would 
have  had  no  one  to  minister  to  their 
spiritual  wants.  But  as  the  population 
increased  and  priests  became  more  nu- 
merous, most  of  these  charges  were 
gradually  relinquished,  and  at  present 
the  Passionist  Fathers  retain  only  a  few 
parishes.  Calls  for  missions  and  retreats, 
on  the  other  hand,  have  become  very 
frequent,  and  during  the  greater  part  ot 
the  year  several  bands  of  missionaries  are 
at  work  simultaneously  in  different  locali- 
ties. Their  method  in  conducting  missions 
is  substantially  the  same  as  that  f  )llowed 
by  other  missionaries,  but  the  prominence 
given  in  their  preaching  to  the  mysteries 
of  our  Lord's  passion  is  found  to  be 
singularly  effective  in  rousing  the  negli- 
gent and  stimulating  the  devout  to  still 
greater  fervour." 

PASTOK.  Jesus  Christ,  who,  in  the 
Preface  for  Festivals  of  the  Apostles,  is 
called  "Pastor  seteruus,"  communicates 
the  characteristics  of  a  good  shepherd  of 
souls  to  all  those  who  faithfully  discbarge 
the  office  of  governing  in  his  Churcli. 
This  communication  is  pre-eminently 
made  to  the  Roman  Pontiff,  who,  in  the 
collect  "  pro  Papa"  is  described  as  "pastor 
ecclesiae " ;  it  also  appt-rtains  in  lesser 
degTees  to  bishops  and  priests,  upon  each 
one  of  whom  it  devolves  to  lead,  feed, 
and  gently  rule,  like  a  shepherd,  the  flock 
committed  to  him. 

PATEK.  A  plate  used  from  the  earli- 
est times  to  receive  the  IIr)st  consecrated  at 
Mass.  Larger  patens,  called  ministeriales, 
were  used  for  the  ccunmunion  of  the 
people.  It  is  consecrated  with  chrism  by 
the  bishop,  and  this  rite  of  consecration 
is  meutioued  in  a  Gallican  Sacrameutary 


as  old  as  the  eighth  century,  published  by 
Mabillon  in  the  "  Museum  Italicum." 

PATER  irosTER.  The  prayer 
taught  by  our  Lord  to  His  disciples.  It- 
occurs  in  all  the  ancient  liturgies,  with  one 
notable  exception — that  of  the  so-called 
Clementine  liturgy — given  in  the  Apo- 
stolic Constitutions.  Its  absence  there 
has  never  been  satisfactorily  explained. 
In  all  the  chief  liturgies  it  occurs  much 
in  the  same  place — i.e.  shortly  before  the 
Communion.  In  most  of  the  Greek,  in 
the  Blozarabic  and  the  Ambrosian  litur- 
gies, the  Canon  was  followed  by  the 
Fraction  of  the  Host ;  then  came  the  Pater. 
St.  Gregory  settled  finally  the  place  of 
the  Pater  in  the  Roman  Mass,  placing  it 
w-here  it  now  stands,  immediately  after 
the  Canon  and  before  the  Fraction.  This 
,«eems  to  be  the  sense  of  Gregory's  words 
when  he  says  (Lib.  7,  Indict.  2,  Epist. 
04,  quoted  by  Le  Brun)  that  the  Sicilians 
taunted  him  with  following  the  use  of 
Constantinople  and  reciting  the  Pater, 
"  mox  post  canonem,"  "immediately  after 
the  Canon,"  and  so  they  .are  understood  hy 
Le  Brun,  torn.  iii.  Diss.  ii. ;  Benedict  XIV. 
"  De  Miss."  ii.  19  ;  Probst,  "  Lit.  der 
ersten  drei  Jahrhund."  p.  356 ;  Ham- 
mond, "Ancient  Lit."  bcxii.  The  other 
view — viz.  that  the  Pater  was  introduced 
into  the  Roman  liturgy  by  Gregory,  is 
maintained  by  Mr.  Scudamore  in  his 
article  on  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  Smith  and 
Cheetham.  The  Pope  also  tells  us  that, 
whereas  in  the  East  (and  also  in  the 
Gallican  rite)  the  Pater  was  said  by 
priest  and  people,  at  Rome  it  was  recited 
by  the  priest  alone.  In  nearly  all  the 
ancient  liturgies  the  Pater  is  introduced 
by  a  preface,  like  the  exhortation  in  the 
Mass,  "Prseceptis  salutaribus,"  &C.' 

The  Pater  occurs  in  all  the  Breviary 
hours  at  the  beginning  and  end,  and 
sometimes  in  the  course  of  the  hour 
itself.  But  whereas  in  the  Mass  it  is  said 
aloud,  in  the  Breviary  it  is  said  ,«ecretly, 
or  at  most  only  the  first  and  concluding 
words  are  said  audibly.  The  reason  is 
that  at  the  part  of  the  Mass  where  the 
Pater  occurs  the  fnithful  only  were  present, 
while  catechumens  &c.  were  admitted  to 
the  hours.   (So  Benedict  XIV.  loc.  at.) 

The  addition  to  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
"For  thine  is  the  kingdom,"  is  wanting  in 
the  best  ancient  authorities.  It  pmbably 
arose  from  the  embolismus  [see  the  article] 

1  The  f2tliiopic  liturgy  is  an  exception.  But 
the  introduction  to  the  Pater  is  generally  in 
the  form  of  a  prayer — not  a  statement  as  in 
the  Roman  and  Ambrosian  Mass. 


PATERINES 


PATRON,  PATRONAGE  GO-'! 


of  tlie  liturgy  used  iu  the  Syrian  Church. 
<See  "Westcott  and  Hort,  N.T.  vol.  ii. 
Notes  on  Matt.  vi.  13.) 

PATERXXTES.  A  Manichsean  sect 
which  first  came  into  notice  under  this 
name  in  Italy  about  1040.  when  a  number 
of  them  were  convicted  of  heresy  by 
Heribert,  archbishop  of  Jlilau,  and  burnt 
at  the  stake.  They  taught  that  matter 
was  essentially  evil,  condemned  marriage, 
and  set  at  nought  Church  authority. 
The  Lombard  married  clergy,  when 
(1057)  they  were  attacked*  on  the  score 
of  incontinence  by  Anselm  of  Badagio 
and  Ariald,  taunted  their  assailants  with 
being  Paterines.  Mohler^  identifies  them 
with  the  Boni  Homines  who  were  con- 
demned by  the  Council  of  Lombers  in 
1176.  They  appear  again  among  the 
heretical  sects  that  infested  Languedoc  at 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  are 
then  identified  with  the  Cathari  or  Puri- 
tiins.  Innocent  III.  spoke  of  "  impii 
Manichici,  qui  se  Catharos  vel  Patarinos 
appellant."^  The  oiigiu  of  the  name  is 
unknown.  [Albigenses;  Boni  Homines; 
Bulgarians.] 

PATRIARCH,  PATRIARCHATE. 

The  dignity  of  Patriarch — the  Primacy  of 
St.  Peter  being  considered  as  standing 
apart — is  the  highest  grade  in  the  hier- 
archy of  jurisdiction.  Immediately  next  to 
the  rank  of  Patriarch  may  come  that  of 
"  Primate  ";  metropolitans  or  archbishops 
follow  ;  under  each  metropolitan  are 
ranged  his  suflragau  bishops.  In  the  fifth 
century  the  Exarchate  [Exarch]  was  an 
intermediate  grade  between  the  patriar- 
chate and  the  rank  of  metropolitan. 

The  Sixth  Canon  of  the  first  Nicene 
Council  recognises  an  ancient,  customary, 
and  legitimate  authority  in  the  Bishops  of 
the  three  sees  of  Alexandria,  Pi,ome,  and 
Antioch  (named  in  this  order)  over  their 
respective  provinces.  The  title  of  "Pa- 
triarch," however,  is  not  given;  the  thing 
is  recognised,  but  not  the  word.  The 
title  came  into  use  in  the  fifth  century,  at 
least  iu  its  present  sense,  for  it  had  earlier 
been  used  loosely  for  any  great  see.  From 
the  latter  part  of  tue  fourth  centur}-, 
Constantinople  gradually  came  to  occupy 
the  position  of  a  fourth  Patriarchate. 
That  of  Jerusalem,  after  a  struggle  for 
precedence  between  it  and  Ca!#area,  be- 
;ame  the  fifth.  For  the  history  of  each 
of  these  Patriarchates,  excluding  Rome, 
see  Alexandria,  Church  of;  Antioch ; 
Constantinople,    Pateiarch-vie    op  ; 

'  Kirchengeschichte,  ii.  ch.  v.  §  3. 

2  Wetzer  and  Welte,  art.  "  Patariner." 


Jerusalem,  Patriarchate  of.  Since  the 
misfortunes  which  overtook  the  Ea.-tern 
Church  (Monopliysite  heresy,  Mus.^uluiaii 
domination,  Greek  schism,  &c.)  severed 
'  all  these  four  sees  from  Catholic  unity, 
the  Popes  have  continued  to  nominate 
bishops  to  the  lost  Patriarchates ;  but  these 
bishops  have  resided  at  Rome,  except 
lately  in  the  case  of  Jerusalem,  the  Patri- 
arch of  which,  Monsignor  Valerga,  com- 
menced to  reside  at  his  see  in  1847.  Be- 
sides the  Latin  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  the 
Holy  See  admits  a  Maronite,  a  Melchite, 
and  a  Syrian  Patriarch  of  the  same  see,  a 
Patriarch  of  Cilicia  of  the  Armenian,  and 
a  Patriarch  of  Babylon  of  the  Chaldaic, 
rite. 

There  are  also  three  minor  Patriarchs 
in  the  Western  Church — the  Patriarch  of 
the  Indies,  who  is  the  prelate  of  highest 
rank  in  the  Church  of  Spain ;  the  Pati'iarch 
of  Lisbon  ;  and  the  Patriarch  of  Venice. 

PATRinXOirY   OF   ST.  PETER. 

[See  States  op  the  Church.] 

PATRiPASSXATfS.  [See  Sabel- 
lianish.] 

PATROW,    PATROITAGE.  The 

word  jKitronus  is  used  in  three  senses 
in  canon  law;  it  signifies  (I)  an  advocate 
or  barrister ;  (2)  the  former  master  of  a 
manumitted  slave,  to  whom  under  the 
Roman  law  a  certain  control  over  his 
freedman  was  reserved  ;  (3)  a  person 
having  the  right  to  present  to  a  benefice. 
The  third  sense  only  is  here  in  question. 

The  subject  of  patronage  is  of  little 
practical  interest  to  English  Catholics,  for, 
from  the  great  spoliation  of  the  sixteenth 
century  down  to  the  present  day,  an 
English  benefice  in  Catholic  hands  has 
been  a  phenomenon  rarely  met  with. 
However,  it  seems  desirable  to  give  a 
brief  sketch  of  the  principal  provisions  of 
the  law  on  this  subject. 

Patronage  (jm  patronatus)  is  defined 
to  be  "  the  right  or  power  of  nominating 
or  presenting  a  clerk  for  preferment  to  a 
vacant  ecclesiastical  benefice."  It  may  be 
usefully  considered  from  three  points  of 
view,  according  as  (1)  its  acquisition,  (2) 
its  transfer,  and  (.3)  its  prominent  incidents 
are  taken  into  account. 

I.  The  right  of  patronage  is  acquired 
in  one  of  three  principal  ways — by  founda- 
tion, or  building,  or  endowment — accord- 
ing to  the  memorial  line : 

Patronum  fnciunt  dos,  sedificatio,  fundus. 

If  one  person  founds  a  church  by  giving 
the  ground,  a  second  builds  it,  and  a  third 
endows  it,  the  right  of  patronage  belongs 


694    PATRON,  PATEONAGE 


PATRON  AND  TITULAR 


to  the  three  jointly.  The  consent  of  the 
bishop  is,  of  course,  always  necessary. 
An  endowment,  in  order  to  convey  a  right 
of  patronage,  must  be  sufficient — i.e.  it 
must  be  ample  enough  to  provide  a  decent 
maintenance  for  those  serving  the  church, 
and  to  meet  the  annual  expense  of  lights 
and  other  church  requisites.  Otherwise 
it  is  not  an  endowment,  but  a  benefaction, 
and  as  such  carries  no  right  of  patronage. 
Patronage  acquired  by  Papal  privilege, 
conceded  at  any  date  anterior  to  the 
Council  of  Trent,  was  abolished  by  a 
decree  of  that  council ; '  hence  anyone 
now  claiming  it  on  that  ground  must  show 
that  such  privilege  was  conceded  since  the 
council, with  a  clause  expresslyderogating 
from  its  decree.  Patronage  can  also  be 
acquired  by  prescription  if  multiplied 
unopposed  presentations  can  be  proved. 

'2.  The  transfer  of  patronage  ordinarily 
takes  place  in  one  of  four  ways — by  suc- 
cession, donation,  sale,  or  exchange.  By 
succession — as  when,  on  the  death  of  a 
patron,  the  right  passes  to  his  heirs, 
whether  at  law  or  under  settlement  or 
devise.  When  the  patronage  passes  by 
donation,  the  consent  of  the  bishop  is 
usually,  but  not  in  all  cases,  necessary. 
With  regard  to  the  third  mode — sale — 
it  is  instructive  to  compare  the  provisions 
of  the  canon  law  with  the  law  and  prac- 
tice of  the  Anglican  communion  as  regards 
the  sale  of  advowsons.'^  In  England  an 
advowson  can  be  sold  separately,  and  for 
the  best  price.  The  sole  condition  is  that 
the  benefice  be  not  actually  vacant  at  the 
time  of  sale  ;  otherwise  no  distinction  is 
made  between  advowsons  and  any  other 
kind  of  property.  The  canon  law  does 
not  permit  an  advowson  {  jiis  patronafus) 
to  be  sold  separately  at  all.  It  can  only 
be  sold  indirectly — i.e.  through  being  in- 
separablj'  annexed  to  some  other  property 
which  is  susceptible  of  legal  sale.  Thus, 
if  a  man  sell  his  whole  estate,  and  to  this 
estate  an  advowson  be  annexed,  the  latter 
passes  to  the  purchaser  along  with  the 
other  property.  Or  even  if  the  sale  be 
not  of  a  man's  whole  estate,  but  only  of  a 
particular  piece  of  property — a  palace,  a 
farm,  a  field,  &c. — to  wliich  a  riglit  of 
patronage  is  inseparably  annexed,  that 
right  is  transferred  to  the  purchaser  by 
the  sale.  Piut  in  all  such  cases  canon  law 
exacts  the  condition  that  the  price  given 
be  not  enhanced  on  account  of  the  an- 
nexed patronage.  Any  simoniacal  attempt 

Sess.  XXV.  De  Ref.  c.  9. 
'An  advowson  is  the  perpetual  right  of 
presentation  to  a  benefice. 


to  sell  the  patronage  as  such  is  visited  by 
the  law  with  severe  penalties. 

3.  The  chief  incidents  of  patronage 
are  four — presentation,  honour,  defence, 
maintenance  in  case  of  poverty.  (Ij  The 
tirst-named  is  so  strictly  inherent  in  a 
patron  that  if  he  present  a  qualified  clerk 
for  a  benefice,  the  bishop  is  bound  to  accept 
him,  even  though  he  may  know  of  one 
more  worthy.  But  the  presentation  must 
be  made  wdthln  four  months  if  the  patron 
be  a  layman,  within  six  if  he  be  a  clergy- 
man ;  otherwise  it  passes  for  that  time  to 
the  bishop.  The  law  is  more  tender  of  lay 
than  of  ecclesiastical  patronage,  because 
interference  with  the  former  would  tend 
to  discourage  rich  laymen  from  building 
churches  and  extending  Christianity. 
Women  are  capable  of  presenting  to 
benefices  equally  with  men.  No  patron 
can  present  himself  to  any  benefice  in  his 
gift,  although  he  may  ask  the  bishop  to 
confer  it  upon  him,  and  the  bishop  may, 
at  his  discretion,  legally  do  so.  (2)  By 
"  honour  "  are  understood  the  precedence 
and  respect  which  a  patron  may  justly 
claim  in  a  church  founded  by  him  or  his 
ancestor.  (3)  "Defence"  refers  to  the 
right  and  duty  of  the  patron  to  watch 
over  the  beneficiary  property,  and  prevent 
its  waste  or  dilapidation.  (4)  "  Mainten- 
ance in  poverty  "  is  the  claim  which  the 
patron  has,  should  misfortune  overtake 
him  and  reduce  him  to  want,  to  receive  a 
decent  maintenance  (and  this  applies  to 
his  wife  and  children  also)  out  of  the 
revenues  of  the  benefice  in  his  gift.  (Fer- 
raris, Jms  patronatus.) 

PATROSr  AN-S  TZTXrX.A.R  OP 
CHVRCH,  PX.ACE,  &.C.  The  title  of 
a  church  is  the  name  it  bears — e.g.  of  the 
Trinity,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Mary,  St. 
Saviour,  &c.  The  patron  saint  is  that 
saint  under  whose  special  protection  it  has 
been  placed.  Thus  the  titular  is  a  wider 
term  comprehending  the  persons  of  the 
Trinity,  mysteries  {e.g.  Corpus  Chrisfi), 
and  saints ;  the  patron  of  a  church  can 
only  be  a  saint  or  angel.  Of  churches 
with  the  title  of  St.  ^lary,  the  patronal 
feast  is  the  Assumption.  Only  a  canonised 
(not  a  beatified)  saint  can  be  chosen  as 
patron.    (S.  C.  R.  23  Martii,  1630.) 

The  patron  of  a  church  is  chosen  by  the 
foimders  ("  ex  fundatorum  beneplacito," 
Merat.  §  iii.  12,  1).  Usually  only  one 
patron  is  chosen,  or  else  two  patrons 
whose  feast  falls  on  the  same  day.  The 
feast  of  the  principal  titular  or  patron  is 
a  double  of  the  first  class  with  an  octave. 
This  holds  good  even  of  churches  not  yet 


PAUL  OF  SAMOSATA 


PAX 


695 


cons, 'crated.  The  rule,  however,  does  not 
apply  to  chapels  of  seminaries,  Sec.  &c. 
The  "rules  for  churches  which  have  more 
than  one  patron  with  independent  fea^t 
are  the  same  as  those  given  below  for 
lociil  patrons. 

The  patron  of  a  place  is  chosen  by  the 
people  with  the  consent  of  the  clerav. 
(Decret.  Urban.  VIII.,  23  Mart.  1630.) 
A  place  may  have  several  patrons,  prin- 
cipal and  less  principal,  but  not  more 
than  one  principal  patron  except  by  im- 
memorial custom  or  Apostolic  indult. 
The  feast  of  the  principal  patron  is  a 
double  of  the  first  class  with  an  octave 
(so  also,  if  tliere  are  several  chief  patron.s) ; 
of  a  "less  principal,"  a  greater  double 
when  celebrated  solemnly,  otherwise  a 
lesser  double. 

The  feast  of  the  chief  or  titular  patron 
of  the  Ciithedral  church  is  kept  through- 
out the  diocese  even  by  regulars,  who, 
however,  are  not  obliged  to  celebrate  the 
octave.    (S.  V.  R.  27  Mail,  1628.) 

The  constitution  of  Urban  VIII. 
(Const,  clxi.  "  Universa,"  §  2)  requires 
that  only  two  patroual  feasts  be  imposed 
in  any  one  place  as  holidays  of  obligation 
— one  the  feast  of  a  chief  patron  of  the 
kingdom  or  province,  the  other  that  of  a 
chief  patron  of  the  city,  town,  village.  Sec. 

PATTX.  or  SABXOSATA.  [See 
AlOGI." 

PAiri.xcxAM'S.  In  the  fancy  of 
Gibbon  Decline  and  Fall,"  ch.liv.),  this 
Manicliean  or  quasi-Manichean  sect,  after 
its  banishment  from  Asia,  "  scattered  over 
the  West  the  seeds  of  reformation."  By 
"reformation"  can  only  be  meant  revolt; 
a  common  fury  of  negation  and  destruc- 
tion may  easily  have  induced  the  Pro- 
testants of  the  sixteenth  century  to  accept 
the  Paulicians  as  the  ancient  exponents  of 
their  own  principles ;  but  negation  is  no 
permanent  bond;  and  when  the  positive 
doctrines  of  the  sect  are  calmly  examined, 
they  appear  to  be  such  as  no  moderate 
Protestant  would  endorse.  The  Paulicians 
rejected  or  minimised  the  Sacraments, 
abhorred  images,  and  condemned  the  in- 
vocation of  the  saints;  while  reverencing 
some  books  of  Holy  Scripture,  they  re- 
pudiated Church  tradition  and  the  doctrine 
of  a  visible  Church  ;  in  their  eyes  relics 
were  rubbish,  miracles  impostures,  and 
the  Blessed  Virgin  not  the  mother  of 
God.  So  far  all  is  plain  sailing ;  and  a 
zealous  Presbyterian  might  recognise  in 
the  Paulicians  the  theological  ancestors  of 
his  own  "  Nullifiers."  But  the  Paulicians 
also  believed  in  two  Powers,  one  good, 


I  the  other  evil,  dividing  the  universe 

I  between  them ;  and  they  held  the  earth 
and  all  things  sensible  to  have  been  created 
by  the  spirit  of  evil.  The  good  God,  tliey 
said,  created  tlie  soul  of  man ;  the  wicked 
power,  or  Demiurgus,  created  his  body. 

!  Instead  of  sin  in  the  body  beiuir  an 
offence  against  the  "  temple  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,"  on  this  view  it  was  the  natural 
outcome  of  the  bodily  constitution  ;  there- 
fore, of  course,  inculpable.  They  rejected 
the  Old  Testament  as  the  work  of  the 
Deiniuri^us.    Jesus  Christ,  they  said,  did 

,  not  take  his  liodyfrom  Mary,  but  brought 

i  it  down  with  Ilini  from  heaven.  Tliey 
admitted  neither  of  St.  Peter's  Epistles ; 
most  of  them  rejected  also  the  Acts. 
Such  was  the  sect  which,  according  to 
Gibbon,  "scattered  over  the  West  the 
seeds  of  reformntinn  " ! 

The  origin  of  the  name  "  Paulician  "  is 

1  uncertain  ;  one  theory  derives  it  from  a 
certain  I'aul,  who,  with  his  brother  John, 
founded  a  society  near  Samosata  early  in 
the  seventh  century  ;  another — which 
Gibbon  prefers — sees  in  it  merely  an  evi- 
dence of  the  high  value  which  they  set  on 
the  life  and  writings  of  St.  Paul.  They 
first  come  prominently  into  notice  in  the 
seventh  century,  when  they  were  organised 
by  Constant  ine,  a  native  of  a  village  near 
Samosata,  who  took  the  name  of  Silvanus. 
Other  eminent  leaders  among  them  were 
Simeon,  Sergius,  Chrysocheir,  and  Baanes. 
They  became  very  numerous  in  Armenia, 

j  and,  being  persecuted  by  the  imperial 
officers,  rose  in  revolt  ;  nor  was  their 
subjugation  entirely  effected  till  the 
tenth  century.  For  their  later  history 
see  the  article  Bulgarians.  (Wetzer 
and  Welte,  art.  by  Kerker ;  Phot  ins, 
"Contra  Manichseos  ;  "  Petrus  Siculus, 
JUisf.  Manicli.  in  "  Bibl.  Patrum,"  vol.  xvi.) 

PAVI.ISTS.  The  Institute  of  the 
Missionary  Priests  of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle 
was  founded  in  New  York  by  the  17ev. 
I.  T.  Ilecker  and  several  associates  in  tlio 
year  18'-)>^.  Its  members  are  engagnl  in 
ordinary  parochial  work,  in  giving  mis- 
sions, in  the  education  of  their  scholastics, 
and  in  literary  labour.  The  monthly 
magazine,  the  "  Catholic  World,"  is  under 
their  direction,  and  they  have  published 
several  volumes  of  sermons  as  well  as 
other  works  (ui  ditlerent  topics  connected 
with  the  Catholic  religion. 

PAX.  The  Kiss  of  Peace  in  the  ^Mass 
has  been  described  under  that  heading. 
The  Pax  here  intended  is  that  which  wns 
given  to  the  people  to  kiss  at  Mass.  It  was 
introduced  in  England  about  the  middle 


696  PAX  YOBTS 


PELAGTATvTSM 


of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  widely 
used.  It  is  called  "  osculatorium  "  (Syn. 
Constit.  of  York,  1250  and  1252)  ;  "oscu- 
latorium paci?  "  (Statutes  of  Canterbury, 
about  1281) :  "a-sst-r  ad  pacem  "  (Council 
of  Oxford,  in  1287);  "tabula  pacis " 
(Council  of  Merton,  atjout  1300) ;  "  mar- 
mor  deosculandum "  (Synod  of  Bayeux, 
about  the  same  date).  It  was  adopted  in 
France,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Germany.  But 
the  use  was  almost  extinct  in  Le  Brun's 
time,  on  account  of  the  absurd  contentions 
for  precedency  to  which  it  gave  rise ; 
though  it  was  presented  in  some  cases  to 
communicants,  «S:c.  We  have  been  refer- 
ring to  the  use  at  Mass.  It  is  still  used 
in  communities,  confi'aternities,  &c.,  at 
times  of  ordinary  prayer.  (From  Le 
Brun,  Tom.  II.  jjart  v.  art.  7.  See  also 
Ma>kell,  "  Ancient  Lit."  p.  50.) 

PAX  VOBIS  is  said  by  bishops  after 
the  "Gloria  in  Excelsis."  K  the  "Gloria" 
be  not  said,  then  the  bishop's  salutation  is 
the  same  as  the  priest's — viz.  "  Dominus 
vobiscum."  The  fact  that  "  Pax  vobis  " 
was  our  Lord's  Eastt^r  gTeeting  to  the 
Apostles  made  it  unsuitable  for  penitential 
days.    (Benedict  XIV.  "De  Miss.") 

PECTORA.I.  CROSS.  Asmallcross 
of  precious  metal  worn  on  the  breast  by 
bishops  and  abbots  as  a  marlcof  theiroffice, 
and  sometimes  also  by  canons,  &c.,  who 
have  obtained  the  privilege  from  Itome. 
(l)ecr.  S.C.i; .  ]  7  Sf-pt.  1 828).  Innocent  III. 
is  the  tiisl  author  who  clearly  mentions 
the  pectoral  cross  as  one  of  the  episcopal 
insignia.    (Gavant.  P.  I.  tit.  2.) 

PECULiuni  CXiERZCZ.  The  pro- 
perty ot  which  an  ecclesiastic  can  be  in 
posse.-?ii)ii  is  (lividi'd  into  }ieculimii  benefi- 
ciale,  or  ca  /r.^iafificum,  andpeculiujupafri- 
tiwniale,  OT  qiaisi-patrimoniale.  The  former 
consists  (1)  of  the  annual  profits  of  his 
benefice  or  liciietices ;  (2)  of  the  dues 
which  he  receives  in  the  discharge  of  his 
clericnl  functinn..  Tlie  latter  con.M-ts  (1) 
of  property  \\  liicli  has  come  to  him  by 
inheritance,  donation,  or  l.)ei|Ui\<t  :  (2)  of 
that  which  he  has  acquired  lur  lum-i  lf — 
e.g.  by  writing.  Over  i)ii)j)eiiy  of  the 
former  class  he  has  no  power  of  testa- 
mentary disposition;  that  of  the  latter 
class  he  can  freely  dispose  of. 

PEliAGZATTZSnx  was  an  extreme 
reaction  from  the  Gnostic  and  Maniehean 
doctrine  that  men  were  necessarily  deter- 
mined to  good  or  evil.  According  to 
Pelagius  (1)  Adam's  sin  injured  himself 
only,  so  that  his  posterity  are  born  inno- 
cent. Infants  were  baptised  that  they 
might  be  united  to  Christ  and  enter  the 


kingdom  of  heaven ;  not  that  they  might 
be  purged  from  original  sin  (Concil. 
Carthag.  anno  411,  can.  2,  3).  (2)  It 
was  possible  to  Uve  altogether  without 
sin  ( "  hominem  posse  esse  sine  peccato," 
Pelag.  apud  August.  "De  Gratia  Cliristi," 
cap.  iv.).  (3)  Grace,  as  Catholics  under- 
stand the  term,  was  not  necessary  or  even 
possible.  Pelagius  made  grace  consist 
simply  in  the  gift  of  nature,  and  especially 
of  free-will.  When  pressed  by  his  adver- 
saries, he  admitted  the  need  of  exterior 
grace — viz.  "law  and  teaching,"  "the 
I  example  of  Christ,"  &c.  Nay,  some  think 
I  he  allowed  that  God,  by  interior  grace, 
enlightened  the  understanding  (Anaust. 
op.  cit.  7,  10,  40  :  Petav.  "  De  Pelag. 
et  Semi-Pelag.  User."  cap.  iv.).*  But  the 
essence  of  his  heresy  remained,  for  he 
never  granted  that  the  will  must  be  moved 
and  aided  by  God's  grace  before  we  can 
take  one  step  towards  life  eternal;  and 
even  if  Pelagius  admitted  the  possibility 
of  interior  illumination  of  the  understand- 
ing, he  certainly  did  not  hold  such  a  grace 
to  be  necessary. 

Pelagius,  who  was  a  monk  or  ascete, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  born  in  Britain 
(Bretagne?),  preached  at  Eome  (400-410) 
with  great  applause.  Here  he  was  joined 
by  Celestius,  also  a  monk.  Pelagius  at- 
tacked the  doctrine  of  original  sin  in  his 
fourteen  books  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles. 
Thej-  still  exist,  but  with  serious  altera- 
tions in  a  Catholic  sense,  and  are  edited 
by  "\^allarsi  in  his  edition  of  St.  Jerome. 
His  letter  to  Demetrius  (anno  411),  and 
his  "Libellus  fidei  ad  Innocentium"  (anno 
417)  are  also  t;iveu  there.  St.  Augustine 
("De  Grat.  Christi,  Peccat.  Orig.  Xat.  et 
Grat.")  has  preserved  fragments  of  fovtr 
books  by  Pelagius  on  "  Free-will."  The 
strife  on  original  sin  began  at  Rome  in 
410.  Celestius  was  condemned  by  a 
synod  of  r'  .i-fli  ,_'.\  whither  he  had  gone 
in  411.    1  -      .i  appears  in  Pales- 

tine, whilli.  1  I  '1  -111-  pursued  him  at  the 
request  of  .\ugustine,  who  had  ah'eady 
written  three  anti-Pelagian  works — viz. 
"  De  Spiritu  et  Littera,"  "  De  Peccatoriim 
Meritis  et  Remissione,"  "  De  Perfectione 
Justi  Hominis."  Jerome  also  attacked 
Pelagius  in  an  "Epistle  to  Ctesiphon"  and 
a  dialogue  against  the  heresy  in  three 
books.  A  synod  at  Jerusalem  in  415 
tried  Pelagius,  but  came  to  no  decision; 
another  at  Diospolis,  late  in  the  same 
year,  acquitted  him.  St.  Augustine  at- 
tacked Pelagius  again  in  his  work  "  De 

1  We  cannot  see  that  the  references  given  by 
Petavius  prove  this. 


PENANCE,  SACRAMENT  OF  PENANCE,  SACRAMENT  OF  697 


Gestis  Pelagii."  Tbeodore  of  Mopsuestia 
defended  him  in  a  lost  work  {npos  tovs 
Xf'yon-ay  <pv(T€i  Koi  ftf)  yvafxrj  TTToifiv  tovs 
av6p<i>Trovs) ;  the  Africans,  again,  con- 
demned the  heresy  in  the  Councils  of 
Carthao-e  and  Mileve  (41G).  Both  parties 
had  recourse  to  Pope  Innocent,  who  de- 
clared the  doctrine  of  Pelagius  erroneous, 
but  died  before  the  case  could  be  fully 
judged.  Zosimus  (417-18)  was  deceived 
by  a  profession  of  faith  which  Celestius 
niade,  and  declared  both  Celestius  and 
Pelagius  innocent.  More  condemnations 
of  Pelagianism  followed  in  the  Cartha- 
ginian Councils  of  417  and  418,  and  in 
the  latter  year  Zosimus  reinvestigated 
the  matter,  anathematised  Pelagius  and 
Celestius,  and  uotitied  this  step  in  an 
"  epistola  tractoria "  to  the  bishops. 
Eighteen  Italian  bishops  who  refused  to 
subscribe  this  epistle  were  deposed,  among 
them  the  learned  Julianus  of  Eclanum, 
against  whom  St.  Augustine  wrote 
("  Contra  Duas  Epist.  ad  Bonifac."  anno 
420 ;  "  Contr.  Julian."  lib.  vi.  anno  421  ; 
later  still,  the  "Opus  Imperfect,  contr. 
secundam  Julian.  Respons.'').  Pelagius 
and  Celestius  now  found  an  asylum  with 
Nestorius  of  Constantinople,  and  along 
with  him  they  were  condemned  in  the 
Third  General  Council — that  of  Ephesus 
— in  431.  This  result  was  due  in  gTeat 
measure  to  the  energy  of  Augustine  and 
the  efforts  of  Marius  Mercator,  a  Western 
layman  living  at  Constantinople. 

PEM-AM-CE,  SACRAMEM-T  OF. 
The  Latin  word  jiosnitcntia  (from 
punire  in  an  archaic  form  pcenire) 
means  sorrow  or  regret,  and  answers  to 
the  Greek  iierdvoia,  change  of  mind  or 
heart.  As  a  theological  term,  penance  is 
tirst  the  name  of  a  virtue  which  inclines 
sinners  to  detest  their  sins  because  thej- 
are  an  offence  against  God.  Then  penance 
came  to  mean  the  outward  acts  by  which 
sorrow  for  sin  is  sho\^■n,  and  the  word  was 
su])posed  by  St.  Augustine  to  come  from 
"  poena,"  and  by  others — e.g.  Peter  Lom- 
bard— from  "  pa;nam  tenere."  The  Greek 
word '  ficTavoia  has  wandered  further 
still  from  its  original  sense,  for  in  the 
Greek  liturgies  it  means  simply  a  prostra- 
tion. Thus  in  the  otlice  for  ordination  of 
deacons  the  rubric  runs,  "The  priest  de- 

1  The  Rabbinical  term  is  ^2■1t^'n' 
"conversion  "  ;  and  the  Syrian  Christians  have 
the  same  word  in  the  Syriac  or  Chaldee  form — 

viz.  This  word  is  the  translation 

of  fiiTiivoia  in  the  Peshito,  and  is  still  retained, 
t.g.,  by  the  Marocites  (see  Morinus,  i.  7.) 


I  parts  with  the  deacon  and  they  make  three 
bows  {noioiKTi  ixeravolas  rpcis)  to  the  icon 
of  the  Lord  Christ."  (See  Morinus,  "  De 
I  Pcen."  lib.  i.  cap.  1.)  In  a  more  restricted 
sense  still,  penance  is  used  for  the  peni- 
tential discipline  of  the  Church,  or  even 
for  the  third  station  of  public  penitents 
(so,  e.g.,  I.  Concil.  Tolet.  canon  2),  and 
again  for  the  satisfaction  which  the  priest 
imposes  on  the  penitent  before  absolving 
him  from  his  sins.  Lastly,  penance  is  a 
sacrament  of  the  new  law  instituted  by 
Christ  for  the  remission  of  sin  committed 

after  baptism.   

So  understood,  penance  is  defined  as  a 
"  sacrament  instituted  by  Christ  in  the 
;  form  of  a  judgment  for  the  remission  of 
sin  done  after  baptism,  this  remission 
being  effected  by  the  absolution  of  the 
priest,  jouied  to  true  supernatural  soitow, 
true  pm-pose  of  amendment,  and  sincere 

confession  on  the  part  of  the  sinner."  The  

Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  xiv.)  defines  that 
priests  have  real  power  to  remit  and  retain 
sins,  that  persons  are  bound  by  the  law  of 
:  God  to  confess  before  the  priest  each  and 
'  every  mortal  sin  committed  after  baptism, 
so  far  as  the  memory  can  recall  it,  and 
also  such  circumstances  as  change  the 
nature  of  these  sins,  and  that  the  sacra- 
ment of  penance  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  the  foro-iveness  of  post-baptismal  sin. 
It  is  true  that  perfect  sorrow  for  sin  whicli 
has  offended  so  good  a  God  at  once  and 
without  the  addition  of  any  external  rite 
1  blots  out  the  stain  and  restores  the  peace 
!  and  love  of  God  in  the  soul.    "  There  is 
I  no  condemnation  to  those  who  are  in 
I  Christ  Jesus,  who  walk  not  after  the  flesh, 
but  after  the  spirit."    But  this  perfect 
sorrow   involves    in    a  well-instructed 
j  Catholic  the  intention  of  fulfilling  Christ's 
I  precept  and  receiving  the  sacrament  of 
I  penance  when  opportunity  occurs.  This 
i  implicit  desire  of  confession  and  absolu- 
I  tion  may  exist  in  many  Protestants  who 
I  reject  the  Catholic  doctrine  on  this  point, 
i  They  desire  the  sacrament  of  penance  m 
'  this  sufficient  sense,  that  they  earnestly 
wish  to  fulfil  Chi-ist's  law,  so  far  as  they 
can  learn  what  it  is.    In  this  sense  the 
1  sacrament  is  necessary  for  the  salvation 
of  those  who  have  fallen  into  mortal  sin 
after  baptism.     They  must   receive  it 
actually  or  by  desire,  this  desire  being 
either  explicit  or  implicit.    This  point  is 
of  capital  importance  for  the  apprehension 
of  Catholic  doctrine.    We  in  no  way 
deny  that  God  is  ready  to  forgive  the  sins 
of  non-Catholics  who  are  in  good  faith  and 
who  turn  to  Him  with  loving  sorrow. 


698  PEXAXCE,  SACRAMENT  OF 


PENANCE,  SACHAMENT  OF 


But  the  Higli  Church  doctrine  that  con-  I 
t'ession  of  mortal  sin  is  not  an  absolute 
duty  imposed  by  the  law  of  Christ,  or 
that  absolution  is  a  benefit  which  the 
penitent  is  not  absohitely  bound  to  seek, 
is  in  the  sharpest  antagonism  to  the 
Catholic  faith  as  defined  at  Trent.  The 
Council  also  teaches  that  satisfaction  must 
be  made  for  the  temporal  punishment 
which  may  be  due  even  to  pardoned  sin, 
and  that  confession,  contrition,  absolution, 
and  satisfaction  are  the  four  parts  of 
penance.  The  minister,  and  the  only 
possible  minister,  of  the  sacrament  is  a 
priest  with  ordinary  or  delegated  power 
to  absolve.  The  form  consists  in  the 
words,  "I  absolve  thee  from  thy  sins,' 
&c.  Mortal  or  venial  sins  (for  it  is  of 
faith  that  venial  sins  may  be  confessed, 
though  there  is  no  obhgation  of  doing  so) ' 
supply  the  place  of  matter.  The  Council 
speaks  of  sins  as  the  "quasi  materia,''  for 
though  Thomists  and  many  other  theo- 
logians hold  that  sorrowful  confession  of 
sins  is  the  proximate  matter  of  the  sacra- 
ment, Scotists  maintain  that  absolution  is 
both  matter  and  form,  and  the  Council 
abstained  from  interfering  in  this  scho- 
lastic dispute.  In  the  articles  on  Con- 
fession, Absolution,  &c.,  many  details 
relating  to  this  sacrament  have  been 
iven,  so  that  we  may  content  ourselves 
ere  with  an  elucidation  of  the  main 
principles. 

1.  Priests  have  received  power  from 
Christ  to  forgive  sins  in  His  name  and 
according  to  His  law — i.e.  in  the  case  of 
true  repentance.  God  alone  can  remit 
sins,  but  He  has  been  pleased  to  make 
the  priest's  absolution  the  means  by 
which  His  grace  is  conveyed.  He  said  to 
His  Apostles,  "  Receive  the  Holy  Ghost ; 
whosesoever  sins  ye  remit,  they  are  re- 
mitted [i.e.  become  remitted]  unto  them, 
and  whosesoever  sms  ye  retain,  they  have 
been  retained"  [i.e.  continue  to  be  retained 
before  God],  (John  xx.  23).  This  wonder- 
ful power  must  have  been  intended  for  the 
successors  of  the  Apostles,  as  well  as  for 
the  Apostles  themselves,  for  it  is  incredible 
that  this  means  of  pardon  was  conferred 
only  for  a  short  period  of  the  Church's 
life.  While  sin  lasted,  the  stream  of 
grace  and  mercy  must  continue  to  flow. 
History  proves  the  correctness  of  this  in- 
i'erence,  for  in  all  ages  the  power  of  abso- 
lution has  been   used   and  recognised. 

»  Morinns  (lib.  ii.  cap.  3)  believes  he  has 
proved  that  the  confession  of  venial  sins  was 
common  in  the  Church  during  the  lifetime  of 
Tertullian. 


Thus  Cyprian  urges  the  sinner  to  repent 
"while  confession  may  be  made,  M-hile 
satisfaction  and  remission  through  the 
bishops  {sacerdutes)  are  accepted  before 
God."  ("De  Laps."  29;  the  remission 
included,  no  doubt,  absolution  from  cen- 
sures.) In  this,  says  St,  Chrysostom 
("De  Sacerdot."  iii.  5,  6),  the  priests  of 
the  Gospel  excel  those  of  the  Jewish 
Church,  that,  whereas  Jewish  priests 
could  merely  declare  a  man  clean  of 
leprosy,  the  Christian  priests  "have  re- 
ceived power,"  not  with  regard  to  the 
leprosy  of  the  body,  but  "  the  impurity  of 
the  soul,"  a  power  which  consists  not  in 
declaring  that  the  uucleanness  is  re- 
moved but  in  actually  "  removing  it 
entirely "  (dTraXXdrreii/  TratTfXcoy  eXa^ov 
f^ovcriav).  He  proves  this  sacerdotal 
power  by  an  express  appeal  to  the  words 
in  St.  John,  "  Whose  sins  ye  remit,"  &c. 
So  again  the  author  of  an  ancient  homily, 
printed  among  the  works  of  St.  Athanasius 
(Migne,  "Patrol."  iv.  p.  183.  The  Bene- 
dictines place  it  among  the  dubia,  but  say 
it  is  found  "  in  ancient  MSS."),  says,. 
"  K  thy  bonds  are  not  loosed,  entrust 
thyself  to  the  disciples  of  Jesus.  Those 
are  to  be  found  who  can  loose  us,  having 
received  this  power  from  the  Saviour" 
(i^ovalav  TaVTrji/  ciKrjcjioTes  irapa  tov 
Swr^poy),  "  whose  sins  ye  remit,"  &c. 
Morinus  (lib.  viii.  cap.  1)  quotes  from  Leo, 
Ep.  91,  "Ad  Theodor.":  "Very  useful 
and  necessary  is  it  that  the  guilt  of  sin 
should  be  loosed  before  the  last  day  by 
the  judgment  of  the  priest."  Augustine, 
Ep.  180,  "  Ad  Honorat."  (apud  Morin. 
ibidem),  urges  the  clergy  not  to  flee  in 
persecution,  because  their  presence  will  be 
ui-gently  required  for  "  the  administration 
(confecf  ionem)  of  the  sacraments."  "  If 
the  ministers  are  wanting,  what  ruin  will 
come  on  those  who  depart  this  life  un- 
regenerate  [i.e.  unbaptised]  or  bound, 
[i.e.  unabsolved] !  "  The  value  of  these 
testimonies  lies  partly  in  the  fact  that 
they  do  not  argue  for  the  priestly  power 
of  absolution,  but  assume  it,  partly  in 
their  connection  with  the  strong  utter- 
ances of  Scripture  on  the  one  hand,  the 
penitential  di.-^cipline  of  the  Church  on  the 
other.  It  must  have  required  a  strong 
belief  in  the  power  of  absolution  to  make 
men  undergo  long  years  of  rigorous 
penance  in  order  to  obtain  it.  It  may  be 
well  here  to  answer  two  objections. 
Morinus  (lib.  viii.  8,  10,  11)  has  shown, 
and  indeed  demonstrated,  that  down  to 
the  twelfth  century  absolution  was  always 
given  among  the  Latins  in  a  precatorjr 


PENANCE,  SACRAMENT  OF 


PENANCE,  SACEAMENT  OF  609 


form.  And  it  is  evident  from  Gear  and  j 
Renaudot  (in  the  "PerpetuitiSdelaFoi")  | 
that  the  Greeks,  the  .Jacobites,  and  Nes- 
toriaus  still  preserve  this  ))recatory  form. 
This,  however,  cannot  fairly  be  alleged 
against  our  belief  that  the  priest  exercises 
judgment  in  the  sacrament  of  penance, 
and  does  really  bind  or  loose.  No  one 
will  deny  that  the  bishop  in  absolving  an 
excoiumunicato  person  and  restoring  him 
to  Chm-ch  commuuion  exercised  judicial 
power  and  authoritatively  remitted  eccle- 
siastical censures.  Yet  here,  too,  as  well 
as  in  sacramental  absolution,  the  form  was 
precatory  even  as  late  as  the  time  of 
Burchard,  bishop  of  Worms,  who  lived  at 
the  close  of  the  tenth  century.  (See  the 
quotation  in  Chardon,  "  Hist,  des  Sacr." 
tom.  iv.  §§  4,  7.)  Further,  it  may  be  said 
that  absolution  was  sometimes  given  by  a 
deacon,  and  Cyprian  (Ep.  xviii.),  writing 
in  the  summer  of  250,  does  certainly  re- 
quire the  la])sed  in  danger  of  death  to 
make  confe.ssion  (exomologesis)  and  re- 
ceive imposition  of  hands  from  a  deacon, 
if  a  presbyter  cannot  be  found.  But  it  is 
clear  that  he  is  speaking  of  absolution 
from  censures,  and  indulgence  granted 
through  the  intercession  of  the  martyrs, 
and  the  distinctions  ah-eady  made  in  the 
article  on  AnsoLriiox  are  sufficient  to 
meet  this  difficulty.' 

2.  Absolution  is  invalid  unless  given 
by  a  priest  with  ordinary  or  delegated 
jurisdiction  over  the  penitent.  This  fol- 
lows from  the  fact,  attested  by  Scripture, 
that  the  priest  in  penance  exercises  judg- 
ment. A  magistrate  cannot  biud  or  loose 
a  man  charged  with  theft  imless  the  law 
subjects  that  man  to  his  authority,  or 
unless  he  has  received  special  power  from 
the  Crown  to  try  the  case.  The  tribunals 
of  the  Church  are  not  less  carefully  regu- 
lated than  those  of  the  State,  since  God 
is  a  God  of  order  and  not  of  confusion. 
The  fundamental  power  to  absolve  is  given 
at  ordination,  but  its  exercise  depends  j 
absolutely  on  ecclesiastical  authority.  In 
earliest  times  absolution  was  given  by  the 
bishop  alone,  or  b\-  the  bishop  in  union 
with  the  presbyters.  After  the  rise  of 
the  Novatian  heresy,  the  office  of  peni- 
tentiary priest  was  instituted.  Later, 

•  It  is  plain,  hDwever,  from  many  decrees  of 
sviiods,  that  deacons  did  hear  confessions  in 
ca-es  of  necessity,  though,  of  course,  they  had 
no  power  to  absolve.  This  practice  lasted  till 
late  in  the  middle  ai,'es.  Many  .ilso  confessed 
to  laymen  at  the  hour  of  de.itli,  if  a  cleric  was 
not  to  be  found,  and  great  scholastic  doctors  re- 
commended this  act  of  humiliation  (Chardon, 
t.  ii.  §  7,  ch.  2); 


parishes  were  established  first  in  the  large 
towns  and  then  in  the  country,  and  from 
that  time  the  accepted  principh'  ajjpnix  ed 
by  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  was,  that 
parishioners  were  bound  to  confcs.-,  to  i  ln-ir 
own  priest  or  to  another  prieat  with  his 
permission.  Chardon  reports  a  case  i'rom 
the  twelfth  century  in  which  St.  AiK  rt, 
monk  of  the  abbey  of  Crespin  in  llaiiiaut, 
received  power  from  Paschal  II.  and 
Innocent  II.  to  hear  the  confessions  of  all 
who  came  to  him.  In  1227,  Gregory  IX. 
gave  the  Dominicans  authority  to  hear 
confessions  everywhere,  and  the  same 
privileges,  which  led  to  bitter  opposition, 
lasting  for  centui  i'-,  on  the  part  of  the 
seculars,  were  extended  to  the  other 
mendicant  friars  and  confirmed  by  many 
Popes.  They  were  limited  by  the  Council 
of  Trent,  as  has  been  shown  in  the  articles 
on  Absolution  and  Confessiox.  (See 
Chardon,  tom.  iii.  §  8,  ch.  2.)  In  all  these 
disputes,  the  principle  that  absolution 
could  only  be  given  by  a  priest  with  juris- 
diction was  fully  acknowledged,  for  the 
mendicants  had  of  course  jurisdiction, 
though  it  was  extraordinary — i.e.  not 
attached  to  their  office,  but  directly  con- 
ferred by  the  Pope.  The  Orientals  also 
regard  absolution  as  a  judicial  act,  and  do 
not  dream  that  it  can  be  given  by  any 
priest.  Confession,  according  to  an  Ori- 
ental document,  probably  Coptic  (cited 
by  Denzinger,  "  Rit.  Orient."  tom.  i.  p. 
100),  "cannot  be  made  save  to  a  priest, 
whether  secular  or  religious,  &c.,  who 
must  have  received  this  authority  from 
the  Patriarch  or  from  his  own  bishop, 
with  the  consent  of  the  clergy  and  chiefs 
of  the  people." 

3.  The  necessity  of  confe.isiiiff  all 
mortal  sins  after  baptism  also  follows 
from  the  \ery  nature  of  the  absolving 
power.  Christ  gave  His  Apostles  autho- 
rity to  bind  and  loose,  but  they  cannot 
exercise  this  discretion  till  the  sins,  as 
they  are  in  the  conscience  of  the  penitent, 
have  been  submitted  to  their  judgment. 
It  is  only  in  the  case  of  mortal  sins  that 
this  necessity  arises — thou;;h,  as  a  rule,  it 
is  expedient  to  confess  venial  «jns  like- 
wise— for  venial  sin  does  not  biLd  the  soul 
over  to  evU  and  destroy  the  grace  of  God 
within  it,  or  exclude  absolutely  from  the 
kingdom  of  heaven,  so  that  here  there  can 
be  no  strict  necessity  for  absolution.  It  is 
needless  to  prove  that  certain  mortal  sins 
of  a  very  aggravated  character  had  to  be 
confessed  in  the  primitive  Church,  for  this 
no  instructed  person  wiU  deny,  and  the 
writer  of  the  article  on  Penitence  in  the 


TOO  PEXAXCE,  SACRAMEXT  OF 


PEXAXCE,  SACRAMEXT  OF 


"  Dictionary  of  Cliristian  Antiquities." 
edited  by  Smith  and  Cheetham,  admits 
that  tliii;  coiit't'<si(iii  (if  the  three  "mortalia 
peccata  ''  was  oblit;atory,  even  if  the  sin 
had  been  secret.  Possibly  St.  James  may 
be  alluding  to  the  jmblic  confession  when 
he  says,  "  Confess  your  sins  one  to 
another  "  ;  for,  as  Bollinger  ("  First  Age 
of  the  Church,"  p.  326)  points  out,  this 
confession  is  mentioned  in  immediate  con- 
nection witli  extreme  unction.  "  '  Con- 
fess to  one  another '  refers  to  the  priests 
called  in  to  anoint  the  sick  man  and  to 
pray  for  him,  and  to  whom  he  is  to 
confess  his  sins."  Whatever  may  be 
thought  of  this  intei-jiretation,  we  have 
early  evidence  that  confession  much  more 
extensive  than  that  of  the  three  great 
mortal  sins  (viz.  murder,  idolatry,  and 
adultery)  was  known  to  the  early  Church. 
Orip'U  (Horn,  in  Ps.  xxxvii.  n.  6)  thus 
exb'  lit  s  the  sinner:  "  Look  round  diligently 
for  one  to  whom  you  should  confess  your 
sins."  lie  is  to  find  a  physician  "  learned 
and  merciful  "  who  will  judffe  if  his  sick- 
ness is  of  such  a  nature  that  "it  ought  to 
be  I'Xpnsod  in  the  nicetinff  of  the  whole 
Chuivli;"'  aii.l  a-^iin  ( Horn,  in  Luc.  xvii.), 
"if  ^^■e  reveal  our  sins  not  only  to  God 
but  also  to  those  who  can  heal  our  sins 
and  wounds,  our  sins  will  be  blotted  out 
by  Him  who  says,  'Behold,  I  will  blot  out 
hke  a  cloud,' '"  &c.  Basil's  words  are  ex- 
press. "  It  is  necessary  to  confess  our 
sins  to  those  who  are  entrusted  with 
the  dispensation  of  the  mysteries  of 
God  '  {ufayKoiov  roly  TTfrrtoxeu/xtVois  njf 
otKoi'Ofiiav  Tu)v  fjLvaTrjpKov  rov  Qfov  Ta 
nanpTTjuriTa  f'^opoXoye'iadai.    "  Reg.  Brev. 

Tract.  Itespons.  in  Interr."  288).  Further, 
what  followed  on  the  cessation  of  pubhc 
penance  is  well  worth  consideration. 
This,  in  the  ca.se  of  secret  sins,  came  to 
an  end  in  the  Church  of  Constantinople 
soon  after  the  abolition  of  the  presbyter 
fVi  Ti)i  fxeTai'olas,  ov  penitentiary,  at  the 
clo-e  of  the  fourth  century.  It  came  to 
an  end  because  it  was  of  human  institu- 
tion. But  sacramental  confession,  being 
of  divine  origin,  lasted  -when  the  peni- 
tential di.scipline  had  been  changed,  and 
continues  to  this  day  among  the  Greeks 
and  Oriental  sects.'  So  again,  Leo,  in  a 
letter  to  the  Bisliops  of  Campania  (Ep. 
clxviii.,  ed.  Ballerini),  desired  the  abroga- 
tion of  public  penance  because  of  its 
deterrent  eflect,  and  because  it  was  not 

•  Exception,  however,  must  be  made  of  the 
Copts  and  Kthiopians,  with  whom  coufession 
seems  to  have  died  out  in  the  middle  ages. 
(Chardon,  tom.  ii.  §  2,  ch.  5.) 


I  of  Apostolic  institution ;  but  he  adds, 
"  Since  it  is  enough  that  the  guilt  of 
'  consciences  should  be  manifested  to  the 
'  priests  alone  by  secret  confession."  An 
opinion,  however,  did  prevail  to  some 
extent  in  the  middle  ages,  even  among 
j  Catholics,  that  confession  to  God  alone 
I  sufficed.    The  Council  of  Chalons  in  81S 
j  (canon  33)  says  :  "  Some  assert  that  we 
should  confess  our  sins  to  God  alone,  but 
some  think  {percense7)f)  that  they  should 
be  confessed  to  the  priests,  each  of  which 
practices  is  followed  not  without  great 
fruit  in  Holy  Church  ....  Confession 
made  to  God  purges  sins,  but  that  made 
to  the  priest  teaches  how  they  are  to  be 
purged."    This  former  opinion  is  also 
mentioned  without  reprobation  by  Peter 
Lombard  ("In  Sentent.  Lib.  IV."  dist. 
17).    St.  Thomas,  in  his  commentary  on 
the  Sentences,  says  that  what  had  once 
been  a  mere  opinion  was,  in  his  time,  on 
account  of  the  decision  of  the  Church, 
under  Innocent  HI.,  to   be  accounted 
heresy,  and  ("  Suppl."  qu.  vi.  a.  3)  he 
maintains  that  the  necessity  of  confessing 
mortal  sins  after  baptism  exists  by  divine, 
I  and  not  merely  by  church,  law. 

4.  We  say  nothing  here  of  the  sorrow 
for  sin  and  pui-pose  of  amendment  requi- 
site in  the  sacrament,  referring  the  reader 
for  an  explanation  of  this  point  to  the 
article  on  Coxtritioit,  and  we  pass  to 
satisfaction,  which  is  the  fourth  and  last 
part  of  penance.  It  is  defined  by  Billu- 
art  ("Pcen."  diss.  ix.  1)  as  a  payment 
of  the  temporal  punishment  due  to  sin 
through  works  which  are  good  and  penal 
and  are  imposed  by  the  confessor." 

"  Catholics,"  says  Bossuet  ("  Expos, 
de  la  Foi  Cath."  viii.), "  teach  unanimou.sly 
that  only  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  both  God 
and  man,  was  capable,  through  the  infinite 
dignity  of  His  person,  of  offering  to  God 
sufficient  satisftiction  for  our  sins.  But, 
having  satisfied  superabundantly.  He  was 
able  to  apply  this  satisfaction  in  two  ways, 
either  by  granting  entire  remission  with- 
out letting  any  penalty  remain,  or,  on 
the  other  hand,  by  commuting  a  greater 
into  a  lesser  penalty— i.e.  eternal  into 
temporal  puishment.     As  that  former 
I  fashion  is  more  complete  and  in  better 
harmony  with  His  goodness,  He  employs 
[  it  in  baptism  ;  but  we  believe  that  He 
employs  the  second  way  in  the  case  of 
those  who  fall  back  into  sin  after  baptism, 
'  being,  as  it  were,  constrained  to  do  so  by 
i  the  ingratitude  of  those  who  have  abused 
,  His  first  gifts  so  that  they  have  to  suffer 
'  some  punishment,  although  the  eternal 


PENANCE,  SACRAMENT  OF 


PENANCE,  SAORAMF.NT  OF  7Ul 


one  is  remitted.  From  this  we  must  not 
infer  that  Jesus  Christ  has  failed  to  make 
entire  satisfaction  for  us  ;  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, that,  having  acijuired  an  absolute 
rij.'ht  over  us  by  the  infinite  price  He  has 
offered  for  our  salvation,  lie  grants  us 
pardon  on  the  conditions,  under  the  laws, 
and  with  the  reserves  which  seem  good  to 
Him."  He  proceeds  to  argue  that  Pro- 
testants, who  allege  that  Christ  could  not 
have  satisfied  fully  for  actual  sin,  if  He 
left  us  subject  to  temporal  punishment, 
might  as  well  say  that  Christ  has  not 
satisfied  for  original  sin  because  He  has 
left  us  subject  to  death  and  to  other  in- 
firmities of  the  soul  and  body  which  are 
consequences  of  the  Fall.  "  Similarly,  we 
should  not  marvel  that  He  who  showed 
Himself  so  merciful  to  us  in  bajitism 
should  display  gTeater  severity  when  once 
we  have  broki  u  our  holy  promises.  It  is 
just,  nay,  it  is  for  our  own  good,  that  He, 
when  Fie  remits  [the  guilt  of]  sin  along 
with  the  eternal  punishment,  should  exact 
some  temporal  punishment  from  us  in 
order  to  bind  us  to  duty." 

Scripture  proves  that  God  inflicts 
temporal  punishment  for  pardoned  sin, 
for  Nathan  said  to  David  after  he  had 
acknowledged  his  double  crime,  "  The 
Lord  also  has  caus^ed  thy  sin  to  pass 
away;  thou  shalt  not  die.  Only  because 
thou  hast  so  made  the  enemies  of  the 
Lord  to  blaspheme  through  this  matter, 
even  the  son  that  is  born  to  thee  shall 
surely  die "  (2  Reg.  or  Sam.  xii.  14). 
Dan."  iv.  24  (so  Heb.  LXX  and  Vulg., 
"  Authorised,''  iv.  27)  is  the  classical 
passage  for  the  doctrine  that  man  has  the 
power  of  making  satisfaction  for  sin  by 
good  works.  "  Therefore,  0  king,  let  my 
counsel  please  thee,  and  redeem  thy  sins  ! 
by  justice,  and  thy  perversities  by  show-  ^ 
ing  kindness  to  tlie  poor."'  Here,  as  in  all 
other  articles  on  dogma,  we  have  given  a 
literal  translation  from  the  origin;.!,  and  j 
our  version  of  this  text  is  justified,  while  • 
that  of  the  "Authorised  Version  "("break 
off")  is  excluded,  both  by  the  laws  of  the 
language  and  by  the  judgment  of  the 
best  Protestant  and  .Jewish  scholars.  We 
append  our  reasons  in  a  note.^  The 

I  The  words  occur  in  the  Chaldoe  portion  of 
Daniel,  and  the  ninin  que.<tion  is,  Docs  the 
Chaldeo  word  pin  mean  "  redeem  "  or  "  break 

off"?  It  can  only  mean  "  redeem."  (l)The 
word  is  found  once  only  in  that  small  portion  of 
the  Bible  which  is  -written  in  C'haldee,  but  it  is 
of  very  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Chaldce 
literature.  It  is  used  by  C)nkeIos  (K.xod.  .\xi. 
8)  of  "redoeminjc"  a  slave:  a  '■  lield  "  (Lev. 
xxv.25i  ;  intheother  Tar-nm^  for  the  redenip- 


I  penitential  discipline  of  the  early  Cliiiivh 
witnesses  to  the  belief  that  satisfaction 
by  penitential  works  is  necessary  in  it- 
I  self,  and  is  required  as  a  part  of  the 
sacrament  of  penance.  Nor  did  t  lie  early 
j  Christians  coii-iiilrr  satisfaction  merely  as 
means  of  dei'pep.inu  repentance,  re]iairiiig 
scandal,  :ni(l  awakening  salutary  S'lnow. 
Cyprian  ("De  Laps."  -'i-j,  30)  exhorts  the 
lapsed  "  to  be  forward  in  good  works  by 
which  sins  are  purged,  to  give  fretnient 
alms  by  which  souls  are  freed  from  death," 
"to  induce  the  Lord  to  ]iaidon  sin  l)y 
perseverance  in  good  worlis."  Calvin 
himself  acknowledL'-es  that  all  Christian 
antiquity  admitted  the  necessity  of  peni- 
tential satisl'action.  "I  .-ira  little  moved," 
he  writes,  "  by  pas>iiee~  which  every- 
where occur  in  the  writings  of  the 
ancients  concerning  ?ati>t'action.  I  see 
that  some  of  them,  I  will  say  frankly 
nearly  all  whose  works  are  extant,  went 
wrong  in  this  matter,  or  spoke  too 
severely  and  harshly."  ("Instit."  iii. 
cap.  4,"§  38,  quoted  by  Billuart.) 

It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  satis- 
faction is  in  theological  language  an 
integral  but  not  an  essential  part  of  the 
sacrament.     In  other  vrords,  the  priest, 

tion  of  the  soul — '-who  hast  redeemed  my  soul 
from  evory  afflio;ion  '"  (2  Sam.  iv.  9).  Levy, 
in  his  Clialilce  I)).  ;i,.;;;irv,  j;ives  numerous  in- 
stancos  ..f  thr  us.'  ei  rlic  voih  in  Peal  from  the 
Taruunis.  In  .ill,  exioiir  ene,  it  must  mean 
'■to  buy  b.ick."  •■  nili  eiii.  "  I've;  it  never  once 
bears  the  sense  txwcn  it  in  the  rrntc^taat 
version.  (2)  Syriac.  which  is  scarcely  a  dis- 
tinct languai^c  from  Chaldee,  li.is  the  same 
word,  t-O;^.  It  occurs  pretty  often  in  the 
['eshito  version  of  the  X.T..  and  ••  redemit  "  is 
the  tirst  renclerim;-  uiven  b\-  Seha.if  in  his 
Syriac  Lexi.'on.  Thus  it  is'  use,l  to  leiulor 
('ppvaaTO  (C<>\">^-  i-  i;^''.'":uvl  ro.leenieil  us  iVom 
the  power  ot  dnrkne-s."  S  iiu  tini^  s  it  means 
"t..  n<.  awav-  ;  never  -  m  l.ieakolV."  (oVriie 
Vul.uate  reii.leriu_,  ■•  re(linie."  i>  support.',!  by 
the  LXX  A;)Tf)a>irai.  (  I)  It  i>  ail^pted,  smneliuies 
even  without  a  notice  of  the  icndei  iiiL;-  uiven  in 
the  •' Aullu>ri>e.l  "  :)n<\  Lutlieran  N  ersion>.  by 
De  Wette  in  his  revi>ion  of  Lul be--'^  liil'le;  bv 
Ewald  (l'ro/,/„t,„.  vol,  iii.  )..  .icr,  ,_-l<ise 
dein.' Siindeu  .lurch  ( lereehl  i- luit  .in";  Itilzi:^ 
{Cdtiim.  ill!  Jhiiiic!.  \:  lIT  ),  wh.i  justly  remarks 
that  til'  rMi'liij  ••break  otf "  is  contrary  to 
the  I  \  i.  !!  )  I  'iti.>n,  and  has '•  no  analoiry 
to  sup  '  It  ,  iipl  by  Geseniiis.  To  those 
Proti^i  .  lit  aiii  ii-  I  ii  ii'S  we  may  add  another, 
Lvrthetiu.  an.l  ilu  K  ibbins.  l':b,Mi  E/.T-.x  and 
Saadia  (.  ited  l.v  IIii/,m  i,  aiul  a  n...,lern  Jewish 
scholar,  l-  iir^t. 'in  hi^  Hebrew  tin. 1  I  'ht.l.l.'el'on- 
cordai.ee  and  in  his  I  )i.  tioiiary.  Were  the  pas- 
saL'C  in  Daniel  Hei.rew.  the  lenderini;  "•  break 
otf"  eovil.l  be  supii.iitel  Oy  a  comparison  of 
Gen.  xxvii.  40  ;  but  it  is  dial. Ice,  and  c.uniiion 
sense  reip  ires  us  to  interpret  a  Chal.iee  word 
by  Chaldee,  n.  t  Hebrew,  usage. 


702  PEXAXCE,  SACRAMENT  OF 


PEXITENTLIL  DISCIPLINE 


liotli  as  judge  and  physician  of  the  soul, 
is  bound  to  impose  a  penance;  nud  the 
penitent,  if  it  is  reasonable,  is  bound  to 
accept  it.  Even  if  the  penance  is  un- 
reasonable, he  must  seek  another  penance 
and  absolution  fi-om  another  priest.  But 
whereas  true  supernatural  sorrow  with 
purpose  of  amendment,  absolution,  and, 
according  to  the  common  opinion,  some 
outward  confession  of  sin  by  word  or 
sign,  are  always  and  in  all  circumstances 
necessary  for  the  validity  of  the  sacra- 
ment, still,  in  the  case,  e.g.,  of  a  man  La 
his  agony,  the  priest  may  give  absolution 
without  imposing  a  penance.  (Billuart, 
Diss.  ix.  a.  2.)  In  the  ancient  Chirrch 
part  at  least  of  the  penance  was  usually 
performed  before  absolution ;  at  present 
the  priest  in  most  cases  imposes  the 
penance,  and,  if  he  judges  that  the  peni- 
tent is  well  disposed,  gives  absolution. 
The  difference  is  one  of  discipUne  and  not 
of  principle,  for,  with  the  exception  given 
above,  absolution  is  not  given  even  now 
unless  there  is  the  resolution  on  the  part 
of  the  sinner  to  perform  the  penance 
imposed  upon  him. 

Many  Protestant  objections  to  the 
sacrament  of  penance,  as  administered 
among  us,  arise  from  misunderstanding. 
Confession  to  the  priest  tends  to  deepen 
and  not  to  replace  shame  and  sorrow  for 
the  offence  done  to  God.  It  protects  the 
sinner  against  self-delusion — for  no  man 
is  a  good  judge  in  his  own  cause — and  the 
priest  is  able  to  insist  upon  the  duty  of 
restoring  ill-gotten  goods,  reconciliation 
with  enemies,  forgiveness  of  injuries, 
avoiding  occasions  of  sins,  retracting 
calumny,  &c.,  in  many  cases  when  the 
sinner  might  be  blinded  by  his  own  pas- 
sions or  interests.  At  the  same  time  the 
prie.-'t  affords  the  best  protection  against 
despair  or  indiscrtet  zi'al.  There  is  little 
in  the  laborious  work  of  the  confessional 
to  satisfy  cui'iosiiy,  for  the  priest  learns 
nothing  except  the  nuniber  and  species  of 
sins  committed,  and  he  is  bound  under 
the  most  sacred  obligations  to  abstain 
from  all  unnecessary  questions,  particu- 
larly from  all  such  as  might  convey 
knowledge  of  sins  previously  unknown  to 
the  penitent.  lie  has  to  decide  accord- 
ing to  the  principles  of  an  elaborate 
casuistry  which  he  hsis  studied  for  years, 
and  in  which  he  has  been  examined  by 
his  superiors,  bel^ve  he  enters  the  con- 
fessional. Then'  is  little  room  for  tyranny 
on  his  part,  for  the  faithful  know  well 
that  they  may  have  recourse  to  any 
approved  confessor.    Here,  as  elsewhere, 


holj-  things  may  be  profaned.  But  tl\e 
Church  deprives  a  priest  of  the  power  to 
absolve  an  accomplice,  rigorously  punish- 
ing any  attempt  to  do  so ;  and  were  a 
priest  so  miserable  as  to  abuse  the  con- 
fessional for  bad  ends,  then  the  person  to 
whom  he  had  spoken  wrongly  could  not 
be  absolved  even  by  another  priest  till  he 
or  she  had  communicated  the  name  of 
the  criminous  clerk  to  the  bishop  of  the 
diocese.  Such  cases  are  necessarily  of 
very  rare  occuiTence ;  for  sin  of  this  kind 
would  involve  almost  inevitable  ruin  to 
the  priest.  Of  all  pastoral  ministrations 
we  firmly  believe  there  is  none  which  in- 
volves a  more  self-denying  devotion  to  a 
monotonous  duty,  none  where  the  good 
eftects  are  so  plaLa  and  visible,  and  very 
few  which  are  more  seldom  marred  by 
human  weakness  and  sin. 

[The  work  of  Morinus  is  a  storehouse 
of  learning.  Much  historical  information 
will  be  found  in  Chardon's  "  Hist,  dea 
Sacr.''  The  writer  of  this  article  only 
knows  Denys  de  Ste.  Marthe,  "  Traits  de 
la  Confession,"  Paris,  1685,  by  Chardon's 
quotations.] 

PEXriTEirTIAIi  DZSCXPIiXirE 
AXTD  BOOKS.  The  right  of  punishing 
members  for  offences  against  its  laws,  and 
depriving  them  altogether  or  for  a  time 
of  its  privileges,  belongs  to  any  well- 
constituted  society.  It  was  exercised  by 
the  Synagogue  (Luke  xvi.  2  ;  John  vi.  2) ; 
Christ  sanctioned  the  use  of  it  in  ffis 
Church  (Matt,  xviii.  15-17) ;  and  in  1  Cor. 
V.  1-5  we  see  St.  Paul  enforcing  the 
penitential  law  of  the  Church  against  a 
notorious  offender.  Of  course,  this  peni- 
tential discipline  in  the  Christian  Church, 
though  analogous  to  the  procedure  of 
i  human  societies,  claims  a  higher  origin 
and  is  of  a  much  more  serious  nature. 
!  The  power  of  inQicti:;;.'  spiritual  penalties 
j  has  been  put  into  the  hands  of  the  Church 
by  Christ  Himself ;  it  is  exercised  in  His 
name  ;  it  may  involve  deprivation  of  the 
sacraments,  which  are  the  great  appointed 
means  of  grace;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  the  object  of  penitential  discipline, 
not  only  to  preserve  the  hoUuess  of  the 
Churc'.i,  but  also  to  awaken  wholesome 
fear  and  sorrow  in  the  heart  of  the  off  ender 
while  there  is  yet  time,  "  that  his  soul 
;  may  be  saved  in  the  day  of  the  Lord." 
'  Obviously,  the  Church  must  use  this 
power  in  the  way  most  likely  at  the  time 
to  benefit  souls,  and  her  |)enitential  canons 
have  varied  much  at  dilferent  periods  aud 
in  different  places.  Still,  on  the  whole, 
I  it  is  possible  to  distinguish  three  distinct 


PENITENTIAL  DISCIPLINE  PENITENTIAL  DISCIPLINE  703 


Eeriods  in  the  history  of  penance — the 
rst  extending  from  the  beginning  of  the 
Church  to  tiie  ri?e  of  the  Novatian  heresy 
in  the  middle  of  the  third  century  (Mori- 
nus,  lib.  iv.),  the  second  reaching  to  about 
the  year  700  after  Christ  {ib.  lib.  vi,),  the 
third  to  the  eleventh  century  {ib.  lib.  vii.). 
Of  these  periods,  the  first  represents  peni- 
tential discijiline  in  its  initial  stage ;  the 
fiecond,in  its  full  developmentand  vigour; 
the  third,  in  its  deCiiy.  Most  of  -what  we 
have  to  say  is  taken  from  the  great  work 
of  Morinus,  "  De  Disciplina  in  Adminis- 
tratione  Saciamenti  PcenitentiaB,"  in  the 
Venetian  edition  of  1702. 

First  Ptriod. — The  sins  for  which 
public  penance  was  inflicted  were  the 
three  "  mortal  crimes  "  '  {crimina  jnor- 
talia,  Cyprian,  "  De  Bono  Patient."  c.  14) 
of  idolatry,  murder,  and  adultery,  com- 
mitted after  baptism.  Tertutlian  adds 
"fraud  "  to  the  list  of  "  graver  and  fatal 
crimes  which  cannot  be  forgiven  ''  ("Pu- 
dic.'"  19)  ;  but,  generally  speaking,  it  was 
only  the  various  forms  of  the  tliree  great 
sins  which  reduced  a  man  to  the  rank  of 
a  penitent.  TertuUian  ("De  Poenit."  c. 
9)  has  left  us  a  vivid  picture  of  penance 
as  he  was  accustomed  to  .*ee  it  practised. 
He  describes  penance,  which  was  gener- 
ally known,  even  among  the  Latins,  as 
"  exomol-'ge.^is,"  because  it  involved  open 
confession  of  sins,  as  a  "  discipline  by 
which  a  man  was  prostrated  and  humili- 
ated.' He  speaks  of  the  penitents  as 
lying  on  sackcloth  and  ashes,  of  the  un- 
wa.^hed  body,  the  feeding  on  bread  and 
water,  the  fasting  and  praN-er,  the  grovel- 
ling at  the  feet  of  the  presbyters  and 
others  who  had  a  name  for  sanctity,  the 
groans  and  tears.  As  yet  there  was  no 
formal  division  of  penitents  into  grades, 
and  penance,  though  severe,  did  not 
always  last  long.  The  Apostolic  Consti- 
tutions (ii  l(i),  in  a  passage  which  may 
be  fairly  taken  as  a  picture  of  the  peni- 
tential discipline  in  the  first  period,  orders 
a  great  sinner  to  be  excluded  altogether 
from  the  Church;  then  the  deacons  are 
to  admonish  him  and  introduce  him  to 
the  congregation  ;  then  penance  is  to  be 
inflicted  ((m3&)o-ar  avTov)  "  in  proportion 
to  his  sin,  for  two,  three,  five,  or  seven 
weeks,""  at  the  end  of  which  period  the  ' 
bishop  is  to  receive  him  into  communion,  j 
with  imposition  of  hands  (ib.  18 :  X"P°"  I 
6(Trj(Tai  avTov  ea  Xotvov  tivai  iv  rm 
noiixvim),  accompanied  by  the  prayers  i 

1  We  have  used  such  expressions  as  "mortal 
crimes,"  "  offence?,"  &c.,  to  prevent  confusion 
■with  "  mortal  sin    in  the  modem  sense. 


I  of  the  faithful.  Here  we  see  the  germs 
I  of  the  later  and  more  formal  system, 
though  the  penalty  contemplated  is 
slight.  Cyprian  (Ep.  Ivii.)  announces 
:  his  intention  of  admitting  to  communion 
those  who  luid  fallen  into  idolatry  in  a 
former  persecution  and  had  done  penance 
since.  His  reason  for  this  indulgence 
was  that  fresh  persecution  was  at  hand. 

But  while  penance  was  comparatively 
light,  admission  to  it  was  often  hard  to 
obtain.  For  in  this  early  period  penance 
was  looked  on  rather  as  a  grace  shown  to 
sinners  than  as  a  penalty  which  they  had 
to  bear.  It  was  in  the  difficulty  of  being 
admitted  to  penance,  not  in  the  penance 
itself,  that  the  severity  of  the  early  Church 
appears.  For  a  brief  period,  even  the 
Eoman  Church  refused  absolution  utterly 
and  altogether  in  the  case  of  the  three 
'•  mortal  crimes."  This  absolution  was 
granted  till  the  middle  of  the  second 
century  ("  Pastor  Herm."  Mandat.  iv.  1), 
but  it  must  have  been  withdrawn  pro- 
bably shortly  after  the  "  Shepherd  '  of 
Hermas  was  -n-ritten  (this  is  evident  from 
the  first  chapter  of  TertuUian,  "  De 
Pudic."  Compare  also  the  words  of  Her- 
mas, loc.  cit.,  "  Servis  Dei  pcenitentia  una 
est,"  with  Visio,  ii.  2,  where  it  is  said  that 
soon  the  opportunity  of  performing  pen- 
ance will  expire).  Zephyrinus  (202-219) 
relaxed  this  severity  in  the  case  of  adul- 
terers (see  the  "  De  Pudic"),  and  his  suc- 
cessor, CaUixtus  (219-222),  admitted  all 
sinners  to  communion  after  penance 
("  Philosophnm.'"  ix.  12),  and  this  milder 
discipline  became  established.  (See  the 
"  Epistle  of  the  Roman  Clergy,'"  Cyprian, 
Fp.  .30.)  In  Africa,  too,  the  discipline 
had  become  milder,  for  Cyprian  (Ep.  Iv. 
No.  21)  mentions  the  opinion  of  bishops 
in  his  province  that  "  peace  was  not  to  be 
granted  to  adulterers  "  as  a  thing  of  the 
past.  The  Spanish  Church  continued  to 
be  more  severe,  for  even  after  our  period 
the  Synod  of  Elvira,  in  306,  excluded 
great  sinners  from  all  hope  of  communion 
(see,  e.ff.,  canons  1,6,  8).  Moreover,  in  no 
part  of  the  Church  was  communion  given 
to  those  who  had  fallen  a  second  time 
after  baptism  into  mortal  crime.  It  was 
Pope  Siricius  (Ep.  I,  "  Ad  Ilimer."  c.  5), 
towards  the  close  of  the  fourth  century, 
who  insisted  on  a  more  indulgent  course. 
So,  again,  it  was  the  ordinary  practice  to 
refuse  communion  to  the  dying  if  they 
had  been  previously  excommunicated  and 
had  not  done  penance  in  health.  We 
must  remember,  however,  that  sacramen- 
tal absolution  from  guilt,  canonical  abso- 


704  PENITENTIAL  DISCIPLINE 


p;:nitential  discipline 


lutionfroni  ppnitential  discipline,  censures, 
&c.,  and  giving  communion,  are  three 
distinct  things,  and  the  refusal  of  tlie 
first  does  not  follow  from  that  of  the 
second  or  third.  Ilefele  ("  Concil."  i.  p. 
loo)  and  Frank  ("  Bussdiscipliu,"  &c., 
]8i>7)  believe  that  though  canonical  abso- 
lution and  communion  often  were,  sacra- 
mental absolution  never  was,  refused  to 
any  skinner. 

Spcond  Period. — After  the  rise  of  the 
Novatian  heresy,  the  penitential  system 
Avas  fully  organised  The  Nicene  Coun- 
cil, can.  13,  established  tlie  principle  that 
communion  was  to  be  given  in  the  hour 
of  death  to  penitents,  however  great  their 
previous  crime.  We  have  seen  that  Pope 
Siricius  extended  this  lenity  even  to  re- 
la])sed  penitents.  St.  Chrysostom,  it  is 
said  (Socrates,  "H.  E."  vi.  21),  received 
penitents  again  and  again,  however  fre- 
quent their  relapses,  and  the  Third  Coun- 
cil of  Toledo,  in  5.s'.i,  speaks  in  canon  11 
of  a  lax  practice  which  permitted  men  to 
sin  as  often  as  they  pleased,  and  present 
themselves  anew  to  the  priest  for  recon- 
ciliation. (See  Hefele's  note,  "  Concil." 
iii.  p.  51.) 

On  the  other  hand,  the  list  of  "  mortal 
oflences  "  was  enlarged.  We  find  traces 
of  such  increase  in  the  list  of  sins  which 
subjected  to  penance,  in  the  canons 
ascribed  to  Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  Basil. 
"  Many  Fathers,"  says  Morinus  (lib.  v. 
cap.  v.),  "who  wrote  after  Augustine's 
time,  extended  this  [the  necessity  of  pub- 
lic penance]  to  all  crimes  which  the 
civil  law  punished  with  death,  exile,  or 
other  grave  corporal  penalty  "  ;  and  he 
proves  this  by  many  quotations — e.g.  from 
Popes  Pelagins  II.  and  Gregory  I.  Fur- 
ther, in  the  East  certain  grades  of 
penance  caiiii'  to  be  recognised.  The  three 
higher  ;;railcs  are  mentioned  or  alluded 
to  in  the  canonical  epistle  of  Gregory 
Thauniaturgus  (can.  1,  8,  9;  on  the  last, 
in  which  the  grade  of  crufrra'iTej,  or  con- 
.thtentes  is  alluded  to  but  not  mentioned 
by  name,  see  the  extract  from  the 
commentary  of  Zonaras  in  Ronth,  "Rell. 
Sacr."  tom.  iii.  p.  279).  The  eleventh 
canon,  which  enumerates  wW  four  grades, 
is  certainly  spurious,  and  is  much  later 
than  Gregory's  time.    (See  Routh,  loc. 

p.  28L)  'Still,  from  llu-  Fourth  cen- 
tury onwards,  tlic  h/istci-n  ( 'luirch  divided 
pciiitnits  into  four  ,  b,-sr<.  They  are 
thus  described  iii  the  i  li  x.nfh  canon  of 
Gregory  in  words  w  liii-li  arc  i(uite  accu- 
rate, and  were  pr()b;il)ly  added  as  a  gloss 
to  the  authentic  canons  "Weeping" 


(the  npoa-KKaiovTfs,  or  Rentes,  were  the 
lowest  class)  "  takes  place  outside  the 
door  of  tlie  church,  where  the  sinner 
must  stand  and  beg  the  prayers  of  the 
faithful  as  they  go  in.  Hearing "  (the 
aKpoQ}fi€voi,  or  audientes,  were  the  second 
class)  "  is  performed  within  the  gate  in 
the  porch,  where  the  sinner  must  stand 
while  the  catechumens  are  present,  and 
then  go  out.  For  hearing  the  Scripture," 
he  says,  "  and  the  instruction,  let  him  be 
expelled,  and  not  be  admitted  to  the 
prayer.  Prostration"  (the  state  of  the 
vTTorr'nvTovTts,  substrati,  the  third  class) 
"  requires  the  sinner  to  stand  within  the 
church  door,  and  to  go  out  with  the 
catechumens."  (Before  going,  they  pro- 
strated themselves  to  receive  the  imposi- 
tion of  the  bishop's  hands  with  prayer, 
hence  their  name.)  The  consistentes  (the 
last  class— o-vorai'Tes,  consistentes)  "  stand 
together  with  the  faithful,  and  do  not  go 
out  with  the  catechumens.  Last  comes 
participation  in  the  sacraments  (ayiair- 
I  ^laTo>v)."  The  two  lower  grades  were 
little  known  in  the  West,  and  the  Latin 
Fathers  generally  mean  by  "penitents" 
the  substrnti,  or  VTTonLTTTovrei.  A  severe 
course  of  life — fasts,  shaving  of  the  head, 
wearing  a  peculiar  dress,  abstinence  from 
the  enjoyment,  and  even  sometimes  from 
the  business  of  life,  were  the  hardships 
which  penitents  (under  which  term  we 
do  not  include  the  consistentes)  had  to 
undergo.  The  penance  lasted  long  years 
— e.g.  the  Canons  of  Basil,  which  repre- 
sent the  discipline  of  the  whole  East, 
impose  fifteen  years  of  penance  for  adul- 
tery, seven  for  fornication.  Many  canons 
of  Councils  speak  of  clerics  as  subjected 
to  penance  {e.g.  Neoca3S.  can.  1  ;  lUib. 
76  ;  I.  Araus.  4 ;  I.  Arel.  29) ;  but  some- 
times the  degradation  of  a  cleric  was 
considered  equivalent  to  the  penance  of 
a  layman,  and  it  was  felt  to  be  unfair 
that  he  should  incur  a  double  penalty  for 
one  crime.  (So,  e.g.  Can.  Apost.  25  ;  and 
the  letter  of  Pope  Siricius  to  Himerius, 
"  PdL'nitentiam  agere  cuiquam  non  con- 
ceditur  clericorum."  Mansi,  "  Concil." 
tom.  iii.  col.  660.)  With  regard  to  the 
sick  and  dying,  the  rule  varied  at  different 
times  and  in  dilferent  churches.  Cvprian 
(Ep.  Iv.  2.'>)  lays  down  the  principle  that 
great  and  notorious  offenders,  who  had 
done  no  penance  before  tlieir  sickness, 
"were  to  be  excluded  entirely  {omnino 
prohibendos)  from  the  hope  of  communion 
and  peace."  The  Synod  of  Aries  (anno 
314),  which  represented  the  whole  of  the 
Western  Church,  also  debarred  death-bed 


I'EXITEXTIAL  DISCIPLINE  PENITEXTIAL  DISCIPLINE  :0> 


penitents  from  communion  (can.  22) : 
but  the  Council  of  Nicaea  Ccan.  13)  re- 
laxed this  stringent  rule.  Still  le.=s  was 
communion  refused  to  secret  sinners  who 
sought  penance  on  their  death-beds,  or  to 
such  as  were  actually  doing  penance 
when  sickness  overtook  them.  After  the 
organisation  of  the  grades  or  stations  of 
penance,  a  pt-nitent  who  had  received 
communion  in  dangerous  sickness  was 
usually  sent  back  to  do  penance  in  case 
of  recovery.  Sometimes  he  returned  to 
the  grade  in  which  he  had  been  before ; 
sometimes  he  was  placed  among  the  eon- 
sistenteji. 

Third  Period,  from  the  Seventh  till  the 
Eleventh  Century  — Before  this  time  the 
laws  of  public  penance  had  been  altered 
very  seriously  in  the  East.  The  office  of 
penitentiary  had  been  abolished  at  the 
close  of  the  fourth  century  at  Constanti- 
nople (Socrates,  "H.  E."  vii.  16;  Sozo- 
men  "  H.  E."  v.  19),  and  this  led  to  the 
cessation  of  public  confession  and  public 
penance  for  secret  sins.  The  stations  of 
penance  are  mentioned  at  the  end  of  the 
seventh  century  in  canou  87  of  the  Coun- 
cil in  TruUo.  But  the  Greek  liturgies, 
except  perhaps  that  of  St.  James  and  one 
used  by  the  Abyssinians,  contain  no 
reference  to  the  dismissal  of  penitents 
from  the  assembly  of  the  faithful.  About 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century,  as 
Morinus  (lib.  vii.  1)  proves  by  citations 
fromBede,  Egbert,  Rabanus  Maurus,  &c., 
it  was  received  as  an  axiom  throughout 
the  West  that  public  penance  was  to  be 
done  only  for  public  sins. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however, 
that  the  rigour  of  public  penance  had 
abated  among  the  Latins.    True,  even 

Sublic  penitents  no  longer  received  the 
aily  imposition  of  the  bishop's  hands, 
and  they  were  no  longer  shut  out  from 
the  very  sight  of  the  sacred  mysteries. 
But  all  through  this  period  a  vast  number 
of  persons  were  to  be  seen  in  the  churches 
"distinguished  from  [the  rest  of]  the 
faithful  by  their  dress,  place  [in  the 
church",  mourning,  and  whole  manner  of 
life"  (Morinus,  vii.  2|.  Some  of  them 
witnessed  Mass  at  a  distance  from  a  spot 
inside  the  church;  others  took  their  place 
in  a  .separate  part  of  the  church  ;  a  third 
class  mixed  with  the  rest  of  the  congre- 
gation, but  were  forbidden  to  communi- 
cate {ib.  7).  The  bishop  prescribed  this 
penance,  and  the  civil  law  compelled  the 
offender  to  undergo  it.  Very  often  a 
man  was  forced  to  appear  as  a  public 
penitent,  though  for  one  reason  or  other 


he  had  not  been  condemned  or  even  tried 
by  the  civil  court.  It  was  enough  if  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities  had  juridical 
proof  of  his  guilt.  In  the  earh-  part  of 
this  period,  the  beginning  of  Lent,  the 
"caput  jejunii,"  as  it  was  called,  was 
looked  on  as  the  most  fitting,  though  not 
the  only  time,  for  the  solemn  imposition 
of  public  penance  {ib.  vii.  19).  Nor  was 
private  penance  less  severe.  It  differed 
from  public  penance  only  inasmuch  as  it 
could  be  imposed  by  a  priest,  whereas 
public  penance  was  inflicted  by  the 
bishop  or  a  priest  specially  empowered 
by  him,  and  inasmuch  as  the  solemn 
rites  of  public  were  omitted  in  private 
penance.  The  same  long  fasts  and  other 
austerities,  the  same  long  abstinence  from 
communion,  were  the  penalties  of  secret 
sin.  Every  priest  who  heard  confession 
was  bound  to  use  a  "penitential  book  " — 
i.e.  a  book  which  contained  the  penalties 
attached  to  particular  sins  by  the  canons. 
Popes,  Fathers,  or  custom,  along  with 
the  forms  to  be  observed  in  confession, 
absolution,  and  the  rest.  The  Roman 
Penitential,  and  those  of  Theodore,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  and  Bede,  were 
those  which  had  the  highest  repute  in 
the  West,  but  there  were  many  (ithers. 
These  books  were  the  guides  of  confessors 
down  to  the  thirteenth  century.  A 
glance  at  the  "  Summary  of  Penitentials  " 
given  in  Zaccaria's  essav  prefixed  to  the 
"Moral  Theology"  of  St.  Liguori  will 
easily  convince  the  reader  of  the  severity 
which  then  prevailed.  From  the  latter 
part  of  the  tenth  century  flogging  was 
added  to  the  other  penitential  exercises, 
and  at  an  earlier  part  of  our  period  exile 
(mentioned  in  the  Penitentials  of  Bede 
and  in  that  known  as  the  Roman)  and 
perpetual  retirement  to  a  monastery  were 
imposed  as  penances. 

Fourth  Period,  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth 
Centuries  (Morinus,  lib.  x.  cap.  \Qseq.). — 
During  this  period  the  rigour  of  penance 
was  greatly  relaxed ;  public  penance, 
except  in  certain  cases,  especially  in  that 
of  heresy,  almost  disappeared,  and  on 
the  whole  we  may  note  a  transition  to 
modem  practice.  The  following  were 
the  chief  causes  of  the  change : — 

(a)  The  Redemption  of  Sins. — Long 
before  this  time  the  practice  had  arisen 
of  procuring  exemption  from  canonical 
penance  by  giving  alm«,  &c.  This  cus- 
tom, indeed,  is  mentioned  and  condemned 
by  an  English  council  held  in  747,  and  it 
was  generally  recognised  in  the  ninth 
I  century.    But  such  redemptions  were  at 


706  PENITENTIAL  DISCIPLINE 


PENITENTIAL  PSALMS 


first  partial,  and  only  allowed  when  part 
of  the  penance  had  been  done.  This 
accorded  with  the  spirit  of  the  primitive 
Church,  which  remitted  part  of  the 
penance  to  sinners  who  showed  extra- 
ordinary sorrow  and  zeal.  But  from  the 
end  of  the  tenth  or  opening  of  the  eleventh 
century  penances  due  to  sins  were  arith- 
metically computed — i.e.  if  seven  years 
of  penance  were  assigned  for  committing 
a  sin  once,  twenty-oue  years  were  reckoned 
as  the  penalty  due  for  committing  it  three 
times,  and  large  alms,  flagellation,  reci- 
tations of  the  Psalter,  were  accepted  as 
redemption  of  penauce.  Thus  St.  Peter 
Damiiiu  tells  the  story  of  a  man  who  by 
cruel  flagellation  and  frequent  recitations 
of  the  Psalter  accompUshed  a  hundred 
years  of  penance  in  six  days.  The  arith- 
metical computation  of  penance  had  made 
its  performance  in  the  old  way  impossible. 

(/3)  Remissions  of  penance  were  freely 
granted  for  zvorks  of  piety — e.ff.  contribu- 
tions to  aid  in  the  building  of  churches, 
or  even  works  of  pubUc  utiUty,  such  as 
building  bridges  or  the  like.  As  a  rule, 
those  indulgences  were  partial,  but  a 
complete  remission  of  penance  was  often 
obtained  by  performing  several  good 
works.  Maurice,  who  succeeded  Peter 
Lombard  in  the  see  of  Paris,  built  his 
great  cathedral  and  four  abbeys  by  means 
of  indulgences.  It  is  right  to  add  that 
the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  protested 
against  the  reckless  freedom  with  which 
these  indulgences  were  given. 

(y)  The  Crusades  did  more  than  any- 
thing else  to  relax  penitential  rigour,  and 
this,  in  the  opLoion  of  Fleury,  was  the 
most  important  effect  they  produced. 
As  early  as  1087  Pope  Victor  II.  ofiered 
a  general  remission  of  penance  to  those 
who  took  up  arms  against  the  Saracens 
of  Africa,  after  they  had  spoiled  the  abbey 
of  Monte  Cassino.  In  1095  Urban  II. 
oflered  the  same  reward  to  those  who 
joined  in  the  crusade.  Secret  as  well  as 
public  sinners  availed  themselves  of  the 
opportunity  ;  and  when  for  two  hundred 
years  penance  had  been  remitted  to  vast 
multitudes  who  took  part  directly  or  in- 
directly in  those  wars,  it  became  out  of 
the  question  to  think  of  restoring  the 
ancient  rigour.  It  is  curious  to  observe 
that  bearing  arms  was  just  one  of  the 
things  which  penitents  in  ancient  times 
were  strictly  forbidden  to  do.  But  it  was 
supposed  that  the  prohibition  only  applied 
to  war  between  Christians. 

(S)  The  Scholastics  developed  the 
opinion  that  absolution  might  be  granted 


before  the  performance  of  penance,  that 
the  canonical  penalties  were  arbitrary,  or 
in  any  case  might  be  remitted  by  the 
confessor,  and  not  merely,  as  in  former 
days,  by  the  bishop. 

(e)  The  mendicant  friars,  who  were 
constantly  passing  from  place  to  place, 
became  the  favourite  confessors,  and  it 
was  impossible  for  them  to  defer  absolu- 
tion and  stay  to  watch  the  progress  of  the 
penitent. 

The  Pontifical  stUl  contains  an  office 
for  the  expulsion  of  penitents  from  the 
church  by  the  bishop  on  Ash  Wednesday. 
The  penitents  are  to  approach  in  peni- 
tential garb,  bare  feet,  &c. ;  ashes  are  to  be 

I  placed  on  their  beads,  and  the  doors  of 
the  church  shut  against  them  till  Holy 
Thursday.  Such  public  ignominy  is  to 
be  inflicted  only  for  enormous  crimes, 
and  by  the  authority  of  the  bishop,  peni- 
tentiary, or  other  official  to  whom  the 
power  has  been  delegated.  The  Council 
of  Trent,  however  (seas.  xxiv.  cap.  8), 
desires  that  public  (but  not  solemn) 
penance  be  inflicted  on  public  sinners, 
unless  the  bishop  judge  it  to  be  inex- 
pedient. St.  Charles  enforced  this  rule 
in  his  synods.  But  solemn  or  even 
public  penance  is  now  scarcely  knovm. 
Still,  in  an  English  book  published  at 
Douay  as  late  as  1743  with  ecclesiastical 
approbation  ("  The  Good  Confessor,"  &c., 
by  Samuel  Marley,  D.D.,  p.  522  seq.),  the 
imposition  of  public  penauce  for  public 
sin  is  strictly  enjoined  upon  the  confessor. 
It  is  suggested,  e.g.,  that  the  penitent 
kneel  at  the  church  door  during  the  chief 
Mass,  with  a  light  in  his  hands,  and  beg 

j  pardon  of  the  congi-egation.  Drunkenness 

^  is  given  as  an  example  of  a  sin  which 
should  be  expiated  in  this  way.  It  is 
evident  from  the  whole  chapter  that 

j  penances  of  this  kind  were  still  frequently 

I  imposed.  [Morinus  is  the  great  authority 
on  the  subject.    Chardon,  "Hist,  des 

.  Sacr."  tom.  iii.  iv.,  gives  a  clear  and  use- 
ful summary  of  the  facts.  A  much 
shorter  but  very  interesting  summary 
will  be  found  in  Fleury,  Discours  iv.  and 
vi.  The  writer  has  also  read  the  articles 
in  Kraus,  "  Real-Encycl.,"  and  in  Smith 
and  Cheetham,  but  without  finding  much 
that  had  not  akeady  been  given  by 
Morinus.    The  work  of  Wasserschleben, 

I  "  Bussordnungen  der  abendlandischen 
Kirche,"  Halle,  1851,  is  only  known  to 
him  from  the  references  in  Smith  and 
Cheetham.] 

PENZTEXTTZAK  PSAZ.»IS.  A 
name  given  to  seven  psalms  which  ex- 


PENSIONS 


PENTECOST  707 


press  sorrow  for  sin  and  desire  of  pardon. 
The  psalms  are  6,  31,  37,  50,  101,  129, 
142  (in  the  Latin  numeration).  Innocent 
III.  ordered  their  recitation  in  Lent ; 
Pius  V.  fixed  the  Fridays  in  Lent  after 
lauds  as  the  time  at  which  they  should 
be  said,  but  they  are  not  said  on  Good 
Friday  or  on  a  feast  of  nine  lessons.  There 
is  no  obligation  of  saying  them  in  the 
private  recitation  of  the"  Breviary,  though 
those  who  do  so  may  gain  an  indulgence 
of  fifty  days.  The  name  and  arrangement 
of  the  Penitential  Psalms  is  verj'  ancient. 
Possidius  tells  us  that  St.  Augustine, 
when  dying,  caused  the  penitential  psalms, 
which  are  few  in  number,  to  be  fixed  on 
the  wall  opposite  his  bed.  Probably  our 
penitential  psalms  are  meant.  Cassio- 
dorus  (d.  5(>5)  gives  a  mystical  reason 
for  the  number  seven — viz.  that  sin  is 
remitted  by  baptism,  martyrdom,  alms, 
forgiving  others,  converting  others,  abund- 
ance of  charity,  and  penance.  They  are 
also  mentioned  in  the  oldest  Eoman 
Ordines  ( Gavantus,  tom.  ii.  §  ix.  cap.  4). 
The  antiphon  "  Ne  reminiscaris "  from 
Tobias  iii.  3,  now  attached  to  these 
psalms  in  the  Roman  Breviary,  seems  to 
have  been  added  in  the  sixteenth  centuiy. 
(Maskell,  "  Monumenta  Rit."  vol.  iii. 
p.  82.) 

PEN-szoirs.  At  the  Ck)uncn  of 
Chalcedon,  Maximus,  who  had  a  short 
time  before  been  substituted  for  Domnus 
as  bishop  of  Antiocb,  requested  the 
sanction  of  the  Fathers  to  his  assigning 
a  pension  out  of  the  revenues  of  the  see 
sufficient  for  the  support  of  Domnus. 
The  legates  of  Pope  Leo,  the  other  patri- 
archs, the  entire  synod,  and  the  imperial 
judges  assented  to  the  request  in  prin- 
ciple, leaving  it  to  Maximus  to  arrange 
the  details  according  to  his  judgment  of 
what  was  necessary. 

Gregory  the  Great  used  to  send  clerks 
convicted  of  incontinence  to  various 
monasteries  for  penance,  but  required 
that  the  churches  to  which  they  belonged 
should  supply  them  with  adequate  pen- 
sions, so  that  they  should  not  be  a  burden 
on  the  monasteries. 

An  ecclesiastical  pension  is  not  canoni- 
cal or  permitted  except  under  the  follow- 
ing conditions :  1.  The  receiver  must  bs 
an  ecclesiastic,  free  from  censure  and 
irregularity;  2.  The  pension  must  be 
founded  on  a  just  cause;  3.  He  who 
creates  the  pension  must  have  the  faculty 
to  do  so,  and  such  faculties  are  granted 
by  the  Pope,  and  may  be,  as  some  theo- 
logians think,  by  the  bishops  also ;  4.  The 


I  enjoyment  of  the  pension  ceases  with  the 
!  natural  or  civil  death  of  the  pensioner 
(Thomassin,  "  Vet.  et  Nova  Eccl.  Disc." 
!  iii.  2,  29-31 ;  Moroni,  Permone  Ecclesias- 
tica.) 

PEIJ-TECOST.'  The  feast  of  Weeks 
(niy^i;'  JO)  was  one  of  the  three  great 
feasts  of  the  Jewish  law.  It  was  the 
feast  of  the  in-gathered  harvest,  and  the 
later  Jews  regarded  it  as  a  solemn  com- 
memoration of  the  Mosaic  legislation  in 
j  the  third  month  (Exod.  xix.  1) ;  but 
i  there  is  no  trace  of  such  a  view  in  the 
,  Bible,  or  even  in  Josephus  and  Philo.  It 
j  was  kept  on  the  fiftieth  day  after  the 
first  day  of  the  Passover,  Nisan  16,  the 
second  day  of  the  Paschal  least  being 
reckoned  as  the  first  of  the  fifty  davs 
(Lev.  xxiii.  15,  16;  cf.  Ew.  ""AlteV- 
thum,"  p.  309  seq  ).  Hence  the  Greek 
name  nft^rjKoaTr],  originally  an  adjective 
with  rjfjLtpa  understood,  and  then  treated 
as  an  independent  substantive  (ev  Tjj 
TTfVTrjKonTr)  iopTrj  t]  ivTiv  ayia  eirra 
e38ofj.aliwv,  Tob.  ii.  1.  There  is  nothing 
answering  to  this  in  the  Chaldee  or 
Hebrew  versions  as  given  by  Neubauer, 
or  in  the  Vulgate  ;  but  Sabatier's  "Itala" 
has  "  in  Penrt'costen  festo  nostro  qui  est 
sanctus  a  septem  annis'  ).  To  Christians 
the  day  became  specially  sacred,  for  on  it 
at  the  third  hour  (i.e.  about  nine  o'clock) 
the  Holy  Ghost  descended  miraculously 
on  the  Apostles.  The  ancient  tradition 
that  this  Pentecost  fell  on  a  Sunday  is 
confirmed  by  John  xviii.  28,  for  if  the 
Friday  on  which  Christ  died  was  the 
eve  of  the  Passover,  i.e.  Nisan  14,  then 
the  16th,  the  first  of  the  fifty  days,  and 
the  fiftieth  day  itself  must  both  have  been 
Sundays. 

Pentecost  was  kept  as  a  Christian 
festival  from  very  early  times.  The  word 
was  used  both  for  Whitsunday  and  for 
the  whole  period  of  fifty  days  after 
Easter.  Irenaeus  in  a  lost  work  on  the 
Pasch  is  said  to  have  mentioned  the 
custom  of  praying  erect  during  this  season 
(see  the  work  falsely  attributed  to  Justin 
Martyr,  "Quaest.  et  Respons."  115,  tom. 
iii.  P.  2,  p.  180,  in  Otto's  edition) ;  and 
Origen,  the  "Apostolic  Constitutions" 
V.  20),  as  well  as  the  Council  of  Elvira 
anno  SOG,  can.  43),  speak  of  the  feast  on 
the  day  itself.  There  was  no  fasting 
during  the  whole  period,  for  even  the 
fast  on  the  vigil  was  not  known  in  the 
early  Church ;  indeed,  Quesnel  thinks 

'  For  the  derivation  of  the  word  Whiisun- 
dav,  see  that  article. 

z  z  2 


708 


PERJURY 


PERPETUAL  ADORATION 


the  custom  in  the  Roman  Church  is  not 
older  than  the  twelfth  century,  though 
Meralus  and  Benedict  XIV.  ("  Ue  Festis," 
615)  believe  its  introduction  must  be 
placed  much  earlier.  The  Vifjil  of  Pente- 
cost was  one  of  the  two  days  on  which 
solemn  baptism  was  conferred,  and  hence 
the  Missal  prescribes  a  form  for  the  bless- 
ing of  the  font  on  that  day  [see  Whit- 
SuNDAX.]  Benedict  XIV.  also  mentions 
as  customs  which  prevailed  in  some 
places  the  blessing  of  the  candle,  for 
which  a  form  is  given  by  Marteue  ("  De 
Aiitiq.  Ecclesiae  Rit."),  the  blowing  of 
trumpets  at  the  Veni,  Sancte  Spiritus,  in 
the  Mass  of  Whitsunday,  the  discharge 
of  fire  from  the  roof,  the  letting  doves 
loose  in  the  church,  and  the  scattering  of 
roses.  The  vSundays  which  follow  till 
Advent  are  dated  from  Pentecost  in  the 
Roman  Calendar. 

PERTURY.  A  lie  confirmed  with  an 
oath.  To  call  God  as  a  witness  of  what 
is  false  implies  either  that  He  does  not 
know  the  truth  or  that  He  would  testily  \ 
to  what  is  false.  It  is  therefore  a  j 
grievous  sin  against  the  virtue  of  religion. 
(See  Oath  ;  St.  Thomas  2''  2»,  qu.  xcviii.)  I 

PERFETVAXi  ADORATZOIT  OF 
THE  BXiESSES  SACRAnXEM-T.  In 

very  aucieni  limes  perpetual  adoration  of 
God  by  psalm  and  prayer  was  maintained 
by  communities  of  monks,  e.t/.  by  the 
dKolfiijToi  in  the  East,  and  in  the  monas- 
teries of  Agaunum,  founded  by  King  Sigis- 
mund  in  522,  by  the  monks  of  Habendum 
in  Lorraine,  St.  Denis  and  St.  Germain 
in  Paris,  of  Corbie,  Dijon,  St.  Martin  in 
Tours,  St.  iSIt^dard,  St.  Mary  in  Soissons, 
&e.  Abbot  Augilbert  of  St.  Riquier  in 
Picardy,  who  died  in  814,  left  special 
directions  for  this  perpetual  adoration,  j 
When  it  died  out  in  Gaul,  and  whether  | 
it  ever  spread  into  other  lands,  is  not 
known  (Falle,  Ew.  Anbct.  im  MUtdalter, 
in  the  "  Katholik  "  for  1868,  ii.  228-32). 

It  was  in  France  also  that  the  per- 
petual adoration  of  the  Eucharist  begau. 
Anne  of  Austria  asked  her  confes^^or, 
M.  Picott6,  a  priest  of  St.  Sulpice,  to  make  a 
vow  in  her  name  to  God  for  the  deliverance 
of  France  from  the  scourge  of  war.  M. 
Picott(3  resolved  to  found  a  convent  of 
nuns  for  the  perpetual  adoration  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  and  chose  Mother 
Mechtilde  of  the  Holy  Sacrament  to 
carry  out  his  intention.  She  was  born  ki 
1614,  at  St.  Di(5  in  Lorraine,  and  was 
known  in  the  world  as  Catherine  de  Bar.  I 
She  became  a  nun  of  the  order  of  the 
Ammnciation,  and  afterwards,  when  her  I 


community  had  been  scattered  by  war, 
she  was  a  nun  and  then  an  abbess  in 
the  order  of  St.  Benedict.  The  troubles 
of  the  time  had  driven  her  from  place  to 
place.  She  was  at  Paris  at  the  time 
when  M.  Picott^  was  seeking  to  found 
his  convent,  and  having  ever  since  her 
fourteenth  year  intended  to  devote  her 
life  to  the  honour  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment, she  entered  readily  iuto  the  priest's 
design.  A  little  house  was  bought  in 
the  Rue  F^ron,  and  here  Mother  Mech- 
tilde with  her  sisters  begau  the  perpetual 
adoration  on  March  25, 1654.  The  sisters 
observe  the  primitive  rule  of  St.  Benedict 
in  all  its  rigour.  One  or  more  of  them 
is  always  kneeling  before  the  altar,  and 
on  Fridays  a  sister  kneels  there  with  a 
rope  round  her  neck  and  a  lighted  torch 
in  her  hand  from  prime  to  vespers,  to  do 
penance  for  sinners.  The  feast  of  the 
Annuuci;ition  is  ob.^erved  by  them  as  the 
feast  of  their  foundation.  Special  con- 
stitutions were  added  to  the  13enedictiue 
rule.  These  were  examined  at  Rome, 
amended,  done  into  Latin,  and  printed  by 
the  Camera  Apostolica  in  1705.  Soon  new 
houses  were  founded  and  old  Benedictine 
convents  incorporated.  At  present  the 
order  has  fifteen  houses  in  France,  one 
in  Alsace,  one  in  Poland,  four  in  Holland, 
all  of  which  last  are  occupied  by  exiled 
nuns  from  Germany. 

A  similar  order  is  that  of  the  Mona- 
chette  del  Corpus  Domini,  founded  in  the 
Papal  States  by  Hyacintha  of  Bossi  in 
1683.  The  nuns  are  tertiaries  of  St. 
Dominic. 

In  1701  the  Abbess  of  the  Convent 
of  Notre  Dame  de  Valdorne  in  Cham- 
pagne established  a  convent  for  perpetual 
adoration  at  Charenton,  near  Paris.  The 
rule  is  that  of  St.  Benedict  with  relaxa- 
tions. A  convent  of  Augustinians  was 
devoted  to  the  same  purpose  at  Marseilles 
by  Father  Le  Quien.  At  Rome  a  con- 
gregation of  Franciscan  tertiaries  (en- 
closed), united  for  this  purpose,  was 
established  in  1807  by  Mary  Magdalene 
of  the  Incarnation.  They  received  spe- 
cial constitutions  in  1818.  Their  first 
church  was  that  of  SS.  Joachim  and 
Anna  by  the  Quattro  Fontaue :  later, 
Gregory  XVI.  gave  them  the  church  and 
spacious  convent  of  St.  Mary  .Magdalene 
on  the  Qu/-"  Jial,  which  they  still  occupy. 
They  have  also  houses  at  Naples  and 
Innsbruck. 

Tlie  example  of  these  orders  has  been 
followed  by  many  other  communities  of 
men  and  women  in  various  orders,  who 


PERSECUTIONS 


PERSECUTIOXS  709 


keep  up  the  perpetual  adoration.  There 
are  twelve  such  communities  in  Switzer- 
land. In  France  the  devotion  is  followed 
hy  several  male  and  feuiale  communities 
of  the  confrrep:al  ion  of  Picpus,  by  the 
Peres  du  Tres-Saint  Sacremeut  at  Paris, 
founded  by  Father  Eudes,  by  the  Dames 
R^paratrices  in  the  Rue  d'Ulm  at  Paris 
and  at  Lisle ;  in  Belgium  by  the  Dames 
du  St.  Sacrenient,  instituted  at  Brussels 
by  the  Jesuit  Father  Boone,  and  by  the 
Dames  Reparatrices  at  Liege,  who  were 
founded  by  the  Countess  d'Outremont, 
and  have  a  novitiiits  at  Brussels ;  in 
Germany  by  the  Servite  Nuns  at  Munich 
and  the  Franciscan  nuns  at  Mayence  ;  in 
England  by  at  least  two  or  three  convents 
of  Benedictine  nuns.  Lastly,  various  lay 
confi-atemitifs  have  endeavoured,  so  far  as 
possible,  to  carry  out  the  perpetual  adora- 
tion. Some  or  them  are  affiliated  as  a 
kind  of  third  order  to  the  institute  of 
Mother  Mechtilde.  (Kaulen,  in  the  new 
edition  of  "  Kirchenlexikon.") 

PERSECVTXON-S  (during  the  first 
six  centuries).  An  exhaustive  essay, 
"  Christenverfolgungen,"  &c.  on  this  sub- 
ject has  lately  appeared  in  the  "  Real- 
Encyklopadie  of  Christian  Antiquities," 
edited  by  Dr.  Kraus.  The  limits  of  the 
present  work  penuit  us  only  to  give  a 
brief  general  outline  of  the  principal 
facts. 

During  the  first  century  Christianity 
was  to  a  great  extent  confounded  with 
Judaism  in  the  eyes  of  the  Roman 
officials,  and  since  the  latter  was  a 
reliyio  licita,  the  former  shared  the  same 
privilege.  The  persecutions  under  Nero 
and  Domitian  were  local  and  occasional ; 
no  systematic  design  of  extirpating  Chris- 
tianity dictated  them.  Gradually,  partly 
because  the  Jews  took  pains  to  sever 
their  cause  from  that  of  the  Christians, 
partly  because,  in  proportion  as  Chris- 
tianity was  better  understood,  the  uni- 
versality of  its  claim  on  human  thought 
and  conduct,  and  its  e.*sential  incompati- 
bility with  pagan  ideas,  came  out  into 
stronger  relief,  the  antagonism  gi-ew 
sharper,  and  the  purpose  of  repression 
more  settled.  Charges,  various  in  their 
nature,  were  brought  against  the  Chris- 
tians ;  they  were  trea.sonablt;  men  (majes- 
tatis  rei)  who  denied  to  the  emperors  a 
portion  of  their  attributes  and  dignity; 
they  were  atheist.^,  who,  so  far  from 
honouring  the  gods  of  the  empire,  declared 
that  they  were  devils ;  they  were  dealers 
in  magic  ;  lastly,  they  practised  a  foreign 
and  unlawful  religion  (religiv  pereyrina 


iUii-ita).  Posse.«.-;ed  by  such  conceptions, 
a  high  Roman  official,  especially  if  lie  were 
a  man  of  arbitrary  or  brutal  character, 
or  if  Christians  were  indiscreet,  could  not 
lack  pretext  in  abundance  for  persecution, 
even  before  any  general  edict  of  proscrip- 
tion had  appeared.  The  rescript  of  Tra- 
jan (98-117)  directed  the  policy  of  the 
government  for  a  hundred  years.  "  Search," 
he  said,  "is  not  to  be  made  for  Christians; 
if  they  are  arrested  and  accused  before  the 
tribunals,  then  if  any  one  of  them^enies 
that  he  is  a  Christian,  and  proves  it  by 
offering  sacrifice  to  our  gods,  he  is  to  be 
pardoned."  The  implication  was,  of 
course,  that  those  who  avowed  their 
Christianity  and  refused  to  sacrifice  were 
to  be  executed,  as  the  adherents  of  an 
unlawful  religion.  All  through  the 
second  century,  the  popular  sentiment, 
whenever  a  Christian  was  put  on  his  trial, 
raged  against  the  accused ;  the  mob,  still 
for  the  most  part  pagan,  believed  every 
wild  and  monstrous  calumny  that  was 
afloat  against  the  sect.  "  If  the  Tiber 
overflows,"  says  Tertullian,  "  if  the  Nile 
does  not  overflow,  if  there  is  a  drought, 
an  earthquake,  a  sciircity,  or  a  pestilence, 
straightway  the  people  cry,  'The  Chris- 
tians to  the  lions." "  This  popular  aver- 
sion is  noticed  in  the  reports  of  the  per- 
secution in  Asia  Minor,  in  which  St. 
j  Poly  carp  suSered  (probably  about  155, 
!  under  Antoninus  Pius),  and  of  the  terrible 
slaughter  of  Christians  at  Lyons  and 
Vienne  under  Marcus  Aurelius.  In  202 
Severus  issued  a  formal  edict  forbidding 
'  conversions  either  to  the  Jewish  or  the 
Christian  religion  under  heavy  penalties. 
The  persecution  which  ensued  lasted  ten 
or  eleven  years ;  but  from  about  212  to 
the  reign  of  Decius  (249-251)  was  a  time 
of  comparative  peace,  and  Christians 
multiplied  in  every  direction.  Even  upon 
the  general  population  an  impression  was 
by  this  time  made;  and  the  attitude  of  the 
mob,  in  the  persecutions  of  Cbri^tians 
which  happened  after  the  middle  oi  the 
third  century,  was  at  first  apathetic,  then 
respectful,  finally  even  compassionate. 
Under  Decius,  who  was  an  enthusiast  for 
the  ancient  glories  of  the  republic  and 
empire,  the  systematic  general  persecu- 
tions began,  which  aimed  at  stamping  out 
Christianity  altogether.  Fabian,  the 
bishop  of  Rome,  and  St.  Agatha  in  Sicily, 
were  among  the  victims  of  the  Decian 
storm.  Fortunately  it  was  short ;  but 
when  it  had  passed  over,  the  number  of 
the  lapsi,  or  those  who  in  various  degi-ces 
had  given  way  under  the  pressure,  was 


710 


PERSECUTIONS 


found  to  be  very  great.  Under  Gallus 
there  was  peace,  but  Valerian  (257)  re- 
newed the  persecution.  The  martyrdoms 
of  St.  La-m-ence,  St.  Cyprian,  and  St. 
Fructuosus  of  Tarragona,  date  from  about 
this  time.  Again,  from  260  (in  which 
year  an  edict  of  Gallienus  declared  Chris- 
tianity to  be  a  legal  religion),  to  300,  the 
gOTemment  left  the  Christians  undis- 
turbed except  for  a  few  months  (270) 
under  Aurelian.  In  303,  the  terrible 
persecution  of  Diocletian  was  ushered  in 
by  the  destruction  of  the  great  church  at 
Nicomedia.  On  the  next  day  appeared  an 
edict,  ordering  that  all  buildings  used  for 
religious  worship  by  the  Christians  should 
be  destroyed,  and  that  their  sacred  books 
should  be  given  up  to  the  authorities  and 
burnt.  Christians  themselves  were  de- 
clared to  be  outlawed  and  civilly  dead ; 
they  were  to  have  no  remedy  in  the 
courts  against  those  who  did  them  wrong; 
and  they  were  to  be  subject,  in  every 
rank,  to  torture.  A  second  edict  ordered 
that  all  bishops  and  priests  should  be 
imprisoned  ;  a  third,  that  such  prisoners 
should  be  compelled  by  every  possible 
means  to  ofler  sacrifice  to  the  gods.  The 
extreme  violence  of  this  persecution  did 
not  last  beyond  two  years ;  but  in  that 
time  the  blood  of  martyrs  flowed  abund- 
antly in  Palestine,  Italy,  Gaul,  Spain,  and 
Britain.  A  detailed  account  of  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  Christians  in  Palestine 
may  be  read  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Histoiy 
of  Eusebius.  For  some  years  after  the 
abdication  of  Diocletian  (305)  civil  war 
desolated  the  empire ;  but,  after  the  full 
of  Maxentius,  Constantine  and  Licinius, 
about  the  beginning  of  313,  published  the 
famous  edict  of  Milan,  by  which  complete 
toleration  was  given  to  the  Christians,  and 
Christianity  was  placed  on  a  footing  of 
perfect  e<]uality  with  what  had  been  till 
now  the  State  religion.  This  edict  was 
published  .«ome  months  later  at  Nico- 
media,  so  that  both  in  East  and  West 
the  period  of  martyrdom  was  closed. 

The  persecution  of  Julian  (361-3) — 
although  martyrdoms  were  not  wanting, 
e.g.  those  of  SS.  John  and  Paul — consisted 
rather  in  a  studied  exclusion  of  Christians 
from  the  favour  of  the  coiurt  and  govern- 
ment, together  with  a  prohibition  of 
teaching  rhetoric,  literature,  and  philo- 
sophy, than  in  actual  measures  of  coer- 
cion. 

For  a  notice  of  the  prolonged  perse- 
cution of  the  Christians  in  Persia  under 
the  Sassanides,  see  Missions  (fifth  cen- 
tury). 


PETEll'S  CHAINS,  FEAST  OF 

The  cruel  persecution  of  the  Catholics 
in  Africa  by  their  Vandal  conquerors, 
under  (4eiseric  {Gemeric),  Hunneric,  and 
his  suceessoi-s  (439-523),  was  motived 
partly  by  the  hatred  and  contempt  which 
these  Teutons  bore  to  all  of  Roman  blood 
or  nurture,  partly  by  the  inevitable 
antagonism  between  the  Arian  heresy 
which  they  professed  and  the  Catholic 
creed,  and  partly  by  the  policy  of  hum- 
bling and  weakening  those  whom  they 
could  not  hope  to  attach  sincerely  to 
their  government. 

The  persecutions  of  the  Spanish 
Catholics  by  the  Arian  Visigothic  kings 
Euric  and  Leovigild,  in  the  filth  and  sixth 
centuries,  were  of  no  great  intensity. 

PERSOSr.    [See  Trinity.] 

PETER'S  CHAINS,  FEAST  OF. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, and  how  long  before  that  it  is 
impossible  to  determine,  the  festival  of 
St.  Peter  ad  Vincula  was  celebrated  at 
Rome  on  August  1.  The  Greeks  keep 
the  corresponding  feast  on  January  16; 
the  Armenians  on  January  22.  One  of 
the  lessons  in  the  Roman  Breviary  for  the 
day  relates  that  the  Empress  Eudocia, 
wife  of  Theod'isius  the  Younger,  having 
obtained  during  a  visit  to  Jerusalem  the 
j  chains  with  which  the  Apostle  had  been 
bound  by  Herod's  order,  and  from  which 
he  was  miraculously  set  free  (Acts  xii.), 
brought  them  to  Constantinople  (439) 
and  having  deposited  one  of  them  in  the 
church  of  St.  Peter  in  that  city,  sent  the 
other  to  Rome  as  a  present  to  her  daughter 
Eudoxia,  who  had  married  Valentinian 
III.  Papebroch  the  Bollandist,  who  has 
a  long  dissertation  on  St.  Peter's  chains, 
under  date  June  29,  and  Baronius  (a.  4-39), 
are  both  inclined  to  accept  this  story. 
There  seems  no  means  of  fixing  the  date 
at  which  it  first  foimd  its  way  into  the 
Breviary.  * 

But,  besides  these  Palestinian  chains, 
a  very  early  tradition  knew  of  other 
chains  borne  by  St.  Peter,  those,  namely, 
with  which  he  was  bound  in  the  Mamer- 
tine  prison  at  Rome  during  the  Neronian 
persecution.  The  Acts  of  Pope  Alex- 
ander, bishop  of  Rome,  between  121  and 
l.')2,  are  believed  by  Papebroch  to  be 
genuine,  and  to  have  been  compiled  before 
250.  In  these  Acts  a  certain  St.  Balbina 
is  spoken  of  as  having  sought  and  found 
the  chains  of  St  .  Peter,  which  she  gave 
in  charge  to  Theodora,  sifter  of  Hermes, 
the  Pnefectus  Urbis.  These  must  have 
been  the  Neronian  chains,  for  neither 
tradition  nor  probability  permits  th& 


PETEK  C5  PEXCE 


PETEK'S  PENCE  711 


supposition  of  a  trausl'er  of  the  Pales- 
tinian chains  to  Rome  at  that  remote 
date. 

In  a  sermon  "De  Vinculis,"  attributed 
to  Beda,  it  is  said  that  this  Pope  Alexander 
instituted  a  feast  on  August  1  in  honour 
of  St.  Peter,  and  built  the  church  called 
ad  Vincula,  in  which  his  chains  were 
wont  to  be  kissed  by  a  devout  people. 
Filings  of  the  chains  of  St.  Peter  were 
Irom  a  very  early  period  enclosed  b}-  Popes 
in  rings  or  keys,  and  sent  to  friends  or 
correspondents  to  whom  it  was  desired  to 
show  special  favour.  To  this  practice,  in 
the  opinion  of  Papebroch,  St.  Augustine 
refers  when  he  says  that,  "deservedly, 
through  aU  the  churches  of  Christ,  the 
iron  of  those  penal  chains  is  esteemed 
more  precious  than  gold."  ' 

No  Greek  writer  speaks  of  the  re- 
moval of  one  of  the  chains  to  Rome,  nor 
mentions  Eudocia  in  connection  with 
them.  There  is,  however,  a  Greek  ora- 
tion, extant  in  MS.  in  several  Italian 
libraries,  on  St.  Peter's  chains.  Though 
commonly  attributed  to  St.  John  Chry- 
sostom,  it  is  of  uncertain  date  and  author- 
ship ;  Baronius  would  assign  it  to  Proclus 
or  Germanus,  patriarchs  of  Constanti- 
nople in  the  seventh  century  ;  Papebroch 
sees  no  reason  why  it  should  not  really 
have  been  written  by  Chrysostom.  In 
this  oration  it  is  merely  stated  that  the 
first  Christian  emperors  brought  a  chain 
(not  chains)  from  Jerusalem  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  placed  it  in  the  church 
of  St.  Peter. 

Two  Roman  churches  at  the  present 
day  recall  the  bonds  of  St.  Peter ;  one, 
S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli,  is  on  the  Esquiline 
Hill,  the  other,  .S.  Pietro  in  Carcere,  on 
the  Capitol.  In  the  former  is  preserved 
the  chain  said  to  have  been  given  to 
Eudoxia;^  the  latter  is  on  or  near  the 
site  of  the  prison  in  which  the  Apostle 
was  incarcerated. 

The  feast  of  this  day  was  called  by 
our  Saxon  ancestors  Lammas — i.e.  Loaf- 
Mass  ;  *  solemn  thanksgiving  being  made 
on  it  for  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  and  offer- 
ings presented. 

FSTER'S  PEircx:  (denarius  S. 
Petri,  liom-gesceot.  Rom-scot).    An  an- 

'  Serm.  39,  De  Sanctis. 

2  In  one  form  of  the  martyrology  of  Dsuard 
(Ada  Sancturum,  June,  vol.  vii.)  there  is  a 
Icfjend  to  the  eflect  that  when  the  chain  sent  to 
Eudoxia  from  Constantinople  was  brought  in 
contact  with  the  Xeronian  chain,  the  two 
miraculously  cohered.  See  also  the  lesson  for 
the  day  in  the  Roman  breviary. 

5  A.-S.  IHaf-Maesse. 


I  nual  tax  of  one  penny  for  every  house  in 
England,  collected  at  Midsummer,  and 
j  paid  to  the  Holy  See.  It  was  extended 
I  to  Ireland  under  the  bull  granted  by 
Pope  Adrian  to  Henry  H.^  The  earliest 
documentary  mention  of  it  seems  to  be 
the  letter  of  Canute  (1031),  sent  from 
Rome  to  the  English  clergy  and  laity.* 
Among  the  "  dues  which  we  owe  to  God 
according  to  ancient  law,"  the  King 
names  "the  pennies  which  we  owe  to 
Rome  at  St.  Peter's  "  (denarii quos  Roma 
ad  Sanctum  Petrum  debemus),  "  whether 
from  towns  or  vills."  It  may  hence  be 
considered  certain  that  the  tax  was 
deemed  one  of  ancient  standing  in  the 
time  of  Canute,  but  its  exact  origin  is 
variously  related.  West  Saxon  writers 
ascribe  the  honour  (for  it  was  regarded 
as  an  honour  by  our  forefathers)  of  its 
institution  to  kings  of  Wessex ;  Matthew 
Paris,  who  i-epresents  Mercian  traditions, 
gives  it  to  Olla,  king  of  Mercia.  Malmes- 
bury  makes  Ethelwulf,  the  father  of 
Alfred,  the  founder;  so  that  the  same 
king  who  instituted  tithes  would  on  this 
view  have  established  "Peter's  Pence." 
But  a  writer  very  little  later  than  Malmes- 
bury — Henry  of  Huntingdon — attributes 
the  grant  to  Otia,  king  of  Mercia,  who 
"gave  to  the  Vicar  of  St.  Peter,  the 
Bishop  of  Rome,  a  fixed  rent  for  every 
house  in  his  kingdom  for  ever."  Matthew 
Paris,  in  his  "  Two  Offas "  (printed  by 
Wats),  gives  the  Mercian  tradition  in  an 
expanded  form.  OtI'a,  visiting  Rome  in 
great  state,  besides  other  munificent 
offerings,  burdens  his  kingdom  with  tlie 
"  Rom-scot,''  which  is  to  be  paid  to  the 
Roman  Church  for  the  support  of  the 
English  school  and  hostel  at  Rome.  It 
was  to  be  one  silver  penny  {argenteus) 
for  every  family  occupying  land  worth 
thirty  pence  a  year.  On  the  other  hand, 
Layamon,  the  poet  (writing  about  1209, 
among  ^^'est  Saxon  traditions),  ascribes 
the  institution  to  Ina,  a  king  of  Wessex. 
No  certain  conclusion  can  be  arrived  at ; 
but,  on  the  whole,  it  seems  probable  that 
the  "  Rom-scot  "  owed  its  louiulation  to 
Otia,  with  whose  prosperous  and  success- 
ful reign  the  initiation  of  the  thing 
would  be  more  in  keeping  than  with  the 
troubled  times  of  Ethelwulf,  although 
the  latter  may  well  have  consented  to 
extend  that  which  had  been  before  only  a 

1  Matth.  Paris,  ed.  Wats,  p.  95.  But,  as  is 
well  known,  the  genuineness  of  this  bull  is  now 
disputed  (see  the  last  volume  of  the  Analecta 
Ponlijicia). 

Flor.  of  Wore.  a.  1031. 


712  PETROBRUSIAKS 


PHILOSOPHY 


Mercian  impost  to  the  West  Saxon  part 
of  his  dominions. 

The  "  alms,"  '  sent  by  Alfred  to  Pope 
Mariniis,  who  then  "  freed  "  the  English 
school  at  Rome,  were  probably  nothing 
more  than  arrears  of  Peter's  pence,  the 
receipt  of  which  made  it  possible  for  the 
Pope  to  free  the  inhabitants  in  the  Eng- 
lish quarter,  and  the  pilgrims  resorting 
to  it  for  hospitality,  from  all  tax  and  toll. 
Geoflrey  Gaimar  ^  is  responsible  for  the 
cui-ious  statement  that,  in  consideration 
of  the  Peter's  pence  (the  "dener  de  la 
meison")  given  by  Canute,  the  Pope 
made  him  his  legate,  and  ordered  that  no 
Englishman  charged  with  crime  should 
be  imprisoned  abroad,  or  exiled,  but 
should  "purge  himself  in  his  own  land." 

It  is  probable  that  there  was  at  all 
times  great  irregularity  in  the  payment  of 
the  Rom-scot.  It  is  recorded  (Sax.  Ohr.) 
to  have  been  sent  to  Rome  in  1095,  by 
the  hands  of  the  Papal  nuncio,  after  an 
intermission  of  many  years.  Again,  we 
read  (ih.)  of  a  legate  coming  into  England 
in  1123,3  after  the  Rom-scot.  From  1534 
it  ceased  to  be  rendered. 

The  tribute,  or  cess,  of  1,000  marks 
(700  for  England,  300  for  Ireland), 
which  King  John  bound  himself  and  his 
heirs  to  pay  to  the  Roman  see,  in  recog- 
nition of  the  feudal  dependence  of  his 
kingdom,  was  of  course  wholly  distinct 
ft-om  the  Peter's  pence.  After  being 
paid  by  Henry  III.  and  Edward  II.,  but 
withheld  by  Edward  I.  and  Edward  HI., 
it  was  formally  claimed  with  arrears,  in 
1366,  by  Urban  V.  The  Holy  See  was 
then  at  Avignon,  and  the  fear  that 
money  sent  it  from  England  would  be 
used  in  some  way  for  the  advantage  of 
France,  was  what  chiefly  caused  the 
rejection  of  the  claim.  (See  Lewis's 
"Lifeof  Wyclif,"p.  849.) 

PETROBRVSZAsrs.  An  heretical 
sect  of  the  twelfth  century;  the  leaders 
of  which,  Peter  de  Bruys  and  Henricus, 
in  80  far  as  they  attacked  the  hierarchy 
and  preached  simplicity  of  life,  may  be 
regarded  as  the  forerunners  of  Arnold  of 
Brescia.  A  letier  of  Peter  the  Vener- 
able,^ abbot  of  Cluny,  is  the  chief  source 
of  information  respecting  th^m.  Bruys 
propagated  his  opinions  in  Languedoc  in 
the  first  twenty  years  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury; he  perished  at  the  stake,  through 
a  movement  of  popular  exasperation,  in 

I  Sax.  dir.  883. 

*  See  Moil.  Hist.  Brit.  p.  821. 
S  Sax:  Chron. 

*  Miiriie,  Patrol,  vol.  189. 


1124.  Henricus  (who  may  perhaps  be 
identified  with  the  "  Henricus  haereticus  " 
mentioned  by  Matthew  Paris  under  the 
year  1151),  after  a  long  career  of  success, 
partly  in  Maine,  but  chiefly  in  Southern 
France,  was  tried  at  the  council  held  at 
Rheims,  by  Eugenius  III.,  in  1148,  and 
sentenced  to  perpetual  imprisonment. 
He  died  in  the  following  year.  Tlie 
following  abstract  of  the  Petrobrusiau 
tenets  is  given  by  a  Protestant  writer  : ' 
"They  were  strongly  opposed  to  infant 
baptism,  saying  that  you  could  wash  a 
young  child's  skin,  but  you  could  not 
cleanse  his  mind  at  that  early  age.  They 
objected  to  the  building  and  using  of 
churches,  declaring  that  God  could  hear 
us  whether  we  prayed  in  a  tavern  or  a 
church,  in  a  market-place  or  in  a  temple, 
before  an  altar  or  before  a  stall.  They 
maintained  that  crosses,  instead  of  ))eing 
held  in  reverence,  should  be  destroyed  and 
cast  away ;  that  the  instrument  by  which 
Christ  had  suflered  such  agonies  ought 
not  to  be  made  an  object  of  veneration 
but  of  execration.  They  denied  the  Real 
Presence  in  the  Eucharist.  Prayers  and 
Masses  for  the  dead  they  utterly  ridi- 
culed, and  said  that  God  was  insulted  by 
church  singing;  as  He  took  pleasure 
only  in  holy  aflections,  shrill  voices  and 
musical  strains  could  neither  win  nor 
appease  Him." 

PHZXiOSOPH'S'.  We  are  compelled 
from  want  of  space  to  forego  any  attempt 
at  a  history  of  philosophy  as  pursued  within 
the  Church,  and  must  confine  oiu-selves  to 
the  accepted  definition  of  philosophy,  a 
brief  sketch  of  its  development,  and  a  few 
words  on  its  relation  to  faith.  There  was 
really  no  systematic  philosophy  in  the 
Church  ^  tiU  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 

t  J.  C.  Morison,  in  his  Life  and  Times  of 
St.  Bernard ;  not  a  very  wise  book,  but  never 
consciously  imfair. 

-  Ntir.'of  course,  in  the  New  Testament, 
where  philosophy  is  onlv  mentioned  once,  and 
then  in  a  bad  sense  (Coi.  ii.  8).  On  the  other 
liand,  Kreat  attention  has  'Deen  given  bv  recent 
scholars — e.ff.  Ewald  and  1  )elitzsch  in  Germany ; 
Hookyas,  Kuenen,  and  Tiele  in  Holland — to  the 
"wisdom  "of  the  0.  T.  writers.  The  "wise" 
men,  or  sages,  were  undoubtedly  a  recognised 
class  among  the  Hebrews. distinct  from  the  priests 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  prophets  on  the  other 
(see  e.g  Jer.  xviii.  18).  Now,  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible — specially  in  Proverbs,  Job,  and  Eccle- 
siastes — we  have  the  remains  of  this  "  wisdom 
literature,"  and  it  has  this  marked  characteristic. 
The  Jewish  law,  all  the  national  prerogatives 
and  peculiarities  of  Israel,  tail  into  the  back- 
ground. So,  on  the  other  hand,  does  )>ropbetic 
revelation  (only  once  alluded  to  in  Prov. — viz. 
xxix.  18).   The  wisdom  is  natural,  and  not 


PHILOSOPHY 


PHILOSOPHY  715 


centuries,  -when  tlie  physical  and  meta- 
physical works  of  Aristotle  became  known 
in  translations.  Some  of  the  Fathers 
condemned  philosophy  altogether  (so,  e.g., 
Irenajus,  "  Adv.  Haer."  ii.  14,  2  ;  ii.  25,  5 ; 
ii.  14,  5;  TertuUian,  "  Praescr."  7  ;  the 
author  of  the  "Philosophiimena,"  vii.  19). 
Tatian  and  Hermias,  among  the  Apolo- 
gists, are  equally  bitter.  Theophilus  ("Ad 
Autol."  ii.  8,  12;  iii.  3,  7,  17)  qualifies 
blame  with  faint  praise.  St.  Athanasius 
professes  his  ignorance  of  a  common 
philosophical  term,  and  Basil  his  dislike  of 
philosophy  in  general  (see  Newman's  note 
in  the  "Oxford  Athanasius,"  p.  52). 
Aristotle  was  regarded  with  special  aver- 
sion (Iren.  ii.  14,  5;  Tertull.  "  Prsescr." 
7 ;  "  Philosophum."  vii.  19).  Others 
found  in  the  heathen  philosophers  an 
acknowledgment  of  Christian  mysteries, 
and  looked  on  philosophy  as  a  jireparation 
for  Christ  (so  Justin,  of  the  Stoics  and 
Heraclitus,  "  Ap."  2,  8 :  of  Socrates,  ib. 
10;  Clem.  Al.  "Strom."  i.  5,  p.  331,  3-33; 
with  reference  to  Plato,v.l3, p.  G96;  vi.15, 
p.  802;  V.13,  p.  697;  v.  14,  p.  714;  Ori- 
gen,  e.g."C  Cels."  vi.  8,  where  he  quotes 
a  spurious  passage  of  Plato  to  show  that 
he  knew  the  "  Son  of  God  ").  Now,  both 
these  views,  in  spite  of  their  opposition 
to  each  other,  agree  in  this,  that  they 
conceive  of  philosophy  as  external  to 
Christianity.  To  Clement  and  those  who 
think  with  him,  philosophy  is  a  friendly 
power  which,  partly  from  the  "  light 
which  lightens  every  man,"  partly  by  bor- 
rowing from  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  leads 
men  to  Christ ;  to  Irenaeus  and  others  it  is 
a  dangerous  rival  of  the  Church.  The 
views  are  not  really  far  apart,  and  the 
adherents  of  neither  ever  reached  the 
scholastic  theory  that  philosophy  and 
theology  are  two  independent  sciences, 
each  of  which  has  a  province  of  its  own ; 

dogmatic ;  cosmopolitan,  not  Israelite.  Its 
main  object  is  to  regulate  life  by  the  d.itii  of 
experience.  For  this  reason  the  prophets  pro- 
test afiainst  some  manifestations  of  this  "  wis- 
dom." as  being  godless  (Isa.  v.  24  ;  xxix.  14  ; 
Jer.  iv.  2-1 ;  viii.  9  ;  ix.  -23),  while  they  show 
at  the  saiiii.-  time  the  iiillm  nee  of  this  ■'  wi>dom," 
or  giiniiiic,  litoralurc-  (heir  own  style  (see, 
espeeiallv,  Is.'i.  xxviii.  L'.S--.';)).  So  f.ir,  then, 
Proverbs  ..Inb.  Kr..  ..ccupy  the  |iositiou  of 
philosophy  ;  liul  llu'  Hebrew  wisdom  "  is  not 
specula  I  ivi,  l>iu  pr.iel  ical.  The  Helirew  ■' sages" 
con-csiioiid,  noi  to  the  Greek  philosophers,  but 
to  the  Greel;  "sages,"  the  wise  men  who  pre- 
ceded the  iihilosophere.  Sensible  remarks  on 
the  whole  sul>ject  are  made  by  Kucnen — 
Ondcizmh,  vol.  iii.  p.  88 — and  Tiel'e  haB  treated 
the  matter  admirably — Egypt,  en  Metopotam. 
Godsditnsten,  p  629  seq. 


Augustine,  even,  has  no  formal  and  com- 
plete system  of  philosophy  ;  and  though 
at  the  close  of  the  patristic  period  logic 
was  zealously  cultivated,  a  philosophy  in 
the  strict  sense  had  not  begun  to  be.  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  eleventh  century 
speculations  on  the  nature  of  universal 
ideas  began  to  excite  attention  in  the 
Church,  though  the  dispute  was  conducted 
in  great  measure  with  reference  tc  the 
mysteries  of  the  Trinity  and  Incarnation, 
so  that  it  was  half-theological,  half-philo- 
sophical. Roscelin,  canon  of  Compiegne 
(about  1089),  propounded  the  Nominalist 
view  that  universals  are  mere  abstractions 
from  individual  things ;  he  was  a  Tritheist 
in  theology,  was  condemned  at  Soissons 
in  1092,  and  opposed  by  the  Realists 
William  of  Champeaux  (d.  1121)  and 
Anselm  of  Canterbury  (d.  1109).  Up  to 
this  time  only  a  few  of  Aristotle's  logical 
works  were  known  in  the  West  ("Cat eg." 
"De  Interpret."  besides  Porphyry's  "  Isa- 
goge";  after  1128,  Aristotle's  "  Analytica  " 
and  "Topica").  About  1200,  tran.slations 
of  Aristotle's  metaphysical  and  physical 
writings  appeared,  and  the  influence  of 
the  great  Arabic  commentators  on  Ari- 
stotle (Avicenna,  b.  980  ;  the  Pantheist 
Averroes,  1113-1198)  began  to  tell. 
These  metaphysical  studie.s  met  with  great 
opposition.  A  council  of  Paris  in  1210 
ordered  Aristotle's  metaphysical  works  to 
be  burnt  (Fleury,  "H.  E."  Ixxvii.  59); 
and  the  Papal  legate,  Robert  of  Cour^on, 
in  1215  forbade  the  use  of  Aristotle's 
physical  or  metaphysical  works,  and  this 
by  order  of  Pope  Innocent  III.  (Fleury, 
Ixxvii.  39).  This  decree  was  modified 
by  Gregory  IX.,  and  practicallj-  abrogated 
by  Urban  V.,  and  soon  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy  became  supreme  in  the  AVest. 
The  Franciscan  Alexander  of  Hales,  bom 
in  Gloucestershire  (d.  1245^,  was  the  first 
scholastic  who  was  acquamted  with  all 
the  works  of  Aristotle  and  knew  some- 
thing of  the  Arabian  commentators. 
Albert  the  Great  (1193-1280),  St.  Thomas 
of  Aquin  (1225  or  7-1274),  Duns  Scotus 
(d.  1308),  difi'ering  as  they  did  on  many 
points,  philosophical  and  theological,  were 
all  Aristotelians.  All  distinguished  be- 
tween the  provinces  of  faith  and  reason, 
accepted  the  decisions  of  the  Climcli  as 
supreme  in  the  former,  and  followed 
Aristotle  as  the  great  repiTscntative  of 
human  reason.  A  much  iVerr  ])o>iti(iu 
with  respect  to  Aristotle  was  niaintainfd 
by  the  later  Nominalists.  Tlie  tirst  areat 
leader  of  this  school  was  the  Franciscan 
Occam  (provincial  in  England,  theologian 


7U  PHILOSOPHY 


PHILOSOPHY 


to  Louis  of  Bavaria,  d.  1347),  who  aban- 
doned the  Scotism  of  his  order.  He  was 
followed  by  some  Dominic-aiis — e.(j.  bv  the 
Englishman  Robert  Iloli-ott,  liy  tlu>  i:;reat 
Frenchmen  Peter  d'Aillv  and  Gerson  (d. 
14-^9),  and  by  Gabriel  Biel  (d.  14U5),  tlie 
last  great  Nominalist.  The  Aristotelian 
philosophy,  on  the  whole,  held  its  own 
within  the  Chnrch  till  the  time  of  De.s- 
cartes.  Jesuits  like  Suarez  choose,  indeed, 
Ijetween  St.  Thomas  and  Scotus,  but  they 
are  professed  Aristotelians. 

To  the  Scholasticsgenerally  philosophy 
is  the  "  science  of  things  through  their 
ultimate  causes,  so  far  as  such  .science  is 
attainable  by  the  light  of  nature."  We 
say  by  "  ultimate  causes,"  for,  whereas 
lower  sciences,  such  as  mechanics,  chem- 
istry, &c.,  borrow  principles  from  other 
seience.s,  philosophy  borrows  from  no 
other  science :  it  considers  "  being  as 
being,"  the  nature  of  things  in  their 
widest  aspect.  It  either  deals  with 
"  being"  in  itself  or  with  "  being"  as  the 
object  of  and  as  ordered  by  reasoning,  or 
with  "  being  "  as  the  object  of  and  ordered 
by  the  will.  The  two  latter  classes  {ens 
rationale  and  morale)  are  the  subject- 
matter  of  two  subdivisions  of  philosophy 
• — viz.  of  logic  and  ethics.  "Being"  in 
itself — i.e.  as  ordered  by  God — may  be 
considered  as  liable  to  sensible  motion, 
and  then  it  is  the  subject-matter  of 
physics;  or,  again,  we  may  consider 
"  being  "  like  tliat  of  God  or  the  angels, 
which  is  superior  to  such  motion,  or,  in 
our  consideration  of  "  being,"  abstract 
from  sensible  motion,  then  we  get  meta- 
physics (so  Goudin,  "  Philosophia  D. 
Thomse").  Logic,  metaphysics,  physics, 
and  ethics,  therefore,  are  the  four  sub- 
divisions of  philosophy,  psychology  '  being 
merely  a  branch  of  physics.  Next,  philo- 
sophy reasons  only  from  the  light  of 
nature,  and  has  no  direct  connection  with 
revelation.  It  proves,  e.g.,  the  "  being  " 
of  God,  which  can  be  done  from  His 
works ;  it  does  not  investigate  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity,  which  is  wholly 
beyond  reason.  Hence  the  marked  dif- 
ference between  the  scholastic  philosophy 
and  many  modern  systems,  which  latter 
claim  to  be  a  substitute  for  revelation, 
and  to  give,  in  the  form  of  reason,  that, 
6o  far  as  it  is  reasonable,  wliich  the  un- 
instructed  lidieve.  Further,  the  Schol- 
astics taught  that  philosophy  is  the 
handmaid  of  faith :  first,  because  it  pre- 
pares the  way  for  faith  by  establishing, 

>  So,  e.g.,  Goudin  and  the  older  writers 
generally. 


I  e.g.,  the  spiritual  nature  of  the  soul,  th© 
existence  of  God,  &c. ;   next,  because, 
!  tliinigh  it  cannot  prove  revealed  truths, 
'  it  can  show  that  they  are  not  evidently 
j  contrary    to   reason ;   thirdly,  because, 
1  whenever  the  pro\iuces  of  philosophy 
and    theology    toucli,    the  philosopher 
must,  if  need  arise,  correct  his  conclusions 
by  the  higher  and  more  certain  truth  of 
1  faith.    It  is  a  Scholastic   axiom  that 
j  nothing  can  be  true  in  philosophy  which 
is  false  in  theology.    ( )bserve,  the  Church 
does  not  teach  jihilosdpliy  ;  tliat  is  not 
her   province.    She  merely  declares  a 
philosophy  which  rejects,  e.g.,  the  primary 
truths  of  morals  or  religion,  to  be  false. 
The  correction  of  the  false  reasoning  sho 
leaves,  and  must  leave,  to  others. 

After  Descartes  there  was  an  increas- 
ing defection  from  scholastic  philosophy 
araoTii:  ( 'a f  holies.  The  philosophy  of 
Mal.'liraiK  he  (d.  1715),  bitterly  opposed 
as  it  wa>  b\  Bossuet  ("Lettre  171,  a  un 
Disciple  du  P.  Malebranche "),  became 
very  popular  in  France.  The  representa- 
tives of  other  Catholic  schools  of  phdo- 
sophy  among  Cathohcs  hold  a  far  lower 
place  in  the  history  of  speculation.  Such, 
during  this  centuiy,  were  the  Ontologists 
and  Traditionalists  in  France ;  Hermes, 
Baader,  Giinther  in  Germany.  Their 
systems  were  condemned  on  theological 
grounds  by  ecclesiastical  authority,  and 
are  now  all  but  forgotten.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  philosophical  works  of  the 
Spanish  priest  Balmes  still  enjoy  high 
repute. 

A  great  revival  of  the  Scholastic,  or 
rather  of  the  Thomist,  philosophy  began 
some  forty  years  ago.  Protestants  them- 
selves showed  a  more  generous  apprecia- 
tion of  the  Schoolmen,  and  Catholics 
reverted  to  their  teaching,  partly  from 
impatience  at  the  instability  of  modern 
systems,  partly  because  of  the  close  con- 
nection between  the  Scholastic  philosophy 
and  the  language  used  in  the  definitions 
of  the  later  Church,  partly  because  of  the 
security  felt  in  adopting  a  philosophy 
which  was  in  proved  harmony  with 
Catholic  doctrine.  The  philosophical 
works  of  Liberatore  and  Sanseverino  are 
perhaps  the  best  known  among  those  of 
the  "New  Scholastics;"  and  a  man  of 
muchhigher  ability,  the  Jesuit  F.Kleutgen 
("  Philosophie  der  Vorzeit,"  1^60),  has 
written  an  elaborate  defence  of  Thomist 
principles.  The  Thomist  philosophy  is  now 
taught  in  almost  every  seminary,  and  the 
present  Pope,  in  the  Encyclical  "  ^Eterni 
Patris,"  has   approved   and   urged  the 


PHOTINUS 


PICPUS,  CONGrtEGATION  OF  715 


teaching  ol  the  philosophy  of  St.  Thomas. 
It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
the  physics  of  the  Schoolmen,  which  no 
one  thinks  of  defendin",  are  yet  an  in- 
tegral part  of  their  philosophy.  And, 
however  hijili  St.  Thomas  may  rank  as  a 
philosopher,  it  is  none  the  less  true  that 
a  person  who  accepts  his  theories  because 
they  are  his,  thereby  renounces  the  study 
of  philosophy  altogether  and  confuses  the 
methods  of  philosophy  with  those  of  faith. 
It  is  fair  to  say  that  Kleutgen  is  very 
far  from  such  unreasonable  exaggeration, 
and  the  late  Dr.  Ward  confesses  himself 
utterly  unable  to  understand  the  reason- 
ing of  persons  who  speak  as  if  the  most 
intellectually  dutiful  sons  of  the  Church 
were  those  who  accept  every  "  philo- 
sophical proposition  current  among  the 
Scholastics  ("  Essays  on  the  Church's 
Doctrinal  Authority,"'  p.  541).  [The  best 
account  of  the  history  of  the  Scholastic 
philosophy  will  be  found  in  Ueberweg's 
"  History  of  Philosophy."  It  has  been 
translated.] 

PHOTXN1TS.  A  disciple  of  Marcel- 
lus  of  Ancyra  and  bishop  of  Sirmium,  in 
Pannonia.  He  began  to  teach  his  heresy 
as  early  at  least  as  .■344,  when  he  was  con- 
demned by  an  Antiochene  synod.  He 
distinguished  between  the  Word  and  the 
Son.  The  foi-mer,  in  the  strict  sense 
(the  \6yoi  dvaTaros),  was  not  a  Person, 
but  the  immanent  reason  of  God.  The 
Holy  Ghost  was  merely  the  energy  of 
God,  and  Christ  no  more  than  a  man 
bom  miraculously  of  a  virgin  (so  Hefele, 
"  Concil."  i.  p.  6-i5 ;  but  this  is  not  cer- 
tain), who  could  be  called  "Son"  only 
in  an  improper  sense,  because  the  Word 
of  God  wrought  in  Him  with  special 
power.  His  opinions  were  very  much 
those  of  modern  Socinians,  and  for  this 
reason  Petavius  speaks  of  the  latter  as 
"  Photiniani."  Photinus  was  condemned 
both  by  Semi-Arians  and  Catholics,  but 
there  has  been  grt-at  difference  of  opinion 
among  Catholic  sc  liolars  as  to  the  number 
and  dates  of  the  synods  which  condemned 
him.  Petavius  and  Sirmond  disputed  at 
length  on  the  matter.  Some  account  of 
the  controversy  will  be  found  in  Hefele 
("Concil."  vol.  i.  p.  634  seq.).  Photi- 
rianism  was  rejected  as  a  heresy  in  the 
General  Council  at  Constantinople  in  381 
PHOTZUS.  [See  Greek  Church.] 
PZARZSTS.  By  this  name  are 
known  the  regular  clerks  of  the  Scuole 
Pie  (religious  schooLs),  an  institute  of 
secondary  education  founded  at  Rome  by 
St.  Joseph  Calasanctius  in  the  last  years 


of  the  sixteenth  century.  This  founda- 
tion was  sanctioned  as  a  congregation 
under  simple  vows  by  Paul  Y.  in  1617, 
and  as  a  religious  order  four  vears  later 
by  Gregory  XV.  The  first  children 
taught  in  the  schools  were  collected  from 
the  streets,  and  the  founder  was  content, 
after  their  religious  education  had  been 
well  provided  for,  to  have  them  instructed 
in  reading  and  writing  only;  but  by 
degrees  the  programme  was  extended 
mitil,  besides  all  the  subjects  of  a  good 
modern  education,  it  embraced  Latin  and 
Greek  and  philosophy.  Houses  of  the 
order  were  soon  planted  in  various  Italian 
towns,  and  in  16.'31  the  Cardinal  Bishop 
of  Olmiitz  introduced  the  Fathers  into 
IMoravia.  Alexander  VII.  in  1650  in- 
sisted that  they  should  return  to  the 
status  under  which  they  could  only  take 
simple  vows;  but,  thirteen  years  later, 
Clement  IX.  reinstated  them  in  the  full 
privileges  of  a  religious  order.  The 
Piarists  appear  to  have  never  entered 
France  or  Great  Britain,  or  any  country 
outside  the  limits  of  Europe.  The  chief 
centres  of  their  activity  have  been,  and 
are,  Italy,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Spain 
About  1870  they  numbered  some  i^.OOO 
religious.    (H^lyot;  "Wetzerand  Welte.) 

PXCPVS,  COIirCREGA.TZOIir  OF. 
A  deacon  in  the  seminary  of  Poitiers, 
Pierre  Coudrin  by  name,  when  the  infidel 
government  of  France  dispersed  (17!i2) 
all  students  under  training  in  the  episco- 
pal seminaries,  resolving  not  to  be  false 
to  his  vocation,  and  hearing  that  the 
Bishop  of  Clermont  was  in  hiding  some- 
where in  Paris,  went  there,  found  him 
out,  and  received  priest's  orders  at  his 
hands.  During  the  ten  years  of  persecu- 
tion which  followed,  Coudrin,  who  was 
of  course  one  of  the  pretres  non  asser- 
menUs,  exercised  his  ministry  in  the  miHst 
of  danger,  hardship,  and  poverty,  in  the 
dioceses  of  Poitiers  and  Tours.  Gradually 
he  matured  the  plan  of  a  new  congTt  <ra- 
tion  which,  while  protesting  in  the  most 
direct  way  against  the  prevalent  unbelief 
by  maintaining  the  Perpetual  Adoration 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  should  under- 
take the  preparation  of  candidates  for  the 
priesthood,  and  also  the  work  of  preach- 
ing the  Gospel  to  the  heathen.  The 
Bishop  of  Mende,  whose  household  he 
entered,  .sympathised  in  his  projects  and 
aided  him  to  realise  them.  With  the 
bishop's  help  Coudrin  instituted  (1805) 
his  congregation  in  the  buildings  known 
as  of  Picpus,  in  the  Faubourg  St.  Antoine, 
Paris.    The  approbation  of  the  Holy  See 


716    PILGRIM,  PILGRIMAGE 


PILGRIM,  PILGRIMAGE 


was  given  in  1817.  Seminaries  in  various 
parts  of  France  were  confided  to  the 
Fathers  of  Picpus  ;  and  in  1825  the  third 
fundamental  aim  of  the  institute  began 
to  be  realised,  when  Leo  XII.  sent  six  of 
its  members  to  preach  the  faith  in  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific.  From  that  time 
the  missionary  activity  of  the  congrega- 
tion has  gone  on  with  an  ever-increasing 
development,  chiefly  in  the  regions  of 
South  America,  Australasia,  and  Oceania. 
The  history  of  the  earlier  congregation  of 
Picpus,  a  reform  of  the  third  order  of  St. 
Francis  founded  by  Vincent  Mussart  at 
Franconville  in  1594,  is  given  at  con- 
siderable length  by  H^lyot,  who  was 
himself  a  member  of  it. 

PZX.GRznx,  PZI.GRXM ACE  {pere- 
r/rinui-,  perer/rinatio  ;  It.  pellegrino  ;  Fr. 
pelerin.)  The  well-known  line,  "Coelum 
non  animum  mutant  qui  trans  mure 
currunt,''  contains  but  a  half-truth,  for 
universal  experience  attests  the  stimula- 
ting, recreative,  and  enlightening  power 
which  mere  change  of  scene  often  exerts 
on  the  mind  of  man.  These  effects  are 
likely  to  be  enhanced  when  the  change 
has  a  moral  motive.  "  Movemur  enim," 
says  Cicero,  "  nescio  quo  pacto  locis  ipsis 
in  quibus  eorum,  quos  diligimus  aut 
admiramur,  adsunt  vestigia  "  (we  are  inly 
stirred  by  the  very  spots  where  the  traces 
exist  of  those  whom  we  love  and  admire). 

The  pilgrimages  of  the  Jews  to  Jeru- 
salem at  the  time  of  the  great  festivals 
were  matter  of  precept  and  obligation. 
The  pilgrimages  to  Pagan  shrines  (of 
Jupiter  Tyrius,  or  Melcarth,  at  Gades,  of 
Jupiter  Capitolinus  at  Rome,  of  Apollo 
at  Delphi,  Diana  at  Ephesus,  &c.),  and 
those  fiockings  of  innumerable  worship- 
pers to  shrines  of  Rama  and  Crishna 
which  take  place  in  our  own  day,  usually 
proceed  on  the  assumption  that  the  power 
of  the  divinity  whose  help  is  sought  is 
locally  circumscribed,  but  that  within  the 
limits  of  his  own  jurisdiction  it  is  indefi- 
nitely great.  The  Christian  creed,  accord- 
ing to  which  "God  is  a  spirit  "  to  be 
sought  and  found  not  specially  "  on  this 
mountain,  nor  yet  at  Jerusalem,"  but 
wherever  the  true  worshippers  approach 
Him  in  spirit  and  in  truth,  might  seem 
at  first  sight  to  afford  little  encourage- 
ment to  pilgrimages.  For,  as  St.  Jerome  * 
says — and  other  Fathers  hold  similar 
language— Christians  "dare  not  confine 
the  omnipotence  of  God  to  one  narrow 
corner  of  the  world.  .  .  .  From  Jerusa- 
'  Cited  by  Mr.  Scudatuore,  in  the  article 
noticed  below. 


lem  and  from  Britain  the  court,  of  heaven 
is  equally  open."  Nevertheless,  so  certain 
is  it  that  religious  impressions,  blunted 
and  weakened  by  the  daily  business  of 
the  market-place  and  the  street,  require 
in  most  minds  to  be  often  graven  afresh 
(and  that  by  means  of  impulses  coming 
from  without,  for  it  would  be  vain  to 
trust  to  the  sufficiency  of  those  coming 
from  within),  that  the  Church  has  from 
the  first — while  admitting  the  danger  of 
abuses,  and  taking  measures  to  prevent 
them — approved  the  use  of  pilgrimage  to 
holy  places  as  a  very  potent  help  and 
incentive  to  a  devout  life.  She  also 
favours  the  practice,  because  she  recog- 
nises the  undoubted  fact  that  God  has 
often  granted,  and  still  grants,  interior 
and  exterior  favours,  graces,  and  miracles, 
at  particular  places  or  shrines,  to  honour 
certain  mysteries,  saints,  &c. 

A  Protestant  writer^  in  the  "Dic- 
tionary of  Christian  Antiquities"  (Smith 
and  Ciieetham)  has  collected  with  praise- 
worthy industry  a  midtitude  of  facts 
bearing  on  the  conditions  under  which 
pilgrimages  were  made  in  the  first  eight 
centuries.  It  would  appear  from  the 
letters  of  Paula  and  Eustochium  (in- 
cluded among  those  of  St.  .lerome)  that 
from  the  date  of  the  Ascension  to  their 
own  day  a  continued  stream  of  pilgrims 
had  resorted  to  the  Holy  Places.  The 
first  recorded  pilgrim  is  St.  Alexander 
(third  cent.),  who  is  said  to  have  visited 
Jerusalem  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow.  Of  the 
devout  journey  of  Helena,  the  motiier  of 
Oonstantine,  whose  faith  and  zeal  are 
said  to  have  been  rewarded  by  the  dis- 
covery of  the  true  cross,  we  have  a  full 
relation  from  the  pen  of  Eusebius.  The 
French  bishop  Arculfus  visited  Jerusa- 
lem in  the  seventh  century,  and  after  his 
return  told  his  story  to  Adamnan,  abbot 
of  lona,  who  embodied  the  narrative  in 
his  tract,  "De  Locis  Sanctis."  In  the 
eleventh  century,  Palestine  having  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  the  Seljukian  Turks, 
Christian  pilgrims  were  subjected  to 
many  indignities,  the  report  of  which  in 
Europe  led  eventually  to  the  first  Crusade. 

The  usual  motives  for  a  pilgrimage 
were:  (1)  the  desire  to  realise  the  objects 
of  faith  and  quicken  religious  feeling  in 
the  soul ;  (2)  the  fulfilment  of  a  vow;  (.'J) 
some  special  benefit — as  when  Chaucer's 
pilgrims  went  to  Canterbury — 
The  holy  blissful  martir  for  to  sake. 
That  hem  hath  holpen  whan  that  thei  were 

seke ;  

■  Mr.  Scadamore. 


PISA,  COUNCIL  OF 


PISA,  (^OUXCIL  OF  717 


(4)  the  execution  of  some  penitential  task, 
•whether  self-imposed  or  enjoined  by  the 
clergy. 

The  more  celebrated  shrines,  towards 
which  the  currents  of  pilgi-image  have 
set  strongly,  are:  (1)  those  of  our  Lord, 
in  other  "words,  the  Holy  Places  in 
Palestine  [see  Holt  Places]  ;  >  (2)  those 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  ;  (3)  those  of  angels 
and  saints.  Among  the  sanctuaries  of 
our  Lady,  which  have  been,  or  are, 
thronged  by  the  resort  of  pilgrims,  may 
be  mentioned  "Walsingham  (on  the  pil- 
gi-image  to  which  Erasmus  wrote  a  tract), 
Einsiedeln  in  Switzerland,  Chartres  and 
Fourvi-  res  in  France,  Maria  Zell  in  Cu-\- 
many,  Loreto  in  Italy,  and  Guadaloupe 
and  Montserrat  in  Spain.  The  grotto  of 
Lourdes,  since  the  event  of  1858,  has 
become  the  centre  of  attraction  to  an 
immense  concourse  of  pilgrims.  Among 
the  sanctuaries  of  angels  and  saints  may 
be  named  the  "  limina  Apostolorum,"  or 
the  tombs  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul  on  the 
Vatican  Hill,  St.  James  of  Compostella, 
the  church  of  St.  Michael  on  Monte  Gar- 
gano  (tlie  devotion  of  Norman  pilgrims 
to  which  led  to  the  Norman  conquest  of 
Naples),  and  the  shrine  of  our  own  St. 
Thomas  of  Canterbury,  a  pilgrimage  to 
which  is  the  apt  setting  of  the  well- 
known  "  Tales  "  of  Chaucer. 

FXSA.,    COVTS-CXI.    OF.  Gregory 

XII.  (Angelo  Corrario)  had  been  elected 
Pope  in  1406,  the  Antipope  Benedict 

XIII.  (Peter  de  Luna)  in  1305,  and 
Europe  was  divided  between  the  two 
"  obediences."  Alter  much  negotiation, 
both  Gregory  and  Benedict  were  induced 
to  promise  to  adopt  the  way  of  cession, 
in  pursuance  of  which  each  would  have 
withdrawn  his  claim  to  the  pontificate. 
But  misunderstandings  arose,  and  the 
promises  were  not  kept.  The  schism 
had  now  lasted  thirty  years,  producing 
confusion  and  bewilderment  throughout 
the  Christian  world.  The  leading  car- 
dinals on  both  ."-ides,  in  view  of  this 
disastrous  state  of  things,  met  together, 
and  agreed,  since  no  other  way  of  restor- 
ing unity  seemed  feasible,  to  ignore  the 
claims  of  both  rivals,  and  themselves 
summon  a  general  council,  to  meet  at 
Pisa  on  March  20,  1409.  The  coimcil 
met  on  the  day  appointed  ;  its  twenty- 
third  and  last  session  was  held  on  August 
7  following.  From  first  to  last,  twenty- 
four  cardinals,  four  patriarchs,  eighty 

I  These  have  been,  i-ince  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, in  the  guardianship  of  the  Franciscan 
order. 


bishops,  a  hundred  and  two  proctors  of 
bishops,  eighty-seven  abbots,  two  hun- 
dred delegates  of  abbots,  besides  a  great 
number  of  generals  of  orders,  dortors, 
deputies  of  universities,  and  amt>a^-ailors, 
attended  the  council.  "Within  little 
more  than  four  months  the  synod  finished 
the  business  for  which  it  was  convened. 
It  first  cited  the  rival  claimants  to 
appear;  on  their  failing  to  do  so,  it 
declared  itself  to  be  the  lawful  represen- 
tative of  the  L^niversal  Church,  and  to 
have  power  to  judire  all  pontifical  preten- 
sions; it  decreed  that  all  Christians 
ought  to  withdraw  their  obedience  both 
from  Gre-nrv  and  I'^'nedict;  it  enter- 
tained an  act  of  accusation  against  them  ; 
after  heariiiii-  r\  idfiice,  it  pronounced  the 
sentence  of  (l.  ])osition  against  them  both, 
and  declared  the  Holy  See  to  be  vacant ; 
it  rejected  the  claim  of  Robert,  Gregory's 
supporter,  to  the  imperial  throne,  and  re- 
coguised  Wenzel ;  lastly,  it  arranged  for 
the  holding  of  a  conclave  from  which 
Card,  riiilargi  came  lorth  as  Pope,  and 
took  the  name  of  Alexander  V. 

Ilefele  says  of  this  council,  "  Neither 
ecclesiastical  authority  nor  the  most 
trustworthy  theologians  have  ever  num- 
bered it  among  the  oecumenical  councils." 

S"  Cone."  Introd.)  Its  unfortunate  issue 
Gregory  and  Benedict  both  refusing  to 
yield,  and  there  being  thus  three  cluim- 
i  ants  for  the  papacy,  down  to  the  time  of 
I  the  Council  of  Constance)  he  attributes 
partly  to  the  perversity  of  the  temporal 
princes,  but  chietly  to  the  council  itself; 
!  to  the  erroneous  theory  on  which  they 
based  the  deposition  of  (iregory  XII.  and 
Benedict  XIII. — viz.  that  by  their  con- 
duct they  were  heretical  against  the 
article  "  Unam  Snnctam  Cath.  Eccle- 
siam" — a  theory  which  no  one  believed 
in,  and  again  to  their  violence  and  pre- 
cipitation in  resorting  to  extreme  mea- 
sures.   ("Coiicilien^t  sell."  vi.  901.) 

Nevertheless  Bellarmine  calls  it  a 
General  Council,  and  looks  upon  it  as 
"  neither  clearly  approved  nor  clearly 
rejected."  '  Not  the  former ;  for  Martin 
V.  would  not  absolutely  call  Alexander 
V.  Pope,  though  recognising  the  validity 
of  some  of  his  acts ;  and  St.  Antoninus 
will  not  allow  that  either  he  or  his  suc- 
cessor was  a  true  Pope.  Not  the  latter ; 
for  many  good  theologians  {e.p.  Natalis 
.■Alexander,  Raynaldus  and  Ballerini) 
affirm  that  both  the  Council  and  the 
Pope  whom  it  created  were  legitimate ; 
nor  would  Alexander  VI.  have  taken 
1  Be  Cone,  et  Eccl  i.  8. 


718 


PISOIXA 


PLAIN  CHANT 


tliat  title  if  it  had  been  generally  believed 
that  Alexander  V.  -was  no  true  Pope. 
So  far  from  tlint,  "  it  may  almost  be 
called  the  common  opinion,"  proceeds 
Bellarniiue,  "  that  both  Alexander  and 
John  his  successor  were  true  Popes." 

An  English  prelate,  Robert  Hallam, 
bishop  of  Salisbury,  acted  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  proceedings  at  Pisa.  [Anti- 
ronos.]  (Wetzer  and  Welte,  art.  bv 
Hefele.) 

PISCXSTA.  The  word,  which  signified 
originally  "  a  fish-pond,"  came  to  mean  in 
classical  writers  of  the  silver  age  a  basin, 
or  bath.  In  the  early  Latin  Church  it 
was  employed  as  an  equivalent  for  koXv/i- 
^;/f/)a,  the  Greek  word  for  the  baptismal 
font.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  the 
common  term  for  the  small  niche  in  the 
wall  on  the  Epistle  side  of  the  altar 
containing  a  perforated  basin  of  stone, 
through  which  the  water  used  iu  washing 
the  priest's  hands  was  poured.  Earlier  in 
the  middle  ages  the  ablations  were  also 
poured  down  the  piscina.  Examples  of 
mediaaval  piscina?  al)ound  in  old  English 
churches.  They  are  sometimes  to  be  seen 
in  modern  Catholic  churches. 

PXSTOXA,  SYNOD  OF.  Leopold, 
grand  duke  of  Tuscany  and  brother  of 
the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  began  in  17>n  to 
introduce  many  changes  in  the  discipline, 
worship,  &c.,  of  the  Tuscan  Cliureh.  Tn 
1782  he  suppressed  the  Inquisiti' >n  nnd 
he  also  interfered  in  doctrinal  matters, 
recommended  the  "  doctrine  of  St.  Augus- 
tine" and  the  liiblical commentary  ol'  the 
learned  Jansenist  Quesnel.  His  chosen 
ally  was  Scipio  Ricci,  bishop  of  Pistoia 
and  Prato,  formerly  vicar-general  to 
Incontri,  archbishop  of  Florence.  In 
1786  Leopold  laid  before  the  Epi.scopate 
of  the  Duchy  fii'tv-seveu  articles  for  the 
"reform  of  the  Clinrch  "  in  the  Jansenist 
and  Febronian  si  iisi^.  Oul\  t!u-.'ebishn])s, 
of  whom  Ricci  '>nr,  ;n-.-r]ite(l  thi^m. 

That  same  year  fS..],t.-inl,..v  IS),  tie- 
SyiK.'l  <if  ri-loia  met.  T.-.nil.uriiii  was 
the  pniumtor  and  'J'-'ii  ]ini\--t s  were  pre- 
sent. The  ,]a7is(;nist  doctiines  on  grace 
were  a]jproved.  But  besides  this  the 
principles  of  a  spiritual  democracy  w  re 
asserted.  God,  it  was  said,  had  given 
])ower  to  the  Church,  and  it  was  the 
Church  which  comnumicated  it  to  the 
pastor.s,  including  even  the  Pope.  Bishops 
were  to  be  ])ract  ieally  independent  of  the 
Pope,  the  priiv-ts  ill  (lioci'-an  synods  were 
to  be  judges  of  faith  an.!  (ll-cl])line,  &c., 
&c.  Lastly,  a  multitude  of  decrees  were 
passed  condemning  practices  common  in 


I  the  Church — e.g.  devotion  to  the  Sacred 
I  Heart,  missions,  use  of  Latin  in  the  Mass, 
the   influence   of   Scholastic  theology, 
multiplication  of  religious  orders,  feasts, 
&c.,  &c. 

The  destruction  of  altars,  images,  &c., 
under  Ricci's  direction,  set  the  Tuscan 
populace  in  an  uproar  :  they  stormed  his 
palace  in  1787,  and  he  had  to  resign  his 
see.  The  bishops,  vsdth  scarcely  an  ex- 
ception, were  fimily  opposed  to  the  Pis- 
toian  decree.s,  from  which  eiglity-five 
propositions  were  condemned  by  Piiis  Yl. 
in  the  bull  "  Auctorem  fidei "  of  1794. 
Solari,  bishop  of  Noli,  in  the  Genoese 
territory,  was  the  only  prelate  found 
publicly  to  oppose  the  bull.  Ricci  him- 
self in  180.5  made  a  recantation,  and  was 
reconciled  to  Pius  VII.,  though  it  appears 
from  the  bishop's  letters  that  his  senti- 
ments were  not  really  changed.  Solari 
joined  himself  to  the  Constitutional 
bishops  in  France.  [From  Cardinal  Her- 
genrother's  "  Kirchengeschichte,"  Szc. 
The  acts  of  the  synod  were  printed  at 
Pistoia,  also  at  Pavia  1780.  Lnibacli  1701, 
Bamberg  1794.  The  "  Auctorem  fidei  " 
may  bereadinDenzintrer's"  l-ju  hiridion." 
Gelli  edited  the  "Memorie"  ot  Ricci 
"with  documents,''  Florence,  180-5 J 

PXACET  REGZirivx.  [See  Canon- 
Law  :  EXEQTJATUE.' 

PI.AZM-  CKAN-T  (cantus  Jinnus), 
liuown  also  as  Gregorian,  or  Romau,  or 
Choral  Chant,  is  the  distinctive  song  of 
the  Church.  It  has  been  defined  to  be  a 
gra\-e.  diatonic,  unison  melody,  set  to  the 
rhythm  of  the  words,  without  strictly 
measured  time,  and  used  by  the  Church 
in  her  sacred  functions  (Habiud's  "  ^lagis- 
ter  Choralis,"'  translated  by  Donnelly, 
Ratisbon,  1877).  This  is  perhaps  as  good 
a  definition  as  can  be  assigned  to  a  subject 
which,  from  its  free  spiritual  nature,  is 
hardly  definable,  however  much  we  may 
describe  certain  of  its  leading  characters, 
its  structure,  and  purpose.  It  is,  in 
brief,  the  Chureli's  song,  the  interpreter 
in  melody  of  her  spiritual  prayer.  And 
as  prayer  is  an  utterance  by  the  believing 
heart  of  the  word  of  faith.  aceordiuLr  to 
the  maxim  le.r  su/i/il/r/rmli  Ir.r  crnlnuU.s-o 
the  chant,  which  i.^  tlieinoi'M  solemn  mode 
of  liturL'ical  prayer,  ow  es  to  the  faith  its 
creation,  its  power,  ami  just  inter]iretalion. 
j  Only  when  imbued  witli  tie-  faitli  will  the 
I  human  mind  delight  in  it,  and  in  propor- 
j  tiou  as  it  rids  itself  of  the  just  govern- 
'  ment  of  the  faith  will  it  discard  it. 

Its  leading  characteristics  concern  (1) 
Melody ;  (2)  Tone  or  Mode ;  (3)  Rhythm. 


PLAIN  CHANT 


PLAIN  CHANT  71 P 


(1)  The  Cliurch  authorises  in  her 
liturgy  no  other  music  than  pure  melody, 
which  it  assigns  respectively  to  the  offi- 
ciant, to  the  "cantors,  and  to  the  choir. 
This  last  consists  of  a  trained  body  of 
clerics,  or  of  youths  or  men  habited  as 
clerics,  occupying  the  choir  or  presby- 
teriura,  and  having  an  integral  part  in  all 
solemn  rites  and  functions.  The  choir,  as 
&  part  of  the  edidce.  is  normally  in  front 
of  the  altar  and  in  face  of  the  people,  and 
those  -who  occupy  it  are  divided  into  two 
parts  for  alternate  singing,  one  occupying 
the  Epistle  side,  the  other  the  Gospel  side. 
In  the  act  of  singing  the  alternate  choirs 
face  each  other,  and  lxith  by  position  and 
training  an?  the  leaders  of  the  congrega- 
tion. ^Miether  the  two  choirs  sing  alter- 
nately or  simultaneously,  they  sing  always 
in  unison  or  at  the  Siime  pitch.  Voices 
differing  in  pitch  but  singing  concordantly, 
however  beautiful  the  etl'ect,  are  in  so  far 
departing  from  the  strict  ecclesiastical 
chant ;  and  even  the  accompaniment  of 
the  organ  does  not  enter  into  the  Church's 
conception  of  her  song,  or  of  ritual 
solemnity.  To  restrict  the  free  melody  of 
the  choir  by  harmonic  chords,  whether  of 
the  voiee  or  or-ran.  however  powerful  on 
the  feelings  the  etl'ect  m-iy  be,  has  in  lier 
conception  some  element  of  incongruity 
■with  the  just  ideal  of  spiritual  worship ; 
and  whatever  toleration  or  tacit  approval 
she  extends  to  instrumental  or  vocal  har- 
monies is  subject  to  the  condition  that 
her  own  chant  is  not  thereby  despoiled 
of  its  supremacy  of  place  and  honour. 
As  to  the  character  of  her  melody,  it  is  at 
the  same  time  recitative  and  meditative. 
It  recites  the  word  of  the  text  and  medi- 
tates upon  it.  Siunetimes  it  proceeds 
with  great  despatch,  as  in  the  psalms  and 
sequences,  assigning  for  the  most  part  one 
note  to  each  syllable ;  at  othei-s,  as  in  her 
antiphons,  it  lingers  upon  the  word,  pour- 
ing out  its  meaning  in  rich  melodies, 
based  rhythmically  upon  its  syllables. 
In  this  way  the  Church  preserves  the 
balance  of  her  offices,  accommodating  her- 
self to  the  time  and  the  spirit  of  the  time ; 
now,  according  to  her  spiritual  mood, 
dwelling  on  the  sacred  word  in  sustained 
meditation,  now  carried  forward  in  a 
rapid  current  of  melodious  praise.  In  her 
offices  there  is  never  indecent  hurry, 
never  loss  of  time. 

(2)  Tone  or  Mode. — In  its  tones  the 
ecclesiastical  chant  is  distinguished  by 
great  variety  and  adaptability.  It  was 
created  for  the  purpose  of "  being  the 
vehicle  of  the  Church's  manifold  prayer — 


manifold  in  the  spiritual  affections  of  her 
soul.  Spiritual  adoration,  thanksgiving, 
supplication,  sorrow,  joy,  peace,  hope, 
triumph  —such  triumph,  that  is,  as  is  just 
in  this  valley  of  tear? — tind  in  her  tones 
the  apparatus  provided  for  their  soltmn 
expression.  But  however  varied  the 
tones,  she  is  very  simple  and  constant  in 
her  mode  of  using  them.  When  once 
she  has  determined  the  tone  which  is 
suited  to  the  mood  of  her  spirit,  she 
delivers  the  whole  antiphon,  psalm, 
hymn,  or  other  form  of  prayer,  in  that 
tone.  The  melody  accommodates  itself, 
indeed,  to  the  word  and  phrase,  but  is 
always  restrained  by  the  tone  from  any 
mere  word-painting  or  distraction  of  her 
spirit  from  its  leading  affection.  Compare 
with  this  the  absence  of  any  predominant 
tone  in  many  of  the  compositions  of 
figured  music,  and  the  intention  and 
practice  of  the  Church  will  be  the  more 
apparent.  In  the  "  Gloria,"  for  instance, 
the  Church  conceives  of  it  as  one  whole — 
as  one  act  of  praise;  in  the  "Credo"  it 
conceives  of  it  as  one  act  of  faith.  The 
mode  once  determined,  the  soug  of  praise 
or  faith  hastens  on  in  its  tirst  intention 
with  grave  beauty  and  undeviating  path 
to  its  accomplishment.  But  in  many  of 
the  figured  compositions  on  the  same 
themes  the  "  Gloria  "  and  "  Credo  "  are 
divided  into  parts  so  differently  conceived, 
with  such  an  absence  of  unity  of  tone,  or 
such  a  blankness  of  tone,  that  no  incon- 
gruity would  be  felt,  or  indeed  is  felt,  in 
])iecing  together  a  "  Gloria  "  or  "  Credo '" 
from  different  authors.  This  is  foreign 
to  the  Church's  spirit.  She  is  various  in 
her  tones,  but  constant  to  a  tone  once 
chosen  as  a  leadinsr  feature  of  her  chant. 

(3)  Rhijthm.  —  The  rhythm  of  the 
chant  is  the  rhythm  of  eloquence — free, 
and  not  to  be  "reduced  to  any  artificial 
measiu-e.  There  is  a  rhythm  which  is 
natural  to  the  human  voice.  The  accent 
of  words  is  the  outcome  of  it,  and  the 
charm  of  eloquence  depends  on  it.  Even 
the  measured  numbers  of  poetry  are  no 
substitute  for  it ;  for  poetry  itself,  to  be 
eloquently  declaimed,  must  forget  its  own 
measures  to  some  degree,  and  yield  itself 
to  the  natural  accent,  phrasing,  and 
intonation  of  the  speaker.  "\Vere  anyone, 
in  declaiming  the  verses  of  a  poet,  to  make 
the  measures  of  the  syllables  prominent 
instead  of  following  the  rhythm  of  voice 
suggested  by  the  sense,  he  would  be  en- 
slaving the  poetic  idea  to  mere  numbers 
—turning  the  master  into  the  slave.  It 
is  this  rhythm  of  eloquent  pronunciation, 


720  PLAIN  CHANT 


PLAIN  CHANT 


depending  on  the  accent  of  the  word,  the 
balance  of  its  syllables,  the  phrasing  of 
the  sentence,  and  the  adjustment  of  sen- 
tences into  one  delireiy  of  the  whole 
intention  of  the  soul,  which  is  the  basis 
of  the  rhythm  of  the  chant.  The  longer 
meditative  melodies  are  assigned  to  the 
accented  syllables — as  is  just,  for  on  them 
is  delivered  the  force  of  the  word.  The 
very  derivation  of  the  word  "  accent ''  {nd 
-  "  to,"  and  cantus  =  "  chant  ")  teaches 
how  just  this  is.  It  is  the  syllable  on 
which  falls  the  rhythmical  ictus  or  stroke 
of  the  voice,  which  is  inseparable  from 
speech,  and  grows  in  intensity  and  musical 
quality  as  the  voice  is  raised  into  elo- 
quence. The  rhythm  of  phrase  is  pre- 
served in  plain  chant  by  accommodating 
the  separate  breathings  of  the  voice  to  tho 
phrasing  of  the  sentence,  the  end  of  the 
sentence  being  indicated  by  the  pause  of 
the  melody  on  the  final  or  one  of  the  chief 
continals,  while  the  close  of  the  whole 
chant,  according  to  a  fixed  canon,  carries 
the  voice  back  to  its  final  or  fundamental 
note.  By  all  this  it  is  by  no  means 
imjjlied  that  vocal  sound  has  not  a  natural 
rhythm  of  its  own.  As  soon  as  the  voice 
is  kindled  into  the  melody  of  song  it  is 
rhythmical,  even  though  no  intelligible 
word  is  uttered,  the  rhythm  then  depend- 
ing on  the  rise  and  fall  and  turns  of  the 
melody,  the  pulsation  of  the  breath,  and 
the  guidance  of  that  sense  of  numbers 
which  is  ours  by  natural  gift.  Hence  the 
prolonged  pneumata  or  melodious  breaths, 
which  for  the  most  part  hang  upon  the 
accented  syllable,  must  be  rhythmically 
rendered.  Sometimes  these  neunies  or 
breathings  are  hung  to  the  last  syllable, 
when  they  do  not  so  much  lend  force  to 
the  word  as  express  the  lingering  delight 
of  the  soul  once  attuned  to  a  divine 
thought.  Wherever  they  occur,  they 
must  be  interpreted  rhythmically. 

Structure. — The  modes  or  tones  are  all 
founded  on  the  diatonic  scale,  or  natural 
succession  of  seven  notes  completed  by 
the  octave.  It  consists  of  two  tetrachords 
or  series  of  four  notes,  placed  one  above 
the  other  at  the  interval  of  a  tone,  each 
comprising  two  full  tones  and  a  half-tone, 
so  that  the  whole  scale  comprises  five  tones 
and  two  semitones.  According  to  this  use 
of  the  term,  "  tone  "  no  longer  signifies  I 
a  mode  of  chant,  but  simply  one  full  step 
of  the  voice  up  or  down  the  natural  scale 
or  ladder  of  sound,  which  scale,  because 
it  proceeds  chiefly  by  tones,  is  called 
"diatonic,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
highly  embellished  or  chromatic  scale, 


which  proceeds  by  semitones.  Calling 
the  seven  diflerent  notes  by  the  names 
ordinarily  in  use,  the  diatonic  scale  may 
therefore  be  represented  thus  -.do  ...  . 
re  .  .  .  .  mi  ..  fa  ....  sol  ....  la 
.  .  ,  .  gi  .  .  do.  But  whereas  the  natural 
octave  or  succession  of  eight  notea  begins 
with  do,  the  first  mode  or  tone  of  the 
Church  begins  on  re,  and  consists  of  the 
octave  from  re  to  re ;  and  we  have  only 
to  sing  this  scale  from  re  to  re,  keeping 
the  half-tone  between  mi  and  fa  and  si 
and  do,  to  discover  something  of  the  prac- 
tical meaning  of  an  ecclesiastical  mode. 
It  will  be  at  once  apparent  that  the  posi- 
tion of  the  semitones  in  the  octave  of 
sound  has  a  determining  power  upon  its 
character.  It  is  this  relative  position  of 
the  semitones  which  is  the  first  constituent 
cause  of  tone  or  mode. 

The  octave  of  sound,  moreover, 
divides  itself  naturally  into  a  perfect  fifth 
(three  tones  and  a  half)  and  a  perfect 
fourth  (two  tones  and  a  half),  and  the 
observance  of  this  is  the  second  con- 
stituent cause  of  mode.  The  first  mode 
has  its  fifth  from  re  to  la,  and  its  fourth 
from  la  to  re,  being  constructed  thus :  re 
....  7m  ..  fa  ....  sol  ...  .  la,  la 
.  ...  si  ..  do  ....  re.  In  this  scale 
re  is  the  fundamental  note,  and  because  a 
complete  descant  within  the  mode  natu- 
rally ends  on  it,  it  is  called  the  final. 

The  note  second  in  importance  to  the 
final,  but  bearing  more  of  the  burden  of 
the  melody,  is  the  dominant  or  ruling 
note.  In  the  authentic  modes  it  is  the 
fifth  above  the  final,  and  in  the  first  mode 
is  therefore  la.  On  this  note  all  mere 
recitation  is  made,  and  it  may  on  this 
account  be  called  the  reciting  note.  It  is 
prominent  in  the  modulation  of  the 
melody,  and  in  its  power  is  found  the 
third  constituent  of  mode.  There  are 
also  confinal  notes,  on  which  by  prefer- 
ence each  mode  finishes  the  different 
phrasings  of  the  melody,  and  these,  there- 
fore, are  a  fourth  constituent  of  mode. 

The  second  tone  is  closely  related  to 
the  first,  but  with  a  very  distinct  cha- 
racter. It  is  constructed  on  the  same  final 
re,  by  reversing  the  relation  as  to  pitch 
of  the  fifth  and  fourth,  and  changing  the 
dominant  to  the  third  below  the  domi- 
nant of  the  first.  It  is  therefore  con- 
structed thus:  la  ....  si  ..  do  ...  . 
7-e,  re  ...  .  mi  ..  fa  ....  sol  ...  , 
la,  and  has  for  its  dominant  fa.  The 
close  relation  between  the  first  and 
second  modes  is  at  once  apparent.  How- 
ever different  in  character,  they  form  ai> 


PLAIN  CHAOT 


PLAIN  CHANT  721 


allied  pair,  and  transition  from  one  to  the 
other  is  natural.  Sometimes  a  chant 
comprises  both,  using  the  fourth  ahove  as 
-veil  as  the  fourth  helow  the  fifth,  and  is 
then  said  to  be  in  the  mixed  tone  of  the 
first  and  second.  This  will  suffice  to 
show  what  is  the  construction  of  all  the 
modes,  or  tones,  for  they  run  in  pairs, 
similarly  formed  and  allied,  both  as  re- 
gards final,  dominant,  and  the  relation  as 
to  pitch  iif  the  fifth  and  fourth.  For  just 
as  the  first  and  second  are  constructed 
on  )e,  the  third  and  fourth  are  con- 
structed on  mi,  the  fifth  and  sixth  on  fa, 
the  seventh  and  eighth  on  sol.  These  four 
pairs,  of  which  the  first  of  each  is  called  the 
authentic,  the  second  the  plagal,  make  up 
the  eight  grand  tones  of  the  Church. 
The  others — namely  the  ninth  and  tenth 
constructed  on  la,  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  on  si  (existing  perhaps  only 
theoretically  because  their  fifth  and 
fourth  are  not  perfect),  aud  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  on  do — are  of  later  intro- 
duction. 

It  need  only  be  observed,  further, 
that  where  the  dominant  or  reciting  note, 
according  to  the  canon  stated  ahove, 
would  be  si,  namely  in  the  third  and 
eighth  tones,  the  actual  dominant  is  do, 
because  si  is  an  uncertain  note,  as  being 
liable  to  be  depressed  a  semitone.  Of 
this  changeable  character  of  *t  one  word 
must  be  said.  It  is  not  by  any  accidental 
or  fanciful  change  that  the  depression 
takes  place,  but  by  a  natural  necessity  of 
avoiding  the  tritone  or  augmented  fourth 
from  fa  to  si.  When  depressed  it  is 
called  sa  or  za,  and  the  change  is  indicated 
by  the  sign  termed  a  Jliit.  This  sign 
has  enabled  the  transcriijers  and  printers 
of  liturgical  books  to  make  an  apparent 
transposition  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  modes 
to  the  first  and  second,  and  of  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  (otherwise  called 
the  eleventh  and  twelfth)  to  the  fifth  and 
sixth.  But  this  is  no  more  than  a  con- 
A-enience;  the  modes  remain  distinct  be- 
cause the  relative  position  of  the  semitones 
remains  unaltered. 

Let  this  suffice  abbut  the  structure  of 
the  modes.  It  must  not  be  supposed, 
however,  that  the  full  character  of  plain 
chant  is  to  be  learnt  by  the  study  of  its 
structure  alone.  The  mode  of  treatment 
of  the  several  tones  has  been  handed 
down  in  the  Church  from  time  imme- 
morial in  melodies  which  have  sprung 
from  the  minds  of  saints,  not  idly  exer- 
cising themselves  in  songs,  but  sinsing 
from  the  inspiration  of  the  Spirit  of  God. 


Notation. — The  next  point  to  be  con- 
sidered is  notation.  The  admirable  sys- 
tem of  writing  music  now  in  use  was 
originated  in  the  study  of  plain  chant. 
By  a  happy  invention  the  ladder  or  scale 
of  sound  is  represented  to  the  eye  by 
a  pictorial  ladder  of  four  rounds  or  steps, 
which  are  indefinitely  prolonged.  The 
three  spaces  enclosed  make  with  the  four 
parallel  lines  seven  grades,  corresponding 
in  number  to  the  seven  different  notes  of 
the  octave,  and  if  any  one  of  tliese  is 
defined  by  having  assigned  to  it  the  pitch 
and  name  of  one  of  the  sounds  of  the 
octave,  forthwith  all  the  rest  have  re- 
ceived their  pitch  and  name.  This  is 
done  by  means  of  two  signs,  called  clefs — 
(i.e.  keys) — namely  and  '  the  former 
of  which  represents  do,  the  latter /«.  It 
is  evident  that  the  ground  for  selecting 
for  indication  these  two  sounds,  and 
leaving  the  rest  to  be  inferred  from  them, 
is  that  they  point  out  the  semitones,  the 
position  of  which  is  the  distinguishing 
character  of  the  modes.  They  are  used 
one  at  a  time,  according  as  it  is  more 
convenient  to  the  mode  to  point  out  the 
upper  or  lower  semitone ;  and  they  are 
sufficient  for  this  purpose  -^vithout  any 
other  sign,  because  they  may  be  affixed  to 
one  or  another  line  according  to  the  com- 
pass of  the  melody.  "When  the  repre- 
sentative power  of  the  grades  of  the 
ladder  or  stave  has  been  thus  determined, 
the  succession  of  notes  in  the  melody  can 
be  indicated  by  setting  each  note  in  its 
own  grade. 

The  signs  of  these  notes  are  three :  a 
square  note  ■,  which  is  called  the  brems, 
breve,  or  short  note ;  a  square  note  with 
a  tail     which  is  called  longa,  or  the  long 

note  ;  and  a  diamond-shaped  note  4,  which 
is  called  thes^wH'Zi;-eyis,orsemibreve.  They 
have  no  measured  value ;  the  sense  of  the 
words  and  the  spirit  of  the  office  and  the 
season,  or  other  reasons,  now  suggesting 
that  the  current  of  the  melody  should  be 
brisk,  now  prolonged.  They  have  only  a 
relative  value,  and  that  not  so  fixed  as  to 
be  measurable.  The  only  law  that  can 
be  given  is  that  the  breve  has  the  value 
its  o^vn  syllable  has  when  rhetorically 
pronounced  ;  that  the  long  note  is  longer 
than  the  breve,  and  the  semibreve  shorter. 
This  la.st  is  especially  used  in  the  de- 
scending series  of  short  notes,  called 
passing  notes,  which  bind  together  the 
difterent  limbs  of  the  prolonged  breath- 
ings or  neumes.  These  are  the  only 
notes  used;  but  besides  these  a  very 


722  PLAIN  CHANT 


PLAIN  CHANT 


valuable  aid  is  given  to  the  singer  by 
writing  compactly  together  the  notes 
which  belong  to  one  syllable,  and  another 
by  marking  off  the  phrases  of  the  melody 
by  perpendicular  bars. 

History.— To  know  the  history  of  the 
chaut  is  a  powerful  help  to  understand  its 
value. 

It  is  impossible  not  to  believe  that 
there  is  a  continuity  of  song  from  the 
liturgy  of  the  Church  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment to  that  of  the  New.  The  Apostles 
sang  the  psalms,  both  as  members  of  the 
Jewish  Church  and  founders  of  the 
Christian  Church,  and  with  the  text  the 
chant  must  have  been  preserved.  As, 
moreover,  the  psalms  are  bound  up  with 
every  part  of  the  liturgy  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  we  may  safely  argue  that  the 
ancient  psalm  chants  are  interwoven  in 
its  melodies.  Moreover,  psalms  and 
antiphons  make  up  the  greater  part 
of  liturgical  song,  forming  a  consider- 
able part  even  of  the  chant  of  the  Mass, 
and  as  they  form  one  whole,  it  would 
seem  that  the  higlily  modulated  anti- 
phon  is  second  in  order  of  origin  to  the 
simpler  melodies  of  the  psalms. 

As  soon  as  the  Church  was  free  from 
the  Roman  persecutions,  we  find  her 
occupied  in  establishing  due  form  and 
uniformity  in  the  liturgy.  Pope  Dama- 
sus  (366-384)  ordained  that  the  psalms 
f-liould  be  chanted  by  alternate  choirs, 
and  that  to  each  should  be  added  the 
Gloria  Patri.  St.  Ambrose,  bishop  of 
Milan  (.374-397),  shares  with  St.  Gregory 
the  glory  of  being  the  founder  of  the 
system  of  Church  melody.  To  him  are 
due  the  four  authentic  modes,  which  he 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  liturgy  from 
the  system  of  tetrachords  used  by  the 
Greeks.  To  him  also  is  due  a  mode  of 
chanting  known  in  history  as  the  Am- 
brosian  Chant,  to  which  St.  Augustine 
alludes  in  his  "  Confessions."  "  The  hymns 
and  songs,  0  my  God,  and  the  sweet 
chant  of  Thy  Church  stirred  and  pene- 
trated my  being.  The  voices  streamed 
upon  my  ears  and  caused  truth  to  flow 
into  my  lieart ;  from  whose  fount  the 
feelings  came  welling  up.  I  ended  at 
last  in  a  flood  of  tears.  But  it  is  St. 
Gregory  the  Great,  Pope  from  a.d.  590  ' 
to  604,  who  is  regarded  as  the  author  of 
the  system  of  ecclesiastical  chant.  He 
so  developed  and  perfected  it  that  from 
his  time  it  has  borne  the  name  Gregorian. 
To  him  is  ascribed  the  discovery  of  the 
octave  as  the  naturally  complete  succes- 
sion of  sounds.    Of  the  fifteen  notes  used  , 


by  the  Greeks  as  the  basis  of  their 
system  of  tetrachords,  he  saw  that  after 
the  first  seven  they  were  only  repetitious 
of  the  preceding  at  a  higher  pitch,  and 
by  calling  these  seven  by  the  tirst  seven 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  repeating  the 
letters  for  the  next  seven,  he  fixed  for 
ever  the  true  groundwork  of  all  music. 
He  perfected  the  work  of  St.  Ambrose 
by  adding  to  each  of  the  authentic  modes 
the  allied  mode  which  runs  side  by  side 
with  it,  and  is  therefore  called  plagal. 
He  adopted  a  simplified  manner  of  nota- 
tion, consisting  of  dots,  curves,  strokes, 
and  combinations  of  them,  placed  above 
the  words  at  various  distances,  called 
Neumata  or  Nota  Romana.  To  us  the 
system  is  exceedingly  complex,  no  less 
than  twenty-eight  of  these  easily  con- 
founded signs  being  enumerated  and  ex- 
plained in  "  Die  Sangerschule  S.  Gallens  " 
( Einsiedeln,  1858),  taken  from  the  famous 
3IS.  at  S.  Gall,  reputed  to  be  a  copy  of 
St.  Gregory's"Antiphonarium";  and  only 
a  persistent  tradition  and  constant  teach- 
ing could  have  preserved  the  Gregorian 
chants  till  the  advent  of  a  better  notation. 
This  "  Antiphouarium  "  was  St.  Gregory's 
great  work  m  this  field.  It  was  the  first 
publication  under  the  authority  of  Rome 
of  the  Catholic  liturgical  chant,  and  was 
chained  to  the  altar  of  St.  Peter's,  that 
it  might  be  referred  to  on  all  occasions  as 
the  true  exemplar.  It  consisted  of  a 
collection  of  the  existing  chants,  corrected 
and  improved  by  St.  Gregory,  many  new 
ones  of  his  own  inspiration,  and  the 
method  of  using  them.  John  the  Deacon, 
writing  in  the  ninth  century,  tells  us 
that  St.  Gregory  "examined  the  tones, 
measures,  moods,  and  notes  most  suitable 
to  the  majesty  of  the  Church,  and  formed 
that  ecclesiastical  music,  so  grave  and 
edifying,  which  at  present  is  called 
Gregorian."  It  was  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighth  and  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century  that  the  modes  founded  on  la  and 
do  were  introduced.  Charlemagne,  who 
laboured  for  the  diffusion  of  the  Roman 
chant  throughout  the  West,  would  not  at 
first  admit  of  them,  but  after  questioning 
and  discussion  they  obtained  a  liturgical 
place.  With  these  the  system  of  Gre- 
gorian Chant  was  complete  as  we  now 
have  it.  But  in  spite  of  the  constancy  of 
traditional  teaching,  the  notation  was  too 
indefinite  to  pre.^erve  it  in  its  integrity, 
and  the  sense  of  this  gradually  led  to  the 
formation  of  the  stave.  The  introduction 
of  one  line  is  due  to  Hucbald,  a  Flemish 
monk  of  St.  Amand,  who  died  about 


PLaIN  chaxt 


PLAIN  CHANT  723 


930  A.D.  A  second  was  shortly  added, 
perhaps  indeed  by  the  same  hand.  Of 
these  one  represented /r/,  and  was  coloured 
red,  the  other  do,  and  was  coloured 
yellow.  How  much  these  would  facili- 
tate the  interpretation  of  the  newnata  of 
St.  Greprory  is  apparent.  But  it  was 
reserved  for  Guide  d'Arezzo,  a  Benedic- 
tine monk  of  the  convent  of  Pomposa, 
near  Ravenna,  to  perfect  the  notation. 
He  framed  the  stave  of  four  lines  with 
its  movable  clefs  as  we  have  it  now,  and 
proved  the  immense  utility  of  the  inven- 
tion by  teaching  Pope  John  XIX.  (1024- 
1033)"  to  sinf(  a  chant  before  unknown 
to  him  in  one  lesson.  He  also  has  the 
credit  of  having  originated  our  present 
names  for  the  first  six  notes  of  the  octave, 
namely  uf,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la.  Si  was 
added  aftei-wards,  and  some  countries, 
following  the  Itahans,  have  substituted 
do  for  ut.  These  names  are  taken  from 
the  Vesper  hymn  of  the  Feast  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist, 

Ut  queant  laxis  resonare  fibris 
J/tra  gestorum  /amuli  taorum, 
Solve  polluti  /abii  reatum, 
Sancte  Joannes, 

being  the  first  syllables  of  the  words 
commencing  each  half- verse,  and  rising  in 
pitch  gradually  accordmg  to  the  natural 
ascent  of  the  octave. 

Guido,  however,  departed  from  the 
principles  of  the  tetrachord  and  octave  for 
a  system  of  hexachords,  or  series  of  six 
notes,  using  for  his  system  the  variable 
character  of  si  before  explained,  and 
introducing  a  note  lower  than  the  A  of 
the  preceding  system.  This  note  he 
called  gamma,  and  as  it  represented  ut 
in  his  hexachord  system  of  mutations, 
the  word  Gamut  arose.  His  system 
happily  did  not  endure,  but  after  St. 
Gregory  there  is  no  name  in  higher 
honour  for  services  rendered  to  the  chant 
than  that  of  Guido  d'Arezzo.  From  his 
time  there  was  no  fear  that  the  Gregorian 
melodies  would  pass  into  oblivion  by 
forgetfulness,  because  the  pitch  of  each 
note  could  be  precisely  written  down, 
whatever  their  shape.  The  shape  of  the 
notes  now  in  use  is  of  later  origin.  This, 
in  brief,  is  the  history  of  the  chant  till 
the  time  when  it  was  complete  in  struc- 
tural development,  notation,  and  theory. 
Thencefoi-ward  the  spirit  of  the  legislation 
of  the  Church  in  respect  of  it  has  been  to 
preserve  it  in  its  integrity.  By  the  six- 
teenth century  it  had  shared  in  the 
common  relaxation  and  disfigurement,  the 


causes  of  the  evil  being  (1)  the  use  of 
measured  rhythm,  depending  on  the  beat 
of  hand  or  toot;  (2)  the  introduction  of 
counterpoint  or  harmony  with  its  seduc- 
tive beauty ;  (3)  the  mingling  in  the 
liturgy  of  popular  worldly  music,  both 
vocal  and  instrumental.  Li  these  ways 
its  melodic  simplicity  and  spiritual  power 
were  diminished,  and  the  Church  as- 
sembled at  Trent,  for  the  purpose,  among 
others,  of  the  reformation  of  discipline, 
was  sensible  of  the  need  of  it  in  her 
chant.  The  necessary  genius  was  pro- 
vided by  Providence  in  Palestriua  and 
his  pupil  Guidetti,  and  in  1582  appeared 
the  first  printed  monument  of  this  work  of 
reform — namely, the  "  Directorium  Chori 
of  Guidetti.  Its  greatest  monument,  the 
"  Graduale  Romanum,"  printed  by  com- 
mand of  Paul  V.  at  the  Medicean  press 
in  1614,  is  an  abiding  memorial  of  Pales- 
trina's  Christian  fame,  though  issued 
twenty  years  after  his  death.  To  him 
belongs  the  double  glory  of  restoring  the 
chant  to  its  former  grand  and  simple 
beauty,  and  of  exhibiting  contrapuntal 
or  harmonised  music  as  the  vehicle  of 
Christian  thought  in  such  marvellous 
power  as  to  secure  for  it  toleration  in  the 
liturgy.  In  the  liturgical  reform  set  on 
foot  by  Pius  IX.  for  the  establishment 
of  uniformity  in  the  Roman  chant,  and 
being  continued  under  the  present 
Supreme  Pontiff  Leo  XHI.,  the  com- 
mission to  whom  the  work  of  re\-ision 
was  assigned  republished  after  matured 
labours  the  Medicean  edition  of  the 
"  Gradual,"  adding  the  chants  of  the 
new  offices  instituted  since  its  first 
issue.  These  new  chants  are  due  tc 
the  Rev.  Francis  Xavier  Haberl,  blaster 
of  the  Cathedral  Choir  of  Ratisbon. 
The  printer  deputed  by  the  Holy 
See  is  Pustet  of  Ratisbon,  who,  acting 
under  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites 
and  the  aforesaid  commission,  is  engaged 
in  the  publication  of  the  many  diffe- 
rent books  of  the  chant.  It  is  an  im- 
mense work,  admirably  executed  under 
high  commendations  from  PiuS  IX.  and 
Leo  XIII.  (See  Decree  of  the  Sacred 
Congregation,  April  10,  18>!3.) 

It  remains  to  distinguish  plain  chant 
from  modern  figm-ed  mu>ic. 

The  Church's  duty  is  to  reform  and 
spiritualise  the  natural  faculties,  the 
musical  as  much  as  any  other.  The  dis- 
covery of  the  natural  octave  belongs  to 
her,  but  her  use  of  it  is  most  significant. 
The  most  natural  succession  of  notes  is  in 
her  thirteenth  tone,  but  this  is  the  last 


724  PLAIN  CHANT 


PLAIN  CHANT 


she  adopted,  and  then  onlj'  with  reluc-  | 
tance,  and  the  affection  for   this  tone  ! 
marks  the  transition  of  the  musical  art  1 
to  the  modern  secular  style,  in  which 
this  tone  is  almost  exclusively  used.     It  ' 
is  the  major  mode  of  modern  music.  Its 
minor  mode,  wliich  is  used  integrally 
only  in  the  descending  scale,  is  the  ninth 
tone  of  the  Church,  which  again  was 
admitted  to  liturgical  rank   only  with 
reluctance.    And  it  would  seem  that  a 
divine  instinct  was   the  cause   of  her 
Dii>igiving,  for  the  work  she  continually 
has  ill  hand  to  keep  the  liturgical  chaut 
pure  is  owing  to  the  intrusion  into  the 
choir  of  a  music  repugnant  to  her  spirit, 
but  springing  out  of  these  latest  of  her 
tones. 

But  the  chief  difference  of  modern 
or  tigured  music  from  plain  chant  lies  in 
the  rhythm.  It  is  called  Cantus  menmra- 
bilis,  because  the  rhythm  of  the  word 
is  abandoned  for  an  external  standard 
capable  of  exact  measurement.  The 
regular  beat  of  the  hand  or  foot  is  sub- 
stituted for  the  free  pulsations  of  the 
intelligent  and  eloquent  voice;  and,  speak- 
ing for  the  present  only  of  melody,  it  i.s 
clear  that  this  means  a  subordination  of 
the  word  to  a  music  conceived  indepen- 
dently of  it.  The  bars  no  longer  point 
out  the  pauses  suited  to  the  eloquent 
pronunciation  of  the  word,  but  indicate 
the  close  of  one  set  of  beats.  In  conse- 
quence, not  only  the  melody  but  the  word 
sung  is  made  subservient  to  an  external 
standard,  and  the  singer  must  give  his 
first  attention  to  this  instead  of  following 
his  inward  sense.  Hence  it  would  be 
repugnant  to  the  lowest  Catholic  intelli- 
gence that  a  priest  in  the  Mass,  when  he 
should  be  in  the  highest  mood  of  prayer, 
should  sing  a  music  thus  reducible  to  a 
measure  of  beats.  And  even  in  secular 
nmsic  it  is  recognised  that  the  highest 
exponents  of  the  authors  mind  must 
exercise  a  certain  freedom  of  interpre- 
tation as  to  measure.  Music,  indeed, 
founded  on  an  external  standard  cannot 
be  distinctly  spiritual.  But  it  may  be 
sentimental  and  imaginative,  and  herein 
lies  its  distinctive  difl'erence.  In  its 
influence  over  the  sensible  feelings,  and 
in  the  appeal  it  makes  to  the  imagination 
is  its  power,  and  by  this  should  be 
estimated  its  due  place  in  the  liturgy. 
While,  for  instance,  the  Church,  with 
directne.^is  of  aim,  makes  a  spiritual  act 
of  faith  in  the  crucifixion,  passion,  death, 
and  burial  of  our  Lord,  merely  fixing  the 
tone  and  building  the  melody  on  the 


rhythm  of  the  word,  figured  music 
makes  elaborate  pictures  in  music  of  the 
sadness,  darkness,  horror,  or  other  sensible 
adjunct  of  the  scene  of  the  crucifixion. 
How  far  and  in  what  way  the  sentiment 
and  imagination  may  be  justly  used  in 
music  for  religious  purposes  is  matter  for 
discussion.  But,  arguing  from  our  Lord's 
use  of  them  in  speech,  it  seems  sound  to 
conclude  that  they  are  at  best  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  spiritual,  and  that  adequate 
interpretation  of  the  word  of  faith,  which 
is  essentially  spiritual,  cannot  be  made 
through  them. 

That  constituent  of  figured  music  on 
which  its  title  Jiyured  depends,  is  the  use 
of  counterpoint  or  harmony.  Tliis  has  a 
powerful  effect  upon  the  sentiment,  and 
certainly  has  not  the  same  repugnance  to 
the  spu'itual  as  the  measured  beat  has. 
But  it  must,  unless  it  were  of  the  simplest 
kind,  restrict  the  free  course  of  the  melody 
by  the  necessity  of  allowing  other  voices 
of  difleriug  sound  to  keep  up  concord- 
antly  with  it,  and  the  Church  shows  no 
disposition  to  admit  that  it  is  any  help 
to  the  interpretation  of  her  spiritual 
word.  Even  to  a  sldlled  organist,  where 
there  is  only  question  of  instrumental  har- 
monies, it  is  no  easy  task  to  accompany 
the  chant  when  rendered  with  free  and 
intelligent  delivery  by  a  trained  choir, 
and  to  endeavour  to  harmonise  through- 
out is  only  to  oppress  the  voice  and 
hamper  the  melody. 

Plain  chant,  then,  to  be  rightly  judged, 
must  be  regarded  as  the  vehicle  in  song 
of  the  spiritual  mind  of  the  Church, 
having  been  itself  spiritually  conceived 
and  developed,  and  having  a  severe  and 
chaste  beauty  all  its  own.  Though  not 
ordained  by  the  Church  to  the  exclusion 
of  figured  chant,  it  forms  her  canon  of 
judgment  in  respect  of  it,  and,  as  the 
interpretative  song  of  her  liturgical  prayer, 
i.s  supreme  in  its  own  domain.  Figured 
chant  is,  by  origin,  theory,  and  legitimate 
use,  supplementary  to  it,  and  in  its  highest 
forms  aims,  as  in  Palestrina's  compositions, 
at  weaving  together  in  harmonic  beauty 
different  threads  of  melody,  employing 
the  measured  beat  just  so  far  as  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  voices  in  concordant  ad- 
vance. Rightly  understood  in  their  due 
relations, the  two  modes  of  chant  mutually 
sustain  and  explain  each  other ;  but  to 
arrive  at  this  understanding  it  would  be 
well  that  the  voice  of  Rome  should  be 
heard,  for  in  spiritual  things  which  are 
one  in  intention  but  diverse  in  manner 
her  voice  is  the  only  co-ordinating  power. 


PLURALITY  OF  BENEFICES 


PCKJR  CLARES  726 


PXiTTSAX.XT-r  OP  BBITEPICES. 

Among  the  canons  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (451)  is  one  forbidding  the 
cumulation  of  two  or  more  benefices  in 
the  same  hands.  The  Council  of  Trent,' 
decrees  that,  whereas  there  are  many 
who,  "  deceiving  not  God  but  them- 
selves," seek  by  fraud  or  collusion  to  hold 
several  benefices  at  once,  no  one  for  the 
future,  whatever  his  rank  in  the  hier- 
archy, shall  be  appointed  to  more  than 
one  ecclesiastical  Ijenefice,  provided 
always  such  benefice  be  sufficient  for  his 
support.  If  it  be  not  so,  he  may  lawfully 
hold  another  along  with  it,  provided  the 
two  be  not  inrimpntible.  The  incompati- 
bility of  benefices  is  a  wide  and  intricate 
subject ;  for  the  purjKjse  of  this  article  it 
is  sufficient  to  say  that  one  chief  cause 
of  incompatibility  is  the  eidstence  of  an 
obligation  to  continuous  personal  resi- 
dence in  regard  to  both  benefices,  as  in 
the  case  of  two  bishoprics,  two  parishes, 
two  canonri'-s,  &c. 

Nothwithstanding  what  has  been  said, 
the  instances  of  Papal  dispensations, 
authorising'  the  same  person  to  receive, 
and  even  to  hold,  several  benefices  to- 
gether, are  undoubtedly  numerous.  This 
is  explained  by  Navarrus  '  in  the  follow- 
ing manner : — "  If,""  he  says,  "  his  Holi- 
ness grants  to  one  holding  several  bene- 
fices others  in  addition,  it  is  not  that  he 
has  the  intention  of  dispensing  in  con- 
travention of  the  decree  aforesaid,  but 
because  he  believe*  that  all  the  benefices 
are  necessary'  for  the  suitable  maintenance 
of  the  petitioner,  and  that  otherwise  his 
confessor  will  not  give  him  absolution, 
unless  first  he  shall  have  resigned,  or 
have  the  firm  intention  of  resigning,  such 
of  the  benefices  as  are  not  necessary  for 
his  suitable  maintenance.  There  are, 
however,  special  cases,  as  to  which  canon- 
ists are  agreed  that,  if  the  good  of  the 
Church  so  require,  the  Pope  may  grant  a 
dispensation  for  validly  holding  two  or 
more  benefices,  even  though  they  are 
per  se  incompatible." 

Important  decrees  against  plurality 
were  passed  by  the  Third  Council  of 
Lateran  (1179),  and  also  by  the  Fourth 
Council  C121o).  (Ferraris,  Beneficium, 
art.  vi.V 

POZ.TGAIVI7.    [See  Maeeiige.] 
PON'TIFZCA^.    A  book  containing 
the  rites,  some  of  which  can  be  performed 
by  a  bishop  only,  othei^  only  by  priests 
specially  empowered  by  the  bishop.  Such 
1  Sees.  xxiv.  c.  17.  De  Bef. 
•  Ferraris,  "  Beneficinm,"  art.  vi. 


j  books  were  compiled  in  the  middle  ages 
I  from  the  old  Sacramentarieo  and  Ordines 
I  by  bishops  for  their  own  use  and  that  of 
'  their  successors.  Pontificals  probably 
S  came  into  use  during  the  eighth  century, 
i  the  earliest  extant  being  that  of  Egbert, 
archbishop  of  York  from  732  to  7G6. 
The  copy  in  the  National  Library  at 
Paris  seems  to  have  been  written  in 
Egbert's  life-time.'  Ordinarium  was 
another  name  for  the  Pontifical.  It 
occurs  in  the  gloss  on  the  "  Clementina 
Unica  [of  Clement  ^^-l  Jurejurando,'' 
and  in  a  necrolog}-  of  Paris,  both  quoted 
by  Catalani.  Zaccaria  ("  Biblioth.  Rit.") 
gives  a  list  of  MS.  Pontificals  of  French 
and  German  dioceses.  According  to  Mr. 
Maskell,  there  is  an  imperfect  Bangor 
Pontifical  (thirteenth  century)  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  dean  and  chapter,  a  perfect 
Pontifical  of  the  Sarum  use,  and  an  im- 
perfect Pontifical  from  Winchester  in 
the  Cambridge  Library,  three  or  four 
imperfect  Pontificals  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, an  Exeter  Pontifical  (twelfth  cen- 
tury) in  the  cathedral  there.  It  will  be 
seen  how  ver\-  rare  English  MS.  Ponti- 
ficals are.  Neither  the  Bodleian  nor  the 
British  Museum  has  one  perfect  copy. 
MS.  Pontificals  were  of  course  not  multi- 
plied like  Missals  or  Breviaries. 

The  first  printed  edition  of  the  Roman 
Pontifical  was  edited  by  A.  P.  Piccolo- 
mini,  Episcopus  Picentinus,  in  1485. 
Albertus  Castellanus  dedicated  another 
edition,  in  which,  he  says,  he  had  made 
many  changes,  to  Leo  X.  It  was  revised 
under  Clement  \TTI.,  again  corrected 
under  Urban  YIIL,  and  the  bulls  of  these 
Popes  (1596  and  1644)  require  all  bishops, 
&c.,  strictly  to  conform  to  the  Roman 
Pontifical  so  revised.  This  must  be  un- 
derstood of  bishops  belonging  to  the 
Latin  Church,  for  the  Catholic  Greeks, 
Maronites,  &c.,  have  their  own  Ponti- 
ficals, of  which  Zaccaria  give*  a  list. 
There  is  a  learned  commentary  on  the 
Roman  Pontifical  in  three  volumes  by 
Catalani.  This  article  has  been  compiled 
from  the  Prolegomena  to  Catalani's 
edition,  from  Zaccaria's  "  Bibliotheca 
Ritualis,"  and  from  Maskell's  "  Monu- 
menta  Ritualia." 

POOS  CZ.AHES.  This  is  the  second 
order  of  St.  Francis,  called  the  Povere 
Donne,  or,  in  French,  Clarisses.  Their 

'  So  Mr.  Soudamore  (art.  "Pontifical."  in 
Smith  and  Cheetham).  But  Mr.  Maskell 
{Mon.  Bit.  vol.  i.  p.  1.32)  says  the  MS.  was 
written  about  the  beginning  of  the  tenth 
centurj-. 


726  POOR  CLARES 


POPE 


founder  was  the  virgin  St.  Clare,  born  at 
Assisi,  of  which  St.  Francis  also  was  a 
native.  When  very  young  she  heard  of 
the  seraphic  life  led  by  St.  Francis  in  his 
little  convent  of  the  Portiuncula,  and 
aspired  to  imitate  it.  Against  much 
opposition  she  renounced  the  world,  and 
was  received  by  St.  Francis  at  the  Porti- 
uncula in  1212.  Her  sister  Agnes  soon 
joined  her;  the  church  of  St.  Damian 
was  assigned  to  them  ;  and  in  a  short 
time  she  had  no  lack  of  followers. 
Within  eight  years  the  order  had  si)read 
into  both  France  and  Spain.  The  Cai-dinal 
Ugolino,  who  was  protector  of  the  whole 
order  of  St.  Francis,  placed  St.  Clare  and 
her  nuns  temporarily  under  the  rule  of 
St.  Benedict,  adding  some  constitutions 
of  great  austerity.  Under  these  they  ob- 
served a  perpetual  fast,  and  on  three  days 
of  the  week  in  Lent  fasted  on  bread  and 
water ;  they  lay  on  boards ;  their  habit 
was  rough  and  of  coarse  material ;  and 
they  could  not  speak  to  one  another  at 
any  time  without  the  superior's  leave. 
In  1224  St.  Francis  gave  a  written  rule 
to  St.  Clare,  which  contained  several 
mitigatious  of  that  which  they  had 
hitherto  observed ;  they  were  now  not  to 
fast  on  Christmas  Day,  nor  ever  on  bread 
and  water  ;  moreover,  the  silence  imposed 
was  contiued  to  certain  hours  of  the  day. 
Like  the  friars,  they  were  not  to  possess 
any  landed  property.  This  rule  was  ap- 
proved by  Innocent  IV.  in  1246. 

A  Bohemian  princess  renounced  the 
world  in  1234  in  order  to  serve  God  in 
this  order,  which  by  her  means  was  pro- 
pagated in  Bohemia  and  in  the  German 
countries  adjoining  it.  St.  Clare  died  in 
the  odour  of  sanctity  in  1253.  Various 
modifications  of  the  rule  given  by  St. 
Francis  having  found  their  way  into 
several  convents.  Cardinal  Cajetan,  with 
the  approbation  of  Urban  IV.,  drew  up  in 
1204  a  rule,  substantially  agreemg  with, 
but  somevehat  mitigated  from  that  given 
by  St,  Francis,  which  was  adopted  by 
the  great  majority  of  the  daugliters  of 
St.  Clare.  Some,  however,  particularly 
in  Spain  and  Italy,  preferred  to  follow 
the  unmitigated  rule.  The  order  was 
thus  divided  into  two  branches,  the  larger 
beinjr  known  by  the  name  of  Urbanists, 
the  latter  bv  that  of  Clarisses. 

The  reform  of  St.  Colette  (1436) 
consisted  in  bringing  back  a  number 
of  convents  in  France  and  Flanders  to 
the  exact  observance  of  the  rule  of  St. 
Francis. 

The  first  monastery  of  Franciscan 


nuns  or  Minoresses  founded  in  England 
(1293)  was  outside  Aldgate,  to  the  East 
of  London ;  the  house  soon  came  to  be 
called  "  the  Minories,"  a  name  which  the 
locality  still  retains.  At  the  dissolution, 
besides  this  house,  there  were  two  other 
convents  of  Poor  Clares,  at  Brusyard,  in 
Suffolk,  and  Denny,  in  Cambridgeshire. 

The  government  and  direction  of  the 
order,  being  divided  between  a  Cardinal 
Protector  and  the  superiors  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans, were  for  a  long  time  a  subject  of 
controversy  and  difficulty ;  until,  early  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  Juhus  II.  placed 
the  Poor  Clares  entirely  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  general  and  provincials  of 
the  Friars  Minors. 

In  the  time  of  Helyot  this  order  pos- 
sessed 900  convents,  with  more  than 
2,500  religious.  The  French  Revolution 
swept  most  of  their  houses  away  ;  but  five 
or  six  have  been  restored  in  France,  and 
a  rather  larger  number  exist  in  Austria. 
In  England  there  are  seven  convents,' 
five  of  which  (Baddesley,  Bullingham, 
Comwall  Road,  York  and  Levenshulme) 
follow  the  reform  of  St.  Colette ;  in  Ire- 
land six,  at  Ballyjamesdufl',  Galway, 
Harold's  Cross,  near  Dublin,  Keady,  near 
Armagh,  Kenmare,  and  Newry. 

POOR  IWETT  OP  X.TON-S.  [See 
Valdexses.j 

POPE.  The  word  (Tramrai  01  irdnas, 
originally  a  childish  word  for  father,  Lat. 
papa)  was  given  at  first  as  a  title  of  re- 
spect to  ecclesiastics  generally.  Among 
the  Greeks  at  this  day  it  is  used  of  all 
priests,  and  was  used,  as  late  at  least  as 
the  middle  ages,  of  inferior  clerics.  In 
the  West  it  seems  to  have  become  veiy 
early  a  special  title  of  bishops.  Thus  the 
Roman  clergy  (Cyprian,  Ep.  viii.  1)  speak 
of  the  Bishop  of  Carthage  as  "the  blessed 
Pope  "  ("  Benedictum  Papatem  ").  Even 
as  late  as  the  sixth  century  the  title  of 
Pope  was  sometimes  given  to  metropo- 
litans in  the  West,  (See  Uefele,  "  Concil." 
iii.  p.  20  seq.)  Gradiuilly,  however,  the 
title  was  limited  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome, 
and  we  find  a  synod  of  Pavia  in  998 
1  (Ilefele,  iv.  p.  653)  rebuking  an  arch- 
bishop of  Milan  for  calling  himself  Pope. 
Gregory  VII.,  in  a  Roman  Council  of  the 
year  1073,  formally  prohibited  the  as- 
sumption of  the  title  by  any  other  than 
the  Roman  Bishop.  It  is  of  course  in  this 
last  and  most  restricted  sense  that  we  use 
the  word  here.    By  the  Pope  we  mean 

1  Baddesley  dienr  VVarwick),  Bullingham 
(near  Hereford),  Darlington,  l.evenshulme, 
York,  Arundel,  London  (Comwall  Road). 


POPE 


POPE 


727 


the  Bishop  of  Rome,  who  is,  accordijig 
to  Catholic  doctrine,  the  successor  of 
St.  Peier,  aud  as  such  the  vicar  of  Christ, 
the  visible  head  of  the  Church,  the  doctor 
aud  teacher  of  all  the  faithlul.  We  pro- 
pose to  give  some  accoxmt  (1)  of  the 
place  St.  Peter  occupies  in  Scripture ; 
(2)  of  the  position  of  the  Pope  in  the  Ante- 
Nicene  age ;  (3)  of  tlijj  testimonies  of 
later  Fathys  and  councils  ;  (4)  to  sketch 
the  position  of  the  Pope  in  the  Church  of 
the  present  time.  Obviously,  in  a  subject 
so  vast  we  cannot  do  more  than  direct 
attention  to  the  chief  points. 

(1)  The  Position  of  Peter  in  the  Xeiv 
Testament. — Peter  was  first  brought  to 
Christ  by  his  brother  Andrew.  "  And 
Jesus,  looking  at  him,  said.  Thou  art 
Simon  [i.e.  "hearer"],  the  son  of  John 
riaxivov  is  the  reading  best  supported], 
thou  shalt  be  called  Cephas,"  which  is 
interpreted  Peter — i.e.  stone  or  rock. 
The  three  synoptic  evangelists  agree  in 
putting  Peter's  name  first  in  the  list  of 
the  Apostles,  and  all  note  the  change 
of  his  name  from  Simon  to  Peter  (••  He 
confeiTed  on  Simon  the  name  of  Peter," 
Mark  iii.  16 ;  "  Simon,  whom  also  He 
named  Peter,"  Luke  vi.  14 ;  "first  Simon, 
who  is  called  Peter,"  Matt.  x.  2),  and 
later  the  reason  for  the  cl.aiige  of  name 
appeared.  The  change  of  name  in  itself 
must  have  been  strange  and  significant  in 
the  ears  of  a  pious  Jew.  He  could 
scarcely  fail  to  remember  the  depth  of 
meaning  which  had  lain  in  the  change 
of  Abram's  name  to  Abraham,  or  how 
Jacob  had  won  the  glorious  name  of 
Israel,  which  was  the  pride  and  the  joy 
of  his  descendants.  And  besides, "  Rock  " ' 
was  one  of  the  most  familiar  names  for 
that  God  who  was  at  once  the  strength 
of  His  people,  their  impregnable  fortress 
and  refuge,  their  shelter  in  the  noon-day 
heat  of  persecution.  Christ  Himself  ex- 
plained the  reason  for  which  He  had 
changed  Simon's  name  to  Peter.  Hitherto 
He  iiad  been  the  visible  head  of  that 
society  which  He  had  gathered  roimd 

1  '•  Rock "  ("ViX)  constantly  used  as  a 
title  of  God  (see,  e.g.,  Deut.  xxxii.  4,  •'  The 
rock — perfect  is  his  work  "  :  1  Sam.  ii.  2  ;  Isa. 
XXX.  29  ;  Ps.  xviii.  32  (and  so  v^d).  Once 
only  is  God  called  a  "stone"  (j^S)— ^iz-  in 
Gen.  xlix.  24,  "the  shepherd,  the  stone  of 
Israel."  But  probably  we  should  point,  with 
Ew.-ikl.  Dillroan,  and  others,  njTl  "  the  shep- 
herd of  the  stone  of  Israel,"  with  reference  to 
Gen.  xxviii.  18  seq.;  xxxv.  14,  &c.  Keil, 
Kalisch,  &c.,  maintain  the  Masoretic  reading. 


Him  and  He  needed  no  vicar.  But  soon 
His  disciples  were  to  see  Him  on  earth 
no  more,  and  He  promised  to  provide  His 
visible  Church,  after  He  had  gone  to 
Heaven,  with  a  visible  head.  Peter  had 
confessed  that  his  Master  was  "the 
Christ  the  Son  of  the  living  God."  Christ 
accepted  aud  rewarded  this  confession, 
which  sprang  from  divine  faith.  Peter 
had  .<aid  Christ  was  the  Son  of  God, 
"  And  I,""  Christ  replied,  "  say  to  thee 
that  thou  art  Peter  [or  rock],'  and  on 
this  rock  I  will  build  my  Church,  and 
the  gates  of  Hades  sha'll  not  prevail 
against  it.  And  I  will  give  to  thee  the 
keys  uf  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and 
whatsoever  thou  sli;ilt  bind  on  earth  will 
be  bound  in  heaven,  and  whatsoever  thou 
shalt  loose  on  earth  wiU  be  loosed  in 
heaven  "  (Matt.  xvi.  18-19). 

Four  promises  to  Peter  "of  power 
and  pre-eminence  in  the  Church"  are  con- 
tained in  these  words.  In  a  sense  all  the 
Apostles  became  the  foimdation-stoues  of 
Chrisfs  Church  (Ephes.  ii.  19,  20 ;  Apoc. 
xsi.  14).  But  Peter  was  to  be  its  cliief 
foundation-stone.  He  is  not  to  derive  his 
strength  from  the  Church;  but,  on  the 
contrary,  Peter  is  to  draw  his  strength 
from  Christ,  and  the  Church  from  Peter. 
Xext,  the  Church  built  on  Peter  cannot 
fail.     The  gates  of  the  invisible  world, 

1  It  has  often  been  ursred  that  Peter  does 
not  mean  "  rock,"  bat  '•  stone."  wirpa  bciiiir  the 
word  for  "rock."  Sound  schoUrship  will  nut 
support  this  distinction  or  the  inference  drawn 
from  it.  Chri~t  calls  Simon  nirpos.  not  irerpo, 
simply  because  werpo  could  nor  stand  as  a  man's 
name.  This  is  fully  admitted  by  Mevf-r,  one  of 
the  most  eminent  X.T. scholars — perhaps  the  most 
eminent  who  has  appeared  in  our  nwn  time. 
He  quotes,  to  .■'how  how  commonly  xerpos  cccurs 
in  the  classics  with  the  meanini:"'-  rock,"  Plato, 
Ax.  p.  .S71  ;  Soph.  PhU.  272  ;  0.  C.  19,  1591  ; 
Pind.  Kem.  iv.  46,  x.  126.  Christ,"  be  says, 
••  declares  Peter  a  rock  because  of  his  stronjj 
faith  in  Him  "  ;  and  again,  "The  evasion ofteu 
taken  advanta_e  of  iii  controversy  w^itTi  Koiiie 
— viz.  that  the  'rock'  means, not  Peter  himself, 
but  the  firm  faith  and  the  confession  of  it  on 
the  part  of  the  Apostle — is  incorrect,  since  the 
demonstrative  expression,  'on  this  rock,'  can 
only  mean  the  A|  ostle  himself."  We  may  add 
that  Cephas  ({<3'2)  's  a  common  word  in 
the  Chaldee  Targuuis  for  "rock" — e.g.  "in  the 
shadow  of  the  rock  "  (Tarfr.  on  Isa.  xxxii.  2. 
Oihc  r  insiances  in  Levy,  Chaidai^ches  fi'drter- 
biich).  In  the  Syriac  form  it  occurs  very  fre- 
quentlv  in  the  Peshito,  where  it  mean-",  (1) 
••rock";  (2)  "stone";  (3)  " Peter."  Thus, 
in  the  text  before  us  (Matt,'  xvi.  18)  we  have 
the  very  same  word  for  IlfTpos  and  ireTpa: 

"Thou  art  Cephas  and  on  this  Cephas 

I  will  budd  my  Church." 


?28 


POPE 


POPE' 


strong  as  they  are,  will  not  enclose  and 
so  prevail  against  the  Church  ;  nay,  they 
themselves  will  at  last  be  broken  and  will 
give  up  their  dt>ad  :  but  the  Church  built 
on  Peter  will  endure  till  death  is  "  swal- 
lowed up  in  victory "  (1  Cor.  xv.  54), 
and  even  then  the  Church  will  not  cease 
to  be ;  only  the  Church  which  fights  and 
struggles  here  will  be  changed  into  the 
Church  which  triumphs  and  reigns  in 
heaven.  Thirdly,  while  the  Church  lasts, 
Peter  (and  his  successors)  will  hold  its 
ieys.  Christ,  who  has  the  "  key  of  the 
house  of  David,"  Christ,  who  opens  and  no 
man  shuts,  shuts  and  no  man  opens,  con- 
tinues to  be  the  Master  of  the  house  ;  but 
Peter  is  the  steward  to  whom  the  keys 
are  committed.  He  admits  to  and  ex- 
cludes from  the  Chm-ch  in  his  Master's 
nauie.  In  other  words,  he  is  the  centre  of 
the  Church's  unity.  All,  from  the  great 
Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  down  to  the  most 
obscure  of  the  Church's  children,  hold 
their  place  and  exercise  their  functions  in 
subordination  to  Peter.  Fourthly,  what 
he  binds  and  looses  on  earth  is  bound  and 
loosed  in  heaven — i.e.  he  is  the  ultimate 
earthly  judge  of  what  is  lawful  and  un- 
lawful. He  is  to  lay  down  the  laws  and 
conditions  on  which  communion  with  the 
Church  and  participation  in  its  privileges 
depend,  and  the  decisions  of  his  tribunal 
here  will  be  ratified  in  the  heavenly 
court.' 

Once  more  before  His  Passion  Christ 
made  a  promise  to  Peter  which  brought 
the  strength  he  was  to  have  for  his  future 
office,  and  by  virtue  of  Christ's  help,  into 
.sharp  contrast  with  his  sin  and  frailty  as 
a  man.  He  was  to  deny  his  Master  three 
times,  but  this  denial  was  not  to  involve 
the  loss  of  faith  or  to  deprive  him  of  his 
supernatural  strength  as  the  future  rock 
of  the  Church.  "  Satan  has  sought  for 
you  [plural — i.e.  tho  Apostles]  to  sift  you 
as  wheat,  but  I  Iiavc  jirayeil  for  tliee 
[.singular — i.e.  for  Peter]  that  thy  faith 
may  not  fail,  and  thou,  being  once  con- 
verted [when  thou  hast  once  turned  to 
Me],  strengthen  thy  brethren "  (Lidve 
xxii.  31,  o2).  No  intelligent  reader  cah 
fail  to  notice  the  significant  change  of 
number  here.    Temptation  is  common  to 

>  Usually,  "binding"  .and  "lonsini;"  nip 
taken  to  mean  "  retaining  "  and  "  romidinu 
sins.  But  •' bind  "  and  "loose '■  wen-  tin- te  ch- 
nical words  with  the  Rabbis  (see  "I^Hn 
in  Buxtorf,  Lex.  C/iald.  et  Rabb.)  for  "proliil)!- 
tion  and  permission '' ;  and  it  is  very  bard  to 
see  how  Christ's  words  could  have  conveyed 
«ny  other  sense  to  His  hearers. 


Peter  with  the  other  Apostles.  Satan 
has  "  asked  for "  them  all,  that  he  may 
sift  them  by  temptation  and  separate 
them  like  chalF  from  the  wheat.  But  it 
is  for  Peter  specially  that  Christ  prays, 
because  on  him,  the  man  of  rock,  on  him 
and  him  alone,  the  faith  of  the  Church 
depends.  It  is  his  peculiar  office  to 
strengthen  his  brethren  Even  so  deter- 
mined a  Protestant  as  Bengel  admits  that 
"  this  whole  speech  of  our  Lord  presup- 
poses that  Peter  is  the  first  of  the  Apo- 
stles, on  whose  stability  or  fall  the  less  or 
greater  danger  of  the  others  depended 
(quo  stante  aid  cadente  cateri  aiit  yrmius 
aid  magis periclitarentur).'" 

After  the  resurrection  Christ  graciously 
allowed  St.  Peter  to  atone  for  his  threefold 
denial  by  a  threefold  declaration  of  love, 
and  again,  under  a  new  metaphor,  Christ 
committed  to  him  the  fulness  of  jurisdic- 
tion. Christ  was,  and  ever  is,  the  Good 
Shepherd,  but  in  a  few  days  His  visible 
presence  was  to  he  withdrawn,  and  on  earth 
Peter  was  to  he  chief  shepherd  of  Christ's 
iiock.  "Feed  My  lambs."  "Be  the  shep- 
herd of  My  sheep"  (perhaps  "little  sliee])," 
TTpo^iaTui).  "  Feed  My  sheep  "  (perhaps 
Trpol^aTia  again).  The  Church  w.is  still 
Christ's  tiock  ("  my  lambs,"  "  my  sheep  "), 
but  Peter  is  entrusted  by  Christ  with  the 
office  of  feeding  both  the  old  and  the  little 
ones  of  the  flock.  The  duty  of  ieeding 
the  young  and  "  the  watchful  care  and 
rule  over  maturer  Christians"  (Westcntt, 
ad  loc.)  are  alike  laid  upon  him.  The 
gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  power  of 
remitting  and  retaining  sins,  are  bestowed 
on  the  other  Apostles  as  well  as  upon  St. 
Peter.  But  Peter  alone  receives  the  keys 
of  the  Church;  he  alone  is  the  reck  on 
which  the  Church  is  built ;  on  the  faith 
of  him  alone  the  faith  even  of  the  other 
Apostles  depends ;  he  alone  is  made  the 
shepherd  of  the  whole  flock. 

This  primacy  of  Peter  after  Christ's 
a.scension  clearly  manifests  itself  even  m 
the  scanty  records  of  the  New  Testament, 
though  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
personal  inspiration  of  the  other  Apostles 
and  the  fact  that  they  were  free  to  extend 
their  missionaij  conquests  throughout  the 
earth  made  their  relation  to  Peter  very 
different  from  that  between  the  Pope  and 
bisliops  of  later  times,  who  have  no  gift  of 
inspiration  and  whose  jurisdiction  is  con- 
fined to  the  limits  of  a  particular  diocese. 
Still,  as  has  been  said,  the  subordination 
of  the  other  Apostles  to  Peter  does  evi- 
dently appear.  At  his  instigation  stp])? 
were  "taken  to  fill  up  the  vacancy  in  the 


POPE 


POPE 


720 


Apostolic  collef^e,  and  he  laid  down  the 
rules  of  the  election.  "  The  punishment  of 
Ananias  and  Sapphira,  the  anathema  on 
Simon  Magus,  the  first  heretic,  the  first 
visiting  and  coiitirming  the  churches  suf- 
fering under  persecution,  were  all  his  acts. 
If  he  was  sent  with  St.  John  by  the 
Apostolic  College  to  the  new  converts  at 
Samaria,  he  was  himself  member  and 
president  of  that  college.  So  the  Jews 
sent  their  high-priest  Ismael  to  Nero :  and 
St.  Ignatius  ('  Philad.'  10)  says  that  the 
neiglilinuriiifi-  churches  in  Asia  had  sent, 
sometlieir  bishops,  some  their  priests  and 
deacons (DoUinger,  "  First  Age  of  the 
Church  ").  He  was  indeed  the  Apostle 
of  the  Circumcision,  in  this  following 
Christ,  who  had  said,  "  I  am  not  sent  but 
unto  the  lost  sheep  of  the  house  of 
Israel"  (Matt.  xv.  24),  while  St.  Paul 
was  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  (Gal.  ii. 
7).  This,  however,  involved  no  more 
than  a  division  of  labour,  and  in  no  way 
derogated  from  St.  Peter's  position  as 
chief  of  the  Apostles  and  head  of  the 
whole  Church.  On  the  contrary,  it  was 
St.  Peter  who  was  taught  by  revelation 
"to  call  no  man  common  or  unclean," 
and  who  first  publicly  and  solemnly 
opened  the  gates  of  the  Church  to  the 
Gentiles  by  the  baptism  of  Cornelius 
(Acts  X.).  St.  Paul  did  not  enter  upon 
his  peculiar  oflice  of  preaching  to  the 
Gentiles  till  after  his  fifteen  days'  con- 
ference with  St.  Peter  (Gal.  i.  16),  and 
this  though  he  constantly  insists  on  the 
fact  that  his  doctrine  and  Apostolic 
authority  came  to  him  direct  from  heaven. 
About  A.D.  51  an  Apostolic  council  was 
held  at  Jerusalem  to  decide  the  contro- 
versy with  the  Judai.'^ers.  "  Certain  men 
coming  down  [to  Antioch]  from  Judaea 
kept  teaching  the  brethren,  '  Unless  ye 
are  circumcised  accordijig  to  the  custom 
of  Moses,  ye  cannot  be  saved.'"  It  is 
often  alleged  that  St.  James's  position  in 
the  assembly  is  quite  inconsistent  with 
St.  Peter's  primacy.  The  very  contrary 
seems  to  be  the  case.  No  doubt  St. 
James  says  (Acts  xv.  19),  "I  judge  " — i.e. 
"  I  give  a  decision  for  myself  and  my 
brother  Apostles."  But  we  cannot  under- 
stand the  history  till  we  observe  that 
there  were  two  questions  before  the 
council :  one  a  question  of  doctrine — viz. 
Is  circumcision  necessary  for  salvation  P 
and  then  a  question  of  expediency — 
"What  disciplinary  decree  will  be  most 
likely  to  promote  peace  between  Jewish 
and  Gfc utile  converts?  On  the  former 
question  St.  Peter  pronounces  authori- 


tatively. He  is  the  first  to  speak.  He 
tells  the  assembly  that  God  had  ordained 
that  the  Gentiles  should  hear  the  Gospel 
"  through  my  mouth,"  that  God  had 
"  puiified  their  hearts  by  faith,"  that  He 
had  made  no  difl'erence  between  Jew  and 
Gentile,  that  both  were  to  be  saved  by 
the  gi-ace  of  Christ.  Thereupon  "the 
whole  multitude  was  silent,"  and  heard 
Paul  and  Barnabas  recount  their  mission- 
ary experience  (v.  12).  St.  James  refers 
to  and  accepts  St.  Peter's  doctrinal  deci- 
sion (v.  14),  and  proceeds  to  give  his  own 
judgment  on  the  practical  rules  to  be 
laid  down — viz.  abstinence  from  things 
offered  to  idols,  things  strangled,  blood, 
&c.  It  was  natural,  on  Catholic  prin- 
ciples, that  St.  Peter  should  pronounce 
the  doctrinal  decision  ;  it  was  also  natural 
and  fitting,  in  the  circumstances,  that 
St.  James  should  give  his  judgment  on 
the  practical  rules,  for  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul  were  both  parties  in  the  dispute, 
already  committed  to  the  cause  of  freedom 
and  spirituality;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  St.  James,  the  head  of  the  chief 
Jewish  church,  was  just  the  man  likely 
to  conciliate  the  Pharisaic  party.  Further, 
in  a  famous  passage  (Gal.  ii.  11),  St.  Paul 
says  of  himself  that  he  "  withstood  Peter 
to  the  face,  because  he  was  condemned  " 
{KaTcyvcoafjievns — i.e.  "  his  conduct  carried 
its  own  condemnation  with  it,"  Lightfoot, 
ad  loc).  But  there  was  no  question  of 
error  in  faith.  St.  Peter,  when  he  went 
to  Antioch,  withdrew  from  eating  with 
the  Gentile  converts  and  acted  against 
the  principles  of  Gospel  liberty  he  had 
maintained  at  Jerusalem  shortly  before. 
This  proves,  no  doubt,  that  St.  Peter  was 
capable  of  error  in  judgment  and  of 
vacillation.  It  is  no  argument  against 
his  primacy,  nor  does  it  show  that  he 
could  teach  the  Church  false  doctrine,  or 
cease  to  be  the  rock  on  which  its  faith  is 
built.  In  short,  the  Gospels  in  plain  and 
unmistakeable  terms  recount  tlie  divine 
institution  of  the  Petrine  primacy.  There 
is  nothing  to  contradict  and  something 
to  confirm  the  Gospel  view  of  Peter's 
primacy  in  the  Apostolic  rex;ords,  and  the 
natural  exposition  of  Christ's  words 
remains  in  its  rights. 

(2)  T/ic  Pope  in  the  Antc-Nicene  Age. 
— It  is  the  constant  tradition  of  the 
earliest  Christian  writers  that  Peter  held 
the  first  place  among  the  Apustles.  Ter- 
tullian  ("Pr.iBScr."  l'l' :  "  .Monog."  8) 
asserts  that  Peter  is  the  rock  on  which 
the  Church  was  built,  and,  again,  that 
Christ  left  the  keys  to  him  and  "  through 


730 


POPE 


POPE 


liini  to  the  Church"  (" Scorp."  10),  which 
last  words  exactly  tally -with  the  Catholic 
doctrine  that  Peter  is  the  fountain-head 
of  all  spiritual  rule  and  jurisdiction. 
Clement  of  Alexandria  ("  Qiiis  Dives,"  c. 
xxi.  p.  947)  speaks  of  Peter  as  "  the  elect, 
the  chosen  one,  the  first  of  the  disciples." 
Origen  dcclavt-s  that  Peter  was  "the 
great  fMni<latirm  of  tlie  Church,  tlie  most 
solid  rock  oTi  ^v'.iich  Christ  founded"  it. 
that  lie  was  -'tli.'  prince  of  the  Apo.-tU  s  " 
("  In  Kxod."  Hoin.  v.;  "In  Luc."' Horn, 
xvii.).'  It  is  impossible  to  give  in  full 
all  or  nearly  all  the  passages  in  yt. 
Cyprian  which  express  his  belief  in  St. 
Peters  primacy,  for  he  is  never  weary  of 
asserting  it.  \\e  may  quote,  however, 
the  following  words  :  "  Peter,  on  wlioni 
the  Church  had  been  built"  (Ep.  lix.  7)  : 
"  One  Church  founded  on  Peter "  (Ep. 
Ixs.  3);  "P.-ter,  to  whom  the  Lord  >'n- 
trusted  tlie  feeding  and  the  care  of  ilU 
sheep,  on  whom  He  set  and  founded  His 
Church"  ("De  Habit.  Yirg.'  lO);  "One 
is  the  Church  and  founded  on  one,  who 
also  received  its  keys"  (Ep.  Ixxiii.  11); 
"Peter,  on  whom  lie  built  His  Church 
and  from  whom  He  instituted  and  showfd 
the  origin  of  unity"  (Ep.  Ixxiii.  7). 
C\'prian  has  been  sometimes  understood 
to"  mean  that  St.  Peter  received  hispower 
as  the  representative  of  all ;  that  he 
merely  stood  for  the  Apostles,  who  were 
all  one  in  dignity  and  jurisdiction,  liut 
the  words  in-t  cit.^d  l;o  far  Ijcyond  tliis. 
Christ,  aciordiii-  to  Cyprian,'  did  not 
men  ly  jhow  tbo  unity  ly  giving  the  keys 
to  Peter  alone,  but  He  '■  in.-tituted "  the 
unity  of  tbe  Cliurcb  from  Peter — i.e.  He 
made  the  Cliurcli  one  by  giving  it  one 
visible  head.  We  may  also  refer  to  Ep. 
Ixvi.  8;  "Ad  Fortunat."  II;  Ep.  xhii. 
5.  It  is  true  that  in  one  of  his  letters 
(Ep.  Ixxi.  3)  Cyprian  argues  that  the 
controversy  on  tbe  validity  of  heretical 
baptism  mu>t  li.  docided  "by  reason,  not 
custom,"  and  urgo<  that  even  Peter, 
"  whom  the  Lord  chose  as  the  first  [qiiem 
primum  elegit;  Peter,  of  course,  was  not 
cliosen  first  in  order  of  time],  and  on 
whom  He  built  His  Church,  when  after- 
wards Paul  disputed  with  him  about  the 
circumcision,  made  no  arrogant  claim  or 
insolent  assumption,  so  as  to  say  that  he 
held  the  primacy  and  that  those  who 
were  new  and  had  come  later  sliould 
rather  give  way  to  him;  nor  did  he 

'  For  the  passages  in  which  Origen  seems, 
but  only  seems,  to  hold  a  contrary  view  on  the 
title  "  rock,"  see  the  note  of  Huetius  on  Origen, 
"In  Matt."  torn.  12. 


despise  Paul  hecause  he  had  been  pre- 
viously a  persecutor  of  the  Church,  but 
he  admitted  the  counsel  of  truth  and 
easily  agreed  to  the  good  reason  which 
Paid  asserted."  But  St.  Cyprian  here 
is  not  denying  St.  Peter's  ]iriinacy;  on 
the  contrary,  he  implies  his  Ix  lief  "in  it. 
AVliat  lie  says  is  that  8t.  Peter  did  not 
a^M'rt  liis  authority  on  tliat  occasion,  and 
-inijile  statement  of  fact  v.-.)uld  be 
accipdd  by  all.  Cyprians  worlis  ("  Sen- 
tent.  I->pisc."  17)  supply  us  with  anotlier 
t>  stimony  from  one  of  his  contemporaries 
and  fclli'W-bisliops  to  the  general  belief 
that  Christ  "built  the  Church  on  Peter." 
\\'r  conclude  with  anotlier  illustration, 
which  has  an  intert'^t  of  its  own.  The- 
'•  Homilies"  I'al-ely  ascribed  to  Clement 
of  liome  betriy  their  .Judaising  and  here- 
tical cliaracter  in  tliis  anion^^  otlier  ways, 
tliat  tliev  exalt  the  dignitv  of  St.  James,, 
'•the  bi'^li.ip  of  l,i-liop~,"  and  of  the 
.Motlier  Chureli  of  Jerusalem.  Yet  even 
there  we  find  St.  Peter  called  "  tlie  foun- 
dation of  the  Church  "  (p.  10,  ed.  Ures.-el  : 
p.  6,  ed.  Lagarde),  "  the  firm  rock  which 
is  the  fouiulation  of  the  Church"  (Ilom. 
xvii.  19;  >ee  also  viii.  5). 

St.  Peter's  connection  with  the  Roman 
Cliurcli  a-  its  tVuuider  is  proved  by  his- 
torical e\  i.lence  which  camiot  be  set 
a>iili-,  except  liy  an  extreme  scepticism 
wliieh  would  Serve  ei^nally  to  undermine 
tlie  hijtoiical  cliaracter  of  tlie  New 
Testamc>nt.  The  >.'e\v  Testament  itself  is 
silent  about  St.  Peter's  pre-enee  at  L'ome, 
except  that  St.  Peter,  in  his  first  Epistle, 
sends  greetings  from  tlie  Church  in  i!aby- 
lon  (1  Pet.  V.  13),  which  all  ancient 
writers,  with,  so  far  as  we  know,  only 
one  late  and  insignificant  exception  (that 
of  Cosnias  Indicopleii^tes),  understand  to 
mean  Rome.  .Many  internal  arguments 
from  the  N.  T.,  aldy  stated  by  Dollinger 
("  First  Age  of  the  Church,"  p.  07  seq.), 
support  this  view.  But,  apart  from  this, 
we  have  abundant  evidence  from  the 
earliest  ages  and  from  every  quarter  of 
tlie  globe.  Dionysius,  bishop  of  Corinth 
(about  170),  in  a  letter  to  the  Roman 
Christians  (apud  Euseb.  "  H.  E."  ii.  2o), 
mentions  the  fact  that  both  theCoriiitliian 
and  Roman  Churches  were  "  planted  "  by 
Peter  and  Paul  (rrjv  an  'o  Xlirpov  Ka\  TlavKov 
<pvT(lav),  and  that  both  died  as  martyrs 
there  at  the  same  time.  About  I'yO, 
Irenceus,  bishop  of  Lyons,  the  disciple  of 
St.  Polycarp,  who  was  the  disciple  of  St. 
John,  speaks  ("  Adv.  Haer."  iii.  3)  of  the 
Roman  Church  as  "  greatest,  most  an- 
cient, known  to  all,  founded  and  const  i- 


POPE 


POPE 


tuted  by  the  most  glorious  Apostles  Peter 
and  Paul."  "  Having  founded  and  built 
the  Church  [of  Rome],  the  blessed 
Apostles  entrusted  to  Linus  the  admini- 
stration of  the  episcopacy."  Caius,  a 
Roman  presbyter  under  Zephyrinus 
{200-218),  says  :  "  I  can  point  out  the 
trophies  of  the  Apostles.  For  if  you 
■will  go  to  the  Vatican  or  to  the  O.stian 
road,  you  will  lind  the  trophies  of  those 
■«-ho  founded  this  Church  "  (Euseb.  "  H. 
E."  ii.  25).  A  little  later,  the  African 
Tertullian  tells  us  ("  Adv.  Marc."  iv.  5) 
that  Peter  and  Paul  left  to  the  Romans 
*'  the  gospel  sealed  with  their  blood  " ; 
that  Clement,  bishop  of  Rome,  was  or- 
dained by  Peter  ("Praescr."  32) ;  that  at 
Rome  Peter  suffered  like  his  Master 
("  Prse.scr."  36).  This  early  evidence 
from  Greece,  Gaul,  Africa,  and  Rome 
itself  is  so  certain  and  so  sufficient  that 
we  do  not  care  to  dwell  on  evidence 
which  is  merely  probable.  The  language 
of  St.  Ignatius,  the  disciple  of  St.  John 
("Rom."  4),  as  Bishop  Lightfoot  justly 
remarks  (in  his  edition  of  Clem.  Rom. 
p.  40),  "  seems  to  imply  that  they  [Peter 
and  Paul]  had  both  preached  in  Rome," 
and  the  preaching  and  death  of  the  two 
Apiistles  there  appear  to  have  been  the 
subject  of  a  very  early  work,  "  The  Acts 
of  Peter  and  Paul"  (see  Hilgenfeld,  "Xov. 
Test,  extra  Canonem  Reccpt."  fascic.  iv. 
p.  fi8).  Against  this  uniform  tradition 
nothing  can  be  advanced  on  the  other 
side.  It  was  this  connection  of  Peter 
with  Rome  which  made  "the  Chair  of 
Peter  "  an  accepted  name  for  the  Roman 
see.  Thus  Cyprian  (Ep.  lix.  14)  uses  the 
following  words  of  persons  who  had  been 
concerned  in  the  schism  of  Felicissimus 
and  had  gone  to  Rome :  "  They  dare  to 
sail  to  the  see  of  Peter  and  to  the  chief 
church  [ad  ecclesiam  principnlein],  from 
which  the  unity  of  bishops  [unifas  sacer- 
d'jtalis]  has  arisen."  The  early  Church 
thus  believed  in  the  primacy  of  Peter, 
and  also  held  that  the  Roman  Church  is 
"  the  Chair  of  Peter." 

Nor  is  direct  testimony  to  the  autho- 
rity and  supremacy  of  the  Roman  Church 
wanting.  At  the  very  beginning  of 
patristic  literature  Igiuitius  describes  the 
Roman  Church  as  "  presiding  in  the  place 
of  the  region  of  the  Romans,"  and  again, 
as  the  Church  "  which  presides  over 
charity  "  ("  Rom."  ad  init.).  Hefele,  in  his 
edition  of  the  "  Apostolic  Fathers,"  takes 
this  latter  phrase  to  mean  a  presidence 
over  "  the  whole  congregation  of  Chris- 
tians/'who  are  bound  together  by  charity. 


I  and  this  interpretation  is  defended  at 
length  byHagemann("R6mischeKirche," 
p.  681  seq.).  In  any  case  the  primacy 
of  Rome  over  the  Christian  world  is 

j  acknowledged,  for  had  Ignatius  meant  to 
confine  the  primacy  of  tlip  Roman  Church 

'  to  Rome  itself,  the  a?>i>rtinii  would  have 
come  to  this,  that  the  Homan  Church  pre- 
sided over  itself,  which  has  no  meaning. 
"  Presides  "  {Trp<iKd6riTai)  is  the  very  word 
which  St.  Ignatius  uses  {e.ff.  "  Magnes."6) 
to  describe  the  authority  of  the  bishop  in 
his  own  dioce.?e  :  and  this  acknowledgment 
is  all  the  more  important  because  it  comes 
from  one  who  was  himself  bishop  of 
Antioch,  which  also  could  boast  of  its 
connection  with  St.  Peter.  Tertullian 
makes  communion  with  the  Apostolic 
Churches — i.e.  the  Churches  founded 
by  Apostles — the  test  of  Catholic  unity 
("  Prpescr."  21  ef  jia.-si'n) ;  but  Rome  alone 
he  calL  "  the  happv  Church,  into  which 
the  .\postles  ])our'^il  all  their  doctrine 
with  their  blood  "  ("  Prrescr."  36).  The 
words  Tertullian  wrote  after  his  lapse 
into  Montani.'it  heresy  disclose  still  more 
plainly  the  power  claimed  by  the  Pope  in 
his  day.  For  he  ridicules  the  "  peremp- 
tory edict "  of  Zephyrinus  the  Roman 
bishop  and  his  pretence  to  speak  as 
"  bishop  of  bishops."  "  I  waut  to  know," 
he  exclaims,  "  how  you  usurp  this  au- 
thority for  the  Church."'  And  at  once 
he  answers  his  own  question  by  supposing 
that  the  Pope  does  so  on  the  strength  of 
the  words,  "  On  this  rock  I  will  build 
my  Church,"  "  To  thee  have  I  given  the 
keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  '■'  What- 
soever thou  shalt  bind  or  loose  on  earth, 
will  be  bound  or  loosed  in  heaven." 
(TertuU.  "  De  Pudic."  21.)  But  the  most 
important  testimony  to  the  authority  of 
Rome  in  the  first  aces  of  the  Church  is 
that  of  Irenseus.  He  wrote  the  third 
book  of  his  work  against  heresies,  in 
which  the  words  which  we  are  about 
to  quote  occur,  between  184  and  192.- 

'  /.e.  for  the  Roman  Chuixh.  because  tbunded 
by  Peter.  "  Idcirco  praesumis  et  ad  te  derivasse 
solveiiili  et  alliRaiidi  potestateni,  id  est  ad 
oninem  ecclesiam  Petri  (jrojiinquani." 

-  Iniii.  21  he  mentions  Theodotion's  version 
of  the  O.  T.,  which  was  not  ))ublished  before 
180  (.see  Fiehi.  Ihxapl.  Urig.  toiu.  i.  p.  38); 
and  in  iii.  o  he  .^i.caUs  of  Kli-uihcru^  (177-l!)u. 
accordini;  lo  .laO'e.  Reijisl.  Poni,/.)  a<  actual 
bislio])  <if  Kome.  With  tln'  cxci  ption  cil  a  few 
frapments,  the  work  of  Ircna  u^;  only  remains 
in  a  Latin  version.  Massuet  (Diss.  ii.  §  53), 
Lachmann  (N.T.  Griece  et  Latine,  Praef.  p.  x.), 
and  Westcott  (-V.  T.  Canim,  p.  280)  consider 
that  the  version  was  known  to  Tertullian,  and 
therefore  nearly   contemporaneous  mth  the 


732 


POPE 


POPE 


But  lie  "  is  rightly  included  in  what  may 
be  called  the  Apostolic  family"  (New- 
man, "  Tracts  Theoloirical  and  Ecclesias- 
tical," p.  '200),  for  he  was  the  disciple 
of  St.  Polvcarp  (Iren.  ad  Florin,  apud 
Euseb.  "H.  E."  v.  20),  who  was  the 
disciple  of  St.  John.  He  had  singular 
opportunities  of  knowing:  the  mind  of  the 
Church  throughout  the  world,  for  he  was 
brought  up  in  Asia  Miuor,  he  was  bishop 
of  Lyons,  and  twice  at  least  he  atme  into 
intimate  relations  with  Rome.  Irenreus 
then  appeals  ("Adv.  Hasr."  iii.  3),  in 
attacking  Gnostic  error,  to  the  Apostles. 
They,  he  insists,  had  perfect  knowledge, 
and  delivered  the  truth  in  its  fulness  to 
the  Church.  He  points  out  that  differ- 
ent churches  are  able  to  trace  back 
the  succession  of  their  bishops  to  the 
Apostles,  and,  since  it  would  be  tedious 
to  enumerate  all  these  churches,  he  has 
recourse  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  founded 
by  '•  two  most  glrrious  Apostles.  Peter 
and  Paul."'  "Pointing  to  the  tradition 
which  this  Church  has  received  from 
the  Apa'itles,  to  that  faith  which  has 
been  annoauced  to  the  whole  world,  and 
which  has  come  even  to  us  by  the  succes- 
sion of  bishops,"  we  confoimd  all  who 
err  from  the  right  way.  "  For  with  this 
Church,  because  of  its  more  powerful 
principality,'  every  church  must  agree — 
that  is,  the  faithful  everywhere'- — in 
which '   [t.e.  in  communion  with  the 

Greek.  M.issuet's  conclusion  was  contested  bv 
Sab;Uier  {Vetus  Italica.  Praf.  n.  93)  and  the 
Benedictine  aiitiiors  the  Hisioire  Litteraire  tie 
la  t  rance,  vol.  i.  "  S.  Ire'nee,"  §  2.  In  any  case, 
the  fidelity  of  the  Latin  is  admitted  on  aU 
hands.  The  Syriac  Fr.i^icents  published  by 
Harvey  in  1857  would  prove  this,  "  if  a  doubt- 
ful cause  needed  support"  (Harvey's  Irenceua. 
vol.  ii.  p.  431). 

'  ••  Principalit.TS  "  can  only  me&n  ''  princi- 
pality ■'  or  •*  supremacy."  It  occurs :  iv.  38, 
"God  holds  the  principality;"  ii.  30.  God  ''is 
above  everi-  principality  and  domination."  In 
eight  other  places  it  is  used  of  the  sapreme 
God  of  the  Gnostics.  So.  i.  26,  1,  ••  the  princi- 
pality which  is  above  all,"  "the  principality 
which  is  above  everj-thing."  It  is  used — as  we 
know  from  the  Frairments  of  the  original  Greek 
preserved  in  Philnsnphum.  x.  21 ;  Theodr^ret, 
Uceret.  Fab.  i.  15 — to  translate  cdjQtvrla,  "au- 
thority" or  "supremacy." 

-  •■  Undique '"  =  '•  ubique,"  as  Thiersch  and 
Stieren  admit.  Cf.  iii.  21, 1, "  Praedicationem  ec- 
clesix  undique  constantem,"  with  i.  10, 2,  "  Pra- 
dicatio  veritatis  ubique  lucet." 

^  "In  qua,"  "in  which" — ijt.  "in  union 
with  which,"  or  "  in  the  unity  of  which."  Cf. 
"Salurem  in  eo  dedit"  (iii.  12.  4);  •' Qucd 
perdideramus  in  Adam"  (iii.  18,  1)  ;  and  "In 
qua  una  cathedra  [sc.  Petri]  unitas  ab  omnibus 
servaretnr  "  (Optat,  Schism.  Don.  ii.  2). 


Roman  Church]  the   tradition  of  the 
Apostles  has  ever  been  preserved  by  those 
on  every  side."    Then  he  enumerates  the 
series  of  Popes,  beginning  with  Linus. 
According  to  St.  Irenseus  the  faithful  all 
over  the  world  must  agree  with  the 
teaching  of  the  Roman  see,  in  which  the 
tradition  of  the  whole  Church  is  virtually 
contained.    This  assent  is  due  because 
Rome  has  the  "more  powerful  princi- 
pahty,"  and  this  principality  rests  on  the 
I  Apostolic  dignity  of  the  Roman  Chui'ch, 
as   the  whole  context   shows.  "VMien 
Irenaeus  wrote  general  coimcils  had  not 
[  been  dreamt  of.  It  was  from  the  Apostles, 
I  not  from  them,  that  the  Roman  Church 
!  derived  her  supreme  power.    Xor,  again, 
i  does  Rome  depend  upon  the  assent  of  the 
I  faithful ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  the  faith- 
ful all  over  the  world  who  are  bound  to 
I  agree  with  her.    This  passage  has  been' 
the  crux  of  Pi-otestant  theologians.  For 
I  two  centtiries  and  more  they  have  been 
devising  a  variety  of  interpretations,  no 
one  of  which  has  foimd  general  acceptance 
even  among   themselves.    In  the  last 
Protestant   book  on  St.  Irerueus  with 
which  we   are   acquainted,  the  writer 
admits  that  the  saint,  "passing,  as  it  were 
in  prophecy,  beyond  himself,  anticipates 
the  Papal  Church  of  the  futtire,"  that  he 
I  marks  out  Rome  "  as  the  chief  seat  of 
Apostolic  tradition,  as  the  centre  which 
j  sustains  and  unites  the  whole  Church." 

(Ziegler,  "  Irenaus,"  1871,  p.  15].)' 
I       TVe  cannot  expect  many  instances  of 
the  exercise  of  Papal  power  at  this  time, 
i  Time  was  needed  to  develop  the  principles 
I  contained  in  the  Apostohc  tradition  on 
I  "the  Chair  of  Peter,"  and,  besides,  the 
hand  of  the  persecutor  was  heavy  on  the 
Church.    Still,   indications   of  Roman 
supremacy  are  not  wanting  in  the  facts 
of  early  history.    "  The  heretic  Marcion, 
excommunicated  in  Pontus,  betakes  him- 
self to  Rome."    "The  Montanists  from 
Phrygia  come  to  Rome  to  gain  the  coun- 
tenance of  its  bishops ;   Praxeas  from 
Asia  attempts  the  like."    "  St.  Victor, 
bishop  of  Rome,  threatens  to  excommuni- 
cate the  Asian  churches."    "  St.  Stephen 
refuses  to  receive  St.  Cyprian's  deputa- 
tion, and  separates  himself  from  various 

•  The  interpretation  given  in  the  text  is  that 
of  the  Gallicans  Natalis  Alexander,  Bossuet, 
Massuet,  and  CeiUier ;  also  of  Dollinger, 
Church  History.  Ensrl.  Transl.  i.  p.  2.=i6.  and 
Friedrich.  Kirchengesctiichte  Veutschlaiuis.  i.  p. 
409.  Interpretati<  lus  mutually  destructive  «-iil  be 
found  in  Salmasius,  De  Primatii,  p.  65 ;  Grabe, 
ad  loc. ;  Xeander,  i.  p.  259 ;  Gieseler,  i.  p.  175. 


POPE 


POPE 


cLurches  of  the  East ;  Forttmatua  and  | 
Felix,  deposed  by  Cyprian,  have  recourse 
to  RoQie:  Basilides.  deposed  in  Spain, 
betakes  himself  to  Rome."  "  The  pres- 
byters of  St.  Dionysius,  bishop  of  Alex- 
andria, complain  of  his  doctrine  to  St. 
Dionysius  ot  Rome ;  the  latter  expostu- 
lates with  him  and  he  explains."  (New- 
man, ''Development,"  p.  157  $eq.)  Xo 
doubt  the  early  Fathers  spoke  and  acted 
at  times  in  a  manner  inconsistent  with 
their  own  utterances  elsewhere  on  Roman 
authority.  This  was  pert'ectly  natural, 
seeing  that  they  had  indeed  the  tradition 
of  the  Church,  but  not  formal  definitions 
or  even  a  developed  theolotrical  system  to  | 
guide  them.  It  would  of  course  be  a  : 
monstrous  anachronism  were  we  to  at-  i 
tribute  a  belief  in  Papal  infalhbility  to 
Ante-Xicene  Fathers.  Our  contention 
simply  is  that  the  modem  doctrine  on 
Papal  power  is  the  logical  outcome  of 
patristic  principles.  It  is  another  and  a 
very  different  thing  to  say  that  the  early 
Fathers  themselves  saw  all  this,  and  • 
they  were  of  course  furthest  from  seeing 
it  when  they  were  irritated  by  an  un- 
wonted interference  on  the  part  of  Rome 
or  opposed  to  Rome  in  theological  contro-  j 
Tersy.  And  it  deserves  to  be  carefully  I 
remembered  that  there  is  no  counter- 
the<jry  to  be  found  in  the  Fathers  of  the 
Antc-Nicene  age.  The  external  imity  of 
the  Church  is  their  constant  theme.  But 
if  the  see  of  Peter  was  not  the  centre  of 
unity,  then  what  was  ?  It"  two  bishops 
anathematised  and  refused  to  communi- 
cate with  each  other,  how  were  the  faith- 
ful to  know  which  of  the  two  was  in  the  , 
unity  of  the  Church  ?  If  we  do  not  take 
the  chair  of  Peter  as  the  centre  of  unity, 
then  the  Ante-Xicene  Fathers  supply  no 
answer  to  the  question.  They  never 
mention  general  councils  or  appeal  to  a 
majority  of  the  bishops  throughout  the 
world.  Yet,  if  each  bishop  i*  to  be 
independent  and  subject  to  God  alone, 
we  should  have  a  thousand  Popes  instead 
of  one,  and  the  unity  of  the  Chirrch 
would  be  shattered  into  pieces.'  Oiir 
opponents  may  complain  that  the  early 
Fathers  do  not  speak  fully  enough  on  the 
authority  of  Rome,  that  their  acts  and 
dicta  are  occasionally  inconsistent  with 
Koman  claims.  They  cannot  say  with  any 
show  of  reason  that' the  drift  of  patristic 

'  Cyprian,  indeed,  does,  in  the  stress  of  con- 
troversy, commit  himself  to  a  theory  of  absolute 
episcopal  independence  (Ep.  h-.  il).  But  he 
ffistinctly  eonrr  idiots  hiiii?elf  even  in  the  same 
Epistle  (Iv.  24)  and  Lsiv.  1,  lis.  9. 


teaching  tends  to  any  definite  theorj-  of 
church  unity,  other  than  that  of  the 
Catholic  Roman  Church. 

( 3)  The  Fathers  of  the  Fourth  and 
Fifth  Centuries. — Here  the  difficulty  lies, 
not  in  finding  proof;  that  Papal  supremacy- 
was  asserted  and  recognised ,  but  in  select- 
ing typical  instances  from  the  mass  of 
evidence,  ''ilore  ample  testimony,''  says 
Cardinal  Xewman,  "  for  the  Papal  supre- 
macy, as  now  professed  by  R(5ni;vn 
Catholics,  is  scarcely  necessary  than  what 
is  contained "  in  a  series  of  passages 
which  he  quotes.  Development,"  p. 
14S  seq.)  "The  simple  question  is  whether 
the  clear  light  of  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries  may  be  fairly  taken  to  interpret 
to  us  the  dim,  thouiih  definite,  outlines 
traced  in  the  preceding  " — i.e.  the  Ante- 
Xicene  age.  The  following  are  among 
the  most  striking  passages  in  which  the 
Fathers  maintain  not  only  that  the  Pope 
holds  a  supremacy  of  jurisdiction  by 
divine  right,  but  also  that  communion 
with  him  is  the  necessary  condition  of 
Catholic  unity. 

Optatus,  Hb.  ii.  c.  2,  3 :  "  You  cannot 
deny  that  you  know  that  in  the  city  of 
Rome  the  episcopal  chair  was  bestowed 
on  Peter  first,  in  which  Peter,  head  of 
all  the  Apostles,  sat,  in  which  one  chair 
unity  was  to  be  preserved  {servan'tur)  by 
all,  that  the  rest  of  the  Apostles  might 
not  maintain  each  his  own  chair,  that  he 
might  be  at  once  a  schismatic  and  a  sinner 
who  against  the  chair  which  stands  by 
itself  ( nnip.dcn-em  cat.hedram)  set  another." 
He  then  enumerates  the  Popes  from  Peter 
down  to  Siricius,  the  Pope  of  his  own 
day.  The  Council  of  Aquileia,  in  which 
St.  Ambrose  took  a  chief  part,  begs  in  a 
letter  to  the  Emperor  Gratian  that  he 
will  "  not  permit  the  Roman  Church,  the 
head  of  the  whole  Roman  world  and  that 
sacred  faith  of  the  Apostles,  to  be  dis- 
turbed, because  from  it  the  rights  of 
venerable  admonition  flow  forth  for  aU." 
(ilansi,  '-ConciL''  tom.  iii.  col.  622.)  St. 
Ambrose  tells  us  ("  De  Excidio  Satyri,"  i. 
47)  that  his  brother,  in  places  where  the 
schism  of  Lucifer  prevailed,  it  he  doubted 
the  orthodoxy  of  a  bishop,  asked  him, 
"  if  he  communicated  with  the  Catholic 
bishops,  that  is,  with  the  Riiman  Church." 

St.  Jerome  (Ep.  15)  addresses  these 
words  to  Pope  Damasus :  ••  Following' 
none  but  Christ,  I  am  associated  in  com- 
muni'^n  with  your  Holiness — that  is, 
with  the  chair  of  Peter.  On  that  r^tck  I 
know  the  Church  was  built.  Whosoever 
eateth  the  lamb  out  of  this  house  is  pro- 


734 


POPE 


POPE 


fane.  If  anyone  is  not  in  the  ark  of 
Noe  lie  will  perisli  when  the  floods  pre- 
vail. .  .  .  I  liiunv  not  Viliilis  ;  I  willluive 
none  of  .Melctuis;  l';iuliiiu>  is  .-tr;ni<:e  to 
lue,  Who.-'O  liathi'i'i'th  nut  with  you 
scattereth :  that  is,  he  who  is  not  on 
Christ's  side  is  with  Antichrist."  "  Couie, 
uiy  brethren,'"  says  St.  Augustine  to  the 
Donatists  (''  Ps.  contr.  Don.'"),  "  if  you 
wish  to  he  grafted  in  the  vine.  .  .  . 
lleckon  up  tlie  bishops  even  from  the 
very  see  of  Peter.  .  .  .  That  is  the  rock 
which  the  hauglity  gates  of  hell  do  not 
overconie."'  In  416  a  council  of  sixty- 
eight  bishops  at  Carthage,  and  of  fifty- 
nine  at  Mileve  in  isumidia,  condemned 
Pelagius,  whose  doctrine  had  been  anathe- 
matised five  years  before  in  another  coun- 
cil at  Carthage.  Kach  of  the  two  last 
councils  sent  letters  to  Pope  Innocent, 
begging  that  A])Ostolic  authority  might  be 
given  to  their  decrees.  ("  Ep.  ( 'oncil.  Car- 
thag.  '  Galland.  Epp.  Innoc.  '2G.)  Another 
letter  was  sent  to  the  Pope  by  Augustine 
and  four  other  bishops,  in  which  they  tell 
him  what  had  been  done  against  Pelagian- 
ism.  All  these  letters  are  full  of  defer- 
ence to  the  Apostolic  See,  and  the  Eishops 
of  the  Council  at  Mileve  tell  tlie  l'..]!," 
that  heretics  were  more  likely  to  yield  to 
his  authority,  which  was  derived  front 
the  authority  of  Holy  Scripture"  ("aiic- 
toritati  tuffi  ex  scrijittiraruiu  sacrariun 
auctoritate  (lc]>roni]it le,"'  (Jalland.  I'j). 
Innocent  ri'])lied,  commending  them  I'm- 
following  the  .,ld  rule  which  presciibrd 
that  answers  should  come  to  all  the 
provinces  from  the  Apostolic  fount. 
Before  Rome  sjioke,  but  after  the  pro- 
vincial councils,  St.  Augustine  (Ep.  178) 
admits  that  '■  ri'lngi.inism  was  not  yet 
fully  excliiiliMl  from  the  (^liurch  "  After 
the  council-  li.id  liren  cMuiliriuei!  by  IJimie, 
after  the  rcMTipt  r:inir,  ln'  ilioughl  ihat 
by  the  letters  of  liniorent  "  the  Axhole 
doubt  had  been  reniM\,  .!"  (•■  Contr.  Ep. 
Pelag."  ii.  3).  Pelagms  hiinM.df  had  pro- 
mised "to  condemn  all  which  that  see 
[the  Roman  see]  had  condemned" 
(August.  "  De  Peccat.  Orig."  7).  We 
need  not  dwell  on  the  claims  made  by 
the  Popes  themselves.  "  The  canons 
themselves  have  decided,"  says  Pope 
Gelasius  (492-6)  writing  to  "Eaustus, 
"  that  no  one  whosoever  shall  appeal 
from  this  see,  and  so  provide  that  it  sliall 
judge  the  whole  Church  and  itseli'  Ije 
juilged  by  none.  .  .  Timothy  of  Ali  xan- 
dria,  I'eter  of  Antioch,  Peter,  Paul.  .Joliji, 
not  one,  but  many,  bearing  the  episcopal 
name,  by  the  autliority  of  the  Apostolic 


see  alone,  were  cast  down.  .  .  .Therefore, 
we  are  in  no  fear  lest  the  Apostolic 
judgment  be  reversed,  to  whieli  tin-  Miice 
lit' ( 'liri>t,  tradition,  and  ;h'-  eannn-  have 
given  t  he  decision  of  coutrii\  t^-isN  tlirough- 
out  the  whole  Church.'"  (Mansi,  Cuncil." 
tom.  viii.  16  seq.)  At  an  earlier  date — 
viz.  in  the  year  422 — Pope  Boniface  had 
spoken  of  the  Roman  see  as  that  "  from 
which,  if  any  divide  him.self,  he  becomes 
an  outcast  from  the  religion  of  Christ " 
i^Galland.  E])p.  Bonifac.  14). 

It  may  be  objected  that  all  this  is 
"Western  evidence.  But  testimony  (juite 
as  strong  comes  to  ns  from  the  Ea>t.  In 
o41  (or,  as  some  think,  '-',12)  Pope  Julius 
with  a  synod  of  fifty  Itahan  bishops 
(see  Athanas.  "Apol.  contr.  Arianos,"  ad 
init.,  and  the  epistle  of  the  Synod  of 
Phihppopohs,  Mansi,  tom.  iii.  130)  restored 
two  Eastern  prelates,  St  Athanasius  and 
Paul  of  Constantinople,  to  their  sees. 
"  He "  (Pope  Juhus),  says  the  Greek 
historian  Socrates  ("II.  E  "  ii.  16),  ''in 
accordance  with  tlu'  prciogatives  of  the 
Roman  Church,  e,-lal)li>lieil  I  he  bishops 
ill  outspoken  letters,  sent  them  back  to 
the  East,  restored  each  to  his  own  see, 
ami  laid  his  hand  upon  those  who  had 
la-lily  deiiosed  them,"  Eustathiu>,  bishop 
111' Si  ba-te.  was  reinstated  on  ]iroducing 
a  letter  of  restitution  from  Pope  Liberius. 
il'.a.-il,  Ep.  20.!.)  Chrysostom  and  his 
;ii  r.-.eeutor  Theojiliilus  appealed  to  Pope 
Innocent.  The  latter al.-o  adiliv.-sed  him- 
srlf  to  the  Bi.shoiis  of  M\hu  and  A.juilria, 
but  that  the  appeal  was  made  sjx  cially 
to  Rome  appears  from  the  statement  in  a 
letter  from  Anysius,  bishop  of  Tlit's.^alo- 
nica  who  was  a  friend  of  Chrysostoni's — 
viz.  '-that  he  alioile  by  the  judgment  of 
the  Roniaiys  '"  (wy  f'/x^fVfi  r?]  Kpiaei  r/'}  tcov 
'ViOfj.aUoi').  (See  till'  life 'by  Palladius, 
himself  a  contemporary  of  Chrysostom, 
cap.  3.)  But  it  is  in  the  proceedings  of 
the  two  great  Councils  of  Ejihesus  and 
Chalcedon  that  Roman  supremacy,  with 
its  divine  sanction,  shines  forth  most 
clearly.  Cyril  did  not  dare  to  break  off 
communion  with  Nestorius  till  he  had 
consulted  Pope  Cele.-tlnc.  He  begged 
the  Pojie  to  declare  his  mind  on  this 
])oint  (Mansi,  "  Coiicil."  tom.  iv.  1011 
■seq.)  The  Pope  told  his  legates  to  act, 
not  as  disputants,  but  as  judges  (Galland. 
Ep.  Cel.  17.)  The  Fathers  of  Ephesus 
passed  sentence  on  Nestorius,  "  compel'ed 
and  constrained  [dvayKalws  KaT(Tr(ix6ti- 
Tcy]  by  the  sacred  canons  and  the  letter 
of  our  most  holy  Father  and  fellow- 
minister  Celestine,  bishop  of  the  Roman 


POPE 


POPE 


7-35 


Church."  (Mansi,  iv.  1207.)  John  of 
Antioch,  after  a  schismatical  resistance 
to  Pope  and  council,  returned  to  Catholic 
unity.  "Whereupon  Slxtus  III.  reminds 
him  that  he  has  learnt  by  experience 
^'  what  it  is  to  thiidi  with  us.  Blessed 
Peter,  in  the  person  of  his  successors, 
has  handed  down  what  he  has  received. 
Who  would  wish  to  cut  himself  off  from 
the  first  of  the  Apostles,  taught  by  our 
master  Himself?  "  (Gallaud.  Epp.  Sixt. 
III.  Ep.  6.)  The  Fathers  of  Chalcedon 
acknowledge  that  the  Pope  had  presided 
over  the  council  through  his  legates  "  as 
head  over  the  members,"  that  tiie  Pope 
"is  appointed  for  all  (jraai  Kadta-Taneuoi) 
interpreter  of  the  voice  of  Peter;"  they 
say  that  "  Dioscorus  had  dared  to  restore 
Eutyches  to  the  dignity  of  which  he  had 
been  deprived  by  his  Holiness,"  and  had 
""  turned  in  his  madness  against  him  to 
whom  the  Saviour  had  entrusted  the 
guardianship  of  the  vine."  They  men- 
tion the  :?^'th  canon,  and  ask  its  confir- 
mation, that  "  the  establishment  of  good 
discipline  {evra^ias),  as  well  as  of  foith, 
might  be  attributed "  to  Leo.  Finally, 
they  gave  an  accoimt  of  all  that  had  been 
done  to  the  Pope,  "  that  he  might  confirm 
it"  {fls  deiSaioKTiv,  Maiisi,  tom.  vi.  148 
seg.).  Next  year  the  Emperor  Marcian 
wrote  to  Leo  that  doulits  had  arisen  in 
the  minds  of  many  whether  his  Holiness 
had  confirmed  the  decrees  of  the  council 
(ra  Tvna>6evTa  i^eiiaLtacrfv).  One  more 
instance  and  we  have  done.  The  For- 
mulary or  Libellus  of  Po])e  Hormisdaa 
was  signed  in  519  by  the  liishop  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  imi)osed  by  the  Byzan- 
tine emperor  upon  all  the  bishops  within 
his  dominions.  It  contains  the  following 
■words  :  "  Whereas  the  sentence  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  cannot  be  set  aside,  in 
which  He  says,  '  Thou  art  Peter,  and  on 
this  rock  I  will  build  My  Church ' ;  the 
above  words  are  confirmed  by  the  effects, 
since  in  the  Apostolic  see  religion  has 
ever  been  preserved  without  stain. 
Auxious,  therefire,  by  no  means  to  be 
severed  from  this  hope  and  faith,  and 
following  in  all  things  the  constitu- 
tions of  the  Fathers,  we  anathematise  all 
heretics,  especially  Nestorius,  &c.  .  . 
receive  and  approve  all  the  encycUcal 
letters  of  Pope  Leo,  which  he  wrote  con- 
cerning the  Christian  religion.  "Whence, 
as  we  have  said  before,  following  in  all 
things  the  Apostolic  see,  and  proclaiming 
all  its  constit\itioMS,  I  hojje  I  may  attain  " 
(we  are  not  res])onsible  for  the  grammar) 
"to  be  with  you  in  the  one  communion 


'  which  the  Apostohc  see  proclaims,  in 
which  is  the  perfect  and  true  sohdity  of 
the  Christian  religion.  (Mansi,  tom  viii. 
407  ;  Hefele,  "  Concil."  p.  67."i,  6!J4  seq.) 
This  Libellus  was  also  approved  by  the 
Eighth  General  Council. 

Such  was  the  tradition  of  East  and 
West,  long  be  fore  the  forgery  of  the  False 
Decretals,  long  before  schism  rent  the 
Eastern  patriarchates  from  the  obi-dience 
due  to  the  Holy  See.  With  good  right, 
therefore  did  the  Council  of  Florence 
define  "that  the  Roman  Pontiff"  is  the 
successor  of  blessed  Peter,  prince  of  the 
Apostles :  that  he  is  the  true  vicar  of 
^  Christ;  that  he  is  head  of  the  whole 
,  Church,  Father  and  doctor  of  all  Chris- 
j  tians ;  that  to  him  [in  the  person  of] 
blessed  Peter  was  given  full  power  of 
feeding,  ruling,  and  governing  the  uni- 
versal Church,  as  also  '  is  contained  in 
the  acts  of  oecumenical  councils  and  iu 
the  holy  canons."  It  is  necessary  to  bear 
iu  mind  that  all  Catholics,  GalUcan  as 
well  as  Ultramontuii,'.  accepted  the  belief 
that  the  R'lmaii  Cluuvh  i-  the  centre  of 
unitv.  roiumuuion  with  her  is 

the  "r:  :i  .licity.     "The  Son  of 

God  "  >  .  \  ~  •.  ••  -;uce  He  willed  that 

His  Church  ^h.iulil  Ije  one  .  .  .  .instituted 
the  primacy  of  St.  Peter  to  maintain  and 
cement  it.""  The  chair  of  Peter  "is  the 
common  centre  of  all  Catholic  unitv." 
("Expn.itiou  d-  la  Foi  Ca;holi4ue.""21.) 
"'The  Catholic  Church  tr  .m  her  birth  has 
had  for  a  niai'k  of  her  unitv  her  com- 
munion with  the  chair  of  St.  Peter,  so 
that,  remaining  iu  it,  as  we  do,  without 
letting  anything  separate  us  from  it,  we 
are  the  body  which  has  seen  those  who 
j  have  severed  themselves  fall  on  the  right 

'  "  Quemadmoduiii  etiam  "  is  now  proved 
to  be  the  true  reading.  It  is  found  in  the  ori- 
ginal copy  signed  by  the  Council  (  Milane.si,  in 
the  Gioriiale  Storico  degli  Anhici  Toscani  for 

'  18.57,  pp.  196-225  ;  and  Ce.  coni,  in  the  Anmnia. 
Feb.  1870).  It  was  in  the  'authentic  "  copy  of 
the  Colbertine library  (Hossuet,  I)ef.  i'ler.  dull. 
vi.  11);  in  the  authciiric  copy  of  the  Vatican 
(see  the  letter  of  Mamacliius,  Ursi.  Rnin.  Pont. 
vi.  11);  in  the  fifteentli  cfutui  v  copies  of  the 

I  Vatican  (Fac-iiniles  in  Civdla.  Veh.  a,  1870). 

I  Of  these  last,  one  has  "etiam"  written  "  et." 

I  whence  probablv  the  false  reading  "  quemad- 
moduiii et"  crejit  into  the  text  of  Blondus  and 

I  obtained  some  currency  in  the  printed  copies. 

I  Brcquigny  (SMeiifires  de  la  Socii  Ic  ties  Inscrip- 
tions, torn",  xliii.  .-e'/.)  ilenics  (against  the 
authors  of  the  .V..»i-eVt;  /Ji/il.imati'/ue.  v.  itlo 
seg.)  that  any  of  the  four  orii;in.ils  mentioned 
by  Syropulus  exist.  He  admits,  however,  that 
the  MS.  copy  at  Florence  was  made  before  the 

1  departure  of  the  Creeks,  so  that  iu  any  case  the 

1  question  is  completely  settled. 


7.3G 


rorE 


POPE 


hand  and  the  left "  ("  Premiere  Instruction 
I'astorale  sur  les  Promesses  de  rEjrlise," 
n.  ."52).  •'  We  grant  that  in  Church  law- 
there  is  nothing  the  Pope  cannot  do,  when 
need  requires  it  "  ("  Def."  xi.  20).  He 
looked  on  Archbishop  F^nelons  sub- 
mission to  the  T'lpe,  who  condemned  his 
bodk,  as  a  natural  act  of  "  ecclesiastical 
subiirdination,"  for  "  there  is  one  chief 
bishop,  there  is  one  Peter  appointed  to 
guide  all  the  flock,  there  is  one  Mother 
Church  established  to  tench  all  the  others ; 
and  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  founded 
on  that  unity,  as  on  an  immovable  rock, 
cannot  be  shaken"  ("Relation  des  Actes 
et  Delll^eratious  "  on  Quietism,  vol.  xx. 
p.  oOo.  in  the  new  edition  of  Bossuet,  hj 
Lachat,  Paris,  1804). 

(4)  The  Vatican  Decrees. — In  two 
important  particulars  the  last  coimcil 
went  beyond  the  principles  accepted  by 
Galileans.  First  it  defined  that  the  Pope 
has  not  only  "  the  office  of  inspection  and 
direction,"  but  also  "the  whole  fulness 
of  supreme  power "  in  discipline  as  w-ell 
as  faith,  and  that  this  power  is  "ordinary 
and  immediate  over  all  and  each  of  the 
pastors  and  of  the  faithful."  This  is  in 
no  way  meant  to  derogate  from  the  rights 
of  bishops,  or  to  make  them  mere  dele- 
gates or  vicars  of  the  Pope.  On  the 
contrary,  the  council  teaches  that  they 
too  have  "  ordinary  and  immediate  juris- 
diction" in  their  dioceses,  that  they  have 
been  "  placed  by  the  Holy  Ghost,"  that 
they  have  succeeded  to  the  position  of 
the  Apostles,"  that  they  are  "true  pas- 
tors." It  may  be  well  to  quote  on  this 
point  two  theologians  whom  no  one  w  ill 
suspect  of  watering  down  the  Ultramon- 
tane doctrine.  Speaking  of  the  allega- 
tion that  Ultramontanes  "  consider  the 
episcopate  as  the  Pope's  mere  creation 
and  vicegerent,  just,  e.ff.,  as  the  Roman 
Congregations  are,"  Dr.  Ward  replies 
that  "  every  Catholic  would  repudiate 
such  a  tenet  as  erroneous  and  even  here- 
tical." So  again  Dr.  Murray  (author  of 
the  treatise  "De  Ecclesia,"  &c.),  writes  : 
"  Christ  established,  not  episcopal  order 
merely,  but  episcopal  jurisdiction.  That 
is,  lie  ordained  that  there  sliould  be  for 
ever  in  the  Church,  besides  the  universal 
pastor,  pastors  having  particidar  flocks, 
with  power  to  teach,  legislate,  inflict 
censures,"  &c.,  &c.  The  Pope  may  for  a 
just  cause  withdraw  jurisdiction  from  a 
particular  bishop,  but  he  cannot  destroy 
the  corpus  episcoporum.  (See  Ward, 
"Essays  on  the  Church's  Doctrinal 
Authority,"  pp.  376,  377).    Such  is  the 


true  sense  of  the  Vatican  decree,  and 
plainly  it  is  in  perfect  harmony  with  the 
exposition  given  above  of  Christ's  words 
to  St.  Peter,  "  Feed  My  sheep,"  "  Feed 
My  lambs."  The  whole  flock  and  each 
member  of  it  are  given  to  St.  Peter's 
charge.  His  successors  draw  their  au- 
thority over  each  Christian  from  Christ 
Himself.  The  Pope,  in  virtue  of  his 
office,  has  direct  power  over  each  Chris- 
tian in  any  particular  diocese  ;  the  bishop 
of  that  diocese  has  the  same  power 
attached  to  his  office,  but  the  bishop 
must  exercise  it  in  union  with  and  sub- 
ordination to  the  Pope.  There  is  no 
difficulty  in  supposing  that  superior  and 
inferior  may  both  have  ordinary  jurisdic- 
tion in  the  same  place.  Thus  the  ordi- 
nary right  which  the  constitution  might 
give  a  sovereign  to  try  legal  cases  by 
commission  would  in  no  way  make  it 
impossible  for  the  appointed  judges  also 
to  exercise  ordinary  jurisdiction. 

Next,  the  Vatican  Council  teaches 
"  that  when  the  Roman  Pontiff  speaks 
e.r  cathedra — that  is,  when  he,  using  his 
office  as  pastor  and  doctor  of  all  Chris- 
tiiins,  in  virtue  of  his  Apostolic  office 
defines  a  doctrine  of  faith  and  morals  to 
be  held  b_v  the  whole  Church,  he  by  the 
divine  assistance,  promised  to  him  in  the 
blessed  Peter,  possesses  that  infallibility 
with  which  the  I>i\ine  Redeemer  was 
pleased  to  invest  His  Cluucli  in  the  deli- 
nilion  of  doctrine  on  faith  or  morals,  and 
that,  therefore,  such  deiinitions  of  the 
Roman  Pontifl^  are  irreformable  in  their 
own  nature  and  not  because  of  the  con- 
sent of  the  Church  "  ("  Pastor  .Eternus," 
cap.  4).  The  Pope  in  himself  is  subject 
to  error  like  other  men  ;  his  infallibility 
comes  from  the  spirit  of  God,  which  on 
certain  occasions  protects  him  from  error 
in  faith  and  morals.  He  has  no  infalli- 
bility in  merely  historical  or  scientific 
questions.  Even  in  matters  of  faith  and 
morals  he  has  no  inspiration,  and  must 
use  the  same  means  of  theological  inquiry 
o\)oi\  to  other  men.  He  may  err  as  a 
private  doctor;  nor  is  any  immunity 
irom  error  granted  to  books  which  he 
may  write  and  publish.  Even  when  he 
speaks  with  Apostolic  authority  he  may 
err.  The  Vatican  Council  only  requires 
us  to  believe  that  God  protects  him  from 
error  in  definitions  on  faith  or  morals 
when  he  imposes  a  belief  on  the  Univer- 
sal Church. 

So  understood,  the  Papal  infallibility 
follows  by  logical  consequence  from  prin- 
ciples already  illustrated  in  this  article 


POPE 

and  that  on  the  Church.  Our  argument 
is  not  addressed  to  Protestants.  They 
must  understand  and  accept  the  infalli- 
bility ol'  the  Church,  and  the  position  of 
the  lloly  See  as  the  foundation  of  faith 
and  centre  of  unity,  before  they  can 
understand  or  accept  the  Vatican  defini- 
tions. It  is  against  the  Gallicau  theory 
that  we  are  arguing  now,  and  we  there- 
fore take  for  granted  the  Catholic  prin- 
ciples which  GaUicans  held. 

We  have  seen  that  from  the  earliest 
times  the  faith  of  Peter  and  his  successors 
has  been  taken  as  the  foundation  of  the 
Church ;  indeed,  so  much  is  implied  in 
Christ's  words  to  the  chief  of  his  Apo- 
stles. Peter,  says  Bossuet,  by  his  con- 
fession of  Christ's  Godhead  "  attracts  to 
himself  that  inviolable  promise  which 
makes  him  the  foundation  of  the  Church. 
The  word  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  makes 
what  He  wills  out  of  nothing,  gives  such 
strength  to  a  mortal.  Let  it  not  be  said 
or  thought  that  St.  Peter's  ministry  ends 
with  himself;  that  which  is  to  serve  as 
the  support  of  an  eternal  Church  can 
never  end.  Peter  will  live  in  his  suc- 
cessors ;  Peter  will  ever  speak  in  his 
chair ;  this  is  what  the  Fathers  say,  and 
630  bishops  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon 
confirm "  (Sermon  k  I'Ouverture  de 
l'Assemblt5e-genurale  du  Clerg^).  Now, 
if  Peter  and  his  successors  are  the  foun- 
dation of  an  infallible  Church,  of  a 
Church,  moreover,  unchangeable  in  con- 
stitution, they  themselves  must  be  in- 
fallible. If  they  were  to  impose  a  false 
belief  on  Christians,  the  faith  and  infalli- 
bility of  the  Church  itself  would  be 
shaken. 

Let  us  turn  once  again  to  Bossuet, 
and  see  how  he  expounds  Christ's  charge 
to  Peter,  "Confirm  thy  brethren." 
Christ,  he  says,  "  does  not  merely  give  a 
commandment  to  Peter  individually : 
Peter  receives  "an  office  which  [Christ] 
founds  and  institutes  in  His  Church  for 
ever."  "  There  was  always  to  be  a  Peter 
in  the  Church  to  confirm  his  brethren  in 
the  faith ;  it  was  the  most  fitting  means 
of  establishing  that  unity  of  sentiments 
which  the  Saviour  desired  above  every- 
thing ;  and  that  authority  was  so  much 
the  more  necessarj-  for  the  successors  of 
the  Apostles,  inasmuch  as  their  faith 
was  less  stable  than  that  of  those  from 
whom  they  sprang  "  (de  lews  aictenrs, 
"  Meditations  sur  I'Evangile,"  Ixxii.). 
But  if  the  bishops  are  infallible  because 
confirmed  in  the  faith  by  Peter's  succes- 
sors, those  who  hold  Peter's  place  must 


POPE 


737 


be  themselves  infallible.  Further,  if  the 
see  of  Rome,  which  is  by  divine  appoint- 
ment the  head  of  the  Church  and  the 
centre  of  unity,  solemnly  and  persistently 
made  false  belief  a  condition  of  commu- 
nion, then  one  of  two  things  must  follow 
— either  the  body  of  the  Church  would 
accept  the  heresy  which  the  Pope  pro- 
pounded and  so  forfeit  its  infallibility,  or 
else  would  maintain  the  truth,  and  be 
left  without  the  head  and  centre  of  unity 
given  by  Christ.  Either  consequence  is 
a  sheer  impossibility  on  Gallican,  no  less 
than  on  LTltramontane,  principles. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  for  a  moment 
that  the  Pope  is  an  absolute  monarch. 
He  cannot,  as  we  have  already  shown, 
annul  the  constitution  of  the  Church 
ordained  by  Christ.  His  power  of  defi- 
nition is  limited  by  a  multitude  of  pre- 
vious definitions  due  to  his  predecessors, 
to  the  councils,  to  the  ordinary  exercise 
of  the  Church's  magisterium  through  the 
pastors  united  to  the  Holy  See.  If  the 
Pope  obstinately  rejected  an  article  of 
faith  which  had  already  been  proposed 
by  the  Church,  and  to  which  the  Pope 
owes  allegiance  as  much  as  the  simplest 
of  the  faithful,  he  might  be  judged  and 
replaced.  "It  has  always  been  main- 
tained," says  F.  Ryder  ("  Catholic  Con- 
troversy,'' p.  30),  "that  for  heresy  the 
Church  may  judge  the  Pope,  because,  as 
most  maintain,  by  heresy  he  ceases  to  be 
Pope."  Bellarmine  and  Turrecremata 
maintain  that  he  would  cease  to  be  Pope 
ipso  facto\  Cajetan  and  John  of  St. 
Thomas  require  formal  deposition.  Of 
course,  we  maintain  that  the  assent  of 
Christians  is  due  to  the  Pope's  decision 
in  matters  of  faith  and  morals  discussed 
in  the  Church.  \\'e  refer  only  to  the 
case  of  a  Pope  directlj^  contradicting 
previous  definitions,  teaching,  e.g.,  that 
Christ  is  not  God,  that  the  Blessed  Virgin 
is  equal  to  God,  or  the  like.    So  that 

,  this  admission  is  in  no  way  contrary  to 
our  statement  of  Papal  infallibility.  In 
such  a  case  (we  may  well  think  that 
Providence  would  prevent  its  occurrence) 

1  the  faithful  would  be  protected  from 
error  and  the  Church  would  not  be  left 

I  witliout  a  head. 

(5)  The  Pope's  Election ;  the  Exercise 
of  his  Powers ;  Titles,  8fc. 

(a)  Rome  and  the  Papacy. — As  a 
matter  of  fact  the  Pope  is  and  always  has 
been  Bishop  of  Rome,  and,  according  to 
the  common  opinion,  this  connection  be- 
tween Rome  and  the  Papacy  exists  by 
Divine  law.  According  to  others,  how- 
3  B 


738 


POPE 


POPE 


eTcr  (e.g.  Soto,  apud  Billuart  "  De  Fide," 
diss.  iv.  a.  4),  tlie  Pope  might  choose 
another  see,  or  might  govern  the  Church 
without  holding  any  special  see  at  all. 

(/3)  Papal  Eledion. — In  the  first  ages 
the  Bishop  ot  Rome  was  chosen,  like 
other  bishops,  by  the  clergy  and  people, 
with  the  assent  of  the  neighbouring 
bishops,  and  the  person  elected  was  con- 
secrated by  the  Bishop  of  Ostia.  The 
Christian  emperors  decided  doubtful  elec- 
tions, while  Odoacer  and  Theodoric  the 
Great  claimed  the  same  right  as  kings  of 
Italy.  Felix  III,  was  actually  nominated 
by  Theodoric,  and  other  Italian  kings 
received  a  sum  of  money  for  confirming 
Papal  elections.  After  Justinian  recovered 
Italy,  the  election  of  a  new  Pope  was 
notified  to  the  Exarch  of  Ravenna  and 
coiiSnned  by  the  Byzantine  emperors. 
From  the  eighth  century  onwards  the 
influence  of  the  Eastern  empire  over 
Italy  declined,  and  the  Papal  elections 
were  disturbed  by  factions  in  the  city. 
The  canon  in  which  Hadrian  I.  concedes 
the  right  of  nomination  to  Charlemagne 
is  spurious ;  still,  as  a  rule,  the  election 
took  place  in  the  presence  of  commis- 
sioners from  the  Carloviiigian  emperors. 
After  the  deposition  and  death  of  Charles 
the  Fat,  the  Papal  elections  became  once 
more  and  for  a  long  time  an  object  of 
factious  contention,  till  the  Roman  em- 
perors began  once  again  to  exert  their 
influence.  The  first  German  Pope, 
Gregory  V.,  owed  his  nomination  to  im- 
perial favour,  and  four  German  bishops 
were  raised  in  succession  to  the  Papal 
dignity  by  Henry  III.  The  decree  of 
Nicolas  II.  in  1059  marks  a  new  era.  The 
cardinal  bisln  ips[CAEDijrAL]were  to  elect, 
with  the  itpprovul  of  the  clergy  and  people, 
"  saving  the  honour  due  to  our  beloved 
son  Henry,  who  is  now  king  and  will  be, 
as  we  hope,  by  God's  favour,  emperor, 
according  as  we  have  already  granted  to 
him  and  his  successors,  who  have  obtained 
this  right  personally  from  the  Apostolic 
See."  Gradually  the  influence  of  the 
Roman  emperors  fell  away,  and  the  elec- 
tion rested  in  the  hands  of  the  cardinals 
alone,  no  distinc-tion  being  made  between 
the  cardinal  bishops  and  other  members 
of  the  Sacred  College.  Something  has 
been  said  on  the  present  mode  of  elec- 
tion and  the  chief  enactments  on  the 
subject  in  the  article  on  Conclaves,  and 
to  this  we  refer  our  readers,  adding,  how- 
ever, the  following  facts  from  Ferraris 
(art.  Papa).  Eceleeiastical  and,  as  is 
commonly  held,  divine  law,  make  it  im- 


possible for  a  Pope  to  nominate  his  suc- 
cessor. The  election  is  in  the  bands  of 
the  cardinals.  In  the  event  of  all  the 
cardinals  being  dead,  some  think  the 
right  of  election  would  pass  to  the 
Canons  of  St.  John  Lateran,  others  to 
the  Patriarchs,  others  to  a  general  coun- 
cil.  The  cardinals  are  not  bound  to 
choose  one  of  their  own  body ;  a  layman, 
and  even  a  married  man,  may  be  law- 
fully elected.  In  modem  times  Austria, 
France,  and  Spain  have  been  allowed  to 
exclude  any  single  candidate,  provided 
they  notify  their  objection  before  the 
election  is  made.  This,  of  course,  is  a 
mere  concession,  not  a  right.  Portugal 
and  Naples  have  claimed  to  exercise  the 
same  power,  but  have  never  been  allowed 
to  do  so. 

(y)  Coronation, 8^0.,  of  the  Pope. — If  the 
newly-elected  Pope  is  not  already  a  bishop, 
he  must  first  be  consecrated  as  such. 
This  ceremony  sometimes  takes  place  quite 
apart  from  the  coronation  (as  in  Clement 
XIV.'s  case),  sometimes  in  connection 
with  it,  either  before  (Gregory  XVI.)  or 
during  the  Papal  Mass.  Before  conse- 
cration he  is  the  Pope,  the  supreme  head 
of  the  Church,  able  to  decree,  rule,  name, 
or  depose  bishops,  and  exercise  every  duty 
of  pontifical  jurisdiction  ;  but  he  cannot 
ordain  or  consecrate  till  he  has  himself 
received  the  imposition  of  hands  from 
other  bishops,  inferior  to  himself,  and 
holding  under  and  from  him  their  sees 
and  jurisdiction.  The  coronation  cere- 
mony is  performed  at  St.  Peter's,  accord- 
ing to  a  rite  dating  from  the  latter  part 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  As  the  Pope 
enters  the  church  a  clerk  of  the  papal 
chajx'l  holds  up  before  him  a  reed  sur- 
mounted by  a  handful  of  flax.  This  is 
lighted;  it  flashes  up  for  a  moment  and 
then  dies  out  at  once  as  the  chaplain 
chants  "Pater  sancte,  sic  transit  gloria 
iuuudi,""Holy  Father,  thus  passeth  away 
the  world's  glory."  This  is  done  three 
times.  The  Mass  is  begun  as  usual,  but 
before  the  incensation  of  the  altar  the 
Blessing  of  the  Pontiff-elect  is  pronounced 
by  three  cardinal  bishops,  each  of  whom 
recites  a  prayer  over  him.  After  the 
collects  come  the  so-called  Laiides,  that 
is,  the  threefold  supplications  to  God  for 
the  welfare  of  the  new  Pope.  The  coro- 
nation itself  takes  place  after  Mass  in  the 
balcony  over  the  portico  of  St.  Peter's, 
overlooking  the  great  piazza.  The  second 
cardinal  deacon  takes  ofl'  the  mitre  which 
until  now  the  Pope  has  worn,  and  then 
the  senior  places  the  tiara  on  his  head, 


POPE 


PORTILTsCULA  789 


whereat  the  people  cry  out  Kyne  eleison. 
Either  on  the  same  day  or  shortly  after- 
wards the  Pontiff  goes  to  take  possession 
of  St.  John  Lateran,  receiving  the  homage 
of  the  Jews  on  his  way.  The  Pope 
reckons  his  pontificate  from  his  corona- 
tion day,  although  of  course  he  is  Pope 
Irom  the  day  of  his:  election.  (Wiseman, 
"Last  Four  Popes";  Thalhofer,  Kronung, 
in  "Wetzer  and  Welte.) 

(5)  The  Insignia  of  the  Pope  are  the 
pedum  rectum,  or  Straight  crosier;  the 
pallium,  which  he  wears  constantly ;  the 
tiara,  or  triple  crown.  [See  Tiaev; 
Cbosier  ;  Pallium  ;  Kiss.]  He  is  ad- 
dressed as  "  Your  Holiness,'  "  Beatissime 
Pater,''  &c.,  and  he  speaks  of  himself  as 
"Servus  Servorum  Dei."  [See  the  article.] 
( ()  The  Actual  Exert  ise  of  Papal  Power. 
— Tlie  Pope  is  Bishop  of  Rome,  Metropoli- 
tan of  the  Roman  province,  the  only  real 
Patriarch  in  the  West  (see  Hefele  on  the 
6th  2\icene Canon,  "Concil."i.p.  397  ■■^eq.). 
Even  these  offices,  as  held  by  him,  ditier 
in  this  from  the  same  offices  as  held  by 
others — viz.  that  the  Pope  holds  them 
without  having  to  render  an  account  of 
his  administration  to  any  earthly  superior. 
No  line  of  demarcation  can  be  drawn 
between  the  Pope's  exercise  of  Papal  and 
Patriarchal  power.  The  fulness  of  the 
latter  is  included  in  the  former,  and,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  Pope  for  long  did  not 
exercise  throughout  tlie  whole  West  the 
power  which  the  Eastern  Patriarchs 
wielded  in  confirming  the  election  of 
bishops,  &c.  It  is  still  true,  however, 
that  the  Pope  exercises  more  immediate 
power  over  bishops  in  the  West,  where 
there  is  no  other  Patriarch,  than  in  the 
East,  with  Patriarchates  of  its  own.  We 
need  not,  however,  consider  here  the  Papal 
government  in  the  East.  The  nimiber  of 
Greeks  and  Orientals  who  acknowledge 
the  Pope's  jurisdiction  is  very  small,  and 
enough  has  been  said  on  the  subject  in 
other  articles  —e.g.  in  those  on  the  various 
Eastern  rites.  We  speak  only  of  the 
Pope's  power  as  exercised  in  the  Latin 
Church,  and  we  take  as  our  guide  Cardinal 
Soglia  ("Institut.  Juris  publici  Eccles." 
lib.  ii.  cap.  1). 

The  Pope,  then,  is  the  supreme  judge 
in  all  controversies  of  faith,  and  he  may, 
and  does,  exercise  the  power  immediately 
or  through  the  Sacred  Congregations. 
Thus  he  may  condemn  or  prohibit  books, 
he  may  reserve  to  himself  the  canonisa- 
tion of  saints,  he  may  alter  the  rites  of 
the  Church  in  matters  which  are  not 
essential.    Often,  on  such  occasions,  the 


[  Pope,  though  exercising  his  supreme 
power,  does  not  speak  ex  cathedra  or  claim 
infallibility.  To  him  the  supreme  direc- 
tion of  discipline  belongs.  He  may 
enact  laws  for  the  whole  Church,  and 
dispense  from  the  common  Church  law. 
It  is  his  duty  to  see  that  the  canons  are 
observed,  aud  to  this  end  he  may  send 
legates  and  nuncios  to  distant  provinces 
and  receive  appeals  from  all  persons  in  all 
parts  of  the  world.  He  reserves  to  him- 
self the  hearing  of  the  "  greater  causes  '' 
— e.gr.  grave  charges  against  a  bishop.  He 
can  intiict  cen-^ures,  such  as  excommuni- 
cation, on  all  Christians,  and  reserve  to 
himself  the  power  of  absolving  from 
certain  sins.  He  alone  can  erect,  suppress, 
and  divide  dioceses,  translate  or  deprive 
bishops,  and  that  without  crime  on  their 
part,  if  the  general  good  requires  it ;  he 
alone  can  confirm  the  election  of  bishops 
or  appoint  coadjutors  with  right  of  succes- 
sion. Bishops  are  required  at  various 
intervals  to  visit  the  limina  Apostoloriim 
and  give  an  account  of  their  ministry. 
Lastly,  the  Pope  alone  can  approve  new 
religious  orders,  and  exempt  them,  if  he 
sees  fit,  from  episcopal  jurisiliction. 

[Ballerini's  "De  Primatu"  and  "De 
Potestate  Summ.  Pontif."  are  among  the 
most  useful  books  on  the  subject.  But 
theoliigiaus  and  canonists  without  num- 
ber have  treated  of  it,  and  it  would  be 
vain  to  attempt  an  account  of  the  litera- 
ture in  the  space  at  our  command.] 

PORTEFORXVIVX  (jmrtean,pr,rtuary , 
portius,  portuasse,  porthoos,  portfory)  was 
the  common  word  in  England  for  the 
Breviary.  Originally  the  name  was 
meant  to  denote  that  the  book  was  port- 
able, but  the  original  meaning  was  for- 
gotten and  the  word  used  of  copies,  how- 

j  ever  large.  The  word  is  as  old  as  Pre- 
viarium,  and  though  of  constant  occur- 
rence in  English  documents  and  litera- 
ture, does  not  seem  to  have  been  known 
on  the  Continent.  (MaskeU,  "  Mon.  Rit." 
vol.  i.  p.  xcviii  seq.) 

PORTZuia-CTrx.A.  This  was  one  of 
the  three  churches,  at  ornearAssisi,  which 
were  repaired  by  St.  Erancis.  "  The  old 
little  church,  .  .  .  like  the  holy  chapel 
at  Loreto,  is  inclosed  in  the  mi  ddle  of  a 
spacious  church,  annexed  to  a  large  con- 
vent in  the  hands  of  Recollects  or  Re- 
formed Franciscans;  it  is  the  head  or 
mother  house  of  this  branch  of  the 
order."  '  Here,  according  to  the  common 
tradition  (of  which,  however,  there  is  no 
trace  in  the  five  oldest  biographies  of  the 
'  Alban  Butler,  Oct.  4. 

3b2 


no  PORT  ROYAL 


PRAYER 


saint),  Jesus  Christ  appeared  to  St  Fran- 
cis in  1221,  and  "  bade  him  go  to  the 
Pope,  who  would  give  a  plenary  indul- 
gence to  all  sincere  penitents  who  should 
devoutly  visit  that  church."  '  Two  years 
later,  Honorius  III.,  at  the  request  of  St. 
Francis,  granted  the  indulgence  (com- 
monly known  in  Italy  as  the  "  Pardon  of 
Assisi"),  confining  it  to  the  2nd  of 
August,  and  to  the  Church  of  the  Por- 
timictila.  Gre.sorv  XV.  (1622)  extended 
it  to  all  the  churches  of  the  Observant 
Franciscans,  including  the  Recollects  or 
Reformed,  between  first  Vespers  and  sun- 
set on  August  2.  Innocent  XI.  (1678), 
in  favour  of  the  same  churches,  allowed 
this  indulgence  to  be  applied  by  way  of 
suffrage  to  the  relief  of  the  souls  in  Pur- 
gatory. Finally,  the  indulgence  of  the 
Portiuncula  can  be  gained  in  all  churches 
in  which  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  is 
canonically  established.  (Moroni;  Wet- 
zer  and  Welte.) 

PORT-ROYAl..  [See  Jansenists.] 
POSSESSZOM-,  DSnXOIffZA.CAX.. 
A  state  in  which  an  evil  spirit,  by  God's 
permission,  inhabits  the  body  of  a  rational 
being.  The  devil  is  able  in  this  way  to 
torture  the  body,  to  deceive  the  senses  by 
hallucinations,  and  indirectly,  because  of 
the  connection  between  soul  and  body,  to 
torture  the  .soul,  to  impair  and  pervert  its 
faculties.  He  cannot,  however,  inhabit 
the  soul,  for  this  is  a  power  which  belong.s 
to  God  alone ;  much  less  can  he  master 
the  free  will  and  force  the  possessed 
jjerson  to  sin.  But  he  may  increase  to  a 
fearful  extent  the  power  of  temptation, 
overpower  the  body,  and  even  produce 
insanity,  in  which  last  case  the  possessed 
person  may  of  course  commit  actions  out- 
wardly sinful,  for  which  he  is  not  re- 
sponsible. In  obsession  (also  called  cir- 
cumcessio)  the  devil  attacks  the  man  in  an 
extraordinary  manner  from  without — by 
presenting,  e.ff.,  phantoms  to  the  senses 
— but  does  not  inhabit  the  body  or  exert 
an  abiding  and  immanent  influence.  [See 
Eneegumen;  Exoecist.] 

POST-COMMUiffiow.  A  prayer 
or  prayers,  varying  with  the  day,  said  after 
the  priest  has  taken  the  ablutions.  In 
the  Gelasian  Sacraraentary  it  was  always 
followed  by  a  prayer  over  the  people,  and 
this  is  still  the  case  in  the  Ferial  Masses 
in  Lent,  when  the  Post-Communion  is 
Still  succeeded  by  the  "  Humiliate  capita 
vestra  Deo  "  and  the  "  Oratio  super  popu- 
lum."  AU  the  Western  liturgies  conform 
in  this  part  to  the  same  type.  The  Am- 
»  Alban  Butler,  Oct.  4. 


brosian  has  a  "  Post-Comniunio ; "  the 
Galilean  a  "Collectio  post  conimunio- 
nem  "  and  a  "  Consummatio  vel  ad  ple- 
bem." 

In  the  Mozarabic  rite,  however,  the 
prayers  after  Communion  are  invariable. 
(Le  Brun  ;  Benedict  XIV. ;  Hammond.) 

POSTX&.  Originally,  a  note  or  com- 
mentary on  a  passage  of  Scripture,  tii 
derivation  being,  post  ilia  verba  textus. 
Since  such  commentaries  often  took  a 
hortatory  or  homiletic  form,  the  word 
postilla  came  to  be  used  for  a  short  sermon. 
The  sense  of  "  commentary  "  appears  in 
the  title  of  the  celebrated  fourteenth- 
century  work  of  Nicholas  de  Lyra, 
"Postilla  in  universa  Biblia."  [Gloss.^. 
Oediuaeia.]  a  verb,  postillare,  "to 
compose  a  commentary,"  also  came  into 
use. 

POVERTT.     [See  Evangelical 

COTIN'SELS.] 

POWER  OP  SETS.  [See  Penaitce  ; 

ExCOMMtTNICATIGN  ;  PoPB/] 

PRACnZATXC    SAIfCTZOM-.  By 

this  term  the  mediaeval  lawyers  under- 
stood a  solemn  edict,  adopted  and  pub- 
lished with  every  formality  by  the  sove- 
reign of  a  country,  with  the  advice  of 
his  councillors  and  of  the  estates  of  the 
realm.  To  the  Enghsh  reader  the  name 
is  chiefly  famihar  in  connection  with  the 
celebrated  instrument  by  which  Charles 
VI.,  emperor  of  Germany,  endeavoured 
to  secure  for  his  daughter  Maria  Teresa 
the  peaceable  succession  to  all  the 
dominions  of  the  House  of  Austria. 
Among  Pragmatic  Sanctions  which  have 
dealt  with  ecclesiastical  affairs,  three  are 
specially  noted.  The  first,  which  is 
a.scribed  to  St.  Louis  (1268),  grants  many 
liberties  and  privileges  to  the  Church  of 
France.  For  an  account  of  the  second, 
passed  at  Bourges  by  Charles  VII.  (14.38), 
see  the  articles  Gallicanism  and  Qos- 
coEDAT.  The  third  (1446)  preceded  the 
concordat  between  Eugenius  IV.  and  the 
German  nation ;  on  which  see  Concordat. 

PRAVER.  One  of  the  acts  of  the 
virtue  of  religion  (see  that  art.).  All 
intelligent  creatures  are  bound  to  think 
about  God  and  to  hold  converse  \vith 
Him  ;  in  other  words,  to  pray  to  Him. 
Prayer  in  this  wide  sense  may  be  defined 
to  be  the  raising  of  our  minds  to  God  : 
avufiaait  vov  TTpbs  6ebv,  "  ascensus  mentis 
ad  Deum."  It  may  be  either  purely 
mental  [see  Meditation]  or  vocal,  that  is, 
expressed  in  language.  The  four  great 
acts  of  prayer  are  Adoration  (the  ac- 
knowledgment of  God's  supreme  majesty 


PRAYER 


PRAYER,  APOSTLESIIIP  OF  741 


and  our  entire  dependence  upon  Him), 
Thanksgiving,  Petition,  and,  in  the  event 
of  our  having  offended  Him,  Contrition. 
The  third  of  these,  Petition,  is  so  impor- 
tant that  the  word  prayer  (precaii) 
conveys  this  notion  alone ;  and  it  is  of 
this  that  we  shall  here  chiefly  speak. 

The  objections  to  prayer  arise  from 
two  entirely  opposite  errors,  chance  and 
fate.  If  aU  that  liappens  takes  place 
without  any  kind  of  power  to  regulate 
it,  or  if  everything  is  governed  by  rigid 
law  which  cannot  be  controlled,  then  of 
course  it  is  useless  to  pray.  But  reason 
and  revelation  alike  tell  us  that  the 
■world  is  ruled  by  the  Providence  of  God. 
"We  firmly  uphold  the  existence  of  law 
in  the  universe,  but  at  the  same  time 
we  maintain  that  God,  the  author  of  this 
law,  can  counteract,  suspend,  or  change 
it  at  His  plcasui'e.  Thus  we  pray  for 
rain,  fine  weather,  or  health  because  we 
believe  that  God  is  the  Lord  of  heaven 
and  earth,  "  "Who  worketh  all  things 
according  to  the  counsel  of  His  will " 
(Eph.  i.  11;  cf.  Matt.  v.  45;  Acts 
xiv.  14-16).  How  God  brings  about  the 
answers  to  our  prayers  cannot  be  exactly 
determined.  The  late  Dr.  "Ward  dis- 
cussed the  subject  in  a  pamphlet  entitled, 
"Science,  Prayer,  Free  WiU,  and 
Miracles." 

Prayer,  being  an  act  of  religion,  should 
be  addressed  to  God.  "We  pray  to  Him, 
not  because  He  does  not  already  know 
our  needs,  but  because  He  wiUs  that  we 
should  ourselves  put  them  before  Him 
and  beg  Him  to  grant  them.  Although 
OUT  Lord  said,  "  Your  Father  knoweth 
that  you  have  need  of  these  things " 
(Matt.  vi.  32),  yet  He  also  told  us  "  that 
we  ought  always  to  pray  and  not  to 
faint "  (Luke  xviii.  1).  It  is  God  alone 
"Who  can  give  us  what  we  ask  for.  This, 
however,  does  not  prevent  us  from  pray- 
ing to  certain  of  God's  creatures.  We 
ask  God  directly  to  grant  us  our  petitions ; 
we  ask  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  angels, 
and  the  saints  to  ask  God  to  grant  them. 
"And  the  smoke  of  the  incense  of  the 
prayers  of  the  saints  ascended  up  before 
God  from  the  hand  of  the  angels" 
(Apoc.  viii.  4). 

Should  we  specify  our  petitions,  and, 
if  so,  what  may  we  ask  for  ?  St.  Thomas 
considers  that  the  opinion  of  Socrates, 
that  we  should  merely  ask  for  what  is 
good  for  us,  is  only  partially  true.  Some 
things  we  know  to  be  certainly  good  for 
lis  and  these  we  may  specify  :  the  Lord's 
Prayer  contains  a  number  of  specific 


'  petitions.  This  being  granted,  the  general 
j  rule  is  that  laid  down  by  St.  Augustine : 
we  may  pray  for  whatever  we  may  law- 
fully desire.  Hence  we  may  ask  for 
even  temporal  blessings,  not  indeed  for 
their  own  sake,  but  as  aide  to  our 
spiritual  welfare.  According  to  the 
Apostle  we  should  pray  for  all  men 
(1  Tim.  ii.).  Charity  bids  us  help  our 
neighbour  on  the  road  to  salvation,  and 
prayer  is  one  of  the  most  potent  means 
of  doing  so  (1  John  v.  16 ;  James  v.  16 ; 
Rom.  XV.).  The  order  in  which  we 
should  pray  for  others  follows  the  order 
of  charity,  and  depends  upon  their  near- 
ness to  us  and  their  needs,  "^''ith  regard 
to  enemies,  we  are  bound  to  pray  for  them 
in  general — not  excluding  them  from  the 
benefit  of  our  prayers.  To  pray  for  them 
specially  belongs  not  to  precept  but  to 
counsel' (Matt.  v.  44). 

It  is  obvious  that  as  prayer  is  a  think- 
ing about  God  and  speaking  with  Him, 
it  should  be  performed  with  great  atten- 
tion and  devotion.  To  merely  utter  the 
words  isno  prayer.  "  This  people  honoureth 
Me  with  their  lips,  but  their  heart  is  far  from 
Me"  (Matt.  xv.  7).  St.  Thomas  distin- 
guishes three  kinds  or  degrees  of  atten- 
tion :  to  the  words,  to  the  meaning  of  the 
words,  and  to  the  objects  of  the  prayer, 
that  is,  to  God  and  what  we  pray  for. 
It  is  the  last  kind  that  is  required.  To 
keep  one's  attention  fixed  on  an  unseen 
object  is  difficult,  and  consequently  we 
are  very  liable  to  mind-waiulering  when 
we  pray.  But  if  our  distractions  are  not 
wilful — if  whenever  we  recollect  our- 
selves we  try  once  more  to  fix  oui'  atten- 
tion on  God — our  prayer  is  not  altogether 
unfruitful.  To  be  wLlfuUy  distracted 
would  be  sinful.  The  best  plan  is  to 
collect  our  thoughts  for  a  few  moments 
before  kneeling  down.  "Before  prayer 
prepare  thy  soul,  and  be  not  as  a  man 
that  tempteth  God  "  (Ecclus.  xviii.  23). 
The  various  degrees  of  prayer  are  spoken 
of  in  the  article  on  Meditatioit.  (See  St. 
Thomas,  2*  2%  q.  Ixxxiii.,  and  the  well- 
known  little  work  of  St.  Alphonsus, 
"On  Prayer".) 

PRATER,  APOSTIiESHZP  OF. 
An  association  founded  in  1S44  by  the 
Jesuits  at  "V'als,  in  the  diocese  of  Puy. 
The  Popes  have  sliown  their  approval 
of  its  spirit  and  work  by  many  briefs  and 
;  privileges.  According  to  the  statutes 
granted  by  Leo  XIII.,  in  187!),  its 
canonical  constitution  is  as  follows : 
The  Apostleship  of  Prayer  is  a  worl?  of 
piety,  by  means  of  which  the  faithful 


742    PREACHERS,  ORDER  OF 


I'REACHtNG 


endeavour  to  enkindle  in  themselves  and 
others  zeal  for  prayer,  according  to  the 
desire  and  after  the  example  of  the  most 
Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  "always  living  to 
make  intercession  for  us."  In  order  to 
attain  the  end  proposed,  the  associates 
may  most  profitably  employ  not  only 
prayer  but  also  all  other  sorts  of  good 
works,  such  as  the  frequent  reception  of 
the  sacraments,  &c.  To  gain  the  indul- 
gences, the  associates  must  add  to  their 
morning  prayers  an  offering  of  all  the 
prayers,  works,  and  sufferings  of  the  day 
for  the  intention  with  which  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  offers  Himself  in  the  Holy 
Sacrifice  of  the  Altar.  The  work  of  the 
association  is  governed  by  a  general 
director,  who  is  named  by  the  Superior- 
General  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  The 
general  director  may,  in  diflerent  coun- 
tries, appoint  central  directors  with  the 
consent  of  the  respective  ordinaries,  whose 
jurisdiction  must  always  be  scrupulously 
respected.  No  one  has  power  to  receive 
new  members  except  the  local  directors 
and  promoters,  who  possess  diplomas 
issued  by  a  central  director.  For  further 
information  see  a  pamphlet  entitled 
"  What  is  the  Apostleship  of  Prayer  P  " 
and  published  at  St.  Helens,  Lancashire, 
where  the  central  director  for  England, 
Rev.  Fr.  Dignam,  S.J.,  resides.  The 
organ  of  the  association  is  the  "  Messenger 
of  the  Sacred  Heart." 

PREACHERS,  ORBER  OF.  [See 
DOMI.NICAXS.] 

PREACHZN'C.  Christian  preaching 
began  with  our  Lord  Himself,  who  en- 
trusted the  continuation  of  the  work  to 
His  Apostles.  At  first  the  Christian 
congregations  were  instructed  not  only 
by  "  teachers  "  in  the  common  accepta- 
tion of  the  term,  but  also  by  "  prophets," 
to  whom  the  counsels  of  God  were  re- 
vealed in  an  extraordinary  manner — a 
gift  which  might  include  a  knowledge  of 
the  futiire,  though  this  was  not  necessarily 
the  case.  Later,  the  Fathers  speak  of 
preaching  as  a  chief  part  of  the  bishop's 
ofiice.  In  Africa,  till  St.  Augustine's 
time,  it  was  not  usual  for  priests  to 
preach  ("  Vita.  Possid."  5),  and  this  was 
also  the  case  in  the  time  of  Socrates 
("H.  E."  V.  22)  at  Alexandria.  On  the 
iither  hand,  Origen  preached  in  Palestine 
while  only  a  layman,  or  at  least  not  a 
ju-iest  (Euseb.  "  H.  E."  vi.  19.).  Even  in 
the  African  Church  preaching  by  laymen, 
at  the  request  of  the  clergy,  became  a 
permitted  use  {laicus  prasentibus  clericis 
nisi  ipsis  rogantibuLS  docere  non  avdeat,  c. 


{•8  of  the  so-called  ConcQ.  Carthag.  iv. 
anno  398).  According  to  a  well-knowD 
statement  of  Sozomen  ("  H.  E.''  vii.  19) ' 
sermons  had  not  been  preached  at  all  in 
the  Roman  Church  till  the  middle  of  th» 
fifth  century,  but  possibly  the  truth  is 
that  down  to  St.  Leo's  pontificate  there 
bad  been  no  great  preacher  or  formal 
sermons  in  the  Greek  style  at  Rome. 
The  preacher  sat  during  his  sermon  ;  the 
people  sometimes  sat,  sometimes  stood. 
Sermons  were  delivered  on  Sundays  and 
feasts,  and  Chrysostom's  homilies  on 
Genesis  prove  that  sermons  were  delivered 
i  daily  in  Lent.  In  the  East  sermons  were 
I  ol'ten  very  long.  Chrysostom's  discourse 
lasted  sometimes  for  "two  hours.  In  the 
;  West  they  were  generally  short.  Chry- 
sostoni,  the  two  Gregories,  Basil  in  the 
East,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Leo,  Gregory 
i  the  Great  in  the  W'est,  were  the  great 

preachers  of  the  Patristic  period. 
]       For  a  long  time  they  had  no  successors 
j  who  came  near  them  in  eloquence.  The 
I  Synod  of  Mayence  in  847  (c.  2)  requires 
!  each  bishop  to  have  a  book  of  Latin 
\  homilies,  and  turn  them  "  in  linguam 
1  rusticam  Romanam  aut  Theotiscam  "  for 
the  good  of  the  people.    Peter  Damian 
in  the  eleventh,  and  St.  Bernard  in  the 
twelfth     century,     were  conspicuous 
preachers.    A  new  era  began  with  the 
rise  of  the  mendicant  orders.  Tauler, 
Suso,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  St.  Vin- 
cent Ferrer  (d.  1419)  and  Savonarola  in 
the  fifteenth,  Louis  of  Granada  in  the 
I  sixteenth,  were  Dominicans ;  Bernardine 
j  of  Siena  and  John  Capistran  in  the  fif- 
:  teenth  were  Franciscans ;  John  of  Avila 
'  (d.  1569)  a  secidar.    Enormous  crowds 
surrounded  the  great  preachers  of  the 
later  middle  age,  and  sometimes  persons 
actually  died  from  the  emotion  which  the 
[  sermon  awoke  in  them. 
I       Important  regulations  on  preaching 
;  were  enacted  by  the  Council  of  Trent 
(Sess.  V.  De  Reform. ;   Sess.  xxiv.  De 
Reform,  cap.  iv.).    The  council  teaches 
that  preaching  is  the  "  principal  office  of 
bishops,"  and   requires   bishops,  parish 
priests,  and  all  who  have  the  cure  of 
souls,  to  preach  personally,  or  in  case  of 
lawful  impediment  by  deputy,  at  least  on 
j  Sundays   and   solemn  feasts.  Further, 
during  the  fasts,  and  particularly  during 
Advent  and  Lent,  the  bishop  is  to  pro- 
I  vide  sermons  daily,  or  at  least  three 

I       ■  otrrt  S€  i  iwlaKOTTOs  o6t'  &X\os  ris  ivBdSe 

;  4Tr'  iKK\r](rias  SiSdiTKei.  Valesius,  in  his  note  on 

j  the  passage,  quotes  Cassiodorus,  who  had  lived 

I  ut  Bonie,  as  witness  to  the  same  fact. 


PREADA-MITES 


PEECIOUS  BLOOD  743 


tinit'S  a  week.  Regulars  preaching  in 
their  own  churches  must  first  be  examined 
and  approved  by  their  superiors  and  must 
seek  the  bishop's  blessing,  nor  are  they  to 
preach  even  there  against  the  bishop's 
will.  In  other  churches  they  cannot 
preach  without  episcopal  licence.  Bishop.s 
are  to  warn  the  faithful  that  they  are 
hound  to  hear  the  word  of  God  in  their 
own  parish  church,  if  they  can  do  so 
without  inconvenience.  The  sermons  are 
to  be  short  and  simple  and  of  a  practical 
character. 

We  can  only  mention  a  few  of  the 
great  preachers  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  the  golden  age  of 
preaching.  In  France  the  names  of 
Bossuet,  the  Jesuit  Bourdaloue  (1632- 
1704).  Massillon  (1663-1742)  will  occur 
to  all.  De  la  Colombiere,  S.J.  (d.  1682), 
and  Fl^chier,  chiefly  remembered  for  his 
funeral  orations  (d.  1710),  are  prominent 
in  the  second  class.  In  Italy  the  great 
preacher  was  the  holy  Jesuit  Segneri 
(d.  1694);  ill  Portugal,  Yieira,  also  a 
Jesuit  (d.  1697).  In  our  own  century 
the  great  preachers  have  been  the  Italian 
Theatine  Ventura,  and  in  France  the 
Jesuit  Ravignan,  the  great  Dominican 
Lacordaire,  and  the  late  gifted  Bishop  of 
Orleans,  Dupanloup.  The  Germans  have 
never  reached  the  level  of  French  or  even 
of  Italian  eloquence.  Still,  Veith,  who 
preached  at  Vienna,  Cardinal  Diepenbrock 
and  Forster,  bishops  of  Breslau,  the  Jesuit 
Father  Roh  and  others,  have  won  high 
reputation.  (The  latter  part  chiefly  from 
Krau=,  "  Kirchengeschichte.") 

PSZLaSABXZTES .  The  first  author 
of  the  Preadamitic  system,  as  Zaccaria 
calls  it,  is  said  to  have  been  Giordano 
Bruno,  a  Dominican  (who  abandoned  his 
order  and  the  CathoUc  religion),  though 
there  are  traces  of  it  in  Tlabbinical 
writers.  It  was  developed  by  a  French 
Calvinist,  Isaac  de  la  Peyreyre,  in  a  book 
entitled  "  Prseadamitne,  sive  Exercitatio 
super  versibus  12,  13,  et  14,  cap.  v. 
Epist.  ad  Rom.,  quibus  inducuntur  primi 
homines  ante  Adamum  conditi,"  in  the 
year  1655  (not  1652  as  Cabnet  has  it), 
lie  held  that  Adam  was  the  progenitor  of 
the  Jews  only,  and  that  the  Flood,  which 
was  local  merely,  did  not  destroy  the 
nations  who  had  inhabited  the  earth  long 
before  Adam's  creation.  He  appealed, 
e.g.,  to  the  words  of  Cain,  Gen.  iv.  14, 
"Every  one  who  findeth  me  will  kill  me," 
to  Cain's  building  a  city,  to  the  impossi- 
bility of  supposing  that  the  Antipodes 
•were  peopled  in  prehistoric  times  from 


Asia,  &c.,  &c.  Peyreyre  became  a 
Cathohc,  and  retracted  his  system,  which 
cannot  be  reconciled  with  the  Catholic 
doctrine  of  original  sin,  at  Rome  (ad 
Philotimum  Ep.)  in  1657.  He  died  with 
the  Fathers  of  the  French  Oratory  in 
1G75,  aged  b2.  (Zaccaria,  "  Prolegom.  in 
Petav.  de  Op.  Sex  Dierum.") 

PBEBENB  (Lat.  prabenda).  The 
term  is  probably  derived  from  the  daily 
rations  issued  to  soldiers.  A  prebend 
is  the  share  in  the  revenues  of  a  chapter 
[Chapteh,  Cathedeal]  or  collegiate 
church,  enjoyable  by  each  canon  or  pre- 
bendary. A  capitulary  of  Charlemagne 
orders  that  no  canon  should  hold  a 
benefice  along  with  a  prebend ;  those 
found  doing  so  were  to  be  deprived  of 
both.  When  the  common  life  of  canons 
was  generally  discontinued,  in  r!,-  course 
of  the  tenth  century,  a  divi^iou  was 
made  of  the  Church  revenues  into 
episcopal  and  capitular,  and  each  canon 
enjoyed  his  share  of  the  latter,  which 
was  still  called  his  prebend,  together 
with — at  least  in  the  case  of  the  senior 
members  of  the  chapter — a  prebendal 
residence.  (Smith  and  Cheetham;  Wetzer 
and  Welte.) 

PRECEM'TOH.  The  religious,  or 
the  canon,  w  ho  in  a  cathedral,  collegiate, 
or  monastic  church  has  the  chief 
charge  of  the  choral  service.  The  word 
corresponds  to  the  French  "  chantre," 
Lat.  cantor.  The  precentor  in  a  monas- 
tery "presided  over  the  singers,  choristers, 
and  organist,  and  instructed  the  monks 
to  sing,  chauut,  and  read.  His  place  was 
in  the  middle  of  the  choir,  on  the  right 
side ;  he  began  the  chaunt  first,  and  cor- 
rected all  mistakes  and  irregularities  ;  he 
made  provision  for  writing  the  tables  of 
the  monks,  keeping  the  Liber  dinrnalis  or 
chapter-book,  reading  the  martyrology, 
and  announcing  the  anniversaries ;  he 
an-anged  the  processions,  superintended 
the  education  and  correction  of  the 
novices,  and  had  charge  of  the  books, 
presses,  and  furniture  of  the  choir.  He 
also  provided  parchment  and  ink  for  the 
writers,  colours  for  illuminating,  and 
materials  for  binding  the  books  "  ( Yates's 
History  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Edmunds 
Bury,  p.  iP8). 

PRECZOirS  BX.OOD.  (1)  Rdics. — 
Beyrout,  Bruges,  Saintes,  the  imperial 
i  monastery  of  Weingarten,  the  English 
monasteries  of  Ashridge  and  Hailes.have 
claimed  to  possess  relics  of  the  precious 
blood.  (Faber, "  Precious  Blood,"  p.  294.) 
I  St.  Thomas  says  (3»  q.  liv.  a.  2)  that. 


744 


PEECOXISE 


PREDESTINATION 


all  the  particles  of  blood  which  Christ 
ghed  in  his  Passion  were  reassumed  by 
Him  in  His  resurrection,  "  but  that  blood 
which  is  kept  iu  some  churches  as  relics 
did  not  flow  from  Christ's  side,  but  is 
said  to  have  flowed  miraculously  from 
some  image  of  Christ  when  stiuck" — i.e. 
it  never  was  the  blood  of  Christ  at  all. 
Observe,  the  saint  mahes  no  exception, 
and  speaks  doubtfully  of  the  supposed 
miracles.  Benedict  XIV.  ("  De  Fest." 
§  374)  admits  the  possibility  that  some 
particles  of  Christ's  blood  may  not  have 
been  reassumed,  and  may  remain  as 
relics.  In  this  case  they  are  not  united 
to  the  Godhead,  and  it  would  be  the 
crime  of  idolatry  to  give  them  divine 
worship. 

(2)  Confratermties. — F.  Faber  men- 
tions a  very  ancient  one  at  Ravenna  ;  one 
at  Rome  erected  under  Gregory  XIII. 
and  contirmed  by  Sixtus  V.,  afterwards 
merged  in  the  confraternity  of  the  Gonfa- 
lone.  Its  members  were  priests  and 
preached  missions.  An  arch-confraternity 
was  set  up  in  the  church  of  San  Nicolo 
in  Carcere  by  Albertini,  bishop  of  Ter- 
racina,  and  Bufalo,  canon  of  San  Marco 
under  Pius  VII.  A  confraternity  was 
founded  at  St.  Wilfrid's,  in  StatTordshire, 
in  1847,  and  transferred  to  the  London 
Oratory  in  1850. 

i?))  Orders. — There  was  a  Cistercian 
congregation  of  nuns,  entitled  Bernardines 
of  the  Precious  Blood,  at  Paris  in  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Bufalo,  who  died  in  1837,  founded  a 
congregation  of  Missiouers  of  the  Precious 
Blood,  and  another  congregation  of  Nuns 
of  the  Precious  Blood.  (See  Faber, 
"  Precious  Blood,"  c.  vi.) 

(4)  The  Feast  was  instituted  and 
fixed  for  the  first  Sunday  of  July  by 
Pius  IX.  after  his  return"  from  Gaeta. 
There  was  already  a  Mass  and  office  for 
the  Friday  after  the  fourth  Sunday  in 
Lent,  but  only  permitted  for  certain 
places. 

PRECON'ZSE  {jprcRco,  a  public  crier.) 
When  the  preliminary  inquiry  at  Rome, 
required  by  the  Council  of  Trent  and 
several  Papal  constitutions  iu  the  case  of 
those  nominated  to  the  higher  ecclesi- 
astical dignities,  has  terminated  favour- 
ably for  the  person  designated,  a  report  to 
that  ellect  is  made  in  secret  Consistory  by 
the  Cardinal  Protector  of  the  nation  to 
which  the  candidate  belongs,  and  after 
the  cardinals  present  have  all  given  their 
opinions  on  his  eligibility,  the  Pope— if 
the  majority  be  in  his  favour — ^pronounces 


bis  solemn  approbation  of  the  appoint- 
ment. This  approbation  is  termed  the 
"  preconisation,"  and  the  Pope  is  said  to 
"preconise"  the  archbishop,  bishop,  or 
other  dignitary,  whose  cause  has  been 
brought  before  him.  The  approbation  is 
posted  up  ad  valvas  ecclesicn,  and  a  buU  of 
preconisation  is  expedited  to  the  candi- 
date.   |"See  Bishop,  §  iv.] 

PRz:bex.x.a..  The  highest  step  of 
the  sanctuary,  on  which  the  altar  stands. 

PREDe'stzis-A.TZOXI'.  St.  Angus- 
tine's  detinition — viz.  God's  prevision 
and  preparation  of  benefits  by  which 
those  who  are  freed  [i.e.  from  eternal 
death]  are  most  certainly  freed "  ("  De 
Dono  Persev."  cap.  14) — is  generally  ac- 
cepted by  Scholastic  theologians.  They 
are  all'  agreed  that  God  ]>rcdestinates 
from  all  eternity  the  number  of  elect, 
that  He  be.-itows  the  grace  needed  to 
obtain  eternal  life  without  any  respect  to 
merits  on  their  part,  either  before  or  after 
grace  is  conferred,  so  that  life  eternal  is 
His  free  gift ;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  no  adult  enters  heaven  except  because 
he  has  of  his  own  free  will  corresponded 
!  to  the  grace  of  God,  and  none  are  lost 
eternally  except  by  the  perversity  of 
their  own  will,  since  God  sincerely  desires 
all  men  to  come  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
tnith  and  be  saved.  But  if  we  ask  why, 
seeing  God  gives  grace  enough  to  all,  and 
desires  the  salvation  of  all,  some  are 
saved,  others  reprobate,  theologians  give 
different  answers, 
i  (1)  According  to  theThomists,  "God's 
purpose  of  efficaciously  conducting  some 
rather  than  others  to  salvation  has  no 
reason  on  our  part,  but  depends  entii-ely 
on  God's  mercy  and  free  will  "  (Billuart, 
"De  Deo,"  diss.  ix.  a.  4).  To  those  who 
are  predestinated  God  gives  grace  effica- 
cious in  its  own  nature,  and  so  orders  it 
that  they  die  in  His  grace  ;  to  others  He 
gives  grace  which  is  merely  sullirient 
[see  the  article  on  Geace],  and  to  which, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  nobody  corresponds, 
though  all  have  the  power  of  doing  so. 

(2)  A  large  number  of  Jesuit  theolo- 
gians, known  as  Congruists,  liold,like  the 
Thomists,  an  absolute  predestination  to 
glory,  irrespective  of  merits  foreseen.  God 
gives  to  the  predestinate  the  same  gi-ace 
as  to  the  reprobate ;  but  to  the  former  in 
circumstances  under  which  He  foresees 
they  will  accept  it,  to  the  latti  r  iu  those 

1  An  exception,  apparently,  should  be  made 
of  Catharinus,  quoted  by  Petavius,  and  of 
Pighius,  of  whom  something  is  said  by  Schuee- 
mann.    Both  seem  to  graze  Semi-Pelagianism. 


PREFACE 


PREMOXSTEATEXSIAXS  745 


under  which  He  foresees  theywill  not  do 
so.  Such  was  the  opinion  of  Suarez 
{after  his  return  to  Spain),  of  Bellarmine, 
Antoine,  and  many  others.  A  decree  of 
the  Jesuit  general  Aquaviva  made  it  the 
recognised  teachinir  of  the  society,  but 
the  decree  seems  to  have  been  practically 
inoperative.  (See  Schiieemann,  "Controv. 
de  DiviufR  Gratise  Liberique  Arbitrii 
Concord."'  cap.  16.) 

(3)  A  large  number  of  Jesuits — e.g. 
Toletus,  Maldonatus,  Lessius,  Vasquez, 
Valentia,  and  Suarez,  while  he  taught  at 
Rome  (so  Schneemann,  loc.  cit.),  admit 
that  predestination  to  grace,  but  deny 
that  predestination  to  glory,  is  irrespec- 
tive of  merit  foreseen.  God  decrees,  they 
say,  to  give  grace  to  all,  and  predestinates 
those  who,  as  He  foresees,  will  correspond 
to  it,  the  rest  heing  reprobate. 

It  is  to  be  carefully  observed  that  the 
Thomists  admit,  just  as  much  as  Lfssiu^, 
that  God  desires  the  salvation  of  all,  and 
gives  all  sufficient  means  of  attaining 
that  end.  Whether  their  theory  is  logi- 
cal and  consistent  is  another  question,  and 
one  on  which  the  Church  has  never  pro- 
nounced. It  is  a  matter  of  philosophy 
and  logic  rather  than  of  faith.  On  the 
other  hand,  no  Catholic  may  hold  with 
Gottschalk,  a  German  monk  of  the  ninth 
<;entury,  or  with  Calvin  in  later  times,  that 
God  willed  the  salvation  of  the  predesti- 
nate alone,  so  that  the  reprobate  perished 
necessarily. 

The  history  of  patristic  opinion  is 
given  with  his  usual  fulness  of  learning 
and  critical  discernment  by  Petavius  ("De 
Deo,"  lib.  ix.  and  x.).  Augustine  most 
certainly  held  and  constantly  asserted 
predestination  not  only  to  grace  but  to 
glory  without  respect  to  merits  foreseen. 
(See,  e.g.,  a  decisive  passage.  "DeCorrep- 
tione  et  Gratia,"  cap.  vii.)  Nobody,  says 
Petavius — who  was  himself  of  the  con- 
trary opinion  on  the  theological  question — 
nobody  could  doubt  this  unless  blinded 
by  party  spirit  "  {loc.  cit.  cap.  vi.).  But 
the  same  great  scholar  shows  how  very 
different  tlie  opinion  of  the  Greek  and 
earlier  Latin  Fathers  was;  and  Augus- 
tine, though  he  rightly  exercised  a  mighty 
influence  on  the  subsequent  Church,  has 
no  claim  to  represent  the  whole  of  her 
tradition. 

PREFACE.  A  prelude  or  introduc- 
tion to  the  Canon  of  the  Mass,  consisting 
in  an  exhortation  to  thanksgiving  made 
by  the  celebrant,  in  the  answers  of  the 
minister  or  choir,  and  a  prayer  ending  with 
the  Sanctus,  in  which  God  is  thanked  for 


His  henefits.  The  Greeks  have  only  one 
Preface,  which  in  the  Clementine  liturgy 
is   extremely  long.    The  Galilean  and 

j  Mozarabic  rites,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
rich  in  Prefaces,  and  so  originally  was  the 

'  Roman  liturgy,  which  from  the  sixth  till 
about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  had 
a  special  Preface  for  nearly  every  feast. 
About  1100  the  number  was  reduced  in 
most  churches  of  the  Roman  rite  to  ten — 
viz.  the  common  one,  found  in  nearly 
all  the  ancient  Sacramentaries,  and  nine 
others  named  in  a  letter  falsely  attributed 
to  Pelagius,  predecessor  of  St.  Gregory, 
and  cited  in  the  '•'  Micrologus,"  &c. — viz. 
the  Preface  of  Christmas,  Epiphany,'  Lent, 
Easter,  Ascension,  Pentecost,  the  Trinity, 
the  Apostles,  the  Cross.  Urban  II.  is 
said  by  Gratian,  who  lived  fifty  years 

I  later,  to  have  added  the  Preface  of  the 
r.le>sed  Virgin  in  1095.  The  Sarum  I'se 
bad  "  propej-  Prefaces  "  for  the  "  Concep- 
tion, Nativity,  Annunciation,  Visitation, 
Veneration,  and  Assumption  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin."  "  The  York  Use  added  another 
for  the  days  between  Passion  Sunday  and 
Easter.  The  Hereford  appointed  the 
same  Preface  from  Palm  Sunday  to 
Easter."  (Maskell ;  the  rest  of  the  article 
is  from  Le  Brun  and  Hammond.) 

PREDATE  (prcelafus).  A  general 
name  for  an  ecclesiastical  dignitary, 
whether  among  the  secular  or  the  regular 
clergy,  who  has  a  jurisdiction  inherent  in 
his  office,  and  not  merely  one  transmitted 
to  him  as  the  delegate  of  a  superior. 
The  designation  is  extended  in  a  wider 
sense  to  the  prelates  of  the  Pope's  Court 
and  household,  as  having  a  superiority  of 
rank. 

Prelature,  or  prelacy,  is  the  status  of 
a  prelate,  "^'hen  the  "first  Scotch  Pres- 
byterians raved  against  "Popery,  Prelacy, 
and  Erastianism,  '  prelacy  in  their  mouths 
was  not  exactly  equivalent  to  "epi- 
scopacy ;  "  they  meant  that  they  were  in 
rebelhon  against  canon  law  and  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction.  It  is  true  that  they 
ei-ected  a  new  jurisdiction,  far  more 
burdensome  and  inquisitorial  than  the  old 
one :  on  which  see  Buckle's  "  History  of 
Civilisation,"  vol.  ii.  chap.  v. 

PREKOXrSTRATEIO'SZAIffS.  This 
celebrated  order  of  regular  canons  was 
founded  by  St.  Norl)ert  in  11 19,  at  a  place 
called  Pr6montr6  (that  is, "  foreshewn  "),  a 

>  So  Le  Brun.  torn.  ii. ;  but  the  letter,  as 
given  in  Leotric's  Missal,  omits  the  Prefnce  for 
the  Epiphany  and  sutistitutes  one  for  the  dead 
(Maskell,  Ancient  Liturgies  of  the  Church  of 
England,  p.  103  seq). 


746  PREMOXSTrvATENSIAXS 


PREMOXSTRATEXSIANS 


loneh-  valley  in  the  forest  of  Coucy,  near 
Laon.  Several  other  sites  had  been 
offered  to  the  saint  in  vain  ;  but  as  soon 
as  he  sa-v\-  this  valley  he  said,  "Here  is 
the  place  which  the  Lord  hath  chosen." 
A  monastery  was  built,  which  remained 
the  mother  house  of  the  order  till  the 
French  I'evolution;  it  is  now  in  ruins. 
St.  Norbert  was  soon  joined  by  thirteen 
companions,  to  whom  he  pave  the  rule 
of  St.  Austin  to  observe,  with  certain  con- 
stitutions framed  by  himself.  The  habit 
of  the  Norbertiiies  was  white;  hence  they 
were  commonly  called  in  England  tlif 
"White  Canons.  Their  founder  impo^'  d 
on  tliem  perpetual  fasting,  and  an  entire 
abstinence  from  meat ;  but,  as  in  other 
orders,  mitigations  after  a  time  crept  in, 
followed  by  a  creneral  relaxation,  which  in 
its  turn  led  to  several  remarkable  reforma- 
tions. The  Abbot-General  at  Pr6montr6 
exercised  a  general  supervision  over  the 
whole  order  down  to  1512,  when  all  the 
abbeys  in  England  and  Wales  were  sub- 
jected to  the  Abbot  of  Welbeck.  There 
were  at  one  time,  according  to  H^lyot,  a 
thousand  Premonstratensian  abbeys,  many 
provostships  and  priories,  and  five  hundred 
houses  of  nuns.  In  England,  at  or  shortly 
before  the  Dissolution,  there  were  thirty- 
four  houses;  the  names  are  given  below.' 

Lecuy,  the  last  abbot  of  Pr6montr6, 
was  a  man  of  exceptional  force  and  noble- 
ness of  character.  Driven  from  his  abbf^y 
in  1790,  he  bore  his  unbent  and  nndis- 
honoured  head  through  all  the  mournful 
or  shameful  scenes  of  the  Revolution,  and 
living  far  on  into  the  present  century 
died  in  his  ninety-fourth  year  in  1834. 
A  few  months  before  his  death,  the  old 
man  compiled  a  short  tract  on  the  history 

1  Houses  marked  n  were  nunneries;  those 
marked  c  cells : — 


Alnwick. 

Barlings  (Line). 

Bayham  (Suss.). 

Beauchict  (Derb.). 

Bileif;Vi.  near  Mal- 
duu  (Essex). 

Blancland  (North- 
umb.). 

Bradsrile,  near  Do- 
ver (Kent). 

Broadholra  (Notts), 

Cockersa  n  d  ( banc.) . 
10  Coverham  (York). 
Croxton  (Leic). 
Dale  (Derb.) 
Wpst  Dereham 

(Norf.). 
Duriovd,  near  Eo- 

gate  (Suss.), 
Easby  (York.). 


Eggleston  (York.). 

Hatrnabv  (Line). 

Hales  OWen. 

Hornby  (Lane),  c. 

Irford  (Line),  n. 

Kavlend.nearXase- 
by  (XorthaiitsVc. 

Lant;don  (Kent). 

Langley  (Norf.). 

Laveiidon  (Bucks). 

Leiston  (.Suff.). 

Newbo,  near  Gran- 
tham (Line). 

Newsharn  (Line). 

Shap  (Wcstm.) 

Sulbv(Northants). 

Tichfield  (Hants). 

Torre  (Dev.). 

Tupholm  (Line.) 

Welbfck  (Notts). 

Wendling  (Norf.). 


of  hie  order;  from  these  touching  and 
simple  pages  the  reader  will  thank  us  for 
making  the  following  extract : — 

"  Of  this  illustrious  order,  once  so 
widely  extended,  the  debris  only  are  left. 
Its  impoverishment  began  with  the  Eng- 
lish schism.'  The  Itt  forraation  caused  it 
yet  further  losses  by  the  suppression  of  a 
gn-at  number  of  houses  in  the  countries 

I  which  embraced  it.  The  abbeys  in  Spain, 
about  1573,  separated  themselves  from 
the  body  of  the  order  in  order  to  form  a 

!  congregation  apart,  retaining,  however, 

[  thf  habit  and  the  statutes.  Under  the 
Emperor  Joseph  II.,  other  suppressions 

J  took  place  in  the  hereditary  provinces ; 
still,  besides  the  French  abbeys  of  eitlier 
observance,  which  numbered  before  1789 
about  one  hundred,  there  remained  in 
Belgium  ana  different  ]>arts  of  Germany 
some  very  fine  establishments,  distin- 
guished by  their  regularity  and  love  for 
ecclesiastical  learning.  Notably,  Swabia, 
where  the  abbots  were  prelates  of  the 
empire,  had  lost  nothing;  and  in  spite  of 
so  many  suppressions  the  order  of  Pr^- 
montr^  might  still  be  called  flourishing. 
At  the  Revolution  all  the  French  houses 
suflered  the  fate  of  other  ecclesiastical 
institutions,  enveloped  in  a  common  pro- 
scription. The  inva.sion  of  Belgium  by 
revolutionary  armies  extended  to  that 
country  the  measures  of  destruction  taken 
in  France  ;  what  the  order  still  possessed 
in  Germany  peri.shed  along  with  the  great 
sees  and  rich  endowments  of  the  German 
Church,  sacrificed  to  a  system  of  indem- 
nities, at  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine.  Of  the 
splendid  heritage  of  St.  Norbert,  subject 
to  the  crosier  of  Pr6montre,  there  remained 
in  1805  ten  abbeys,  of  which  two,  in 
Prussian  Silesia,  had  been  till  then  re- 
ligiously maintained  by  the  kings  of 
Prussia,  though  Protestants.  It  was  but 
natural,  when  the  Catholic  princes  seized 
the  property  of  religious,  that  those 
who  were  not  so  should  follow  their  ex- 
ample, and  these  two  abbeys  ceased  to 
exist.  At  present  only  eight  remain, 
which  are  indebted  for  their  existence  to 
the  piety  and  good  will  of  the  ]'"mperor  of 
Austria.  Three  of  these  are  in  Bohemia; 
the  chief  of  them — Strahow,  in  the  city  of 
Prague — is  the  depository  of  the  relics  of 
the  holy  patriarch,  the  founder  of  the 
order." 

We  believe  that  these  eight  houses 
still  exist,  and  that  several  others  have 
arisen  in  Belgium.     In  I'ngland,  two 
'  See  above. 


PREMUNIRE 


PRESBYTERIANS,  SCOTTISH  747 


«uiall  Premonstratensian  houses,  cells 
apparently  of  some  Belgian  abbey,  have 
been  recently  founded  at  Crowle  and 
Spalding,  in  Lincolnshire.'  Still  more 
recently  a  community  of  French  Premon- 
stratensians  has  been  established  at  Stor- 
ringtnn,  on  land  gi^en  by  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  and  a  priory  has  been  founded 
at  Farnborough  by  the  Empress  Eug6uie. 
(H61yot  and  his  continuator ;  Dugdale's 
*'  Monastieon.") 

PREiauNZRE.  The  statute  of  pre- 
munire (K?  Rich.  ii.  c.  5),  passed  in  1393, 
was  dfsifTued  by  the  king  and  parliament 
of  England  to  check  evasions  of  the 
existing  statutes  against  provisors — i.e. 
persons  appointed  to  English  benefices  or 
dignities  by  Papal  provision.  The  Holy 
See  had  employed  various  means,  includ- 
ing excommunication  or  the  menace  of  it, 
for  the  protection  of  persons  whom  it  had 
"provided"  to  benefices,  and  for  the 
punishment  of  all  who  might  interfere  with 
them.  On  this  account  a  severe  penal 
clause  was  insertedin  theabove-mentioned 
statute,  to  the  effect  that  if  any  man 
should  pursue  or  obtain  in  the  court  of 
Rome  excommunications,  bulls,  or  other 
things,  against  the  king's  crown  and 
regality,  or  bring  them  into  England,  or 
receive  or  execute  them,  "  such  person  or 
persons,  their  notaries,  procurators,  main- 
tainers,  abettors,  fautors,  and  counsellors, 
shall  be  out  of  the  king's  protection,  their 
goods  and  cliattels,  lands  and  tenements, 
shall  be  forfeited  to  the  king,  and  their 
persons  attached  wherever  they  may  be 
found."-  Execution  of  process  under 
this  statute  was  by  means  of  a  writ  called 
of  "  Premunire  " — from  the  first  words, 
"  Premunire  [  prcsmonerej  facias  " — 
whence  in  time  the  statute  itself  was  so 
called. 

PRESBYTERA.  The  wife  of  a 
presbyter,  especially  a  wife  who  had  come 
under  the  operation  of  the  rule  which 
rendered  tlie  continence  of  clerics  Jieces- 
sary.  The  position  of  such  persons  is 
dealt  with  by  the  canons  of  the  Coimcil 
of  Tours  (5G7).  In  these  cases  the  pres- 
bytera  usually  went  into  a  convent,  but 
without  taking  the  habit.  (Smith  and 
Cheetham.) 

PRSSBYTERZAirS,  SCOTTISH. 
The  doctrine  and  discipline  of  Presby- 
terians, founded  upon  the  teaching  of 

'  The  canons  of  this  order  possess  the 
unique  privilege  of  eligibility  to  the  charge  of 
Becular  parishes  vrithout  Papal  dispensation. 
(See  Soglia,  Instil.  Canim.  ii.  cap.  8.) 

2  Lingard,  Hist,  of  England,  vol.  iii. 


Calvin  and  his  management  of  ecclesias- 
tical aft"airs  at  Geneva,  were  perhaps 
embraced  as  early  in  England  as  in  Scot- 
land, for  Christopher  Goodman,  an  Eng- 
lishman, was  associated  with  Knox  whrn 
they  were  both  in  exile  in  Mary's  iiiin', 
and  sat  in  the  First  (Tencral  .V.-.inljly 
held  at  Edinburgh.  But  since  tli.'  I'onn 
of  Protestantism  which  first  piex  ail.  il  in 
England  and  supplanted  the  tatholic 
Church  there  was  that  of  the  Eniili.-h 
episcopalian  reformers  [see  English 
Church],  and  Presljytery  did  not  rise  in- 
to importance  until  much  later,  we  shall 
here  almost  confine  our  reniai'ks  to  the 
subversion  of  Catholicity  in  Scotlaml,  and 
the  introduction  of  new  ecclesiastical 
arrangements  in  it.--  j'lace. 

Before  the  (l.'^iMicti\e  fanatical  out- 
break which  is  as-Mciaied  with  the  name 
of  John  Jviiox,  the  Catholic  Church  in 
Scotland  had  thirteen  sees — of  which 
two,  St.  Andrew's  and  Glasgow,  were 
metropolitan — and  upwardsof  1 00  monas- 
teries large  and  small.'  Of  these,  nineteen 
belonged  to  the  Austin  Canons ;  the 
magnificent  establishments  of  Ilolyrood, 
Jedburgh,  Scone,  and  St.  Andrew's  were 
among  the  number.  The  Franciscans 
had  thirteen  houses,  the  Dominicans 
eleven,  the  Cistercians  ten  ;  among  these 
last  were  the  abl)eys  of  Melrose  and  New- 
bottle.  The  Benedictines  had  nine  or 
ten  abbeys  and  cells,  inclmlinL^  Dunferm- 
line, Arbroath,  ami  Lliidores.  Among 
the  six  Premonstraleiisian  houses  was 
Dryburgh,' the  ruins  of  which  still  charm 
the  traveller  by  their  iucouiparaljle  grace. 
The  rest  were  distributed  among  the  other 
orders.  That  the  Scottish  clergy,  both 
secular  and  regular,  stood  greatly  in  need 
of  reformation  is  an  indisputahl-  fact; 
but  how  far  corruption  had  goiir  is  a 
point  which  cannot  be  easily  delerniiiied. 
If  we  attach  credit  to  the  rhetoric  of 
Knox  and  his  followers,  we  must  believe 
that  the  whole  clerical  body  in  Scotland, 
with  scarcely  an  exception,  was  stained 
with  avarice  and  conscious  hyjiocrisy,  and 
sunk  in  gTOSs  immorality,  slot li,  and  glut- 
tony. But  the  interest  wliich  these  men 
had  in  making  such  assertions  believed 
would  make  us  suspend  our  belief  in  them, 
even  if  there  were  no  rebutting  evidence. 
On  the  whole  there  seems  good  reason 
for  accepting  on  this  subject  the  con- 

1  Eight  sees  were  suffragan  to  St.  Andrew's 
— viz.  Ounkeld,  Aberdeen,  Moray,  Dunlilane, 
I5rcchin,  Ross,  Caithness,  and  the  drltuevs ; 
and  three  to  Glasgow — viz,  Whitherne,  Lii- 
more,  and  Sodor  nnd  Man. 


:4S  PRESCYTERIAXS,  SCOTTISH 


PRESBYTERIANS,  SCOTTISH 


teiupomry  testimony  of  Bishop  Lesley.' 
The  Bishop  of  Ross  says  that  some  of  the 
bishops  had  been  for  a  long  time  past 
engaged  in  political  and  diplomatic  busi- 
ness, and  that  others  lived  too  freely 
(liberim  viverent),  forgetting  their  sacred 
functions,  so  that  the  whole  hierarchy 
had  become  lowered  in  popular  esteem. 
The  pernicious  system  of  holding  abbeys 
in  commendmn  was  in  full  vigour ;  thus 
Lord  James  Murray,  a  bastard  son  of  ^ 
James  V.,  was  commendatory  abbot  of 
St.  Andrew's.  As  to  the  priests  and 
monks,  Lesley  declares  that  most  of  them, 
in  either  order,  were  persons  of  piety  and 
virtue  ;  but  he  adds  that  there  was  one 
vice — licentious  living — of  which  many 
of  them,  and  another — great  negligence 
in  preaching — of  w\ich  nearly  all,  were 
guilty.  He  mentions  it  as  a  deplorable 
circumstance  that  the  people  had  not 
been  provided  with  an  elementary  cate- 
chism, for  want  of  which  they  often  could 
not  tell  whether  what  the  sectaries  taught 
them  was  true  or  not. 

"  The  Reformation,"  says  a  modern 
historian  ^  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland,  "  was 
baronial  in  Scotlaiul,  monarchical  in  Eng- 
land." Almost  all  the  nobles  who  had 
been  detained  as  prisoners  in  England 
after  the  battle  of  Sol  way  Moss  (1541) 
returned  home  Protestants.  The  English 
monasteries  had  been  just  dissolved,  to 
the  great  enrichment  of  their  brother 
aristocrats  south  of  the  Tweed ;  Lollard 
priia.-'hers  were  everywhere;  and  their 
denunciations  of  a  wealthy  and  powerful 
priesthood,  electric  as  was  then  the  con- 
dition of  the  religious  atmosphere,  fell 
upon  willing  ears.  A  countryman  of 
their  own  was  soon  found,  who  in  extra- 
vagance and  fluency  of  reviling  left  the 
English  Lollards  far  behind.  John  Knox, 
born  in  Haddingtonshire  in  1505,  studied 
with  some  distinction  at  the  universities 
of  St.  Andrew's  and  Glasgow,  having 
attended  the  lectures  of  the  eminent  theo- 
logian John  Mair,  or  Major.  He  pro- 
bably imbibed  Lollard  opinions  very 
early :  if  before  his  ordination,  his  volun- 
tarily placing  himself  under  the  control 
of  the  canon  law  is  a  remarkable  fact. 
The  death  at  the  stake  in  1627  of  Patrick 
Hamilton,  who  had  studied  at  Witten- 
berg and  brought  home  Lutheran  opinions, 
seems  to  have  made  a  deep  impression  on 
him.  However,  he  became  a  priest,  and 
thus  was  canonically  bound  to  contin- 

»  De  Origine,  &c.,  p.  68. 
-  Dr.  J.  Cunningham ;  see  notice,  end  of 

art. 


ence,  an  obligation  which  he  set  at 
nought  by  marrying,  not  once  only  but 
twice. 

Not  only  was  there  a  strong  Lollard 
party  in  Scotland  between  15-30  and  1540, 
but  several  Franciscan  and  Dominican 
friars  took  up  warmly  the  cause  of  eccle- 
siastical reform,  and  preached  against 
abuses  aud  superstitions.  Of  this  there 
is  ample  evidence  in  the  history  which 
bears  the  name  of  Knox.  As  late  as  1545 
the  bulk  of  the  people  were  attached  to 
the  old  faith  ; '  Knox  speaks  of  Edin- 
burgh in  1546  as  "  drowned  in  supersti- 
tion " ;  but  in  the  fifteen  years  which 
followed  a  great  change  is  said  to  have 
taken  place. 

George  Wishart,  a  friend  of  Knox, 
was  burned  for  heresy  in  1545;  and 
partly  in  revenge  for  this,  Cardinal  Beaton 
was  assassinated  at  St.  Andrew's  by 
members  of  the  reforming  party  in  1-046. 
Knox  hastened  to  St.  Andrew's  and  mad© 
common  cause  with  the  assassins.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  renounced  his  priesthood 
I  some  time  before,^ and  to  have  arrived  at 
the  conclusion  that  ecclesiastical  func- 
tions could  not  be  lawfully  discharged 
but  in  obedience  to  a  "  call  "  from  some 
reformed  congregation.  The  men  of 
blood  to  whom  he  had  joined  himself 
gave  him  the  desired  "  call,"  and  Knox 
became  a  minister.  We  hear  of  contro- 
versies between  him  and  representatives 
of  the  Catholics.  The  volubility,  ear- 
nestness, and  audacity  of  the  man  were 
amazing;  but  we  see  that  he  "abounds 
in  his  own  sense " ;  his  incapacity  for 
taking  in  any  but  the  one  narrow  view  of 
religion  to  which  he  had  committed  him- 
self is  manifest  from  the  account  of  these 
disputes  which  lie  has  himself  trans- 
mitted ;  and  when  we  find  him  resolutely 
maintaining  that  no  rites  or  ceremonies 
are  lawful,  unless  "  God  in  express  words 
hath  commanded  them,"  ^  we  are  able  to 
take  the  measure  of  his  spiritual  wisdom. 
Every  Presbyterian  at  this  d.ay  who 
countenances  Dr.  Lee's  innovation  of 
organs  in  the  kirk,  since  organs  are 
nowhere  "expressly  commanded,"  falls 
under  the  ban  of  the  patriarch  of  his  re- 
ligion. In  a  sermon  preached  about  the 
same  time  Knox  defined  the  Roman 
Church  to  be  "  the  last  beast,"  and  the 
head  of  it  to  be  "  the  Man  of  Sin,"  the 
"  Antichrist,"  and  the  "  Whore  of  Baby- 
lon." This  violence  is  easily  accounted 
for.  Kjiox  intended  to  violate  the  canons 
«  Cunningham,  i.  218.  ^  jbid.  p.  223. 
5  History,  p.  80. 


PRESBYTEEIANS,  SCOTTISH 


PRESBYTERIANS,  SCOTTISH  74f) 


and  marrj- ; '  and  he  knew  that  if  the 
Catholic  Church  and  the  canon  law  re- 
tained their  ascendency  in  Scotland,  he, 
as  a  married  priest,  would  not  only  lose 
the  career  to  which  his  ambition  urged 
him  forward,  but  also  be  in  danger  of 
punishment.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he 
and  his  friends  could  overpower  the 
Church  and  establish  their  own  sect,  t!ie 
hifrhest  ecclesiastical  rank,  along  with  a 
commanding  position  in  the  State,  was  at 
once  within  his  reach. 

The  French  king  sent  an  expedition 
which  compelled  the  surrender  of  St. 
Andrew's,  and  Knox,  being  taken  along 
■with  the  garrison,  was  condemned  to  the 
galleys.  For  some  years  French  and 
Catholic  influences  were  iu  the  ascen- 
dant; and  Knox,  afterhis  release,  deemed 
it  best  to  retire  to  England.  In  1549  a 
reforming  council  met  at  Edinburgh 
under  Archbishop  Hamilton,  attended  by 
six  bishops  and  fourteen  abbots,  and 
enacted  sixty-eight  disciplinary  canons. 
IVo  years  later  the  Parliament  passed 
an  Act  imposing  severe  penalties  on  any 
who  should  "  contemptuously  make  per- 
turbation in  the  kiik  in  the  time  of 
divine  service."  When  Mary  came  to 
the  throne  (1553),  Knox  found  his  way 
to  Geneva,  and  came  imder  the  influence 
of  the  powerful  mind  of  Calvin.  To  this 
inteicourse  he  chiefly  owed  the  specific  : 
Presbyterian  behefs — viz.  that  some  are  I 
predestinated  to  eternal  life,  and  some — 
the  greater  number — to  eternal  damna- 
tion ;  that  bishop  and  presbyter  are  two 
different  names  for  the  same  office  ;  and 
that,  in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  although  tlie  faithful  really  and 
truly  partake  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,  yet  that  body  and  that  blood  are 
in  heaven  and  not  on  earth,  and  the 
elements  undergo  no  change.  Superior 
as  it  is  to  the  shallow  commonplaces  of 
Zuinglius,  this  doctrine  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  less  mysterious,  thougii  much 
less  logical,  than  that  of  trausubstantia- 
tion,  which  the  Calvinists  rejected  with 
80  much  heat. 

Between  15-54  and  1560  Mary  of ' 
Guise,  the  queen  regent,  mother  of  5lary 
Queen  of  Scots,  administered  the  govern- 
ment in  her  daughter's  name.  During  all 
this  time  a  fierce  struggle  was  going  on 
between  the  men  of  the  old  and  the  new 
opinions.  The  Protestant  noblemen, 
headed  by  the  Earls  nf  Argyle,  Gleiicairn, 
and  Morton,  met  together  in  l.>57,  and 

1  He  (lid.  in  fact,  marry  Margery  Bowes 
two  years  afterwards. 


drew  up  the  "First  Covenant."  They 
pledged  themselves  thereby  to  establish 
the  "  "Word of  God  and  His  congregation,'' 
and  to  support  these  with  all  their 
strength  against  the  "congregation  of 
Satan,"  liy  which  they  meant  the  bishops 
and  Catholic  clergy.  They  were  hence 
called  the  "Lords  of  the  Congregation." 
The  bishops  did  what  they  could  to 
strengthen  the  hands  of  the  regent,  who, 
however,  from  political  motives,  desired 
to  keep  in  with  both  parties.  Walter 
Milne,  an  old  man  who  had  once  been  a 
priest,  but  had  gone  over  to  the  Reformers, 
was  burnt  at  St.  Andrew's  in  1658.*  But 
tlie  bishops  were  not  really  strong;  the 
tide  was  setting  the  other  way ;  and 
Knox  felt  emboldened  to  return  to  Scot- 
land. While  the  tension  of  feeling  on 
each  side  was  at  its  height,  he  went  to 
Perth,  the  fair  city  on  the  Tay,  then 
embelh.shed  with  several  religious  houses 
of  great  beauty.  He  preached  a  sei-mon 
against  "  idolatry,"  after  whieh  there  was 
a  riot;  images,  altiirs,  and  pictures  were 
destroyed  and  defaced ;  the  Carthusian 
abbey  was  pluiKlered  and  greatly  damaged, 
and  the  monks  ill-used ;  the  Dominican 
and  Franciscan  friaries  were  destroyed. 
The  ruin  of  Scone  Abbey  followed.  Knox 
then  went  into  Fife,  and  continued  this 
line  of  preaching;  more  destruction  of  art 
monuments  was  the  result.  Defying  the 
inhibition  of  the  archbishop,  he  preached 
at  St.  Andrew's  (15.")9),  and  immediately 
afterwards  the  magistrates  and  the  mob 
"proceeded  to  destroy  the  Dominican  and 
Franciscan  monasteries,  and  to  rifle  and 
deface  aU  the  churches  in  the  town."* 
The  cathedral,  which  was  also  the  church 
of  the  Austin  Canons,  a  building  of  rare 
beauty,  was  dismantled  about  the  same 
time.  There  was  now  a  state  of  actual 
war,  and  the  Lords  ol'  the  Congre^^ation 
marched  upon  Edinburgh,  "flushed  with 
these  victories  over  the  monuments  of 
idolatry  and  architecture"  (sic).'  Here 
is  the  true  Puritan  ring ;  it  is  not  only 
against  what  he  calls  superstition,  but 
against  the  "sublime  and  beautiful"  that 
the  Puritan  revolts.  Art  withers  under 
his  tread,  like  grass  beneath  the  hoofs  of 
the  Calmuck  cavalrj'. 

The  struggle  was  marked  by  several 
sudden  changes  of  fortune ;  the  Scotch 

I  Altogether,  about  twenty  ProtesUnts 
appear  to  have  snffered  death  in  Scotland  in 
the  cause  of  religion  from  1527  to  the  end  of 
the  struggle. 

-  Cunninsham,  p.  253. 

3  lb.  p.  260. 


750  rPtESBYTERIArsS,  SCOTTISH        PRESBYTERIAA'S,  SCOTTISH 


Protestants  shoTred  little  courage,  and 
their  English  allies  little  skill.  The 
French  troops  who  had  come  to  support 
the  regent,  and  garrisoned  Leith,  were 
well  handled  and  gained  some  remarkable 
successes  ;  but  lliey  were  foreigners,  and 
this  told  heavily  against  them.  In  April 
1560  the  regent  died  ;  her  death  led  to  a 
negotiation,  and  indirectly  to  the  triumph 
of  Protestantism.  The  young  queen, 
whose  husband,  Francis,  had  just  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Henry  II.,  was  absent 
in  France  ;  the  Catholics  were  left  with- 
out any  natural  leaders.  By  the  treaty 
of  Ediuburgh  (July  lo(')O)  made  lietween 
the  French  envoys  of  Francis  and  ^lary 
and  English  plenipotentiaries  (Cecil  and 
Sadler),  acting  on  behalf  of  the  Scotch 
nobility  and  people,  it  was  agreed,  inter 
alia,  that  the  force  on  both  sides  should 
be  disbanded  and  the  French  troops 
return  home ;  that  a  jjarliament  or  con- 
vention of  the  thiee  estates  should  meet 
on  August  1,  and  that  any  complaints  of 
ViTongs  done  to  them,  made  by  bishops, 
abbots,  or  other  chiu-chmen,  should  be 
considered  by  the  Parliament  and  re- 
dressed, "  as  they  should  find  according 
to  reason." ' 

The  event  soon  showed  that  Cecil  had 
over-reached  the  French  envoj's  in  the 
negotiation.  The  wrongs  of  which  the 
churchmen  had  to  C(Muplain  were  serious 
enough — e.g.  while  the  hostilities  lasted 
the  13i.shops  of  Dunkeld,  Dunblane,  and 
Ross  had  been  driven  by  the  sectaries 
from  their  houses  and  dis])ossi'ssed  of  all 
their  property  ;  the  monasteries  of  Dun- 
fermline, Melrose,  and  Kelso  had  been 
plundered,  and  the  lands  and  movables 
of  churchmen  seized  upon  in  every  part  of 
the  country.^  It  was  the  evident  intent 
of  the  treaty  that  wrongs  m\c1i  as  tlu>e 
should  be  redressed.  Rut  wln-n  the  Par- 
liament met,  being  conijjosed,  as  to  the 
great  majority,  of  enthusiastic  or  deeply 
interested  sectaries,  it  proceeded  to  ]iass 
bills  for  the  subversion  of  the  Catholic 
rehgion;  after  which,  it  is  needless  to 
say,  they  did  not  find  it  "  according  to- 
reason  "  to  give  the  bishops  any  compen- 
sation whatever. 

Before  these  bills  were  adopted,  a 
confession  of  faith  in  twenty-five  articles, 
drawn  up  by  Knox  and  his  party,  was 

»  Caldorwood,  ii.  8. 

'■'  At  Aberdeen,  throuijh  the  firmness  of  the 
Earl  of  Huntley  and  the  Lesleys,  a  brave 
stand  was  made, "and  the  agents  of  rapine  were 
foiled  for  a  considerable  time  (Lesley,  571, 
574). 


read  in  Parliament,  faintly  opposed  by 
the  Catholic  members,  who  seem  to  have 
been  helpless  and  stupefied,  and  accepted 
by  the  Assembly.  To  a  large  extent  the 
doctrine  of  these  articles  is  sound ;  they 
err  rather  by  exclusion  than  by  inclusion. 
One  capital  error  regards  the  Church 
Cathohc,  which  (art.  xvi.)  is  said  to  con- 
sist only  of  the  elect.  On  the  Eucharist, 
the  Calvinistic  doctrine  described  above 
is  asserted  (art.  xxi.) 

On  August  -24:,  1560,  the  Parliament 
passed  a  bill  by  which  it  was  ordered  that 
none  should  ''say  Mass,  nor  yet  heere 
Mass,  nor  be  present  thereat,  under  the 
paine  of  confiscation  of  all  their  goods, 
and  punishing  of  their  bodies  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  magistrates."'  A  second 
bill,  dated  the  same  day,  declared  that 
the  Bishop  of  Rome  had  thenceforward  no 
authority  in  Scotland,  and  decreed  punish- 
ments against  any  who  shotdd  recognise 
such  authority.  Such  was  the  Scottish 
St.  Bartholomew's  Day.'" 
In  Knox's  "  History  "  these  bills  are 
described  as  "  Acts  "  ;  but  they  were  not 
really  so,  for  they  required  the  royal 
assent  or  ratification  ;  this  Sir  James 
Sandilands  was  sent  into  France  to  de- 
j  mand,  but  Mary  steadily  refused.  They 
were  first  ratified  by  the  Regent  MuiTay 
in  1567.  This  single  fact  throws  a  sinister 
liaht  on  the  conduct  of  the  Protestant 
jiarty  towards  the  unhappy  queen  before 
her  flight  to  England  and  during  her 
imprisonment  there.  But  the  new  religion, 
1  in  Knox's  view,  "from  God  hath  full 
power,  and  needed  not  the  suflfrage  of 
mau"; '  whether  legal  or  not,  it  was  forced 
I  upon  the  people  of  Scotland  with  all  the 
power  of  the  secular  arm.  "When  Marj- 
(1561)  returned  to  her  Idngdom,  and  re- 
quired the  liberty  of  her  religion  in  her 
private  chapel  at  Holyrood,  Knox  said, 
doubtless  with  perfect  sincerity,  that  "one 
t  Masse  was  more  fearfuU  to  him  than  if  ten 
j  thowsand  armed  enemies  were  landed  in 
'  anie  part  of  the  realme."-  This  senti- 
ment, according  to  the  experiences  of 
many  of  the  saints,  is  precisely  that  of 
the  devil  on  the  same  siil  ject.  The  Lords 
controlled  him  on  this  point,  nor  did  they 
pay  much  regard  to  his  "  Bonk  of  Dis- 
cipline," calling  many  things  in  it,  parti- 
cularly the  proposal  "to  devote  the  Church 
property  to  the  sustenation  of  the  minis- 
ters of  the  kirk,  "  devout  imaginations." 
■^Vhat  is  called  the  "  First  General 
Assembly  "  was  held  in  December  1560  ; 


'  Histary,  p.  282. 
»  Calderwood,  iL  147. 


PRESBYTERIAXS,  SCOTTISH 


PRESBYTERY 


751 


it  was  attended  by  six  ministers,  among 
whom  were  Knox  and  Goodman,  and 
thirty-sLx  lay  delegates. 

Some  doubt  appears  to  exist  on  the 
question  how  many  of  the  bishops  joined 
the  movement.  Bishop  Lesley  tlistiuctly 
states  '  that  in  1501  only  one  had  done  so, 
the  Bishop  of  Galloway;  according  to  Dr. 
Cunningham,"  the  Bishops  of  Caithness 
and  Orkney  also  became  Protestants. 

All  this  time  there  was  a  party  among 
the  nobles  favourable  to  the  retention  of 
episcopacy  and  the  use  of  the  English 
prayer-book ;  and  in  process  of  time,  when 
James  VI.  grew  to  manhood,  he  became 
persuaded  that  bishops  were  a  necessaiy 
support  to  the  regal  power,  and  main- 
tained a  small  Protestant  hierarchy  side 
by  side  with  the  ministers  and  the  General 
Assembly.  Knox  him.'elf,  who  had  de- 
clared against  bishops  many  years  before,^ 
submitted  shortly  before  his  death  (1572) 
to  the  introduction  of  episcopacy,  "in 
order  to  secure  the  episcopal  revenues."  * 
The  form  of  Presbyterian  polity  as  now 
seen  in  Scotland  was  chiefly  the  work  of 
a  man  of  high  ability  and  sincere  con- 
viction, Andrew  Melville.  He  was  the 
master  spirit  of  the  General  Assembly  of 
1580,  which  absolutely  condemned  epi- 
scopacy, and  the  chief  framer  of  the 
"Second  Book  of  Discipline,"  in  which 
the  system  of  church  courts  and  assem- 
blies, one  above  another,  and  each 
strengthened  by  a  lay  representation — 
kirk-session,  presbytery,  synod,  general 
assembly — is  minutely  and  skilfully  laid 
down.  In  this  able  document  the  proper 
functions  of  the  kirk  and  the  state  are 
distinguished  with  great  judgment ;  and 
the  se])aration  of  the  two  powers,  and  the 
exaltation  of  the  kirk  to  the  highest  place, 
are  asserted  in  language  which  strikingly 
recalls  the  definitions  of  the  bull  "  Unam 
Sanctam."  The  Assembly  of  1581  aUo 
adopted  the  famous  "  Negative  Confes- 
sion," chiefly  directed  against  "all  kinds 
of  papistrie  " ;  it  is  extremely  curious,  but 
our  space  does  not  permit  of  our  giving 
an  abstract  of  it.  Every  one  of  the 
Presbyterian  kirks, large  aud  small,  among 
which  the  mass  of  the  Scottish  people  is 
now  distributed,  regards  this  assembly 
with  the  highest  veneration. 

Neg-ation,  however,  is  a  poor  basis  for 
a  theology  ;  and  one  need  feel  no  surprise 
that  the  clerical  intellect  of  Scotland, 
during  the  three  centuries  that  have  fol- 

»  P.  583.  2  I.  228. 

»  In  1547   History,  p.  79). 
*  Cnnningham,  p.  iib. 


lowed,  has  been  stricken  with  sterility. 
The  ministers  have  certainly  written  many 
books,  hut  their  theological  discussions  in- 
terest few  outside  their  own  country. •  Xot 
one  of  the  ecclesiastical  sciences  has  been 
in  any  way  advanced  by  Scotch  Presby- 
teriauism.  The  lay  Scottish  intellect, 
thanks  to  the  natural  endowments  of  the 
race,  and  a  good  system  of  primary  educa- 
tion, has  achieved  great  things ;  it  has 
perfected  the  steam-engine  aud  the  steam- 
boat, invented  political  economy,  com- 
posed the  Waverley  Novels,  and  borne 
I  more  than  its  full  share  in  the  great 
I  governing  and  colonising  enterprises  of 
,  the  English  people.  But  who  can  prove 
that  all  this  might  not  have  been  done, 
Scotland  remaining  Catholic  ?  The 
clerical  intellect  pays  the  penalty  of 
having  submitted  itself  to  such  a  patriarch 
as  John  Knox,  with  whom  passion  habit- 
ually took  the  place  of  reason,  and  frantic 
reviling  was  substituted  for  patient  and 
equitable  investigation. 

''Knox,  "Hist,  of  the  Reformation," 
1G44 ;  Calderwood,  "  Hist,  of  the  Kirk  of 
Scotland,"  184.3  :  John  Lesley,  "  De 
Origine,  Moribus,  et  Rebus  Gestis  Sco- 
torum,"  1578:  Cuuniiigliam,  "Church 
History  of  Scotland,"  I'nd  ed.,  1882 ;  Bean 
Staulev,  "Lect.  on  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land," "1879;  Burton,  "Hist,  of  Scotland," 
vol.  v.,  1870  ;  Bellesheim,  "  Hist,  of  the 
Cath.  Church  of  Scotland,"  translated  and 
edited  by  F.  Hunter  Blair.] 

FRBSSVTER'S'  (Trpfcr/Sur/pioi',  as- 
sembly of  the  eldei-s ;  senafi'.'>  has  the  same 
meaning).  (1)  The  word  is  used  twice 
in  the  N.T.  for  the  Jewish  Sanhedrim.^ 
In  the  Christian  Church  it  signified, 
perhaps  from  the  first,  the  assembly  of 
the  entire  clergy  of  the  diocese,  both 
presbyters  (identified  with  bishops  in 
1  Peter  V.  1)  and  deacons;  it  was  such 
a  body  at  Ephesus,  the  "  celebrated  jires- 
bytery  "  ^  of  that  Church,  which  conse- 
crated Timothy  to  the  episcopal  office 
with  the  imposition  of  hands.*  St. 
Cyprian  convened  a  diocesan  council  of 
this  kind  continually,  and  did  nothing 
important  without  its  advice.  That  the 
;  Roman  presbyteritim  in  the  fifth  century 
!  meant  such  a  synod — i.e.  tiiat  it  included 
the  deacons  and  the  clergy  gein  rally,  as 
well  as  the  presbyters — is  plain  from  a 

>  Even  Chalmers  is  no  exception  ;  the  man 
was  admirable,  but  his  works  have  no  per- 
manent value. 

-  Acts.  xxii.  h  ;  Luke  xxiL  66. 

5  Itrnat.  Ad.  Ephes.  4. 

*  TTim.  iv,  14. 


752 


PEESCllIPTION 


PRESENTATION  OF  THE  B.  V.  M. 


letter  of  Pope  Siricius  (385)  on  the  con-  ] 
tiemnation  of  Jovinian.  It  therefore  ! 
seems  reasonable  to  assign  this  sanio 
sense  to  the  word  when  used  liy  I'ojiti 
CorneliuB  (251),  who,  writing  to  Cyiiriaii, 
says  "placuit  contrahl  presbyterium,"  to 
hear  the  recantation  of  Maxim  us.  Finally, 
when  St.  Ignatius,  about  the  beginning 
of  the  second  century,  exhorts  the  Ephe- 
sians  to  he  "  subject  to  the  bishop  and  the 
presbytery"  (Ad  Eph.  c.  2),  the  word 
may  well  be  understood  to  have  the  same 
meaning.    (Ferraris,  Presbi/terium.) 

(■.')  "Presbytery"  is  often  used  among 
English  Catholics  to  designate  the  priest's 
house.  In  this  sense  it  is  a  translation 
of  the  French  prcsbytere,  so  used  (Littr^) 
since  the  twell'th  century  ;  preshytirimn 
(see  Ducange)  appears  never  to  have  had 
this  meaning. 

PRESCRZPTXON-.  The  acquisition 
of  an  object  or  a  right  on  the  strength  of 
a  long  undisturbed  poissession.  It  is  of 
three  kinds — ordinary,  extraordinary,  and 
immemorial.  By  ordinary  prescription 
jurists  understand  one  which  rests  on  a 
possession  of  three,  or  of  ten,  or  of  twenty 
years — three  years  in  the  case  of  mov- 
able property  ;  ten  years  in  the  case  of  a 
right,  or  of  immovable  property,  intvr 
prcfsentes;  twenty  years,  in  the  same 
case,  inter  (ihscntes.  A  just  title  must 
also  be  proved — i.e.  the  prescriptor  must 
show  that  he  obtained  the  property  by 
purchase  or  gift,  or  some  other  mode  in 
itself  sufficient  to  constitute  a  title  in  tlie  j 
absence  of  an  adverse  claim.  He  must,  | 
moreover,  have  held  the  property  during 
the  time  necessary  to  constitute  prescrip- 
tion in  good  faith.  One  of  whom  it  can 
be  shown  that  he  knew  that  he  was  de- 
taining the  property  of  another  cannot 
plead  prescription.  The  canon  law  is 
more  strict  on  this  head  than  the  Roman, 
which  only  required  that  the  prescriptor 
should  have  acted  in  good  faith  at  the 
cotnmencetnent  of  his  enjoyment  of  the 
object.  Extraordinary  prescription, proof 
of  which  is  required  in  many  cases  by  the 
canon  law,  especially  in  regard  to  eccle-  i 
siastical  or  state  property,  is  of  thirty  or 
forty  years.  Immemorial  prescription  is 
merely  the  presumption  of  a  legitimate 
ownership,  founded  on  the  attestation  of 
the  fact  of  continuous  and  undisturbed 
enjoyment,  made  by  old  or  elderly  per- 
sons, during  a  period  reaching  back  to 
the  limits  both  of  their  own  memory  and 
that  of  aged  persons  with  whom  they  had 
conversed  in  early  life.  (Wetzer  and  j 
Welte,  art.  hy  Permaneder.)  | 


PRES£3a-TATXOir       OF  TRB 

BX.ESSEi>  vzRcinr.  The  story  of 
Clary's  presentation  in  the  temple  when 
three  years  old  and  her  sojouj-n  there 
till  her  marriage  first  appears  in  Apocry- 
phal Gospels — viz.  the  Protevangelium 
and  that  of  the  Birth  of  Mary.  The  be- 
lief was  adopted  by  later  Fathers — e.g. 
St.  John  of  Damascus.  Benedict  XIV. 
("De  Fest."  P.  ii.  §  178)  considers  the 
fact  of  the  presentation  certain,  but  the 
details  of  the  story  "  altogether  uncer- 
tain." The  feast  (eiVo'^ia  r^f  6(ot6kov) 
was  kept  by  the  Greeks  as  early  at  least 
as  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Emmanuel, 
who  ascended  the  throne  in  1143,  and 
partially  by  the  Latins  on  November  21 
since  1374.  Paul  II.  confirmed  the  feast, 
which  was  still  not  kept  in  all  parts  of 
the  West,  by  "  Apostolic  authority." 
Pius  v.,  on  the  contrary',  abolished  its 
celebration  in  the  lloman  Church  itself, 
though  this  was  permitted  in  other  parts 
of  the  Latin  world.  Sixtus  V.  restored 
the  feast  in  1585  at  the  prayer  of  the 
Jesuit  Turrianus.  The  present  office  was 
corrected  under  Clement  VIII.,  who  made 
the  feast  a  greater  double.  (Benedict 
XIV.  "De  Fest.;"  Gavant.  "Thesaur." 
de  Fest.  mensis  Novemb.) 

PRESESfTATZON-  OF  THE 
BX.ESSEI>  VXRGZZr  MART,  ORBER 
OP  THE.  This  order  was  founded  by 
Miss  Nano  Nagle  in  1777.  In  1874  it 
possessed  seventy-three  house.?,  with  1,140 
nuns  and  more  than  20,000  pupils.  Of 
these  houses  fifty-three  were  in  Ireland, 
twelve  in  British  America,  chiefly  in 
Newfoundland,  one  in  India,  four  in  dif- 
ferent Australian  colonies,  and  three  in 
the  United  States.  Nano  Nagle  belonged 
to  a  good  Catholic  family  in  the  county 
Cork,  and  was  born  in  1728.  From  the 
time  of  her  complete  conversion  to  God, 
her  intense  devotion  to  spiritual  and 
moral  aims  never  faltered ;  unsparing  of 
lierself,  she  knew  no  personal  satisfaction 
but  that  of  giving  her  wealth  and  her 
time  to  the  service  of  her  sorely-tried 
countrymen.  She  established  an  Ursu- 
line  convent  at  Cork  in  1771.  But  her 
object  being  the  instruction  of  the  poor, 
whereas  the  Ursuline  order  has  for  its 
main  business  tlie  instruction  of  the  rich, 
she  was  not  yet  satisfied.  She  built 
another  convent  near  the  tirst,  and  en- 
tered it,  with  three  coni])iinions,  towards 
the  end  of  1777.  They  were  not  enclosed^ 
hut  were  engaged  in  visiting  and  teach- 
ing the  poor,  and  followed  a  rule  drawn 
up  for  them  by  the  cur6  of  St.  Sulpice. 


PRIESTS,  CHRISTIAN 

They  took  simple  vows,  renewed  from 
year  to  year.  Worn  out  by  labovtr  and 
austerities,  Nano  died  in  1784.  Her  in- 
stitute was  confirmed  by  Pius  VI.  in 
1791,  with  simple  vows  and  no  enclosure. 
But  in  1805,  at  the  request  of  Bishop 
Moylan,  Pius  "VTI.  raised  it  to  the  rank 
of  a  relifrious  order,  with  solemn  vows 
and  strict  enclosure.  A  fourth  vow  was 
added,  by  which  the  nuns  bind  themselves 
to  instruct  young  girls,  especially  the 
poor,  m  the  precepts  and  rudiments  of 
the  Catholic  faith.  (See  the  "Life  of 
Nano  Nagle,"by  Dr.  Hutch:  Dub.  1875.) 

PRXESTS,'  CHRZSTZAXr.  The 
priesthood  is  the  second  in  rank  among 
the  holy  orders.  It  is  the  office  of  a  priest, 
according  to  the  Pontifical,  "  to  offer, 
bless,  rule,  preach,  and  baptise."  First, 
he  is  empowered  to  offer  that  sacrifice  of 
the  Mass  which  is  the  centre  of  all  the 
Church's  worship,  because  in  it  Christ, 
the  great  high-priest,  continually  offers 
Himself  in  a  bloodless  manner,  and  ap- 
plies that  one  sacrifice  consummated  for 
our  redemption  on  the  cross.  Next,  the 
priest,  standing  between  God  and  his 
fellowmen,  blesses  the  people  in  God's 
name.  It  is  his  duty,  if  a  flock  is  en- 
trusted to  him,  to  rule  and  to  instruct 
it,  and  to  administer  the  sacraments  of 
Baptism,  Penance,  Holy  Communion,  and 
E.Ytreme  Unction,  besides  solemnising 
marriages,  &c.  His  duties  are  much  wider 
than  those  of  the  Jewish  priests.  The 
latter  were  to  teach  the  statutes  of  the 
Lord  in  Israel  (Lev.  x.  11 ;  Deut.  xxiii. 
10;  Ezech.  xliv.  2:^,  24),  and  their  lips 
were  to  keep  knowledge  (Mai.  ii.  7) ;  but 
the?e  moral  duties  were  only  hinted  at, 
and  were  not  the  subject  of  special  regu- 
lation. On  the  contrary,  though  the 
offering  of  sacrifice  is  the  chief,  it  is  by 
no  means  the  only  duty  of  the  Christian 
priest.  He  succeeds  the  Jewish  "  elder  " 
as  well  as  the  Jewish  priest.  Hence  he 
is  called  Itpfis  and  sacei-dos — i.e.  "  sacri- 
ficing priest,"  but  also  presbyter — i.e. 
"  elder."  Our  Saxon  ancestors  had  both 
words,  "  priost "  and  "  sacerd."  We  have 
retained  only  the  former,  but  always  use 
it  in  the  sense  of  the  latter. 

The  word  "presbyter"  was  familiar 
to  every  Jew.  The  "elders"  (D'3pt, 
irpea^vTfpoi)  were  the  chief  men  in  the 
old  civil  communities  of  Palestine,  and 
the  word  exactly  answers  in  meaniiifr  to 
the  Arabic  "sheikh.'"  In  later  times  the 
number  and  authority  of  these  "  elders  " 
was  definitely  fixed,  and  even  among  the 
Jews  of  the  dispersion  there  was  a  council 


PRIESTS,  CHRISTIAN  :::: 

I  (n^''ty\  =  con^essus)  which  met  in  the  syna- 
I  gogue  and  administered  the  discipline  of 
I  the  Jewish  conununity.'    No  record  re- 
!  mains  of  the  institution  of  such  a  body 
among  Christians ;  but  in  Acts  xi.  30, 
when  the  persecution  in  which  St.  James 
was  slaiu  drove  the  Apostles  from  Jeru- 
salem, we  find  the  Church  there  provided 
with  a  senate  of  "presbyters."    It  was 
apparently  at  a  later   date   that  such 
"  presbyters  ''  appeared  among  commu- 
nities of  Gentile  Christians,  for  they  are 
not  once  mentioned  by  St.  Paul,  except 
in  the   pastoral   epistles.     They  were 
"  rulers "  of  the  Church,  and,  though 
they  might  teach,  if  qualified  to  do  so, 
this  was  no  necessary  part  of  their  office 
(1  Tim.  V.  17).-   This  ruling  office,  as  we 
have  seen  already,  is  still  prominent  in 
the  Pontifical,  which  compares  presby- 
ters to  the  "  seventy  elders  "  who  assisted 
Moses.     In  ancient  times  they  formed 
the  council  of  the  bishop,  who  for  many 
centuries  could  take  no  important  step 
1  without  consulting  them.    (See,  e.g.,  2 
Concil.  Hispal.  c.  7,  anno  619.)  The 
presbyters  of  the  diocese  are  now  repre- 
sented by  the  chapter,  which  the  bishop 
I  is  obliged  to  consult  in  enacting  statutes 
j  &c.    In  one  place  the  New  Testament 
I  attributes  the  administration  of  a  sacra- 
i  ment,  viz.  Extreme  Unction,  to  presbyters 
[  (James  v.  14). 

The  words  "  priest,"  "  priesthood " 
tfpevs,  UpciTevna)  are  never  applied  in  the 
New  Testament  to  the  office  of  the  CJhris- 
tian  ministry.  All  Christians  are  said  to 
be  priests  (1  Pet.  ii.  5,  9;  Apoc.  v.  10). 
This  recognition  of  the  universal  priest- 
hood of  Christians,  however,  involves  no 
denial  of  the  existence  of  a  special  priest- 
hood, for  the  Israelites  too  were  called  a 
"  kingdom  of  priests."  though  they  had, 
of  course,  a  special  priesthood  with  pre- 
rogatives jealously  guarded.  Further,  the 
Old  Testament  prophesies  that  priests 
would  be  taken  from  the  Gentiles,  and 
that  the  office  of  the  priesthood  was  to 
last  for  ever  (Isa.  Lxvi.  21 ;  Jer.  xxxiii. 
17,  18) ;  and  St.  Paul,  so  far,  at  least, 
brings  the  Christian  ministry  into  con- 

l  Vitringa  {iJe  Synagog.  Vet.  lib.  ii.  cap.  4 
seq.)  is  at  great  pains  to  show  tha»  in  the  early- 
synagogues  these  "elders"  directed  worship  as 
well  as  discipline.   We  cannot  see  that  he 
I  proves  hi.s  point. 

*  So  Cypri.in,  Ep.  29,  distinguishes  the 
"  presbyteri  doctores  "  as  n  special  clnss.  The 
word"'pastors"(iroi/x^vei.  Ephes.iv.  11  i, which 
expresses  the  mlmg  office,  is  derived,  like 
I  ''presbyter"  itself,  from  the  language  of  the 
Synagogue,  D^D3^Q).    (See  Vitringa.  ii.  10.) 

3o 


754     PRIEST?;.  CHRTSTTAN 


PRIMATE 


nection  witli  the  Jewish  priesthood  that 
he  justifies  the  claim  of  the  former  to 
support  by  a  reference  to  (he  way  in 
which  the  latter  "lived  by  the  altar" 
(1  Cor.  ix.  13).  Bollinger  (''First  Age  of 
the  Church,"  E.T.  p.  222)  also  urges  the 
liturgical  character  of  St.  Paul's  language 
(Rom.  XV.  16),  where  he  describes  him- 
self as  a  "miuister"  (Xfirovpyou,  cf.  Heb. 
viii.  2)  and  as  an  evangelical  priest 
{lepovpyovvra  to  fvayyeXioc).  The  argu- 
ment does  not  seem  to  be  of  much  ac- 
count, and  Estius  is  probably  right  in 
considering  the  language  merely  meta- 
phorical. The  Apostle  was  a  minister 
appointed  by  Christ,  "administering  the 
gospel"  like  a  priest,  that  the  Gentiles 
might  offer  up  themselves  an  oblation  well 
pleasing  to  God,  sanctified  in  the  spirit. 

The  Apostolic  Fathers  also  abstain 
from  any  mention  of  a  Christian  priest- 
hood ;  at  least  the  single  reference  in  St. 
Ignat.  (Phil.  9,  KaXoi  oJ  Upeh)  is  very 
doubtful.  Justin,  in  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  (Dial.  116,  117)  simply 
alludes  to  the  general  priesthood  of 
Christians.  In  a  curious  letter  to  Victor 
of  Rome  (inO-L'OO)  Poly  crates  says  of  St. 
John  the  Evangelist  that  "he  was  a  priest, 
having  worn  the  mitre "  {eyevfidrj  lepevs 
TO  niToKov  Tr((f)nprjKa)s ,  apud  Euseb.  "H.E." 

V.  24).  The  language  can  scarcely  be 
anything  but  metaphorical  (so  Routh, 
"  Rell.  Sacr."  torn.  ii.  p.  28).  At  the  end  of 
the  second  or  beginning  of  the  third 
century  tlie  term  "  priest  "  was  in  common 
use.  We  find  it  in  TertuUian  ("  Prae-cr.'' 
41,"?acerdotalia  munera"),  in  the  "Philo- 
sophimiena  "  (Proem.  fi€TfXovT€S  ap)(^iepa- 
Teias),  Oiigen  (Horn.  v.  in  Lev.  iv.).  In 
Cyprinn  the  word  (sacerdos)  constantly 
occurs — \isually  for  bishops,  but  some- 
times also  for  presbyters  ("De  Zelo  et 
Livore,"6). 

We  may  distinguish  three  stages  in 
the  position  of  the  priesthood. 

(1)  In  the  earliest  times  they  ruled 
in  concert  with  and  in  immediate  subor- 
dinatinii  to  the  bishop.  The  bishop  and 
priests  said  Mass  conjointly,  and  the 
priests  administered  the  sacraments  inde- 
pendently only  m  the  liisliop's  absence. 

('I)  Thi:' ])vesl)yters  liecame  more  inde- 
pendent owing  to  the  spread  o!'  Chris- 
tianity and  the  gradual  establishment  nf 
parish  as  distinct  ft-om  episcopal  churches. 
Innocent's  letter  to  Decentius  exhibits 
the  change  in  actual  progress.  In  towns, 
he  says,  the  Eucharist  is  to  be  conse- 
crated by  the  bishop  only  and  sent  to  the 
pnr'sh  priests :  in  ontlyin£r  churches  the 


priests  are  to  consecrate  for  themselves. 
Thus,  separate  replaced  conjoint  rule  and 
administration  of  the  sacraments. 

(3)  Gradually  the  rule  became  a 
separable  accident  of  the  priesthood.  At 
first  a  priest,  by  the  very  fact  of  ordina- 
tion, was  attached  to  a  particular  church, 
and  only  in  rare  and  exceptional  instances 
a  man  of  extraordinary  merit  was  induced 
to  submit  to  ordination  on  condition  that 
he  should  not  be  bound  to  a  particular 
church.  In  this  way  St.  Jerome  was 
ordained  by  Paulinus  of  Antioch.  But 
from  the  eleventh  century  the  custom 
began  of  ordaining  priests  who  had  no 
benefice,  provided  they  had  the  means  of 
lionour.able  support  (Juenin,  "De  Sacr." 
diss.  viii.  cap.  3).  Firrther,  the  ordina- 
tion of  religious  without  cure  of  souls 
became  the  rule  instead  of  the  exception. 
And  it  is  the  capacity  for  rule,  rather 
than  the  actual  exercise  of  it,  which  we 
now  associate  with  the  priestly  office. 
[Parish:  Paeish  Peiest.] 

PRznSATx:  (primas).  In  early  times 
bishops  were  called  primates  who  held 
any  commanding  position  in  the  Church. 
Thus  the  Roman  Pontiff"  was  sometimes 
called  the  primate  of  the  whole  Church ; 
and  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  declared  that 
the  primacy,  or  first  place  before  all  {ttpo 
wavToav  tci  -rpojTfla),  was  to  be  accorded  to 
"the  Archbishop  of  Old  Rome."  (Sess. 
xvi. ;  cf.  Hefele,  "  Hist,  of  Councils," 
,  E.  T.  iii.  427.)    In  Africa  the  metro- 
I  politans  were  called  primates,  or  bishops 
j  of  the  first  sees.    Carthage,  in  the  pro- 
j  vince  of  Africa  strictly  so  called,  was 
j  always  the  first  see,  though  its  bishop 
;  might  be  junior  to  others;  in  the  other 
I  provinces  the  dignity  of  first  see  passed 
j  from  city  to  city,  as  it  depended  on  the 
,  priority  of  the  date  of  consecration  of  the 
j  respective  bishops. 

1       In  modern  times  those  bishops  only  are 
I  properly  called  primates  to  whose  see  the 
I  dignity  of  vicar  of  the  Holy  See  was  for- 
merly annexed.   Such  sees  are — Armagh 
;  in  Ireland,  Aries  and  Lyons  in  France, 
Mentz   in   Germany,  Toledo  in  Spain, 
Gran  in  Hungary,  Pisa  and  Salerno  in 
j  Italy,  and  some  others.  None  of  these  retain 
I  any  primatial  jurisdiction  except  Gran, 
the  archbishop  of  which  has  still  the  right 
of  receiving  appeals  from  all  the  other 
archbishops  in  Hungary.    Changed  cir- 
cumstances—  especially  the  great  facility 
with  which  the  most  distant  countries 
can  now  communicate  with  Rome — have 
made  the  jurisdiction  of  primates  almost 
a  thing  of  the  past.  TAechbishop: 


PRIME 


PPJSCILLUXISTS  755 


EiABCH  ;  Metropolitax.]  (Soglia,  "In- 
stit.  Caiiou."  lib.  ii.  §  48). 

PRZMS.  "See  "Brtniakt.] 
PSZMXCERZTTS  {irrimus,  cera). 
The  leading'  person,  or  foreman,  on  a  list 
of  the  tvniloyis  in  a  particular  business 
or  function:  thus  we  read  of  the  p.  ivj- 
tariorum,  the  p.  palatii,  &c.  "  First  on 
the  waxed  tablet  "  is  the  literal  m-janing 
of  the  word.  In  its  modem  use  the  term 
is  only  applied  to  the  precentor  of  a 
cathedral  or  collegiate  choir,  who  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  due  instruction  of  every 
member  of  the  choir  in  ecclesiastical  chant 
and  other  things  proper  to  his  function. 
But  the  word  is  now  seldom  heard ;  the 
'■  primicier '■  of  St.  Denis  is  among  the 
few  instances  where  it  is  still  retained. 

PRIOR,  PRIORESS.  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  the  word  "  prior  "  was  used 
in  either  of  the  senses  which  it  has  borne 
for  many  centuries  past — that  is,  as  signi- 
fying either  the  ruler  of  an  independent 
monastery,  or  the  coadjutor  and  second-in- 
command  of  an  abbot,  before  the  ponti- 
ficate of  Celestine  V.  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  older  term  was  prtepositus, 
provost;  thus  Beda  speaks  of  St.  Cuth- 
bert  having  been  prcei  ositus  under  the 
Abbot  Eata,  fii-st  at  Melrose  and  after- 
wards at  Lindisfame.*  "V\'henever  the 
term  "  prior  "  occurs  in  relation  to  monks 
before  the  thirteenth  century,  it  is  said  to 
be  used  in  a  loose  sense,  as  signifying 
merely  one  who  on  account  of  greater  age 
or  other  ground  of  superiority  ranked 
above  his  fellows.  The  duties  of  a  prior, 
or  pr<epofitu-s,  are  thus  dt  scribed  by  Isi- 
dore: "To  the  prapusitus  belongs  the 
charge  of  the  monks,  the  carrying  on  of 
lawsuits,  the  management  of  the  estates, 
the  cropping  of  the  fields,  the  planting 
and  cultivation  of  vineyards,  acquaintance 
with  the  law,  the  erection  of  buildings, 
the  work  of  the  carpenters  and  the 
smiths.'"*  .The  prior  daustralis,  being 
next  to  the  abbot  in  the  monastery,  and 
appointed  by  him,  generally  for  life,  had 
the  inspection  and  control  of  the  decani, 
or  deans  [Dean  ,  and  was  expected  to 
maintain  discipline  firmly  among  the 
monks,  for  which  purpose  he  might  use 
^he  lesser  excommunication.  The  prior 
convent  Kill  is  was  the  master  in  his  own 
house :  under  him  there  was  generally  a 
sub-prior.  Yet  there  were  several  dis- 
tinct positions,  all  of  which  might  be 
described  as  priorates.  For  (1)  in  a  place 
with  a  special  history — e.ff.  Durham, 
1  Bed.  iv.  27. 
>  Thumassin,  i.  iiL  6fi. 


where  the  mighty  memory  of  the  abboi- 
bishop  St.  Cuthbert  coloured  and  modi- 
fied all  that  was  done  for  nine  centuries 
— the  bishop  of  the  see  might  hold  a 
quasi-abbatial  position  in  the  monastery 
out  of  which  the  see  first  arose ;  in  which 
case  the  head  of  the  monastery  could 
only  be  a  prior.  But  the  Prior  of  Durham, 
modest  as  the  name  might  sound,  was 
a  greater  personage  than  most  abbots. 
Secondly,  a  rell,  or  obedimce,  the  ofishoot, 
of  some  largt-r  monastery,  was  always 
governed  by  a  prior.  A  conventual  prior 
in  this  sense  was  often  a  person  of  little 
dignity  or  consequence,  both  from  having 
a  very  small  community  to  govern,  and 
because  the  property  with  which  the  cell 
was  endowed  was  smaU.  Thirdly,  the 
superiors  of  the  houses  of  regular  canons 
(Augustinians,  Arroasians,  and — origin- 
ally— Premonstratensians)  were  always 
called  priors,  never  abbots.  St.  Dominic, 
who  adopted  the  rule  of  St.  Austin  for 
his  friars,  probably  ou  this  account  put 
their  houses  under  priors. 

A  prioress  under  an  abbess  held  nearly 
the  same  position  as  a  claustral  prior, 
and  prioresses  governing  their  own  houses 
were  like  conventual  priors.  (Thomassin: 
Smith  and  Cheetham.> 

PRZSCzx.x.ZAirzsTS.  The  follow- 
ers of  Priscilhan,  bishop  of  Avila  in  Spain 
(the  birthplace  of  St.  Teresa),  in  the 
fourth  century.  An  Egyptian  named 
Mark  brought  the  Mauichaean  doctrines 
into  Spain,  and  seduced  by  them  the 
Bishops  Instantius  and  Salvianus,  besides 
other  important  or  wealthy  persons,  of 
whom  Priscillian  was  one.  The  sect  was 
condemned  by  a  synod  held  at  Saragossa 
in  3S0  \  but  even  after  this  Instantius  and 
Salvianus  ventured  to  raise  Priscillian  to 
the  see  of  Avila.  The  Emperor  Grutian 
vacillated ;  but  when  the  usurper  Max- 
imus  came  into  power,  be  listened  to  the 
complaints  of  Idacius  and  Ithacius,  the 
representatives  of  the  majority  of  the 
Spanish  bishops,  and  caused  Priscillian 
and  several  of  his  adherents  (3>4:)  to  be 
tried  before  his  own  tribunal  at  Treves. 
St.  Martin,  who  happened  to  be  at  Treves 
at  the  time,  vainly  endeavoured  to  dis- 
suade Maximus  from  bringing  a  question 
of  heresy  before  a  secular  court.  Pris- 
cillian^ tiie  widow  Euchrocia,  and  several 
othi  Ti,  were  condemned  and  put  to  death. 
St.  Martin  was  so  grieved  and  shocked  by 
this,  that  for  a  long  time  he  refused  to 
commimicate  with  Ithacius,  and  would 
not  go  near  the  Court.  The  heresy  lin- 
gered on  in  Spain  during  the  fifth  century 


756        PRIVATE  MASSES 


PRIVATE  REVELATION 


and  was  not  entirely  extinct  at  the  date 
of  the  Council  of  Braga,  563. 

PRIVATE  MASSES.  [See  Mass.] 

PRIVATE  REVCX.ATIOIO'.  The 

Christian  religion  is  described  as  a  reve- 
lation, on  the  ground  that  God  through 
Christ  has  revealed  truths  to  which  the 
unaided  reason  could  not  liave  attained, 
or  attained  with  the  same  certainty. 
This  revelation  was  made  to  the  whole 
world,  just  as  the  Mosaic  religion,  also 
a  revelation,  communicated  God's  will 
to  a  single  people.  But  after  the  full 
revt^lation  made  to  the  whole  liuman 
race  through  (-hrist,  the  New  Testament 
speaks  repeatedly  of  private  revelations 
made  to  individuals  for  a  particular  end. 
Thus  St.  Paul  (Gal.  ii.  2)  on  a  menior- 
ahle  occasion  went  up  to  Jerusalem  "  in 
accordance  with  a  revelation  "  (kutc:  ano- 
KuXv\j/-iv) ;  and  he  speaks  elsewhere  of 
such  revelations  as  made  repeatedly  to 
himself  (2  Cor.  xii.  1),  and  as  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  Church  (1  Cor.  xiv. 
6,  26),  or  at  least  that  part  of  the 
Church  to  which  he  was  writing.  Justin 
("  Dial."  88,  ad  Jin.)  and  Irenseus  ("  Adv. 
Haer."  v.  6,  1)  speak  of  prophetic  gifts 
as  enduring  in  the  Church  of  their  own 
day  ;  and  later  Fathers,  in  their  strife 
with  the  Montanists,  did  not  attack  those 
sectaries  simply  because  they  claimed  to 
prophesy,  but  partly  because  of  the 
contents  of  their  revelations,  partly  be- 
cause these  supposed  prophecies  were 
made  in  an  ecstatic  state,  which  impeded 
the  use  of  reason.  Thus  the  Montanist 
Tertullian  ("Adv.  Marc."  iv.  22,  cf.  "  Pe 
Anima,"  45)  ;  whereas  iNIiltiades,  an  early 
Catholic  opponent  of  the  sect,  wrote  a 
book  to  provp  that  "  a  prophet  nmst  not 
speak  in  ecstasy  "  (n-fpi  rov  firj  Setf  rrpn- 
(prjrrjv  iv  eKardad  \a\eiu,  Euseb.  "  H.  E." 
V.  17).  This  principle  became  an  ac- 
cepted one  in  the  Church  (so,  e.(j.,  Chry- 
.sost.  Hom.  xxix.  in  Epist.  1  ad  Corinth.; 
Epiphan.  "  Adv.  Haer.  Montan."  2 ; 
Hieron.  "Prsef.  Comm.  in  Nahum "' ; 
"  Pr.'cf.  Comm.  in  Habacuc ") ;  l)ut  the 
possibility,  and  even  the  actual  occurrence, 
of  private  revelations  in  the  Chnrcti  of 
all  ages  was,  as  we  shall  see  presently, 
never  denied.'  The  whole  subject  has 
been  investigated  with  patient  learning 
by  Eusebius  Amort  in  his  work  entitled 
"Da  1  ievelationibus,  Visionibus  et  Aji- 
paritionibus  Privatis  Regulas  tutfe  " 
(Augsburg,  1744).   For  the  remainder  of 

I  See,  however,  Uouth,  RelL  Sacr.  torn.  ii. 
p.  217,  and  the  extract  there  given  from  Didv- 
mus  of  Alexnndri.T. 


this  article  we  are  largely  indebted  to 
him ;  and  in  theological  principles  we  have 
been  content  to  follow  him,  though  the  his- 
torical facts  have  been  drawn  from  various 
sources.  We  should  add  that  Amort's 
book  contains  an  analysis  of  all  that  has 
been  said  by  the  chief  theologians  and 
mystics  who  have  treated  of  the  question. 

So  far  as  we  are  aware,  the  first 
attempt  to  classify  revelations  from  the 
subjective  side  was  made  by  St.  Augustine 
("  De  Genesi  ad  lit.,"  xii.  1  seq.).  He 
divides  them  into  such  as  are  sensible,  i.e. 
given  through  sensuous  images  ;  such  as 
are  spiritual,  i.e.  conveyed  through  the 
imagination,  which  presents  to  the  mind 
the  figures  of  bodily  things  not  actually 
present ;  and  such  as  are  purely  intellec- 
tual. The  last  he  considers  the  most  per- 
fect, because  least  subject  to  demoniacal 
illusion,  since  devils,  as  was  supposed, 
could  influence  the  bodily  powers,  among 
which  imagination  is  reckoned,  but  could 
not  directly  influence  man's  intellectual 
nature.  Even  intellectual  visions  are 
certainly  from  God  only  so  far  as  the 
objects  and  the  light  by  which  they  are 
manifested  transcend  nature.  St.  Augus- 
tine's principles  are  accepted  as  funda- 
mental by  the  later  mystics,  e.f/.  by  St. 
John  of  the  Cross  and  St.  Teresa,  whose 
opinions  are  given  by  Amort  at  length. 

St.  Augustine  evidently  believed  that 
these  private  revelations  were  made  from 
time  to  time,though  on  each  particular  re- 
velation he  leaves  others  free  to  think  as 
they  please  ("  Ep.  Wx..  ad  E  vod." ;  "  Doct  riu . 
Christ."  i.  Prolog.),  and  he  sharply  con- 
trasts their  authoritv  with  that  of  the 
Bible  ("  De  Catech.  Rud."  6). 

In  the  middle  ages  a  notable  change 
was  effected  since  medifeval  Popes  have 
actually  given  their  solemn  approval  to 
private  revelations  of  saints.  So  Eugenius 
III.  approved  the  revelations  of  St  Hilde- 
garde  (see  Baronius,  ad  ann.  1148,  n.  82), 
and  Cardinal  Turrecremata  tells  us  that 
those  of  St.  Bridget  of  Sweden  were 
sanctioned  by  Urban  VI.  and  Boniface  IX. 
(see  Turrecremata's  Prologue  prefixed  to 
the  folio  edition  of  St.  Bridget's  works, 
Mimich,  1680,  and  the  extracts  from  the 
bull  of  Boniface  IX.,  renewed  and  con- 
firmed by  Martin  V.).  Of  St.  Gertrude's 
revelations  Blosius  merely  says  that  they 
were  examined  and  approved  by  "  most 
learned  and  enlightened  men,"  and  that 
no  spiritual  person  will  venture  to  impugn 
them  (Blosius,  Appendix  to  the  "  Monile 
Spirituale ").  It  is  but  another  sign  of 
the  growing  importance  attached  in  the 


PRIVATE  REVF.LATION 


PRIVILEGE 


757 


tnedircval  Church  to  private  revelations  ' 
and  their  closer  connection  with  ecclesi- 
astic authoritv,  when  we  find  Leo  IX.,  in 
hi.^  bull  "  Supemae,"  forbiddingr  private 
revelations  to  be  published — e.g.  in  ser- 
mons— unless  alreadv  approved  by  the 
Holy  See  (see  Castaldus,  "  De  Potestate 
Angelica."  R'jiue,  1650,  apud  Amort). 

This  prominence  of  private  revelations 
in  the  later  Church  has  given  them  a 
greater  influence  on  devotion  and  pious 
beliefs.  No  doubt  even  in  the  early 
Church  the  '•  Shf-pherd  "  of  Hermas  had 
for  a  time  quasi -canonical  authority.  The 
vision  of  St.  Perpetua  promoted  the 
belief  in  purgatorial  pain ;  the  origin  of 
the  Trisaginn  was  attributed  to  private 
revelation  fSt.  John  of  Damasc.  "De  Fid. 
Orthodox."  iii.  10)  ;  the  second  Council  of 
Tours  appeals  to  a  private  revelation  for 
the  proper  number  of  psalms  at  Sext 
(Mann's  "  Concil."'  ix.  797)  :  and  the 
Corpus  Juris  supposes  (c.  "Nosse,''  De 
Consecr.  D.  3,  Pius  I.)  that  an  early 
Pope  was  led  to  institute  the  celebra- 
tion of  Easter  on  Sunday  by  the  revela- 
tions of  Hermas.  But  till"  the  middle 
ages  it  may  be  safely  said  that  no  private 
revelations  exercised  anything  like  the 
wide  and  endurin?  influence  enjoved  by 
those  of  St.  r-iertrude,  St.  Bridget,  St. 
Catharine  of  Siena,  and  many  others  who 
might  be  named.  Still,  no  marked  change 
was  made  in  theological  principle.  For, 

(1)  Private  revelations  are  only  ap- 
proved by  the  Pope  in  some  general  sense, 
as  containing  nothing  contrary  to  faith  or 
good  morals,  while  the  particular  facts 
given  in  them  are  only  approved  as  pro- 
bable and  calculated  to  promote  piety. 
Amort  points  out  that  Suarez,  although 
he  believed  in  the  truth  of  St.  Bridget's 
revelations,  does  not  scruple  to  contradict 
them  on  details  in  the  history  of  Christ's 
passion. 

( 2 )  They  cannot  in  any  case  avail  to 
settle  a  controversy  of  faith  still  undecided 
by  the  Church.  It  is  true  that  Amort 
quotes  two  theologian.-^  who  judged  other- 
wise, Corduba  ("  Question."  lib.  I.  q.  44) 
and  Orlandus  ("In  III.  Sent."  D.  8, 
q.  3,  dub.  4),  and  even  St.  Augustine 
clearly  thought,  when  in  doubt  about  the 
Talidity  of  baptism  given  in  joke,  that  the 
question  might  be  decided  by  private 
revelation,  "  per  alicujus  revelationis 
oraculum  concordi  oratione  implorandum  ■* 
("  Contr.  Donat."  vii.  53).  But  the  whole 
■weight  of  theological  opinion  is,  as  .\mort 
abundantly  proves,  on  the  other  side.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  influence  the  con- 


troversy on  the  Immaculate  Conception  in 
this  way.  The  Dominican^  were  the  great 
adversaries  of  the  doctrine-,  the  Francis- 
cans its  champions.  St.  Bridget,  who 
was  a  Franciscan  tertiary,  asserts  in 
her  revelations  (vi.  49^  that  she  heard 
the  Blessed  Virgin  say,  in  so  many  words, 
"  The  truth  is,  that  I  was  conceived  with- 
out original  sin."  To  this  the  Dominican 
theologian  St.  Antoninus  of  Florence 
replies  ("Theol.''P.  I.  tit.  viii.  cap.  2) 
that  St.  Catharine  of  Siena,  who  was  a 
Dominican  tertiary,  and  "  other  female 
saints,  illustrious  for  miracles,  had  a 
revelation  to  the  contrary  effect  "  ("  habu- 
erunt  revelationem  de  coutrario  "). 
PRXVATzoir.  [See  Suspessios.] 
PRZVZXiEGE.  "A  private  enact- 
i  ment,  granting  some  special  benefit  or 
favour,  against  or  outside  the  law."  *  It 
differs  from  a  dispensation  in  that  this 
last  usually  refers  to  a  single  act,  such  as 
a  marriage,  or  the  reception  of  orders, 
!  whereas  a  privilege  presupposes  and  legal- 
I  ises  many  acts  done  in  pursuance  of  it. 
It  differs  from  a  grace  or  benefaction,  be- 
cause the  latter  is  confined  to  the  good 
which  it  operates  once  for  all,  whereas  a 
privilege  confers  on  its  possessor  immunity 
in  regard  to  every  act  of  the  kind  privi- 
leged, as  much  as  if  he  had  obtained  the 
sanction  of  the  law.  A  privilege  may  be 
granted  by  word  of  mouth  as  well  as  by 
deed.  Privileges  are  either  against  the 
law  (as  when  the  duty  of  paying  tithes, 
or  that  of  submitting  to  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  ordinary-,  is  remitted  to  certain 
persons  or  communities),  or  it  is  beyond 
or  outside  the  law — namely,  when  it 
authorises  acts  which  the  law  does  not 
forbid,  but  which  are  only  allowable  to 
particular  persons,  such  as  the  power  of 
absolving  in  reserved  cases,  or  of  dispens- 
ing, and  the  like.  Again,  privileges  are 
divided  into  real,  personal,  and  mixed ; 
the  first  being  primarily  annexed  to  some 
thing  (a  place,  or  a  building,  or  a  ditruity), 
and  indirectly  extended  to  the  persons  by 
whom  the  thing  is  owned  or  enjoyed ;  the 
second  being  primarily  granted  to  some 
person,  regarded  as  an  individual;  the 
third  being  granted  to  claese.s  of  persons — 
e.g.  the  privileges  of  clerics,  or  students, 
or  soldiers.  Many  other  distinctions  are 
noted  by  the  canonists.  It  is  obvious 
that  only  that  authority  can  establish  a 
privilege  which  is  competent  to  frame 
and  enforce  a  law.  Concession  made  by 
such  an  authority  is  the  usual  source  of 
a  privilege;  it  may,  however,  also  be 
>  Ferraris. 


758     PRIVILEGED  ALTAR 


PROCESSIONS 


acquired  by  prescriiitiou.  A  third  way  | 
is  that  of  communication,  of  which  the 
mendicant  orders  furnish  a  brilliant  ex- 
ample, since  every  such  order  enjoys  by 
communication,  not  only  every  privilege 
ever  granted  to  any  other  mendicant  in- 
stitute, but  also  those  granted  to  any  of 
the  non-mendicant  orders. 

The  chief  privileges  appertaining  to 
clerical  or  monastic  persons  have  been 
incidentally  stated  in  the  articles  Bishop, 
Abbot,  Deacon,  Peiest,  Monk,  Nun, 
&c. ;  but  there  are  two  important  privi- 
leges belonging  to  the  entire  clerical  body, 
which  may  here  be  noticed.  These  are 
the  privileges  of  the  tribunal  and  the 
canon  (priiilcgia  fori  et  canonis).  The 
first  is  the  exemption  of  the  clergy  from 
the  secular  tribunals  in  criminal  and  civil 
causes  :  an  exemption  of  the  highest  value 
in  barbarous  times,  but  less  desirable  in 
those  more  civilised,  and  now  in  point  of 
fact  hardly  anywhere  enjoyed.  The 
privilege  of  the  canon  consists  in  the  ex- 
commimication  (under  the  fifteenth  canon 
of  the  Second  Lateran  Council),  with 
reservation  of  absolution  to  the  Pope,  of 
any  one  who  has  "  laid  violent  hands  on 
cleric  or  monk."  (Ferraris,  Prioilegium ; 
Soglia,  ii.  §  iii.) 

PRIVZIiECED  AX.TAR.  (I)  An 
altar,  such  as  the  seven  privileged  altars 
in  St.  Peter's,  by  visiting  which  certain 
indulgences  may  be  gained. 

(2)  An  altar  at  which  Votive  Masses 
may  be  said  even  on  certain  feasts  which 
are  doubles.  There  are  often  altars  of 
this  kind  at  places  of  pilgrimage. 

(3)  Altars  with  a  plenary  indulgence 
for  one  soul  in  purgatory  attached  to  all 
Masses  said  at  them  for  the  dead.  The 
privilege  continues,  even  if  a  new  altar 
be  erected,  provided  it  be  in  the  same 
place  and  under  the  same  title.  AU 
altars  are  privileged  on  All  Souls'  Day. 
Sometimes  the  privilege  is  personal — i.e. 
a  priest  may  have  the  privilege  of  gaining 
the  plenary  indulgence  always,  or  on  cer- 
tain occasinus,  when  he  offers  Mass  for 
the  dead,  without  respect  to  the  altar  at 
which  he  says  it.  The  local  privilege  is 
only  granted  to  fixed  altars,  the  personal 
may  be  used  even  at  portable  altars.  The 
Mass  must  be  a  Requiem  Mass,  if  the 
rubrics  permit  it  to  be  said  on  that  day. 
This  privilege  is  not  withdrawn  in  the 
general  suspension  of  indulgences  during 
a  jubilee.  (Probst,  art.  Altar,  in  the  new 
edition  of  the  "  Kirchenlexikon.") 

PROBABZX.ZSIVI.  [See  Moeal 
THBOLOoy.] 


PROCESSZOIJ'S.    The  word  in  its 

wider  sense  is  used  of  the  solemn  entrance 
of  the  clergy  to  the  altar  for  Mass,  Vespers, 
&c.,nr  of  their  return  after  service  to  the 
sacristy.  The  oldest  Ordo  Romanus,  about 
the  year  720,  contains  elaborate  directions 
for  a  procession  of  this  kind.  At  pro- 
cessions in  a  more  restricted  sense  persons 
march  together  in  public,  that  they  may 
express  their  gratitude  to  God,  beseech 
His  mercy,  or  do  honour  to  the  living  or 
the  dead.  Processions  with  the  first  of 
these  objects  are  called  processions  simply, 
those  with  the  second  are  also  known  as 
"  Litanire,"  "  Rngationes,"  "  Stationes," 
"Supplicationes,"  "  Exomologeses."  Pro- 
cessions at  the  visitation,  &c.,  of  a  bishop 
and  at  funerals  are  instances  of  the  third 
class.  Processions  are  also  classified, 
according  as  they  are  made  with  or  with- 
out the  IJlessed  Sacrament,  rehcs,  statues 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  or  the  saints. 
Lastly,  there  are  extraordinary  proces- 
sions ordered  by  ecclesiastical  authority 
for  some  special  cause,  and  ordinary  ones 
prescribed  by  the  common  ritual  law  of 
the  Church.  To  the  latter  class  the  pro- 
cessions on  Candlemas,  Palm  Sunday, 
St.  Mark's  Day,  three  Rogation  Days, 
Corpus  Christi,  and  at  funerals  belong. 
Each  procession  has  a  head,  who  walks 
last,  those  being  nearest  him  who  are 
highest  in  dignity  and  the  juniors  walking 
in  front.  The  chief  person,  if  a  priest, 
wears  blretta,  stole,  surplice,  and  some- 
times also  cope ;  if  he  bears  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  always  a  cope  and  humeral 
veil.  A  bishop  wears  his  mitre  and 
pastoral  staff';  but  in  procession  with  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  and  with  a  particle  of 
the  True  Cross  (S.C.R.  Sept.  2,  1600), 
the  head  must  not  be  covered,  and  then 
the  bishop's  staff  is  carried  behind,  his 
mitre  before  him.  Tlie  baldacchino  al- 
ways carried  over  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
may  also  be  used,  where  it  is  the  custom, 
with  particles  of  the  True  Cross  and  other 
instruments  of  the  Passion  (S.C.R.  27 
Maii,  1826).  It  is  also  used  to  honour  the 
bishop — e.(/.  at  his  solemn  entrance  into  a 
church.  The  colour  of  the  vestments  and 
the  prayers  said  vary  with  the  occasion  of 
the  procession.  An  out-door  procession 
always  starts  from  and  ends  by  returning 
to  the  church,  but  sometimes  several 
churches  are  visited  in  the  course  of  the 
procession.  The  bishop  may  compel  the 
attendance  even  of  religious  at  processions 
under  pain  of  censure,  unless  their  rule 
obliges  them  to  entire  seclusion  (S.O.R. 
18  Martii,  1679) 


PROCESSION  OF  HOLY  GHOST     PROCESSION  OF  HOLY  GHOST  759 


Processions,  at  least  in  the  case  of 
funerals,  -were  known  in  the  Church 
during  the  time  of  heathen  persecution. 
(See,  e.y.,  "  Acta  Martyr.  S.  Cypriani'".) 
The  litanies  or  penitential  processions  are 
thought  by  some  to  be  mentioned  by 
Basil  (Ep.  l'07,  "  Ad  Neoc." ;  but  see  the 
Benedictine  note).  Fe.-tal  processions 
are  spoken  of  as  an  ancient  custom  by 
Ambrose  (Ep.  40,  §  16,  ad  Theodos.).  The 
procession  on  St.  Marks  Day  was  old  and 
established  in  the  time  of  St.  Gregory  the 
Great,  and  was  perhaps  a  survival  in  a 
purified  form  of  the  procession  on  the 
same  day  in  honour  of  the  goddess  Robigo 
(Ovid,  "Fasti,"  iv.  906) ;  processions  with 
relics  were  common  in  the  fourth  century. 
(See,  e.g.,  August.  "Confix.  7;  Socrates, 
"H.  E."  iii.  18.)  Gregory  of  Tours 
("Hist.  Franc."  v.  4) mentions  the  custom 
of  carrj  ing  banners  in  processions.  Pro- 
cessions are  in  fact  a  natural  means 
common  to  all  religions  of  publicly  ex- 
pressing the  feelings  of  the  heart,  and  are 
taken  by  an  obvious  symbolism  as  a  figure 
of  the  Christian  journey  through  this  life 
to  the  next.  (For  further  information 
see  Funerals  ;  Cokpus  Ckristi  ;  Roga- 
Eoys,  &c.). 

PROCSSSZOSr  OF  THE  HOZ.T 
GHOST  FROM  THE  FATHER  .aWB 
THE  SON.  The  addition  made  to  the 
Nicene  Creed  at  Constantinople  in  381 
mentions  only  the  procession  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  from  the  Father,  and  this  for  a 

?lain  reason.  The  definitions  of  the 
louncil  were  directed  against  the  Mace- 
donians, who  denied  the  divinity  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  supposed  that  He  was 
created,  like  aU  else  which  is  not  God, 
through  the  Son.  The  Council,  on  the 
contrary,  denied  that  the  Third  Person 
vra&  to  be  placed  in  the  category  of 
creatures  at  aU.  It  affirmed  His  proces- 
sion from  the  Father,  and  so  in  effect 
denied  that  He  was  created  through  the 
Son  or  owed  His  existence  to  Him,  in  the 
same  sense  that  creatiu-es  do.  Whether 
the  Spirit  did  or  did  not  eternally  proceed 
from  the  Son  was  a  question  which  did 
not  come  before  the  assembly.  For  a  long 
time  after  there  was  no  controversy  on  this 
point.  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  (Mansi, 
"Concil.'iv.  1.34S)  saysof  the  Holy  Ghost: 
"  Neither  do  we  regard  Him  as  the  Son  or 
as  having  received  existence  through  the 
Son."  And  so  Theodoret,  criticising  the 
ninth  anathema  of  St.  Cyril,  declares  he 
will  admit  the  Spirit's  procession  from 
the  Father,  but  by  no  means  "  that  He  has 
existence "  (nyi'  virap^iv  txo")  from  the 


Son  or  through  the  Son.'  Great  autho- 
rities— BeUarmine,  Petavius,  and  Garnier 
— have  seen  in  Theodoret's  criticism  the 
Ssst  rise  of  the  famous  controversy  on 
the  double  procession.  This  view  is  very 
far  from  certain.  In  all  probability 
Theodoret  simply  meant  to  separate  the 
existence  of  the  Spirit  from  that  of  crea- 
tures. (So  Kuhn,  "  Trinitatslehre,"  p. 
484  seq.) 

However,  the  theology  of  the  Church 
was  forced  to  consider  the  eternal  rela- 
tions of  the  Second  and  Third  Persons. 
If  both  alike  proceeded  from  the  Father, 
then  how  was  the  Spirit  distinct  from  the 
Son  ?  Why  were  there  not  two  Sons  ? 
The  difficulty  met  in  West  and  East  with 
two  answers,  different  at  least  in  form : — 

1.  The  Latin  formula  is  contained  in 
the  early  Creed  falfely  a.^cribed  to  St. 
Athanasius — "The  Holy  Ghost  is  from 
the  Father  and  the  Son."  So  Hilary, 
"De  Trin."  ii.  29;  Augustine,  "De  Triu." 
iv.  20.  These  appear  to  be  the  oldest 
testimonies,'^  for  Tertullian's  "a  Patre  per 
Filium"  ("Adv.  Prax.''  4)  can  scarcely  be 
regarded  as  a  direct  and  certain  reference 
to  eternal  procession.  There  is  no  need 
to  quote  later  writers.  Petavius  ("Trin." 
vii.  8)  says  he  only  knew  of  one  single 
Latin  author — viz.  Rusticus  the  Deacon, 
who  ever  doubted  the  con-ectness  of  the 
current  Latin  formula.  St.  Augustine 
("In  Joann."  Tract,  xcix.  and  in  many 
other  places)  proves  the  procession  of  the 
Spirit  from  the  Son,  from  the  fact  that 
the  former  is  called  the  "  Spirit  of  the 
Son  "  (Gal.  iv.  6),  and  again  because  the 
Son,  while  on  earth,  gave  the  Holy  Ghost 
the  temporal  mission  by,  implying  eternal 
procession  from,  the  Son.  St.  Augustine 
clearly  explains  ("De  Trin."  v.  cap.  14)* 
that  the  Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Father 
and  Son,  not  as  from  two  principles,  but 
as  from  one.  St.  Anselm,  in  his  treatise 
on  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (cap. 
18  al.  17),  answers  the  objection  of  the 
schismatic  Greeks,  that  the  Latins  asserted 
the  procession  of  the  Spirit  from  the 
Father  and  the  Son  as  from  two  principles, 
by  denying  the  alleged  fact.  The  Spirit, 
he  says,  proceeds  from  the  Father  and 
Son,  not  in  so  far  as  they  are  distinct 
from,  but  in  so  far  as  they  are  one  with, 

>  The  text  will  be  found  in  the  words  of  St. 
Cyril,  JJigne's  reprint,  vol.  is.  coL  432. 

5  Ambrose  {De  Spiritu  S.  i.  11)  says  the 
Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Father  and  the 
Son.  But  in  this  place  "procedere"  mean* 
"to  be  sent." 

s  "  Fatendum  est  Patrem  et  Filium  princi- 
pium  esse  Spiritus  Sancti,  non  duo  principia." 


760  PROCESSION  OF  HOLY  GHOST     PROCESSION  OF  HOLY  GHOST 


each  other.  St.  Thomas  argues  (I.  qu. 
xxxvi.  a.  2)  that  if  the  Holy  Ghost  did 
not  proceed  from  the  Son  there  would 
be  no  real  distiuction  between  them,  since 
in  the  Trinity  the  Persons  are  only  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  by  mutual 
relation.  This  is  no  more  than  the  de- 
velopment of  a  principle  laid  down  by 
St.  Augustine  and  other  Fathers.  It 
was,  however,  rejected  by  the  Scotists. 

2.  The  Greek  Fathers  commonly  ex- 
pressed their  belief  by  another  formula — 
viz.  "  from  the  Father  through  the  Son," 
intending  by  this  mode  of  expression  to 
guard  the  doctrine  that  the  Father  is  the 
principle  or  ultimate  source  of  the  God- 
head. This  form  was  not  unknown  in  the 
West,  for  it  occurs,  e.g.,  in  St.  Hilary 
("De  Trin."xii.  "ex  te,"  addressed  to  the 
Father,  "per  eum"),  and  implies,  instead 
of  excluding,  the  belief  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Son  as  well  as 
from  the  Father.  Moreover,  some  Greek 
Fathers  actually  use  the  Latin  form. 
St.  Epiphanius  does  so  again  and  again  (ro 
fie  ayiov  TTveiiixa      dn<poT(f)(i)v,  "Haer.''  74, 

7  ;  fK  Tuv  narpus  Kai  rov  viov,  "Ancorat." 

8  ;  opa  Oeos  f<  narpos  Kai  vloii  to  Trvevpa, 
ib.  9).  So  does  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria, 
who  says  the  Spirit  is  "  the  Spirit  of 
Christ  and  His  mind,"  and  no  mere  minis- 
ter, since  He  "  knows  without  teaching 
all  that  appertains  to  Him  from  whom 
and  in  whom  He  is  "  ("  In  Joann."  xiv. 
25-26,  p.  837,  ed.  Aubert).  Other  great 
Fathers  of  the  Greek  Church  clearly 
express  their  belief  in  the  double  proces- 
sion. Thus,  St.  Athauasius  asserts  "  it  is 
not  the  Spirit  which  knits  the  word  to 
the  Father,  but  rather  the  Spirit  receives 
from  the  Word "  (Orat.  iii.  "  Contr. 
Arian."  24,  p.  454  in  the  Benedictine 
edition)  ;  and  again,  "  Such  as  we  have 
found  the  proper  relation  (tfijorijra)  of  the 
Sou  to  the  Father,  such  we  shall  find  is 
that  of  the  Spirit  to  the  Son,  and  as  the  Son 
says,  '  AJl  that  the  Father  has  is  mine,' 
so  we  shall  find  all  this  through  the  Sou 
and  in  the  Spirit "  ("  Ad  Scrap."  iii.  1,  p. 
552) ;  and  then  he  quotes  the  "  Spirit  of 
the  Son  "  (Gal.  iv.  6)  and  other  places  in 
which  He  is  called  both  the  Spirit  of  the 
Father  and  of  the  Son.  Basil  speaks  of 
the  Spirit  as  the  "  utterance  "  of  the  Son 
(firifia  fie  v'wv  to  nfevpa,  "Oontr.  Eunom." 
V.  p.  304,  ed.  Benedict.;  see  alsoti.  ii.  34, 
p.  271.  In  iii.  1,  p.  272,  the  clause  Trap' 
avToi)  TO  elvca  exov  Kai  oKais  r^r  oItlus 
fK€Lvr]s  f'^Tjufiivov  is  spurious).  A  very 
late  Father,  St.  John  of  Damascus,  is  the 
first  to  reject  the  Latin  statement  that  the 


Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Son  (e^ 
vloxj  Sc  TO  nutvfia  ov  Xe'yopev,  "  De  Fide 
Orthodox."  i.  8) ;  and  although  St.  Thomas 
and  Petavius  consider  this  an  error  on 
his  part,  Le  Quien  gives  strong  reasons 
for  supposing  that  he  only  meant  to  deny 
that  the  Son  is  the  ultimate  principle  of 
the  procession  or  a  principle  of  it  at  all, 
so  far  as  He  is  distinct  from  the  Father. 

Up  to  this  point,  then,  we  meet  with 
nothing  but  a  difference  of  words,  like 
that  which  divided  the  "West  from  most 
of  the  Orientals  on  the  use  of  the  term 
hypostasis;  and  for  a  long  time  each 
part  of  the  Church  was  allowed  to  go 
its  own  way  in  peace.  Pope  Hormisdas, 
in  a  letter  to  Justin  in  521,  states  the 
double  procession  in  the  Latin  form 
("proprium  Sp.  S.  ut  a  Patre  et  Filio 
procederet  sub  una  substantia  deitatis," 
Mansi,  viii.  521),  and  met  apparently  with 
no  opposition.  Maximus  ("Ad  Marin." 
ed.  Combefis,  p.  70  seq.)  shows  that  some 
Greeks  (as  Le  Quien  thinks,  Monothe- 
lites)  raised  a  difficulty  on  the  matter; 
but  Maximus  shows  that  both  formulae 
expressed  the  same  truth.  So,  on  the 
other  hand.  Pope  Hadrian,  in  a  letter  to 
Charlemagne,  defends  the  Greek  formula 
agaiust  the  attack  of  some  Latins 
(Mansi,  xiii.  760  seq.).  Tbe  Latin 
formula  was  violently  denounced  about 
the  same  time  by  John,  a  Greek  monk, 
otherwise  unknown,  who  charged  the 
Latin  monlis  on  Mount  Olivet  with  heresy, 
but  no  great  result  followed.  (See  the 
documents  in  Le  Quien,  "  Dies.  Damasc." 
i.  §  xiii.  seq.) 

Unfortunately,  the  difference  of  words 
was  used  by  Photius  after  his  condemna- 
tion at  Rome,  and  again  when  the  schism 
was  renewed  by  Cserularius,  as  a  means 
of  exciting  hatred  agaiust  the  Latins. 
And  the  strife  became  more  bitter  after 
the  addition  of  the  "  Filioque "  to  the 
Creed  even  in  the  local  Church  of  Rome. 
Enough  has  been  said  on  these  subjects 
in  the  articles  on  the  Greek  Church  and 
on  the  Creeds.  But  something  remains 
to  be  added  here  on  the  doctrine  of  the 
Schismatic  Greeks. 

Had  they  merely  anathematised  the 
Latin  formula  because  they  thought  it 
imphed  two  principles  of  spiration  ;  had 
they  merely  denied  the  right  of  the  Pope 
to  permit  the  addition  to  the  Creed,  all 
I  this  would  have  been  proof  of  a  schis- 
I  matical  spirit,  but  would  not  in  itself 
have  involved  heresy  on  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity.  In  fact,  liowever,  the  Greeks, 
j  begiuuiug  with  a  factious  opposition  to 


PROCURATOR 


PROFESSION,  RELIGIOUS  761 


the  Latin  tt;rniinolog\-,  ended  in  a  denial 
of  the  Catholic  doctrine.  Altbouph  the 
Greek  Fathers,  says  Le  Quieu,  and  St. 
John  of  Damascus,  to  vrhom  the  Greeks 
constantly  appealed,  taught  the  eternal 
procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the 
Father  through  the  Sou,  the  schismatics 
•with  one  consent,  from  Caerularius  to 
Beccus  {i.e.  till  about  1274),  denied  any 
«temal  procession  of  the  Spfrit  though 
the  Son,  and  simply  admitted  that  the 
gifts  or  temporal  manifestation  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  came  through  the  Son.  (Le 
Quien,  loc.  cit.  §  xlviii.)  Here  of  course 
is  an  absolute  opposition,  not  of  termino- 
logy, but  of  doctrine. 

A  new  opinion  was  devised  in  a 
council  held  against  the  Patriarch  Beccus, 
■who  became  a  Catholic.  Examination 
showed  that  the  form  in  St.  John  Dam., 
"  from  the  Father  through  the  Son,"  re- 
ferred to  eternal  procession.  Thereupon 
Gregory  of  Cyprus,  the  schismatical  suc- 
cessor of  Beccus,  advanced  the  theory 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeded  from  the 
Father  through  the  Son,  not  in  respect 
to  existence,  but  to  efi'ulgence  (tis  aibiov 
fK(\>av<Tiv).  There  was,  according  to  him, 
an  eternal  effulgence,  improperly  called 
the  Spirit, produced  by  the  Father  through 
the  Son,  or  rather  by  all  three  Persons 
(Le  Quien,  §  xlix.  1).  This  was  a  prelude 
to  the  notion  of  the  Palamites,  the  kernel 
of  which  consisted,  as  Combetis  puts  it,  in 
this,  that  they  considered  the  iv(pyi)ixaTa 
and  gifts  of  the  Spirit  to  be  eternal  and 
uncreated  (Combefis  apud  Mansi,  xxri. 
211). 

At  Florence,  Mark  of  Ephesus  began 
by  a  simple  objection  to  the  insertion  of 
the  "  Filioque  in  the  Creed ;  but  later 
on  he  asserted  that  "through  the  Son" 
meant  "with  the  Son,"  denying  any 
other  relation  between  the  Second  and 
Third  Persons.  Many  more  instances  of 
Greek  theologians  who  knowingly  and  of 
set  purpose  opposed  the  Catholic  doctrine 
will  be  found  in  Petavius  ("  De  Trin."  vii. 
1.5).  [A  very  full  and  accurate  account 
of  the  whole  history  of  the  controversy 
is  given  in  the  first  of  the  dissertations 
prefixed  by  Le  Quien  to  his  edition  of 
St.  John  of  Damascus.  We  have  also 
derived  much  help  from  Petavius,  "  De 
Trinitate,"  and  Kuhn,  " Trinitatslehre."] 

PKOCUSATOB.  The  authorised 
agent  or  representative  of  another  (Fr. 
procureur).  Thus  it  answers  to  a  "proxy," 
when  the  question  is  of  a  marriage  which 
one  of  the  parties  contracts  through  a 
representative,  and  to  a  "  sponsor,"  when 


the  question  is  of  a  baptism  where  one 
or  both  of  the  god-parents  are  not  able  to 
be  present.  In  either  of  the  above  senses, 
a  procurator  contracts  spiritual  affinity 
not  to  himself,  but  to  his  principal.  A 

[  procurator  is  such  either  in  respect  of 
lawsuits  entered  upon,  or  in  respect  of 
business  transactions ;  in  the  first  case  he 
is  judicially,  in  the  other,  extra-judicialis. 
The  procurators  or  official  agents  of 
monasteries  of  nuns  should  not  hold 
ofiice  more  than  three  years.  (Ferraris, 
Procurator.) 

PROFSSSZOXr  OF  FAZTH.  [See 

j  Cki;ei)s." 

FKOFZSSSXOlff,  BSX.ZGZ01TS.  A 

j  religions  or  regular  profession  is  "  a  pro- 
mise freely  made  and  lawfully  accepted, 
whereby  a  person  of  the  full  age  required, 
after  the  completion  of  a  year  of  probation, 
binds  him-  (or  her-_)  self  to  a  particular 
religious  institute  approved  by  the 
Church."'  The  full  age  required  is 
sixteen  years,  reckoned  from  the  day  of 
birth.^    The  year  of  novitiate  or  proba- 

.  tion  must  have  been  continuous ;  so  that 
if  the  novice  had  interrupted  it  even  for 
so  short  a  time  as  two  hours,  e.g.  by 
leaving  the  monastery  with  the  intention 
of  entering  some  other  order,  the  year 
would  have  to  be  begun  de  novo,  from  the 
date  when  he  renewed  his  resolution  of 
seeking  admission  to  the  order.  More- 

I  over,  the  year  of  probation  must  be  spent 
in  the  religious  habit,  and  in  a  monastery 

:  or  other  house  designed  for  the  purpose 

I  or  approved  by  the  Holy  See. 

!  By  being  "  freely  made  "  is  meant, 
with  entire  personal  liberty,  with  the  free 
command  over  one's  own  property,  and 
■without  prejudice  to  the  rights  of  third 
parties.  Thus  neither  a  slave,  nor  a 
married  person  (without  the  consent  of 
the  other  spouse),  nor  a  bishop  already 
consecrated  (without  a  Papal  dispensa- 

[  tion)  can  be  validly  professed. 

I  The  matter  of  the  promise  is,  the 
three  essential  vows  of  religion,  poverty, 
obedience,  and  chastity,  and  any  other 

,  vow  or  vows  peculiar  to  the  institute 
which  the  candidate  io  entering. 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  the 
manner  of  profession  of  a  nun,  as  pre- 
scribed in  the  "Pontificale  Romanum": — 

I       "  The  Pontifical  office  is  recited  as  far 

]  as  the  Gospel.    The  novices,  habited  as 
during  their  probationary  year,  each  ac- 
companied by  two  veiled  religious,  are 
1  Ferraris. 

-  Cone  Trid.  sess.  xxv.  c.  16,  De  Eeg.  et 
Mon. 


:C2  PROFESSION,  RELIGIOUS 


PROMULGATION 


led  from  the  convent  into  tbe  church,  and 
go  up  two  and  two  into  the  sanctuary ; 
there  they  kneel ;  and  the  priest,  ofEciat- 
inj^in  the  character  of  archpriest,  requests 
of  the  hisliop,  seated  on  his  throne  Defore 
the  altar,  that  they  may  be  consecrated. 
The  bishop  asks  whether  they  are  fit  and 
worthy,  and,  being  assured  that  they  are, 
bids  them  come  up.  They  obey,  and 
raiiire  themselves  in  a  seuiicircle  round 
the  bislinp,  who,  after  a  short  exhortation, 
says  to  them  in  a  loud  voice,  '  Are  you 
willing  to  persevere  in  the  observance  of 
holy  ch  istity  P  '  Each  of  them  declares 
her  willingne:^s  aloud,  and  after  idacing 
lier  joined  hands  between  those  of  the 
bishop,  pronounces  her  perpetual  vows. 
They  return  to  their  former  place,  and 
kneel  down,  with  heads  bowed  to  the 
g-round;  the  bishop  kneels  in  front  of  the 
altar,  and  the  choir  sings  the  Litanies. 
After  the  sentence,  '  Ut  omnibus  fidelibas 
defunctis,'  &c.,  and  the  response,  the 
bishop  rises,  and,  with  his  mitre  on,  and 
the  crosier  in  his  hand,  solemnly  blesses 
the  newly-professed,  saying,  '  Vouchsafe, 
O  Lord,  to  bless  and  consecrate  these  Thy 
servants.'  The  response  is  made,  'We 
beseech  Thee,  hear  us.' 

"  Alter  the  Litanies  the  professed 
rise,  '  "v'eni.  Creator,'  is  sung,  and  they 
withdraw  into  a  robing-room  to  change 
their  dress.  The  bishop  blesses  the  differ- 
ent articles  of  their  future  costume,  and 
first  of  all  the  habit,  which  they  imme- 
diately put  on.  They  reappear,  two  and 
two,  and  again  form  a  semicircle  round 
the  bishop,  who,  after  the  prayers,  &c., 
set  down  in  the  ritual,  puts  the  veil  on 
the  head  of  each,  the  ring  on  her  finger, 
and  the  bridal  wreath  on  her  head.  After 
several  solemn  benedictions  the  Mass  con- 
tinues. At  the  Offertory  the  professed 
come  up  to  lay  their  offerings  on  the  altar, 
and  at  the  Communion  the  bishop  imparts 
to  them  the  sacred  particles  which  he  has 
consecrated  for  them."  ' 

With  regard  to  the  right  of  profession, 
as  also  the  minimum  of  age  and  length  of 
probation,  there  is  considerable  diversity 
in  the  various  approved  rules  of  different 
orders. 

The  effects  of  profession  are,  first,  that 
nothing  short  of  a  Papal  dispensation, 
which  would  only  be  given  in  extremely 
rare  and  altogether  exceptional  cases,  can 
warrant  the  professed  in  returning  to  the 
world.  A  religious  in  any  other  order 
can  pass  into  that  of  the  Carthusians,  on 
account  of  its  great  austerity.    To  pass 

»  Wetzer  and  Welte,  art.  by  Permaneder. 


from  one  o:-der  into  another  which  has  an 
easier  rule  is  not  permitted  without  a 
Papal  dispensation.  A  valid  profession 
secures  to  its  subject  the  right  of  main- 
tenance in  the  convent  during  life,  and 
the  enjoyment  of  all  the  rights  and  privi- 
leges of  the  ecclesiastical  state.  It  annuls 
anj'  sim])le  vow  previously  contracted 
wliich  could  not  be  inndr  compatible  with 
the  exact  observaiu-c  ol'  tlio  rule.  It  can- 
cels a  promise  of  maniaye,  and  even  a 
marriage  itself,  if  not  consummated.  It 
releases  its  subject,  so  far  as  ordination  is 
concerned,  from  the  irregularity  conse- 
quent on  illegitimacy;  finally,  it  invests 
the  convent  with  the  ownership  of  any 
property  belonging  to  the  professed  at  the 
date  of  pi-ofession,  and  also  of  any  subse- 
quently acquired.  (Ferraris,  Regularis, 
rrofossio.) 

PROMOTZOir  PEK  SiLZ.TVia. 
[See  (  )H11TN.\TI0N.] 

PROMrvx.GA.'TZOia-.  That  a  law 
should  bind,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should 
be  adequately  promulgated  or  ])ublished. 
From  and  after  the  date  of  such  promul- 
gation those  whom  the  law  concerns  are 
presumed  to  be  acquainted  with  it,  and 
become  liable  to  the  penalties  which  dis- 
oliedience  entails  in  case  of  any  infraction 
of  it.  Papal  rescri])ts  are  proinulgated 
by  proclamation  in  acie  campi  Flora, ^  and 
by  being  affixed  to  the  gates  of  the  Vati- 
can ;  whence  came  the  expression  "  Publi- 
catio  urbi  et  orbi  facta."  The  diocesan 
ordinances  and  pastorals  of  bishops  are,  in 
general,  transmitted  by  them  to  the  rural 
deans,  who  forward  copies  to  the  paro- 
chial clergy  under  them  ;  but  where  the 
number  of  the  clergy  is  not  very  large, 
they  receive  such  missives  direct  from  the 
bishop.  In  either  case,  the  parish  priest 
(or  missionary  rector,  as  the  case  may  be), 
completes  the  promulgation  by  reading 
from  the  pulpit  those  portions  which  con- 
cern the  laity,  and  affixing  the  document 
to  the  doors  of  his  church. 

Among  the  pernicious  doctrines  of 
modern  bureaucracy  is  that  which,  while 
denying  validity  to  Papal  orepiscopal  con- 
stitutions unless  .specially  promulgated, 
makes  such  promulgation  dependent  on 
the  consent  of  the  civil  government.  The 
exercise  by  the  Pope  and  the  hierarchy 
of  their  divinely-conferred  function  of 
ruling  the  flock  of  tJhrist  is  thus  circum- 
scribed, and  may  at  any  time  be  rendered 
nugatory  by  a  hostile  government.  [Exe- 

QUATUK.] 

•  The  Piazza  of  the  Canipo  di  Fiore  Ib  not 
far  from  the  Roman  Chancery. 


i'liOPAGAKDA 


PROPHECY  768 


PROPA.CAM'SA.  The  sacred  con- 
gregation of  Cardinals  de  propaganda 
Jide,  commonly  called  the  Congregation 
of  Propaganda,  -which  had  been  contem- 
plated by  Grt'gorj-  XIII.,  -w  as  practically 
established  by  Gregory  XV.  (1622)  to 
guard,  direct,  and  promote  the  foreign 
missions.  Urban  Vm.  (1623-1644)  in- 
stituted the  "  College  of  Propaganda  "  as 
part  of  the  same  design,  where  young  men 
of  every  nation  and  language  might  be 
trained  for  the  priesthood,  and  prepared  for 
the  evangelic  warfare  against  heathenism 
or  heresy.  The  management  of  this  col- 
lege the'Pope  entrusted  to  the  Congrega- 
tion. Urban  caused  the  present  building 
to  be  erected  from  the  designs  of  Bernini. 
The  College  possesses  a  library  of  30,000 
volumes,  among  which  are  the  translations 
of  a  great  number  of  Chinese  works,  and 
a  large  collection  of  Oriental  MSS.  At- 
tached to  the  library  is  the  Mtiseo  Borgia, 
which  contains  several  interesting  MSS., 
service-books,  and  autographs,  and  a  col- 
lection of  objects  sent  home  by  the  mis- 
sionaries from  the  countries  where  they 
are  stationed,  including  an  extraordinary 
assortment  of  idols.  "The  annual  ex- 
amination of  the  pupils  which  takes  place 
in  January  (on  the  day  before  the  Epi- 
phany), is  an  interesting  scene,  which  few 
travellers  who  are  then  in  Rome  omit  to 
attend;  the  pupils  reciting  poetry  and 
speeches  in  their  several  languages,  ac- 
companied also  by  music,  as  performed  in 
their  respective  countries."  The  number 
of  pupils  is  about  120.*    [See  Congbega- 

TIONS,  ROMAN.l 

PROPERTT.    [See  Chttech  Pbo- 

PEETY."; 

PROPHECT.  (1)  The  biblical  mean- 
ing of  this  word  is  wider  than  that  which  is 
now  popularly  attached  to  it.  A  prophet 
was  not  necessarily  one  who  foretold 
what  was  to  come;  he  was  rather  one 
who  spoke,  acted,  or  wrote  under  the  extra- 
ordinary influence  of  God  to  make  known 
to  man  the  divine  counsels  and  wUl.  The 
Hebrew  word  (N*?:)  clearly  indicates 
this.  In  Exod.  iv.  16,  Aaron  is  appointed 
to  be  Moses'  "prophet":  "He  shall 
speak  in  thy  stead  to  the  people  and 
shall  be  thy  mouth"  (see  Patrizi  "In 
Evang."  1.  'iii.  diss.  13;  St.  Thomas, 
2»  2",  qu.  clxxi.  a.  3).  But  as  the  predic- 
tive element  became  prominent  the  word 
has  gradually  been  restricted  to  foretelling. 
We  shall  here  state  briefly  the  Catholic 
teaching  on  prophecy  in  thiis  sense. 

>  itorray's  Hundbook  for  Rome,  1867. 


A  prophecy  is  the  certain  prediction 
of  future  events  which  cannot  be  known 
by  natural  means.  This  definition  dis- 
criminates prophecy  from  revelation  of 
things  past  or  present ;  from  scientific 
forecasts  and  predictions ;  and  from  mere 
conjectures  as  to  the  future.  God,  in 
whose  sight  all  things  to  come  are  ever 
present,  is  able  to  communicate  to  His 
creatures  the  knowledge  which  He 
possesses.  He  alone  has  this  power, 
because  foreknowledge  of  the  contingent 
future  is  peculiar  to  Him.  Prophecies 
are  the  words  of  His  prescience,  just  as 
miracles  are  the  works  of  His  omnipo- 
tence. Hence  a  religion  supported  by  pro- 
phecies must  be  divine.  They  belong  to 
the  supernatural  order,  because,  directly 
or  indirectly,  they  tend  to  a  supernatural 
end — the  salvation  of  mankind.  Most 
of  them  directly  make  known  super- 
natural facts,  e.g.  the  coming  of  the 
Messias,  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles, 
the  Last  Judgment.  Those  which  directly 
refer  to  temporal  events  in  no  far  off 
future  serve  to  prove  indirectly,  by  their 
fulfilment,  the  veracity  of  those  of  the 
former  class  which  have  not  yet  been 
fulfilled.  It  is  clear  that  not  a'U  predic- 
tions are  worthy  of  credit.  If  the  fore- 
teller does  not  claim  to  be  Gods  mouth- 
piece, and  if  his  life  is  ungodly,  we  are 
not  bound  to  believe  him.  Although 
there  have  been  exceptions  (e.g.  Caiaphas, 
John  xi.  49-52),  we  may  assume  that 
God  does  not,  as  a  rule,  communicate 
His  knowledge  to  the  impious.  The 
credentials  of  a  genuine  prophecy  are 
miracles  wrought  in  confirmation  and  the 
fulfilment  of  other  predictions  made  by  the 
prophet.  Miracles  stamp  the  speaker  as 
the  minister  of  God,  while  the  fulfilment 
of  what  he  liad  previously  foretold  is  the 
natural  and  obvious  proof  of  his  possessing 
predictive  powers.  Fulfilled  prophecies 
serve  to  prove  the  divine  origin  of  a 
religion  when  they  possess  the  tollowing 
qualifications :  (1)  that  the  prophecy 
was  really  such,  that  is,  was  made  before 
the  event ;  (2)  that  the  fulfilment 
exactly  answers  to  the  prediction ;  (3) 
that  the  event  could  not  nave  been  fore- 
seen by  natural  means ;  (4)  that  the  har- 
mony of  prediction  and  event  is  not  acci- 
dental. (See  St.  Thomas,  2»  2  ,  qq., 
cLxxi.-clxxvi.) 

(2)  Twelve  lessons  from  the  Prophets 
are  sung  after  the  blessing  of  the  Paschal 
candle  and  before  the  blessing  of  the  font 
on  Holy  Saturday.  They  were  meant 
originally  for  the   instruction  of  the 


7C4  PROPOSTTTOXS,  con;de:mned 


PROTESTANT 


catechumens.  It  is  evident  i'rnni  tlie 
Sacramentaries  and  mediaeval  writers  on 
ritual  that  the  number  varied  very  con- 
siderably in  different  places  and  at 
different  times  (Merat.  on  Gavant.  torn, 
i.  p.  iT.  tit.  10). 

(3)  Lessons  from  the  Prophets  at 
Mass  are  mentioned  by  Justin,  and  were  a 
regular  feature  in  the  Gallic,  Ambrosian, 
and  Spanish  Liturgies.  In  Rome  and 
Africa,  as  a  rule,  there  was  no  lesson  in 
the  Mass  from  the  Old  Testament  (Le 
Brun,  tom.  iii.  diss.  1).  Still,  instances  of 
such  lessons  occur,  e.g.  on  the  Ember 
Saturday  in  Whitsun  week,  and  occasion- 
ally, e.ff.  on  Friday  in  the  same  week,  a 
lesson  from  the  Prophets  replaces  the 
Epistle. 

(4)  "  Prophetia  "  was  the  name  in  the 
Gallican  Mass  for  the  Benedictus,  It 
was  followed  by  a  "  CoUectio  post  prophe- 
tiam."  (Le  Brun,  tom.  iii.  diss.  iv.  a. 

PROPOSZTZOirS,  CONDEMITED. 
From  the  earliest  times  the  Church  has 
condemned  heretical  propositions.  The 
First  General  Council,  for  example,  ana- 
thematised certain  propositions  of  Arius. 
But  the  Church  also  condemns  proposi- 
tions which  are  uot  indeed  heretical,  but 
are  opposed  in  some  lesser  degree  to 
soundness  in  the  faith.  Thus  in  1418 
Martin  V.  (bull  "InterCunctas")  proposed 
thirty-nine  articles  for  the  examination 
of  persons  suspected  of  agreement  with 
Wyclif  and  Huss.  Of  these  the  eleventh 
puts  the  question  whether  they  hold  that 
of  the  forty-five  propositions  of  Wyclif 
and  Hus.s,  condemned  at  the  Council  of 
Constance,  all  are  uncatholic,  and  of  these, 
some  heretical,  "  some  erroneous,  others 
rash  and  seditious,  others  offensive  to 
pious  ears."'  Such  condemnations  have 
been  very  common  in  the  modern  Church. 
Sometimes,  as  in  the  bull  "  Unigenitus," 
the  propositions  have  been  condemned  in 
globo — i.e.  a  number  of  propositions  have 
been  condemned  as  re.spectively  heretical, 
false,  scandalous,  Sic.  Sometimes,  as  in 
the  "Auctorem  fidei  "  against  the  Jansen- 
ist  synod  of  Pistoia,  each  proposition  has 
a  particular  censure  attached  to  it. 

We  may  thus  explain  the  meaning  of 
the  terms  of  censure.  A  proposition  is 
"  heretical "  when  it  is  directly  opposed  to 
a  truth  revealed  by  God  and  proposed  by 
the  Church  ;  "  erroneous,"  when  it  is  con- 
tradictory to  a  truth  deduced  from  two 
premises,  one  an  article  of  faith,  the  other 
naturally  certain  ;  "  proximate  to  error," 
when  opposed  to  a  proposition  deduced 
with  great  probability  from  principles  of 


faith ;  "  hseresim  sapiens,"  when  it  is 
capable  of  a  good  sense,  but  seems  in  the 
circumstances  to  have  an  heretical  mean- 
ing ;  "  evil  sounding "  or  offensive  to 
pious  ears,"  when  opposed  to  piety  and 
the  reverence  due  to  divine  things  accord- 
ing to  the  common  mode  of  speaking; 
"  scandalous,"  when  it  gives  occasion  to 
think  or  act  amiss;  "  rash,"  when  opposed 
to  the  common  sense  of  the  Church  in 
matters  of  faith  and  morals.  This  ac- 
count is  taken  from  Viva,  "  De  Fide";  but 
Melchior  Canus  ("  De  Loc.  Theol."  lib. 
xii.  cap.  10)  shows  that  opinions  have 
varied  much  on  the  precise  import  of  the 
minor  censures.  There  is  a  well-known 
work  on  the  "  Propositiones  Damnatse" 
by  the  Jesuit  Viva. 

PROTESTAnrT.    The  origin  of  the 
name  was  as  follows.    At  the  first  Diet 
of  Spires  (1526)  a  decree  was  agreed  to,  to 
1  the  effect  that,  pending  the  convocation  of 
!  a  general  council,  every  prince  of  the 
j  German  Empire  should  be  free  to  execute 
!  the  imperial  edict  of  Worms  (1521,  by 
1  which  Luther  and  his  doctrine  had  been 
\  condemned)  in  such  a  manner  as  was  con- 
sistent with  his  being  prepared  to  answer 
for  his  conduct  to  God  and  the  Em- 
peror.   The  adoption  of  this  decree  led 
in  practice  to  much  discord  and  confu- 
sion, the  princes  of  the  different  states 
being  emboldened  by  it  to  make  and  en- 
force within  their  own  territories  any 
arrangements  about  religion  that  might 
j  be  agreeable  to  them.    Thus,  in  states 
and  cities  where  the  Lutheran  opinions 
prevailed,  the  Catholic  worship  was  often 
forbidden.    At  the  Second  Diet  of  Spires 
I  (1529)  the  majority  adopted  a  new  decree 
to  this  effect:  that  those  states  which 
I  had  hitherto  observed  the  edict  of  Worms 
should  contniue  to  observe  it ;  that  the 
'  other  states,  in  which  the  new  opinions 
had  been  introduced,  should  not,  pending 
the  meeting  of  the  council,  make  any 
fresh  changes  in  regard  to  religion ;  and 
that,  in  these  last-named  states,  no  preach- 
ing against  the  Sacrament  of  the  altar 
should  be  permitted,  the  Mass  should  not 
be  abolished,  and,  if  Lutheranism  had 
gained  the  upper  hand,  the  Catholics  were 
not  to  be  prevented  from  hearing  Mass. 
Against  this  decree  the  Lutheran  mino- 
rity in  the  Diet  (chiefly  Duke  Frederic  of 
Saxony,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  and 
Albert  of  Brandenburg)  protested ;  the 
meaning  of  the  protest  being  that  the  dis- 
sentient princes  did  not  intend  to  tolerate 
Catholicism  within  their  borders.  The 
followers  of  Luther  objected  to  being 


PROTOXOTARY 


TROVOST 


7G6 


called  Lutherans ;  the  name  of  "  Evan- 
gelical," which  Luther  approved,  the 
Catholics  would  not  concede.  Hence  the 
name  "Protestant,'"  whicli  implied  no- 
thing positive,  and  might  be  used  indif- 
ferently by  all  who  rejected  the  authority 
of  the  Church,  came  easily  into  use  by 
common  consent. 

It  has  lately  become  the  fashion  among 
a  certain  party  in  the  Anglican  Church 
to  reject  the  word  "Protestant.'"  But 
this  is  the  title  given  to  their  church  in 
the  coronation  oath,  in  the  Bill  of  Rights, 
and  in  the  Act  of  S<>ttlement.  "  Will 
you,"  asks  the  officiating  prelate  of  the 
King,  "to  the  utmost  of  your  power 
maintain  .  .  .  the  protestant  reforyncd 
reliyion  established  by  law  ?  "  (Mohler, 
"Kirchengeschichte,"'  vol.  iii.) 

PROTOirOTARY  (nparos,  nota- 
rim).  In  early  times  this  title,  which 
seems  to  have  been  first  used  at  Constan- 
tinople in  the  eighth  century,  meant "  the 
chief  of  the  notaries,"  and  corresponded 
to  primicerius  notariorum,  the  term  then 
in  use  at  Rome.  After  800,  the  title  of 
protonotary  was  introduced  in  the  West, 
and  for  a  long  time  past  it  has  designated, 
not  the  chief,  but  any  member  of  the  im- 
portant and  dignified  College  of  Proto- 
notaries  Apostolic  in  the  Roman  Curia. 
Their  great  and  varied  privileges  are  de- 
scribed by  Ferraris.  Tradition  assigns  to 
St.  Clement  in  the  first  century  the  insti- 
tution of  the  notaries,  seven  in  number  ; 
Si.\tus  V.  raised  the  number  to  twelve. 
They  are  of  two  grades,  a  higher  and  a 
lower,  P.  de  nuinero  jmrtictpantium  and 
P.  titulnres  seu  extra  munerum.  Their 
function  is  to  register  the  Pontifical  acts, 
make  and  keep  the  official  records  of 
beatifications,  &c.,  &c.  (Ferraris;  Smith 
and  Cheethara.) 

PROTOPR^SSBTTSR.  The  proto- 
papas,  or  chief  of  the  clergy  of  the  second 
order,  was  anciently  so  called  in  the 
Eastern  Church.  In  the  acts  of  the 
Synod  of  the  Oak  (401),  Arsaciufl,  the 
protopresbyter  of  the  Church  of  Con- 
stantinople, figures  as  a  witness  against 
his  own  archbishop,  St.  John  Chryso- 
stom.  Apparently  the  term  was  equiva- 
lent to  "  archpriest."  (Smith  and  Cheet- 
ham.) 

PROVZircE.  The  territory,  com- 
prising usually  several  dioceses,  witliin 
which  an  archbishop  or  metropolitan 
exercises  jurisdiction.  In  rare  cases — e.g. 
Glasgow  and  Olaiiitz — there  is  an  arch- 
bishop without  suffragans. 

A  modem  theory  derives  the  provin- 


cial councils  and  metropolitans  of  the 
primitive  Church  by  direct  imitation  from 
those  assemblies  and  their  presidents  by 
which  civil  affairs  were  conducted  in  the 
various  provinces  of  the  Roman  Empire.^ 
The  president  of  such  an  assembly  {koivov, 
conciliuni)  was,  it  is  said,  called  the  sacer- 
dos  provincue-,  the  members  were  called 
avvfSpoi  or  leffdti;  here  we  have  the 
original  type  of  a  metropolitan  and  bishops 
sitting  in  council.  But  till  it  can  be 
shown  that  these  crvvfbpoi  were,  as  Chris- 
tian bishops  were  from  the  first,  invested 
with  pei-manent  powers  of  government 
and  administration  within  certain  local 
limits,  the  resemblance  of  the  two  insti- 
tutions cannot  be  said  to  be  very  close. 
Of  course  there  can  he  no  doubt  that  the 
boundaries  of  many  ecclesiastical  provinces 
merely  conformed  themselves  to  those  of 
the  civil  provinces ;  the  convenience  of 
such  an  arrangement  would  be  obvious, 
[SeeAncHBisHOP;  Metropolita2t  ;  Dio- 
cese.] 

PROVXN-CXAX..  The  religious  who, 
being  appointed  either  by  the  general  of 
the  order  or  by  the  chapter,  has  the 
general  superintendence  of  the  affairs  of 
the  order  within  the  limits  of  a  certain 
province.  These  provinces  have  a  greater 
or  less  geographical  e.xtension  according 
to  the  number  of  monasteries  established 
within  them  ;  when  the  monasteries  are 
numerous,  c<-eteri'<  paribus,  the  provinces 
will  be  smaller.  In  1  CiQQ  the  residences  and 
colleges  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  [Jesuits] 
were  distributed  among  twenty-one  pro- 
vinces ;  this  implies  the  existence  of  the 
same  number  of  provincials. 

PROVISZOW,  CAIVrON'ZCil.I..  By 

this  is  meant  the  regular  conferring  of, 
and  induction  into,  ecclesiastical  fimc- 
tions.  It  has  three  principal  parts  or 
stages — desi^mation,  collation  or  insti- 
tution, and  installation.  [See Bishop,  IV. ; 
Nomination  ;  Collation  to  a  Benefice  ; 
and  Installation.] 

PROVOST  {precpositus).  Professor 
Cheetham  has  collected  six  difl'erent 
senses  in  which  the  word  prfepositvs  was 
used  in  the  first  eight  centuries :  (1)  as 
the  president  or  chairman  of  anj'  meeting ; 
(2)  as  the  chl(>f  of  a  body  of  canons;  (.'3) 
as  the  second  in  authority  under  an 
abbot,  or  the  head  of  a  subordinate  house 
[see  Peioe];  (4)  as  that  member  of  a 
chapter  who  manages  the  estates ;  besides 
two  senses  of  minor  importance.  Re- 
ferring to  (2),  the  provost  of  a  cathedral 

'  Art.  '•  Bishop,"  by  Mr.  Hatch,  in  Smith 
and  Cheethaui. 


rce 


PRUDENCE 


PURGATORY 


chapter  was  anciently  the  archdeacon ; 
the  provost  of  a  collegiate  chapter  -was 
the  first  dignitary  aujoiig  the  canons.  At 
the  present  day,  in  Austria,  Prussia, 
Bavaria,  and  England,  the  cathedral 
c  lapters  are  presided  over  by  provosts; 
in  France  and  other  parts  of  Germany 
hy  deans.  In  Austria  the  provost  of  a 
cathedral  has  the  title  and  privileges  of  a 
prelate;  the  provost  of  Munich  has  the 
right  oi'  \vi-;uiiig  the  mitre  in  processions. 
Provosts  in  Au>tiiu  are  nominated  by  the 
Emperor;  in  lliigland  and  the  other 
countries  named,  by  the  Pope.  (Smith 
and  Cheetham  ;  \Yetzer  and  Welte.) 
FSUDEirCE.   [See  Cardinal  Vie- 

XUES.  J 

PS.YMER.  The  Prymer  -was  a  name 
given  in  England  to  a  popular  manual  con- 
taining the  Hours  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
the  dirge,  penitential,  and  gradual  psalms. 
Pater,  Ave,  Creed,  Commandments, 
Litany,  commendations,  and  other  occa- 
sional prayers.  It  is  only  when  dill'erent 
parts  of  the  offices,  prayers,  ^;c  ,  are  trans- 
lated into  English  that  the  word  Prymer 
is  used.  Thus  the  title  runs,  "  The 
Prymer  of  SuIn  >hnry  l'-.,"  "  The  Prymer 
in  Engly.-slie,"'  "  The  Prymer  in  Ei.g- 
lysshe  aiid  Latin,'"  >S:c.  Prymers  were 
published  by  the  authority  of  King 
Heniy  Vlll.  after  he  had  i'.sserted  the 
royal  supremaiy.  and  again  by  the  Pi-e- 
formers,  who  piildi-lied  Pryme)-s  to  suit 
their  own  wa\  of  t  hinlvinii.  ^Ve  owe  to 
Mr.Ma^kell  aiun,i  Lamed  and  inteivMing 
edition  of  the  ]'higii.-h  PryniHr  linm  a 
MS.  now  in  the  British  M  iiseuiii,  not  hiter 
than  1410.  The  MS.  has  no  title,  but  tije 
contents  an>\\er  to  those  of  the  Prymer, 
and  Mr.  Ma.-kell  traces  the  word  back  to 
the  I'Jiirteenth  century.  (From  Mr. 
Maskell's  Dissertation  on  the  Prymer, 
Monument.  Piit."  vol.  iii.) 

P.SEUQO-XSZDORE.  [See  Falsb 
Deceejals.] 

PTTXiPZT.  The  old  custom  was  to 
preach  from  the  altar  or  episcopal  chair. 
But  apparently  even  in  St.  Augustine's 
time  the  ambo,  originally  meant  for 
readers  and  singers,  and  large  enough  to 
hold  several  persons  easily,  was  used  for 
preacliing,  and  so  was  raised  and  nar- 
rowed into  the  form  of  thi'  ))n!]iit.  It 
j-lundd  be  placed  on  thr  Cm^im  I  sidr 
(S.  C.  R.,  February  20,  Isic'j,  unless 
that  side  is  already  oeeujned  by  tie' 
l)i.-liop's  throne.  Tie-  bl>hn[i,  accoidin- 
to  the  '•  Cicr.  E]ii.-r."  sliould  preach,  it 
possible,  from  the  throne  or  from  a  fald- 
stool at  the  altar.  If  this  is  inconvenient, 


'  he  should  be  accompanied  to  the  pulpit 
by  the  two  canons  who  assist  at  the 
throne.  (Montault,  "  Traite  de  la  Con- 
struct., etc.,  des  Eglises.'') 

}  PUBCATORY.  A  place  in  which, 
souls  w  ho  depart  this  life  in  the  grace  of 
God  suffer  lor  a  time  Ijecause  they  still 
need  to  be  cleansed  from  venial,  or  have 
still  to  pay  the  temporal  punishment  due 
to  mortal  sins,  the  guilt  and  the  eternal 
jmnishment  of  which  have  been  remitted. 
Purgatory  is  not  a  place  of  probation,  for 
the  time  of  trial,  the  period  during  which 
the  soul  is  free  to  choose  eternal  life  or 
eternal  death,  ends  with  the  separation  of 
soul  and  body.  All  the  souls  in  Purga- 
tory have  died  in  the  love  of  God,  and 
are  cei'tain  to  enter  heaven.  But  as  yet 
they  are  not  pure  and  holy  enough  to  see 
God,  and  God's  mercy  allots  them  a  place 
and  a  time  for  cleansing  and  preparation. 
At  last,  Christ  will  come  to  judge  the 
world,  and  then  there  will  be  only  two 
places  left,  heaven  and  hell. 

The  Councils  of  Florence  ("Decret. 
Uuionis")  and  Trent  ("Decret.  de  Pur- 
gat."  se>>.  XXV. ;  cf  sess.  vi.  can.  30, 
xxii.  "  De  Sacrific.  Miss."  c.  2  et 
can.  .j),  define  "  that  there  is  a  Purgatory, 
and  that  the  souls  detained  there  are 
hi-'lped  by  the  prayers  of  the  faithful  and, 
above  all,  by  the  acceptable  sacrifice  of 
the  altar."  Further  the  definitions  of 
the  Church  do  not  go,  but  the  general 
teaching  of  theologians  explains  the  doc- 
trine of  the  C'luncils,  and  enib-iie*  the 
general  ti'utiment  of  the  I'liit ! ; !n  1 ,  Tln-o- 
iMgians,  then,  tell  tliat  >ni;l>  n  !  =  .  r  death 
are  cleansed  from  the  stain  of  their  venial 
-ins  by  turning  with  fervent  lo\e  to  God 
and  by  detestafion  of  those  ofi'ences  w-hich 
marred,  though  they  did  not  entirely 
destroy,   their   union  with   Him.  St. 

I  Thomas  and  Suarez  hold  that  this  act  of 

1  fervent  love  and  perfect  sorrow  is  made 
in  the  first  instant  of  the  soul's  separation 
from  the  body,  and  suffices  of  itself  to 

'  remove  all  the  stain  of  sin.  (See  the 
quotations  in  Juugmann,"  De  Novi>simis" 

(  p.  lO.j.)    Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  certain 

:  that  the  tiuie  of  merit  expires  with  this 
life,  and  that  the  debt  of  tem])oral  punish- 
ment uut-t  >till  be  i)ald.  The  souls  in 
PurL'atory  suli'er  the  ])ain  of  loss  —  i.t. 
tliry  are'  in  aiigui-h,  luM-iuse  their  past 
sin^  exeliiiji-  tliem  for  a  >i  a~Mn  I'rom  the 
>l-hf  of  <iod,  and  tli.'v  iindei->tand  in  a 
d''gree  ]e.-e\iously  iniiHis>iUe  the  infinite 
lilies  !i(.uu  which  they  are  excluded  and 
the  foulness  of  the  least  offence  against 
the  God  who  has  created  and  redeemed 


PURGATORY 


PURGATORY 


7G7 


them.  They  also  under<ro  "  the  pimisli- 
ment  of  sense  " — i.e.  positive  pains  which 
afflict  the  soul.  It  is  tlie  cominoii  belief 
of  the  Western  Church  that  they  are 
tormented  by  material  fire,  and  it  is 
quite  conceivable  that  God  should  give 
matter  the  power  of  constraining  and 
afflicting  even  separated  souls.  But  the 
Greeks  have  never  accepted  this  belief, 
nor  was  it  imposed  upon  them  when  they 
returned  to  Catholic  unity  at  Florence. 
The  saints  and  doctors  of  the  Church 
describe  these  pains  as  very  terrible. 
They  last,  no  doubt,  for  very  diflerent 
lengths  of  time,  and  vary  in  intensity 
acCJrding  to  the  need  of  individual  cases. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  just  who  are 
alive  when  Christ  comes  again,  and  who 
stand  in  need  of  cleansing,  will  be  purified 
in  some  e.\traordinary  way— e.^.  by  the 
troubles  of  the  last  days,  by  vehement 
contrition,  &c.,  but  all  this  is  mere  con- 
jecture. In  conclusion,  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  there  is  a  bright  as  well 
as  a  dark  side  to  Purgatory.  The  souls 
there  are  certain  of  their  salvation,  they 
are  willing  sufferers,  and  no  words,  ac- 
cording to  St.  Catherine  of  Genoa,  can 
express  the  joy  with  which  they  are 
filled,  as  they  mcrease  in  union  with  God. 
She  says  their  joy  can  be  compared  to 
nothing  except  the  greater  joy  of  Para- 
dise itself.  '^See  for  numerous  citations, 
Jungniann,  "  De  Noviss."  cap.  1,  a.  6.) 

This  may  suffice  as  an  account  of 
theological  teacliiim-  on  tlie  subject.  It 
must  not  be  snjipused  that  any  such 
weight  belong-  to  Icgi'inls  and  specula- 
tions which  abound  in  medireval  chronicles 
(see  Maskell,  "Monument,  Rit."  vol.  ii.  p. 
Ixxi.),  and  which  often  nppear  in  modern 
books.  The  Council  of  Trent  (sess.  xxv. 
Decret.  de  Purgat.),  while  it  enjoins 
bishops  to  teach  "  the  sound  doctrine  of 
Purgatory,  handed  down  by  the  holy 
Fathers  and  councils,"  bids  them  refrain 
"in  popular  discourses"  from  those 
"more  difficult  and  subtle  questions 
•which  do  not  tend  to  edification,"  and 
"to  prohibit  the  publication  and  discus- 
sion of  things  which  are  doubtful  or  even 
appear  false." 

Scripture,  it  may  be  justly  said,  points 
to  the  existence  of  Purgatory.  There  is 
no  fellowshiji  between  the  darkness  of 
Bin  and  selfishness  and  God,  "  in  whom 
there  is  no  darkness  at  all,"  so  that  the 
degree  of  our  purity  is  the  measure  of 
our  union  with  God  here  on  earth. 
Perfect  purity  is  needed  that  we  may  see 
God  face  to  face.    When  God  appears 


'  "we  shall  be  like  Ilim,  for  we  shall  see 
Him  as  He  is."  "  Every  man  who  hath 
this  hope  in  him  puritieth  himself,  as  he 
is  pure"  (1  John  iii.  2,  3).  Without 
holiness  "  no  man  shall  see  the  Lord  " 
(Heb.  xii.  14).  This  work  of  inner 
cleansing  may  be  effected  by  our  corre- 

I  spondence  with  grace.  We  sow  as  we 
reap:  deeds  of  humility  increase  humility; 

I  works  of  love  deepen  the  love  of  God  and 

{  man  in  the  soul.  Often,  too,  God's  mercy 
in  this  life  weans  the  soul  from  the  love  of 
the  world,  and  .nffliction  may  be  a  special 
mark  of  His  compassion.  "  Whom  the 
Lord  loves  He  disciplines,  and  He 
scourges  every  son  whom  He  receives  " 
(Heb.  X.  6).  He  disciplines  us  "for  our 
good,  that  we  may  participate  in  His 
sanctity  "  {ib.  10).  Now,  it  is  plain  that 
in  the  case  of  many  good  people  this 
discipline  has  not  done  its  work  when 
death  overtakes  tliem.  Many  faults,  e.g. 
of  bad  temper,  vanity,  and  the  like,  and 
infirmity  consequent  on  more  serious  sins 
of  which  they  have  repented,  cleave  to 
them  still.  Surely,  then,  the  natural 
inference  is  that  their  preparation  for 
heaven  is  completed  after  death.  By 
painful  discipline  in  this  world  or  the 
next  God  finishes  the  work  in  them  which 
He  has  begun,  and  perfects  it  "  imto  the 
day  of  Jesus  Christ"  (Phil.  i.  6). 

We  would  appeal  to  those  general 
principles  of  Scripture  rather  than  to 
particular  texts  often  all^oed  in  proof  of 
Purgatory.  We  doubt  if  they  contain 
an  explicit  and  direct  reference  to  it. 
St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  iii.  10)  speaks  of  some 
who  will  be  saved  "  yet  as  through  fire," 
but  he  seems  to  mean  the  fire  in  which 
Christ  is  to  appear  at  the  last.  He  him- 
self, he  says,  has  estalilished  the  Corinthian 
Church  on  the  only  possible  foundation — 
viz.  Jesus  Christ.  Others  have  built  it 
up  from  this  foundation,  or,  in  other 
words,  have  develn])pd  the  Christian  faith 
and  life  of  its  members.  These  teachers, 
however,  must  take  care  how  they  build, 
even  on  the  one  foundation.  "  Each 
man's  work  will  be  made  manifest,  for 
the  day  will  show  it,  because  it  [the  day 
of  judgment]  is  revealed  in  fire,  and  the 
fire  will  test  each  man's  work  of  what 
kind  it  is :  if  any  man's  work  which  he 
has  built  up  [on  the  foundation]  remains, 
he  will  receive  a  reward ;  if  any  man's 
work  is  burnt  down  he  will  suffi^r  loss — 
[i.e.  he  will  forfi'it  the  special  reward  and 
glory  of  good  teachers],  but  he  himself 
will  be  saved,  but  so  as  through  fire." 
The  man  who  has  built  up  with  faulty 


768  rURGATORY 


PURGATORY 


material  is  depicted  as  still  working  at 
the  building  when  the  fire  of  Christ's 
coming  seizes  it  and  he  himself  escapes, 
but  only  as  a  man  does  from  a  house  on 
fire,  leaving  the  work  which  is  consumed 
behind  him.  St.  Paul,  if  we  have  caught 
his  meaning,  spraks  of  the  end  of  the 
world,  not  of  the  time  between  death  and 
judgment,  and  so,  we  think,  does  our 
Lord  in  Matt.  xii.  32.  The  sin  against 
the  Holy  Ghost,  he  tells  us,  will  not  be 
forgiven,  either  "  in  this  age  "  (eV  tovtw 
Tw  aloovi) — i.e.  in  the  world  which  now 
is — or  in  the  futtire  age  (tV  fa  fieXKovri) — 
i.e.  in  the  new  world,  or  rather  new  period 
which  is  to  be  ushered  in  by  the  coming 
of  the  Messias  in  glory.  There  is  no  hope 
of  forgiveness  here  or  hereafter  for  the 
sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost,  but  it  does  not 
follow,  and,  granting  our  interpretation, 
it  woidd  be  inconsistent  with  Catholic 
doctrine  to  believe,  that  other  sins  may  be 
forgiven  in  the  age  to  come.  Thus,  "  the 
age  to  come"  would  have  precisely  the 
same  sense  as  the  corresponding  Hebrew 

words   (N3n  DViyn— see,   e.g.,   "  Pirke 

Avoth,"  cap.  4,  and  for  many  other  in- 
stances Buxtorf,  "Lex.  Rabbin,  et  Chald. 

sub  voc.  th^V),  which  is  in  itself  a  strong 
argument,  and  the  meaning  we  have 
given  is  fully  supported  by  New  Testa- 
ment usage  (see  particularly  rov  aloyvos 
eKfivov  Tv^elv,  Luke  XX.  35,  and  o-vvT(\tia 
roil  alaivos,  Matt.  xiii.  39,  40,  49,  xxiv.  3, 
xxviii.  20 — decisive  passages,  as  we  ven- 
ture to  think).  Maldonatus  decidedly 
rejects  the  supposed  allusion  to  Purgatory 
in  Matt.  v.  25,  20.  "  Be  well-disposed 
to  thine  adversary  [i.e.  the  offended 
brother]  quickly,  even  till  thou  art  on 
the  way  with  him  [i.e.  it  is  never  too 
soon  and  never,  till  life  is  over,  too  late 
to  be  reconciled],  lest  the  adversary  hand 
thee  over  to  the  judge,  and  the  judge 
hand  thee  over  to  the  officer,  and  thou 
be  cast  into  prison.  Amen,  I  say  unto 
thee  thou  shalt  not  go  out  thence  till 
thou  shalt  pay  the  last  farthing."  Mal- 
donatus follows  St.  Augustine  in  the 
opinion  that  the  "last  farthing"  will 
never  and  can  never  be  paid,  and  that 
the  punishment  is  eternal.  Ju.st  in  the 
same  way  it  is  said  of  the  unmerciful 
slave  (Luke  xviii.  34)  that  he  was  to  be 
handed  over  to  the  tormentors  "  till  he 
should  pay  all  the  debt."  Yet  a  slave 
could  never  pay  so  enormous  a  sum  as 
10,000  talents.  "  Semper  solvet,  sed 
nunquam  persolvet,"  "He  will  always 


I  pay,  but  never  pay  off,"  is  the  happy 
comment  of  Remigius  (and  so  Chrysostom 
and  Augustine ;  see  Trench,  "  Parables,** 
'  p.  164).  The  reader  will  find  the  various 
interpretations  of  these  texts  fairly  dis- 
cussed in  Estius  and  Maldonatus  or  in 
Meyer.  Bollinger,  however  ("  First  Age 
of  the  Church,"  p.  249),  sees  an  "  unmis- 
takable reference  "  to  Purgatory  in  Matt, 
xii.  32,  V.  26. 

In  two  special  ways,  writers  of  tha 
early  Church,  as  Cardinal  Newman  points 
out  ("Development,"  p.  385  seq.),  were 
led  to  formulate  the  belief  in  Purgatory. 
!  In  the  articles  on  the  sacrament  of  Pen- 
;  ance,  we  have  shown  the  strength  of 
'  primitive  belief  in  the  need  of  satisfaction 
for  sin  by  painful  works,  and  in  the 
article  on  Penance  the  rigour  with  which 
satisfaction  was   exacted.    Indeed,  the 
belief  in  Purgatory  lay  dormant  in  the 
priaiitive  Church  to  a  certain  extent,  just 
because  the  fervour  of  the  first  Christians 
was  so  vehement,  just  because  the  severity 
of  penance  here  might  well  be  thought  to 
exclude  the  need  of  purifying  discipline 
after  death.   But  what  was  to  be  thought 
[  of  those  who  were  reconciled  on  their 
I  death-bed,  before  their  penance  was  ended 
;  or  even  begun,  or  in  whom  outward  pen- 
j  ance  for  some  cause  or  other  had  failed  to 
j  do  the  whole  of  its  work  ?    Clement  of 
i  Alexandria  supplies  a  clear  answer  to 
!  this  question  :  "  Even  if  a  man  passes  out 
of  the  flesh,  he  must  put  off  his  passions, 
ere  he  is  able  to  enter  the  eternal  dwell- 
ing, .  .  .  through  much  discipliue,  there- 
fore, stripping  off  his  passions,  our  faith- 
ful man  will  go  to  the  mansion  which  is 
better  than  the  former,  bearing  in  the 
special  penance  which  appertains  to  him 
(iSi'co/Ma  Tris  fieravnias)  a  very  great  punish- 
ment for  the  sins  he  has  committed  after 
j  baptism"  ("Strom."  vi.  14,  p.  794,  ed. 
Potter).    He  speaks  of  the  angels  "  who 
preside   over   the  ascent ''  of  souls  as 
detaining  those  who  have  preserved  any 
worldly  attachment  (iv.  18,  p.  61()),  and 
with  at  least  a  possible  reference  to  Pur- 
gatory, of  fire  as  purifying  sinful  souls 
(vii.  6.  p.  851).    The  genuine  and  con- 
temporary Acts  of  St.  Perpetua,  who 
suffered  under  Septimius  Severus  at  the 
very   beginning   of  the  third  century, 
plainly  imply  the  belief  in  Purgatory. 
The  saint,  according  to  a  part  of  the  Acts 
written  by  herself,  saw  in  a  vision  her 
brother  who  was  dead,  and  for  whom  she 
had  prayed.     He  was  suffering,  and  she 
went  on  praying.    Then  she  beheld  him 
in  another  and  more  cheerful  vision,  and 


PUEGATORY 


PURGATORY  700 


"knew  that  he  was  translated  from  his 
place  of  punishment "  {de  poena  ;  Ruin- 
art,  "Act.  Mart.  S.  Perpet."  &c.,  vii. 
viii.).  Cyprian  (Ep.  Iv.  20),  in  answer 
to  the  objection  that  the  relaxation  of 
penitential  discipline  in  the  case  of  the 
lapsed  would  weaken  the  courage  and 
stability  which  made  martyrs,  insists  that 
after  ail  the  position  of  one  who  had 
fallen  away  and  then  been  admitted  to 
martyrdom  would  always  be  much  less 
desirable  than  that  of  a  martyr.  "  It  is 
one  thing  for  a  man  to  be  cast  into  prison 
and  not  to  leave  it  till  he  pay  the  last 
farthing,  another  thing  to  receive  at 
once  the  reward  of  faith  and  virtue ; 
one  thing  to  be  tormented  long  with 
sorrow  for  sins,  to  be  purified  and  cleansed 
for  a  long  time  hy  the  fire,  another  to 
purge  away  all  sins  by  martyrdom." 
Cardinal  Newman  urges  that  these  words, 
especially  "  missum  in  carcerem,"  "  pur- 
gari  diu  igne,"  "seem  to  go  beyond"  a 
mere  reference  to  penitential  discipline  in 
this  life,  and  the  Benedictine  editor  is  of 
the  same  mind. 

Next,  we  can  prove  the  early  date  of 
belief  in  Purgatory  from  the  habit  of 

fraying  for  the  dead,  a  habit  which  the 
Ihurch  inherited  from  the  Synagogue. 
The  words  in  2  Mace.  xii.  42  scq.  are 
familiar  to  everybody.  Judas  found 
t'fpci^iara,  or  things  consecrated  to  idols, 
under  the  garments  of  those  who  had 
been  slain  in  battle  against  Gorgias. 
AVhereupon  he  made  a  collection  of 
money  and  sent  to  Jerusalem,  "  to  offer 
sacrifice  for  sin,  doing  very  well  and 
►'xcellently,  reasoning  about  the  dead. 
For  unless  he  had  expected  those  who 
had  fallen  before  [the  others]  to  rise 
again,  it  would  have  been  superfluous  and 
absurd  to  pray  for  the  dead.  Therefore, 
seeing  well  [etifikmtav]  that  a  most  fair 
reward  is  reserved  for  those  who  sleep 
in  piety,  his  design  was  holy  and  pious, 
whence  he  made  the  propitiation  for 
the  dead  that  they  might  be  loosed  from 
sin."  '  This  passage  implies  a  belief  both 
in  Purgatory  and  the  efficacy  of  prayers 
for  the  departed,  and  takes  for  granted 
that  this  belief  would  be  held  by  all  who 
believed  in  the  resurrection.  This  is  not 
the  place  to  discuss  the  canonical  or  even 
the  historical  character  of  the  book.  It 
represents  a  school  of  Jewish  belief  at 
the  time,  and  we  know  from  xv.  37  that 

1  This  sentence  is,  of  course,  ungranimati- 
cal ;  but  80  is  the  Greek.  A  part  cf  2  Mace,  is 
more  like  rouph  notes  than  a  finished  composi- 
tion. 


it  was  written  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.  Second  Maccabees  was  com- 
posed in  Greek,  but  we  have  the  full.'st 
evidence  from  Hebrew  and  Chiildee 
sources  that  the  later  Jews  prayed  for 
the  dead  and  recognised  the  need  of 
purification  after  death.  Weber  ("  Alt- 
synag.  Palfist.  Theol."  p.  326  seq.)  thus 
sums  up  tlie  Rabbinical  doctrine  :  "  Only 
a  few  are  sure  of  [immediate]  entrance 
into  heaven;  the  majority  are  at  their 
death  still  not  ripe  for  heaven,  and  yet 
will  not  be  absolutely  excluded  from  it. 
Accordingly,  we  are  referred  to  a  middle 
state,  a  stage  between  death  and  eternal 
life,  wliich  serves  for  the  final  perfecting." 
Those  who  were  not  perfectly  just  here 
suffer  "  the  pain  of  fire,  and  the  fire  is 
their  penance."  The  "  Pesil(ta,"  a  very 
ancient  commentary  on  sections  of  the 
Law  and  Prophets,  composed  at  t  he  begin- 
ning of  the  third  century  after  Christ, 
describes  the  penance  as  lasting  usually 
twelve  months,  of  which  six  are  spent  in 
extreme  heat,  six  in  extreme  cold.  The 
common  Rabbinical  doctrine  that  Israel- 
ites, except  those  guilty  of  some  special 
sin,  do  at  last  enter  heaven,  and  the 
fantastical  shapes  which  the  Jewish  doc- 
trine of  Purgatory  has  assumed,  do  not 
concern  us  here.  But  it  is  well  to  ob- 
serve that  the  Jews  have  never  ceased  to 
pray  for  their  dead.  The  following  is 
from  the  prayer  said  at  the  house  of 
mourners,  as  given  in  a  modern  Jewish 
prayer-book,  issued  with  authority : — 
"  May  our  reading  of  the  law  and  our 
prayer  be  acceptable  before  Thee  for  the 
soul  of  N.  Deal  with  it  according  to  thy 
great  mercy,  opening  to  it  the  gates  of 
compassion  and  mercy  and  the  gates  of 
the  garden  of  Eden,  and  receive  it  in  love 
and  favour ;  send  thy  holy  angels  to 
it  to  conduct  it,  and  give  it  rest  beneath 
the  Tree  of  Life."  (pnV!  Ti'V  "  Medi- 
tation of  Isaac,"  a  Jewish  prayer-book 
according  to  the  German  and  Polish  rite, 
pp.  336-7).' 

Against  the  Jewish  custom  and  doc- 
trine Christ  and  His  Apostles  made  no 
protest,  though  lioth  custom  and  doctrine 
existed  in  their  time.  Nay,  "St.  Paul 
himself  [cf.  2  Tim.  i.  16-18  with  iv.  19] 
gives  an  example  of  such  a  prayer.  The 

>  The  is  recited  at  morning  and  even- 

ing prayer  for  deceased  parents  during  eleven 
months  of  the  year  of  mourning.  Formerly  it 
was  said  for  the  whole  year.  It  is  one  of  "the 
few  prayers  in  tlie  Kitual  which  are  in  Chaldee 
instead  of  Hebrew,  but  there  are  internal  signs 
that  it  comes  from  a  lost  Hebrew  original. 

3d 


770  PURGATOKY 


PURIFICATIOX  OF  B.  V.  M. 


Epliesian  Onesiphorus,  mentioned  in  tlie 
Second  Epistle  to  St.  Timothy,  -was 
clearly  no  longer  among  the  living.  St. 
Paul  praises  this  man  for  his  constant 
service  to  him,  but  does  not,  as  elsevchere, 
send  salutations  to  him,  but  only  to  his 
family  ;  for  him  he  desires  a  blessing  from 
the  Lord,  and  prays  for  him  that  the  Lord 
will  grant  he  may  find  mercy  with  Christ 
at  the  day  of  judgment."  The  words  in 
inverted  commas  are  from  Bollinger's 
"  First  Age  of  the  Church,"  p.  25]  ; 
but  many  Protestant  commentators, 
among  whom  we  may  mention  De  Wette 
and  Huther,  who  is  eminent  among  recent 
commentators  on  the  Pastoral  Epistles, 
lean  to  the  same  interpretation. 

All  this  con.sidered,  it  carmot  seem 
strange  that  every  ancient  liturgy  con- 
tains prayers  for  the  dead.  To  under- 
stand the  strength  of  this  argument  we 
must  remember  that  these  liturgies  are 
written  in  many  different  languages,  and 
represent  the  practice  in  every  part  of  the 
ancient  world.  The  very  first  Christian 
who  has  left  Latin  writings  speaks  of 
"  oblations  for  the  dead  "  as  a  thing  of 
course  (TertuU.  "De  Coron."  3).  It  is 
often  said  that  prayers  for  the  dead  do 
not  necessarily  imply  belief  in  Purgatory, 
and  this  is  true.  The  words,  e.g.,  in  the 
Clementine  liturgy,  "We  offer  to  Thee 
for  all  Thy  saints  who  have  pleased  Thee 
from  ancient  days,  patriarchs,  prophets, 
just  men,  apostles,  martyrs,  confessors, 
bishops,  presby  ters,  deacons,  subdeacons, 
readers,  singers,  virgins,  widows,  laymen, 
and  all  whose  name  Thou  Imowest,"  do 
not  imply  that  those  for  whom  the  sacri- 
fice is  oti'ered  are  in  a  state  of  suffering. 
But  TertuUian  ("  Monog."  10)  connects 
prayer  for  the  dead  with  Purgatory  wlien 
he  says  of  a  woman  who  has  lost  her 
husband  that  "she  prays  for  his  soul, 
and  .supplicates  for  him  refreshment  [re- 
fn(jeriimi\,  and  a  part  in  the  first  resur- 
rection, and  offers  on  the  anniversaries  of 
his  death  \dormitioms\"  So,  too,  St. 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem  ("Mystagog."  5): 
"  If  when  a  king  had  banished  certain 
who  had  given  him  offence,  their  con- 
nections should  weave  a  crown  and  offer 
it  to  him  on  Iji'half  of  those  under  his 
vengeance,  would  he  not  grant  a  respite 
to  their  punishments?  In  the  same 
manner  we,  when  we  offer  to  Him  our 
supplications  for  those  who  have  fallen 
asleep,  though  they  be  sinners,  weave  no 
crown,  but  offer  up  Christ  sacrificed  for 
our  sins,  propitiating  our  merciful  God, 
both  for  them  and  for  ourselves."  Still 


1  the  doctrine  was  not  fully  established  in 
I  the  West  till  the  time  of  Gregory  the 
I  Great.  Some  of  the  Greeks  conceived 
that  all,  however  perfect,  must  pass 
through  fire  in  the  next  world.  So,  e.g., 
Origen,  "  In  Num."  Horn.  xxv.  6,  "  In 
Ps.  xxvi."  Hom.  iii.  1.  St.  Augustine 
had,  indeed,  the  present  doctrine  of  Pur- 
gatory clearly  before  his  mind,  but  had 
no  fixed  conviction  on  the  point.  In  his 
work  '•■  De  VIII  Dulcitii  Quaestionibus  " 
(§  13),  written  about  420,  he  says  it  is 
"  not  incredible  "that  imperfect  .souls  will 
be  "saved  by  some  purgatorial  fire,"'  to 
which  they  will  be  subjected  for  varying 
lengths  of  time  according  to  their  needs. 

A  little  later,  in  the  "  De  Civitate," 
he  expresses  his  belief  in  Purgatory  as  if 
he  were  certain  (xxi.  13)  or  nearly  so  (xx. 
25),  but  again  speaks  doubtfully  (xxi.  26, 
"  forsitan  verum  est  ")  and  in  the  "  Enchi- 
ridion" (69).  Very  different  is  Gregory's 
tone:  "  Ante  judicium  purgatorius  ignis 
credendus  est  "  ("  Dial."  iv.  39). 

PVRXFXCATXOlir,  as  distinct  from 
ablution,  is  the  pouring  of  vrine  into  the 
chalice  after  the  priest's  communion,  the 
wine  being  drunk  by  the  priest.  This 
purification  is  not  of  ancient  date. 
"  Liturgical  writers,"  says  Le  Brun  ("  Ex- 
plication de  la  Messe,''  P.  v.  a.  9,  §  3), 
"  down  to  the  treatise  on  the  mysteries  by 
Cardinal  Lothair,  afterwards  Pope  under 
the  name  of  Innocent  III.,  at  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  century,  simply  note  that  the 
priest  washes  his  hands,  that  the  water 
was  thrown  into  a  clean  and  decent  place, 
called  the  piscina,  and  that  [the  water] 
used  to  wash  the  chalice  was  thrown  into 
the  same  place."  But  Innocent  III.,  fifteen 
or  sixteen  years  after  writing  his  treatise 
"  De  Mysteriis,''  laid  it  down  that  the 
priest  should  always  use  wine  to  purify 
the  chalice,  and  drink  it,  unless  he  was 
going  to  say  another  Mass. 

PVRZrXCATZONT  OF  THE 
bx.essz:d  vxrczw.  The  Levitical 
law  (Lev.  xii.  2  seq.)  declared  women 
unclean  for  seven  days  after  the  birth  of 
a  male  child  ;  it  excluded  them  from  the 
sanctuary  for  thirty-three  days  more  ;  on 
the  fortieth  they  had  to  appear  in  the 
temple  and  to  offer  a  lamb  one  year  old 
for  a  holocaust  and  a  young  pigeon  or 
turtle-dove  as  a  sin-offering.  In  the  case 
of  the  poor  it  was  enough  to  offer  two 
turtle-doves  or  young  pigeons,  one  as  a 
holocaust  and  the  other  as  a  sin-offering. 
The  Blessed  Virgin  was  not  bound  by  this 
law,  since  the  child  born  of  her  was  con- 
ceived by  the  Holy  Ghost  (see  Levit  xii.  2 


PURIFICATION  OF  B.  V.  M. 

and  St.  Thomas  "  Sumnia,"-".,  q.  xxxvii.  1). 
But  her  divine  Son  subjected  Himself  to 
the  burdens  of  the  law  that  He  might  set 
Ilis  seal  to  its  divine  origin,  remove  occa- 
sion of  cavil,  and  leave  us  an  exanyple  of 
humility ;  and  similar  motives  no  doubt 
induced  the  Virgin  herself  to  undergo  the 
rite  of  purification.  It  is  this  event  which 
the  Church  celebrates  in  the  feast  which 
bears  that  name,  and  is  kept  for  a  reason 
virtually  given  already  on  the  fortieth 
day  after  Christmas,  i.e.  February  2.  If, 
however,  we  turn  to  the  Mass  for  the  day, 
we  find  no  less  prominence  given  to  two 
other  events  which  were  simultaneous  with 


PYX 


771 


the 


pun: 


fication.    Candles  are  blessed  and 


carried  in  procession  to  remind  us  how  the 
holy  old  man  Simeon  met  our  Lord,  took 
Ilini  in  his  arms,  and  declared  Him  the  light 
of  the  G  < '  11 ;  lies  a  n  (1  the  glory  of  Israel.  Next, 
in  the  collect,  epistle,  and  the  gospel  there 
are  marked  references  to  the  fact  that  our 
Lord  was  at  the  same  time  presented  in 
the  temple  before  God  and  redeemed  with 
live  holy  shekels  (Luke  xii.  22,  of.  Exod. 
xiii.  2  ;  Num.  viii.  16,  xviii.  15).  Indeed, 
these  two  latter  incidents  are  more  pro- 
minent in  the  Mass  and  office  than  that  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin's  purification,  and  it  is 
notewortliy  that  the  Preface  in  the  Mass 
is  the  same  as  that  of  Christmas,  not  the 
one  which  is  proper  to  the  feasts  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  The  Greeks  number  the 
festival  amongst  those  of  our  Lord,  and 
call  it  VTravTrj,  viranavTrj,  i.e.  the  meeting 
of  Christ  with  Simeon  and  Anna.  The 
old  Latin  title  "  occursus,"  "  obviatio," 
points  in  the  same  direction.  So  Bede 
calls  it "  Oblatio  Christi  ad  templum,"  and 
in  the  Ambrosian  rite  it  is  still  reckoned 
among  the  solemnities  of  our  Lord's  life. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  name  in  the  Roman 
Missal  and  Breviary,  viz.  "  Purificatio 
B.V.M.,"  stamps  it  as  a  feast  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  The  English  name  Candlemas 
refers  of  course  to  the  candles  blessed  and 
carried  in  procession  before  Mass. 

We  have  the  first  certain  traces  of  the 
observance  in  the  East.  No  Father  of 
the  first  five  centuries  mentions  it,  for  the 
homily  of  ^lethodius  on  the  feast  is  pro- 
bably due  to  Methodius  of  Constantinople 
in  the  ninth  century,  and  in  any  case  is 
certainly  not  by  Methodius  of  Tyre,  who 
lived  at  the  end  of  the  third.  Similar 
homilies  attributed  to  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 


Amphilochius  and  Gregory  Nyssen  are 
admitted  on  all  hands  to  be  spurious.  In 
the  year  54.3,  says  Fleury  ("  IT.  Iv"  livr. 
xxxiii.  7),  "they  began  to  ii'lrhrate  at 
Constantinople  the  feastof  tlie  Piirilication, 
named  by  the  Greeks  Ilypapaiite,"  and  he 
refers  to  the  notes  of  Baronius  on  the 
martjrology  for  Fv-bruary  2.  Fleury's 
statement  is  undoubtedly  accurate.  But 
there  is  nothing  incredible  in  that  of 
Cedrenus  that  there  was  a  local  cele- 
bration at  Antioch  begun  under  the 
Emperor  Justin  in  526,  while  Tillemonf 
("M^m."  tom.  1,  note  7  on  the  life  of 
Christ)  infers  from  a  passage  in  the  life  of 
the  abbot  Theodosius  that  the  day  was 
kept  in  the  Church  of  Jerusalem  as  early 
as  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  We 
cannot  say  for  certain  when  it  was  intro- 
duced in  the  We.st,  and  the  conjecture  of 
Baronius  that  PopeGelasius,  who  abolished 
the  lieathen  festival  of  the  Lupercalia  in  the 
month  of  February,  persuaded  the  people 
to  accept  the  feast  of  the  Purification  in- 
stead, is  only  a  conjecture  and  not  a  very 
probable  one.  Be  that  as  it  may,  we 
have  evidence  that  the  feast  was  known 
to  Bede  ("De  Rat.  Temp."  cap.  13),  who 
died  in  735.  It  is,  moreover,  mentioned 
in  the  Sacramentary  of  St.  Gregory  and  in 
the  Capitularies  of  Charlemagne  (in  the 
latter  under  tlie  modern  title,  Purificatio 
S.  Mariae ;  see  Thomassin,  "  TraitiS  des 
Festes,"  livr.  ii.  ch.  1 1),  and  after  tliat  time 
it  was  clearly  recognised  everywhere. 
The  candles  borne  in  procession  and  held 
in  the  hand  at  Mass  are  spoken  of  by 
Bede,  loc.  cif.,  and  by  St.  Eligins  ("  Hom. 
ii.  in  die  Purificationis  S.  Marise"),  who 
was  bishop  of  Noyon  from  640-648.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  does  not  seem  possible 
to  trace  the  rite  for  the  blessing  of  the 
candles  beyond  the  eleventh  century. 

PITRZFZSR.     [See  MUNDATORT.] 

PYX.  A  vase  in  which  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  is  reserved.  The  word  occurs 
in  this  sense  in  a  decree  of  Pope  Leo  IV., 
who  reigned  from  847-885  (Mansi, 
"  Concil."  xiv.  891).  The  pyx  should  be  of 
silver,  gilt  inside,  and  covered  witli  a  silk 
veil.  It  is  not  consecrated,  but  the  Missal 
gives  a  form  for  the  blessing  of  a  pyx  by 
the  bishop  or  priest  with  episcopal  facul- 
ties. ("Manuale  Decret."  p.  76  note). 
[See  also  RESERyATiON  or  the  Blessed 
Saoraiqint.] 


8i>2 


772  QUADRAGESI-MA 


QUIETISM 


Q 


QITADRACESIMA.    [See  Lext.] 

QVJESTORES.  Persons  appointed 
by  tbe  Popes  and  bishops  who  announced 
the  indulgences  for  those  who  joined  or 
supported  the  Crusades,  contributed  to 
the  building  of  churches,  to  monasteries, 
&c.,  and  collected  the  alms  given  for  these 
objects.  The  Foui  th  General  Council  of 
the  Lateran  (in  1215)  enjoined  the 
Qucestors  to  be  modest  and  discreet. 
They  were  not  to  be  received  unless  they 
could  produce  letters  of  authorisation,  and 
were  only  to  propose  to  the  people  what 
these  letters  contained.  Similar  regula- 
tions were  made  by  the  Council  of  Vienne 
in  1311.  The  Council  of  Trent  (sess.  xxi. 
De  Ref.  cap.  9)  declared  that  these 
Quaestors  had  occasioned  intolerable 
scandal,  that  the  proposed  remedies  had 
been  inefficacious,  and  abolished  the  office 
altogether. 

QXrA.RAM'TXN'E.  A  period  of  forty 
days.  Indulgences  of  seven  years  and 
seven  quarantines  are  often  granted  for 
certain  devotions.    [See  Indulgences.] 

QVATEB  TENSES.  An  old  Eng- 
lish name  tor  the  Ember  Days  (q.  v.). 

QUIETISM  is  a  name  given  to  a 
dangerous  tendency  rather  than  to  any 
definite  system,  for  persons  called  by  the 
common  name  of  Quietists  have  differed 
seriously  from  each  other,  and  have  ad- 
vanced to  different  degrees  of  delusion. 
The  common  tendency  consists  in  making 
perfection  here  on  earth  consist  iu  a  state 
of  uninterrupted  contemplation  (see  Bos- 
suet,  ""&tats  d'Oraison, '  livr.  1)  during 
which  the  soul  remains  quiet  or  passive 
under  the  influence  of  God's  Spirit,  with- 
out forming  the  ordinary  acts  of  faith, 
hope,  love,  &c.,  without  desiring  heaven 
or  fearing  hell. 

Molinos,  a  Spanish  priest,  born  at 
Saragos.<a  in  1027,'  was  the  first  Quietist 
of  modern  times.  He  spent  a  great  part 
of  his  life  at  Rome,  and,  while  there, 
publislied  in  Spanish  his  "  Spiritual 
Guide"  which  was  translated  into  Italian, 
Latin,  French,  German,  and  other  lan- 
guages. He  maintained  not  only  tlie 
merits  of  passive  contemplation  without 
hope  or  desire,  but  also  that  the  soul  in 

'  So  the  new  edition  >  f  Bossuet,  vol.  xix. 
Pref. 


this  state  neither  gained  by  the  practice 

I  of  good  works  nor  suffered  by  gross  sins, 
which  last  only  affected  the  lower  part 
of  the  nature  and  could  not  tarnish  the 
purity  of  a  contemplative  soul.  In  1685 
the  Inquisition  censured  68  propositions 
of  Molinos  and  condemned  the  author  to 
perpetual  imprisonment,  in  which  he 
died,  having  recanted  his  errors,  in  1696.' 

Quietism  crossed  the  Alps,  stripped, 
however,  of  its  gross  and  directly  im- 
moral part.  It  was  propagated  by 
Malaval  at  Marseilles  in  his  "Pratique 
facile  pour  clever  I'Ame  a  la  Contempla- 
tion." This  book  also  was  condemned  at 
Rome,  and  Malaval  submitted.  But 
Quietism  found  a  much  more  talented 
and  engaging  defender  in  Madame  Guyon. 
This  ladj',  originally  Jeaime  Bouvier  de 
la  Motte,  had  contracted  an  unhappy 
marriage  at  16  and  was  left  a  widow  at 
28.  She  went  to  the  diocese  of  Geneva 
at  the  bishop's  request  to  help  in  the  in- 
struction of  converts,  and  at  a  convent  in 
Gex  met  the  Barnabite  Father  Lacombe, 
with  whom  she  travelled  from  town  to 
town.  At  Grenoble  she  published  her 
"  Moyen  court  et  facile  pour  faire 
rOraison."  Some  time  before,  P.  Lacombe 
had  issued  his  "Analyse  de  TOraison 
Mentale."  Lacombe  was  imprisoned  at 
Paris,  where  he  died  in  1699,  and  for 
eight  months  Madame  Guyon  herself  was 
confined  to  a  convent.  After  regaining 
her  freedom,  she  published  a  book  on  the 
"  Mystical  Sense  of  Canticles  "  (Lyons, 
1688),  and  she  contrived  to  win  over 
F6nelon,  then  tutor  to  the  grandson  of 
Louis  XIV.,  and  she  sent  her  works, 
printed  and  MS.,  to  Bossuet.  But  with 
Bossuet  she  could  make  no  way.  His 
profound  lefirning,  liis  common  sense,  his 
manly  and  simple  piety,  made  him  proof 
against  the  charms  of  delusion,  and  he 
could  see  nothing  in  Madame  Guyon's 
works  except  "  a  mass  of  extravagances, 

1  The  chief  contemporary  documents  re- 
lating to  the  condemnation  of  Molinos  and  his 
followers  were  published  in  1875.  by  Loemmer, 
jSIeletematum  Romanorum  Mantissa,  p.  407  si-q. 

-  Her  other  works  are  :  her  autohiosraphy. 
:i  vols.;  Discours  C7ire<jens.  2  vols. ;  L'Ancien 
et  le  Xouveau  Testament .  avec  dts  Erplicatiansel 
I  des  Rijiexitms,  iO  vols. ;  Cantiques  Spirituelt ; 
I  Vers  Mystiques. 


QUINQUAGESIMA 

illusions,  and  puerilities."  He  has  fully 
justified  this  Terdict  in  hi^  "  Relation  sur 
le  Qui^tisme."  A  commission  in  which 
Bossuet  was  the  leading  member  met  in 
1604  and  1695,  and  issued  thirty-four 
articles  in  which  the  condemnation  of 
Quietism  was  implied. 

Feuelon  was  made  archbishop  of 
Cambray  in  1695,  and  soon  after  (Feb. 
1697)  published  his  "Explication  des 
Maximes  des  Saints  sur  la  Vie  interieure." 
He  defended  the  Quietist  idea  of  "  holy 
indifference,"  in  which  the  soul  loses  all 
deliberate  desire  of  its  own  bliss  or  fear 
of  it5  own  woe.  F^nelon,  who  was  cen- 
sured by  sixty  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne 
and  refuted  by  Bossuet,  appealed  to 
Rome,  and  there  twenty-three  proposi- 
tions of  his  book  were  condemned  as 
rash,  scandalous,  kc,  in  a  brief  of  Inno- 
cent XII.  dated  1699.  F^nelon  made  a 
most  edifying  submission,  publicly  burn- 
ing his  own  book.  "It  is  not  I  who 
have  conquered,"  Bossuet  said  in  reply  to 
the  congratulations  oflered  to  him;  "it 
is  the  truth."  (Chiefly  from  the  new 
edition  of  Bossuet. ) 

Qvzii'qvACESznxA,  Sexagesimal 


RECEPTION  OF  CON^'ERTS  773 

Septuagesima,  the  first,  second,  third 
Sundays  before  Lent.  The  words  are 
ancient  (Septuagesima  occurs  in  the 
Gelasian  and  Gregorian  Sacramentaries) ; 
but  it  is  hard  to  divine  their  meaning, 
j  Alcuin  proposed  two  solutions  to  Char- 
lemagne (Thomassin,  "Traits  desFestes," 
I  p.  308  seq.) — one  that  there  are  seventy 
days  from  Septuagesima  to  "  Pascha 
[  clausum  " — i.e.  the  Octave  of  Easter.  This 
I  leaves  the  names  Sexagesima  and  Quin- 
_  quagesima  unexplained.  His  other  solu- 
tiou  is  adapted  by  Thomassin  ("Traite 
I  des  Jeunes,"  p.  231).  Quoting  a  passage 
from  the  "  Regula  ^ilagistri,"  Thomassin 
says :  "  It  clearly  shows  that  the  names 
QuLnquagesima  and  Sexagesima  are  not 
intended  to  denote  the  numbers  fifty  or 
sixty.  They  have  been  formed  on  the 
rfalse]  analogy  of  Quadragesima — i.e. 
Lent — being  one  and  two  weeks  before 
the  first  Sunday  in  Lent.  In  the  same 
rule  the  .second  week  of  Lent  is  called 
Tricesima,  the  third  Ticesima.''  The 
custom  of  beginning  the  fast  on  Septua- 
gesima, &c.,  and  the  reasons  for  i^  are 
given  in  the  article  on  ILest. 


R 


SEASOV  AXn>  FAZTB.  [See 
Faith." 

seception   of  coztverts 

XHTO  THE  CHTTKCH.  We  speak 
here  only  of  converts  who  are  supposed 
to  have  received  valid  baptism.  For 
adults  who  have  never  been  baptised  a 
longer  form  of  baptism  is  provided.  But 
in  England,  at  least,  leave  is  usually  given 
by  the  bishop  to  use  the  shorter  form. 

A  baptised  person  who  has  previously 
helonged  to  an  heretical  sect  has  incurred 
the  censures  of  the  Church,  and  cannot 
therefore  be  restored  to  the  sacraments 
or  receive  sacramental  absolution  tiU  he 
has  been  absolved  from  censures.  It  may 
be  that  his  error  was  no  faidt  of  his,  and, 
if  so.  he  was  not  a  formal  heretic.  Still, 
he  is  treated  as  such  in  the  external  court 
of  the  Church,  and  the  Pope  reserves  to 
himself  the  power  of  removing  the  bar  of 
excommunication.  In  many  countries, 
however,  bishops  receive  power  as  dele- 
gates of  the  Holy  See  in  their  extraordi- 
nary or  quinquennial  faculties  to  absolve 
from  the  censure  in  question,  and  in  Eng- 


land they  communicate  this  power  to  all 

their  priests  who  have  faculties  forbearing 
confessions. 

In  England,  after  a  priest  has  care- 
fully tested  the  sincerity  and  steadfastness 
of  the  person  who  wishes  to  be  a  Cathohc, 
and  is  satisfied  that  the  person  really 
knows  and  understands  sufficiently  the 
tenets  of  the  Catholic  religion,  he  may 
admit  him  into  the  Church.  First  the 
"  Yeni,  Creator "  and  "  Miserere  "  are 
said,  the  convert  reads  the  creed  of 
Pope  Pius  IT.,  and  for  fear  his  former 
baptism  should  have  been  invalid  be- 
cause the  proper  matter,  form,  or  in- 
tention was  wanting,  he  receives  bap- 
tism from  the  priest  under  condition, 
unless  there  is  evidence  that  this  sacra- 
ment has  already  been  validly  given. 
This  nile  was  made  by  the  vicars-apo- 
stolic at  the  beginning  of  the  century  for 
all  bom  after  177;',  and  was  renewed  by 
the  first  provincial  synod  of  Westminster. 
He  is  then  absolved  from  excommunica- 
tion, and  the  "  Te  Deum "  is  said  in 
thanksgivinr.    Finally,  the  convert  goes 


774 


RECLUSE 


REDEMrxiON  OF  MANKIND 


to  confession  and  receives  sacramental 
absolution  sub  cotidifione  and  the  plenary 
indulgence  granted  on  this  occasion  bj'  the 
Pope.  The  ceremonies,  as  contained  in  the 
English  lUtuale,  are  not  always  observed, 
nor  are  the  absolutions  and  sacraments 
always  conferred  in  the  same  order.  Some 
priests,  relying  on  the  authority  of  Bishop 
Grant  (Synod.  Suthwarc.  p.  7G,  lieq),  be- 
gin by  hearing  the  convert's  confession, 
and  give  absolution  after  the  baptism; 
but  according  to  a  Roman  decree  subse- 
quent to  Dr.  Grants  instruction  (Decem- 
ber 17,  1868),  the  confession  should  be 
made  after  the  baptism.  (See  Decreta 
Cone.  Rrov.  AVestmon.,  pp.  334-337.) 

RECliVSE.  The  life  of  a  recluse  is 
still  more  solitary  and  austere  than  that 
of  a  hermit ;  it  implies  that  the  persons 
practising  it  "live  for  ever  shut  up  in 
their  cells,  never  speaking  to  anyone  but 
to  the  superior  when  he  visits  them,  and 
to  the  br()ther  who  brings  them  neces- 
saries. Their  prayers  and  austerities  are 
doubled,  and  their  fasts  more  severe  and 
more  frequent." '  St.  Romuald  allowed 
reclusion  to  such  of  his  hermits  [Camal- 
DOLi]  as  desired  and  seemed  to  be  fitted 
for  it,  as  the  highest  and  most  difficult 
stage  of  monastic  discipline.  Female  re-  i 
cluses  were  usually  called  inclusce.  [See 
IxcLrsi.]  I 

RSCOIiXiECTS.  A  branch  of  the  j 
Franciscan  order  has  borne  this  name  I 
(derived  from  the  detachment  from  crea- 
tures and  recollection  in  God  which  the  ' 
founders  aimed  at)  for  nearly  three  cen- 
turies. From  the  time  of  the  Mini.ster- 
General  Elias,  who  succeeded  St.  Francis, 
the  Franciscans  have  been  divided  into 
two  branches,  Conventuals  and  Obser- 
vantins,  or  of  the  Observance,  the  former 
living  in  great  convents  and  following  a 
mitigated  rule,  the  latter  adhering  to  the 
intention  of  the  founder  in  letter  and 
spirit,  especially  as  to  poverty.  The  Ob- 
servantins  in  France  were  commonly 
called  Cordeliers.  Several  distinctions 
appeared  in  course  of  time  among  those 
of  the  Observance,  which  Leo  X.  endea- 
voured to  check  by  fusing  all  the  sub- 
divisions into  one,  under  the  name  of  the 
Reformed  Franciscans.  Before  this  a 
saintly  Spanish  friar,  B.  John  de  Puebla, 
had  founded  (1489)  a  house  of  "Strict 
Observance "  on  the  Sierra  Morena,  in 
Spain.  The  friars  of  the  Strict  Obser- 
vance soon  became  a  separate  congrega- 
tion ;  they  passed  into  Italy  (where  they 
received  the  name  of  "the  Reformed")  in 
1  Alban  Butler,  Feb.  7. 


152  "),  and  established  themselves  at  Neversr 
in  France,  in  1597.  The  French  filiation 
,  increased  rajjidly ;  the  friars  were  called 
"Recollects";  Henry  IV.,  Louis  XIII., 
and  Louis  XIV.  loved  and  favoured 
them  ;  and  it  was  arranged  that  in  every 
French  province  of  the  Observance  a 
certain  number  of  houses  should  be  given 
up  to  the  Strict  Observance.  The  Re- 
;  collects  were  uninfected  by  Jansenism, 
and  when  the  commission  on  the  regular 
I  orders  (1768)  put  it  in  their  power  to 
j  relax  the  austerities  of  the  rule  they  did 
not  do  so.  This  branch  of  the  Franciscan 
order  occupies  the  convent  at  Jerusalem, 
where  reside  the  guardians  of  the  Church 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  They  were  sup- 
pressed in  France  at  the  Revolution,  but 
reappeared  some  years  ago,  at  Amiens  and 
other  places.  There  appear  to  be  at  pre- 
sent six  Recollect  houses  in  Great  Britain 
— at  Stratford-le-Bow,  Upton,  West  Gor- 
ton, near  Manchester,  Bristol,  Chilworth. 
(Surrey),  and  Glasgow. 

RECOirCZX.ZA.TZOir  OF  PENX- 
TENTS.      [See   Pexitextial  DlSCl- 

PLIKE  OF  CUUECH  ;  CEiLETERY,  &C.  See 

also  Deseceation.] 

RECTOR.  1.  The  ecclesiastic  who 
has  charge  of  the  government  of  a  con- 
gregation or  a  college  is  often  called  the 
Rector. 

2.  In  England  there  is  a  certain  num- 
ber of  missions  in  each  diocese,  important 
either  on  account  of  their  having  been 
long  established  or  because  of  the  size  of 
the  congregation,  the  priests  in  charge 
of  which  are  styled  "  Missionary  Rec- 
tors." 

3.  In  Germany,  when  a  parish  has  no 
PfaiTer  in  the  strict  sense,  the  priest  in 
charge  is  called  the  Rector.  (Wetzer  and 
Welte.) 

REBEMPTZOir  OF  IHAM-KZIfD 
THROUGH  CKRZST.  The  idea  con- 
nected with  redemption  is  that  of  being 
brought  out  of  a  state  of  bondage  or 
slavery  and  restored  to  one's  former 
estate.  Christian  usage  applies  the  term  to 
the  acts  by  which  Christ  delivered  man- 
kind from  the  bondage  of  sin  and  the  devil, 
and  restored  it  to  its  original  estate  of' 
friendship  with  God.  Such  restoration 
is  beyond  the  power  of  man,  who  may, 
indeed,  satisfy  the  Divine  justice  by 
undergoing  eternal  punishment,  but 
whose  weakened  and  despoiled  will 
is  unable  to  embrace  a  God-pleasing 
life  as  commanded  by  the  divine  holi- 
ness. K  the  first  gift  of  grace  was  a  free 
gift,  much  more  so  was  the  second,  when 


REDEMniON  OF  MAXKLN'D         PJLDEMPTiON  OF  MANKIND  775 


the  first  bad  been  forfeited  bv  man's  wil- 
ful transgression.  God's  decree  of  re- 
deeming man  was  as  free  as  the  decree  of 
bis  creation,  and  as  eternal ;  its  freedom 
exclude-  all  rigbtful  claim  of  man  to  it ; 
but  its  eternity  includes  man's  destina- 
tion to  redemption.  The  Divine  message 
of  salvation  was  revealed  at  divers  times 
— each  revelation  being  more  distinct 
than  the  preceding — from  the  proto- 
evangelium  (^Gen.  iii.  15)  to  the  testimony 
of  the  Baptist  (John  i.  29).  In  the 
fulness  of  time,  that  is,  when  the  Law  and 
the  Prophets  had  prepared  Israel,  and  to 
a  certain  degree  the  heathen  world,  for 
the  coming  of  the  Redeemer,  "'the  "^N'ord 
was  made  flesh  and  dwelt  among  us." 
The  Incarnation,  in  which  the  Son  of  God 
took  imto  Himself  a  human  nature,  so 
as  to  be  one  Person  in  two  natures  (see 
CaRisi),  was  necessary  if  God  demanded 
for  our  redemption  a  full,  though 
vicarious,  satisfaction  of  His  oSFended 
justice  and  sanctity. 

God,  then,  decreed  at  the  same  time 
the  redemption  through  vicarious  satisfac- 
tion and  the  Incarnation.  The  decree 
comprises  the  ofi'er  of  God  the  Son  to  act, 
in  a  human  nature,  as  representative  of 
mankind  and  to  satisfy  for  all  its  sins 
\,Heb.  X.  o  »qq.),  and  on  the  other  hand 
the  acceptance  of  this  offer  bv  God 
^Gal.  iv.  4 ;  John  iii.  16,  17).  Man  is 
bound  to  satisfy  the  claims  on  him  of 
God's  holiness  and  justice.  God's  holi- 
ness claims  that  man  should  honour  TTiTn 
by  leading  a  holy  life,  a  life  of  obedience  to 
and  love  of  his  Creator.  The  satisfaction 
of  this  claim  is  the  foundation  of  merit ; 
it  gives  man  a  title  to  t-race  and  other 
rewards  promised  by  the  Divine  goodness 
and  justice.  The  refusal  to  satisfy  this 
claim,  by  committing  sin,  is  an  infringe- 
ment of  the  Divine  right — an  injury — and 
is  the  foundation  of  guilt  {reatus  culpa). 
Guilt  puts  man  in  contradiction  with  God 
and  with  himself;  giiilty  man  is  not 
what  he  ought  to  be  according  to  the 
Divine  ideal.  Here  the  claim  of  Divine 
justice  intervenes.  God  must  oppose  the 
perverted  will  of  the  sinner,  and  this 
opposition  constitutes  the  sinner's  punish- 
ment, for  it  inflicts  "  pain  "  on  him.  The 
just  pain  of  the  sinner  is  temporal  and 
eternal  death.  Temporal  death,  because 
sin  has  frustrated  the  object  of  his  state 
here  below;  etrrnal  death,  that  is,  end- 
less striving  after  an  unattainable  hap- 
piness, because  the  possession  of  God,  the 
Sovereign  Good,  is  incompatible  with  re- 
bellion against  Him.    The  claim  of  the 


Divme  justice  can  only  be  satisfied  by 
the  sinner  undergoing  the  punishment. 
However,  a  compromise  is  possible  be- 
tween Divine  holiness  and  justice  on 
the  one  hand,  and  Divine  mercy  and 
love  on  the  other.  It  lies  in  the  accept 
tance  by  God  of  a  vicarious  satisfac- 
tion. This  kind  of  satisfaction  takes 
place  when  some  person  substitutes  him- 
self for  another  and  acts  or  sutlers  in  his 
place  and  on  his  behalf.  If  the  claim 
merely  refers  to  a  lifeless  object,  anyou© 
who  possesses  such  object  and  is  willing 
to  part  with  it  on  behalf  of  another,  can 
act  as  substitute  and  perform  vicarious 
satisfaction.  But  not  so  if  the  claim  be 
a  personal  one.  Where  a  personal  act  is 
required,  e.ff.  a  reparation  of  honour, 
vicarious  satisfaction  can  only  be  accepted 
by  the  claimant  when  the  substitute  has 
somet'aing  in  common  with  the  uflender 
that  enables  or  entitles  him  to  act  in  his 
place.  Hence,  to  meet  the  claims  of 
Divine  holiness  and  justice  by  vicarious 
satisfaction,  a  "man"  must  come  forth 
qualihed  to  honour  God  by  a  holy  lite  as 
much  as  mankind  has  dishonoured  Him 
by  sin,  and  to  endow  his  sufierings  with 
an  amount  of  atoning  merit  equivalent  to 
the  demerit  of  all  mankind.  No  mere 
man  is  equal  to  such  task.  Even  granting 
that  his  impaired  wUl  were  turued  en- 
tirely to  the  service  of  God,  this  dnite 
and  purely  natural  homage  could  in  no 
wise  counterbalance  the  gravity  of  his 
offence  atrainst  the  infinitely  H^ly  and 
Just.  The  greatness  of  the  ofl'eiided  God 
at  the  same  time  magnifies  the  offence 
and  diminishes  the  value  of  attempted 
satisfaction.  Again :  satisfaction  for  bin 
embraces  the  whole  existence  of  the 
sinner  and  all  his  powers,  so  that  no  one 
can  atone  by  suffering  but  for  his  own 
self.  And,  besides,  satispassion  is  the 
reverse  of  redemption.  No  angel  can 
atone  for  man,  because  angels  have  no 
natural  communion  with  man.  Only 
a  Man-God  was  able  to  enter  the  world 
with  a  sinless  human  nature  and  to  stand 
before  God  as  the  representative  of  His 
kin,  without  gtiilf,  without  the  necessity 
of  atoning  t'or  Himself.  Only  a  God- 
Man  had  sutficieut  perbonal  dignity  to 
invest  His  action  and  passion  with  that 
infinite  value  which  they  draw  from  the 
personal  dignity  of  tlieir  author. 

The  Divine  decree  of  Redemption  was 
I  realised  in  the  Incarnation  of  God  the 
I  Son.  Jesus  Christ,  the  Messias.  Christ's 
redeeming  work   comprises  atonement 
for  sin  and  acquisition  or  merit  of  grace. 


776  REDEMPTION  OF  MANKIND 


EEDEMn  iON  OF  MANKIND 


according  as  we  consider  it  in  relntiou 
to  God's  justice  or  lioliness.  He  atoned 
by  His  passion,  He  merited  by  His  holy 
actions,  yet  so  that  His  actions  were 
also  satisfactory  and  His  passion  meri- 
torious. Merit  and  satisfaction  are  not 
more  distinct  than  justice  and  holiness 
in  God,  upon  which  the  distinction 
rests.  Christ's  atonement  began  when  He 
assumed  humanity,  continued  through- 
out the  trials  and  troubles  of  His  life, 
and  ended  on  the  cross.  In  all  these 
suflerings  He  bore  the  sins  of  the  world 
"  that  through  death  He  might  destroy 
him  who  has  the  empire  of  death" 
(Heb.  ii.  14,  15).  He  could  not,  on 
iiccount  of  His  Divinity,  suffer  the  pains 
of  separation  from  God,  i.e.  hell ;  but  the 
pains  He  reaUy  did  sufl'er  acquired, 
through  His  Divinity,  an  intensity  and 
an  atoning  value  more  than  equivalent  to 
the  pains  of  hell.  The  atoning  effect  of 
His  sacrifice  is  the  remission  of  sin  and 
its  punishment,  or  in  the  language  of 
Scripture,  the  appeasement  of  God's 
anger,  the  reconciliation  of  man  with 
God.  The  merit  of  Christ  is  the  satisfac- 
tion of  the  Divine  claim  of  holiness  on  the 
part  of  man.  Christ's  holiness  of  life  far 
outweighs  the  guilt  of  Adam ;  the  honour 
He  gives  to  God  more  than  compensates 
for  the  dishonour  arising  from  man's  sin. 
Like  His  satispassion,  so  His  satisfaction 
embraces  the  whole  earthly  career  of  the 
Saviour,  from  the  moment  He  entered  the 
world  (Heb.  x.  5-7)  to  his  last  word  on 
the  cross.  His  voluntary  death  on  the 
cross  is  the  crowning  act  of  both  His 
satisfactory  and  meritorious  work,  because 
it  is  at  the  same  time  the  crowning  act  of 
a  life  of  suffering  and  of  a  life  of  holy 
obedience  to  the  will  of  God.  Through 
His  obedience  "even  unto  the  death  of 
the  cross  "  (Phil.  ii.  8)  He  merited  the 
fulness  of  grace,  for  Himself  and  for  us 
"  who  all  have  received  of  His  fulness  " 
(John  i.  16).  For  Himself,  that  is,  for 
His  human  nature.  He  merited  His 
glorious  resurrection  and  ascension,  and  a 
place  at  the  right  hand  of  the  Father; 
for  us,  sanctifying  grace  from  its  begin- 
nings to  its  completion  in  the  beatific 
vision. 

The  doctrine  of  vicarious  satisfaction 
is  universally  taught  in  the  Church, 
although  no  council  has  ever  defined  it. 
Such  definition  was  never  called  for. 
The  older  heresies  directly  impugned  the 
Person  of  the  Redeemer ;  the  more  recent 
ones  have  erred  concei;ning  the  manner  in 
vhich  His  merits  are  appliod  to  indivi- 


duals. Erroneous  consequences  as  to  the 
work  of  Christ  were  indeed  drawn  from 
these  heresies,  but  the  Church  contented 
herself  with  the  condemnation  of  the 
fundamental  errors.  The  Socinians  first 
directly  denied  the  work  of  atonement 
through  Christ.  The  Council  of  Trent 
does  not  ex  professo  treat  of  this  matter, 
but  supposes  the  doctrine  of  vicarious 
satisfaction  as  a  foundation  for  its  teaching 
on  justification  and  sanctification.  E.g.,  in 
Sess.  V.  c.  3  it  says  that  original  sin  is 
taken  away  from  us  "  by  the  merit  of  the 
one  Mediator,  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who 
reconciled  us  to  God  in  His  blood,'"  and  in 
Sess  vi.  c.  7,  on  the  causes  of  justification, 
the  meriting  cause  is  said  to  be  "  Our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  by  His  most 
holy  passion  on  the  cross  merited  for  us 
justification  and  satisfied  for  us  God  the 
Father."  The  Fathers  make  use  of  the 
Scriptural  expressions  concerning  Christ's 
work,  without  developmg  a  theory.  This 
was  only  done  by  the  Schoolmen,  begin- 
ning with  St.  Anselm. 

The  belief  in  Christ's  atonement,  or 
vicarious  satisfaction,  exactly  reflects  the 
doctrine  of  Holy  Scripture  on  the  work  of 
redemption.  Scripture  calls  the  work  of 
redemption  a  sacrifice,  a  sacrifice  of  pro- 
pitiation, and  generally  applies  to  it  the 
sacrificial  terminology  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment: Christ  is  the  High  Priest  of  the 
New  Testament,  who  offers  Himself  as 
victim,  and  His  action  is  termed  obla- 
tion. But  the  bloody  sacrifices  of  the 
Old  Law  were  certainly  offered  as 
vicarious  satisfaction  for  sin.  The  sinner 
acknowledged  that  his  life  had  been 
forfeited  to  God,  and  begged  Him  to 
accept  as  a  substitution  for  his  own  the 
blood  (in  which  is  the  life)  of  the  victim 
(Lev.  xvii.  11).  The  idea  of  substitution 
is  especially  clear  in  the  imposition  of 
hands  on  the  head  of  the  victim,  by 
which  rite  the  victim  was  made  the  bearer 
of  the  sin  of  the  offerer  (Lev.  xvi.  21), 
This  atoning  idea,  of  which  the  old 
sacrifices  were  but  symbols,  was  truly 
realised  in  the  sacrifice  of  Christ 
(Heb.  X.  1  sqq),  the  only  true  priest, 
who  not  only  symbolised  but  effected 
our  reconciliation  with  God.  Christ's 
priesthood  is  often  insisted  upon  (Heb. 
V.  10  ;  vi.  20  ;  vii.  ;  ix.  11-15  ;  and 
24-28;  X.  1-22).  The  victim  is  Him- 
self (Heb.  ix.  14,  26),  His  Body  and 
Blood  (x.  10 ;  ix.  14),  which  He  offered 
on  the  cross,  where  the  real  sacrificial  act 
was  completed  (ix.  26  sqq.).  St.  Paul 
says :  "  Christ  hath  loved  us,  and  hath 


REDEMPTION  OF  MAXKIXD 


REDEMPTION  OF  MANKIND  777 


delivered  Himself  for  us,  an  oljlation 
and  a  sacrifice  {nponrffiopav  koi  6va!av) 
to  God,  for  an  odour  of  sweetness." 
(Eph.  V.  2;  cf.  ]  Cor.  v.  7,  Rom.  iii. 
iio.)  '  Jesus  Clirist  is  the  propitiation 
(tXno-/Lioy)  for  our  sins;  and  not  for  ours 
only,  but  also  for  those  of  the  whole 
world  "(1  John  ii.  2;  iv.  10).  Besides 
these  direct  testimonies,  we  have  numerous 
passages  in  which  to  the  Blood  of  Christ 
(shed  in  His  death)  are  ascribed  all  the 
effects  of  the  blood  shed  in  the  ancient 
sacrifices.  The  Blood  of  Christ  is  our 
ransom  Xvrpov,  avriKvrpov  (Eph.  i.  7 ; 
Col.  i.  14;  1  Pet.  i.  19;  Apoc.  v.  9);  our 
reconciliation  with  the  Father  (Col.  i.  20; 
cf.  Eph.  ii.  13-15);  our  justification 
(Rom.  V.  9);  the  remission  of  our  sins 
(Matt.  xxvi.  28);  the  cleansing-  of  sin 
(1  John  i.  7 ;  Apoc.  i.  5  ;  vii.  14  ;  xxii.  14) ; 
the  blood  of  a  new  testament  or  cove- 
nant with  God  (1  Cor.  xi.  25 ;  1  Pet.  i.  2). 
In  the  same  manner  the  death  of  Christ 
is  given  as  ground  of  our  reconciliation 
(Rom.  V.  lb)  and  of  our  redemption 
from  sin  (Heb.  ix.  15).  The  doctrine  so 
clearly  set  forth  in  these  texts  leaves  no 
doubt  as  to  the  sense  of  the  passages  in 
which  Christ  is  said  to  have  shed  His 
Blood,  or  died  for  manv,  for  all,  for  sin- 
ners, for  us  (Matt.  xxvi.  28;  xx.  28; 
1  Tim.  ii.  6  ;  Rom.  v.  6 ;  2  Cor.  v.  14 
sqq. ;  1  Thess.  v.  10).  In  most  of  these 
places,  it  is  true,  the  word  vnkp  (for)  is 
used  ;  avrt,  however,  is  used  Matt.  xx.  28 
(Sovvai  Tr)v  ^vx^v  avTov  Xvrpov  dvTi 
TToWwv^  and  1  Tim.  ii.  6  {dvTiKvrpov) ; 
and  thi.s,  in  connection  with  the  above 
distinct  doctrine,  shows  that  vjrep  has  the 
sense  of  din-\  and  refers  to  vicarious  sacri- 
fice. Besides,  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive 
how  Christ  died  "on  our  behalf"  if  He 
did  not  die  "  instead  of  us."  The  idea  of 
vicarious  sacrifice  is  also  apparent  in  the 
testimony  of  the  Baptist  calling  Christ 
the  Lamb  that  beareth  or  taketh  away 
the  sins  of  the  world  (with  refe^^^nce  to 
Isaias  liii.) ;  in  2  Cor.  v.  21,  "  Christ  who 
knew  no  sin,  He  [God]  hath  made  sin 
for  us,"  viz.  treated  Him  as  bearing  our 
sins,  and  in  Gal.  iii.  13,  "  Christ  beinir 
made  a  curse  for  us,"  viz.  the  object  of 
the  Divine  anger  which  we  deserved.  The 
term  redemption  itself  carries  with  it  a 
sacrificial  notion  (Lev.  xxvii.  27-3.'J; 
Num.  xviii.  15-17).  The  prophet  Isaias 
most  distinctly  shows  the  vicarious 
character  of  the  Redeemer's  work  :  He 
hath  borne  our  infirmities  and  carried  our 
sorrows  ...  He  was  wounded  for  our 
iniquities,  He  was  bruised  for  our  sins : 


the  chastisement  of  our  peace  was  upon 
Him  and  by  His  bruises  we  are  healed. 
The  Lord  hath  laid  on  Him  the  iniquity 
of  us  all.  He  was  ofi'ered  because  it  was 
His  own  will  ....  the  Lord  was  pleased 
to  bruise  Him  in  infirmity  :  He  shall  lay 
down  His  life  for  sin  [Hebrew:  as  an 
offering  for  sin]  ....  He  shall  divide 
the  spoils  of  the  strong  because  He  hath 
delivered  His  soul  unto  death  and  was 
reputed  with  the  wicked :  and  He  has 
borne  the  sins  of  many  and  He  has  paid 
for  the  transgressors  "  (Isa.  liii.). 

The  satisfaction  offered  by  Christ  is 
perfect ;  it  meets  the  claims  of  Divine 
justice  and  holiness  to  their  fullest  extent, 
and  even  superabundantly ;  moreover,  it 
gives  him  a  real  claim  on  God's  justice  to 
all  grace.  No  good  work  of  man  can 
have  a  claim  for  reward  on  God's  justice, 
because  man  and  all  his  acts  belong  to 
God  more  than  a  slave  to  his  owner. 
Wheu  man  merits  by  the  aid  of  Divine 
grace,  strictly  speaking,  God  rewards 
His  own  gift  rather  than  the  work  of 
man  (see  Merit).  Christ,  on  the  con- 
trary, merited  of  His  own  power  (p.v 
propriis).  His  Divinity  gave  to  all  He 
did  or  sutlered  Divine  excellence  and  infi- 
nite value.  His  whole  work  was  a  work  of 
mercy  indeed,  yet  not  of  mercy  to  Him, 
who  needed  none  for  Himself  and  who 
undertook  to  meet  the  justice  of  God  in 
full  on  behalf  of  His  brethren.  The 
superaburtdance  of  Christ's  merits  follows 
from  the  "  infinite  excellence  "  of  each  of 
His  actions  and  passions,  each  of  which 
was  sufficient  to  redeem  the  world.  St. 
Paul  testifies  to  it,  Rom.  v.  12-21. 

The  redemption  wrought  by  Christ 
is  universal,  that  is,  sufficient  and 
intended  for  all  men.  It  is  sufficient 
because  infinite,  and  because  its  vicarious- 
ness  makes  it  applicable  to  all  who  have 
the  nature  of  man  in  common  with  the 
Redeemer.  It  is  intended  for  all,  as 
appears  from  Scripture.  The  decree  of 
redemption  is  an  effect  of  God's  love  for 
the  world  (John  iii.  16)  or  for  mankind 
(Tit.  iii.  4) ;  "  God  will  have  all  men  to 
be  saved  "  (1  Tim.  ii.  4).  Hence  Christ 
is  "  the  Saviour  of  the  world  " 
(John  iv.  42) ;  "  the  Light  of  the  world  " 
(John  ix.  5) ;  He  sends  His  apostles  to 
the  whole  world  to  preach  the  (Gospel  to 
all  creatures  (.Mark  xvi.,  15) ;  He  gives 
His  flesh  for  the  life  of  the  world 
(John  vi.  52).  He  is  a  propitiation  tor 
the  sins  of  the  whole  world  (1  John  ii.  2) ; 
as  Adam  brought  condemnation  Christ 
brought  salvation  on  all  meu  (Rom.  v. 


■78  EEDE.MI'TvJPJSTS 

18) ;  lastly  "  Christ  died  for  all"  (2  Cor.  ' 
V.  15). 

ll'retleiuptiou  is  undouLtedly  universal 
as  to  its  sutiiciency  and  inteution,  it  is  yet 
not  univi'isal  in  its  efiicacy  ;  the  lot  ot 
many  lor  whom  the  Saviour  frave  His 
blood  is  eternal  damnation.    From  this, 
however,  wemust  notcouclude  withCalvni 
and  Jfinseniiis,  lhat  God's  saving  will  j 
either  does  not  exist  or  is  not  in  earnest. 
Otlu  i-wise,  we  ought  also  to  infer  that  j 
Tiod's  will  conceruuiii-  the  observance  of  j 
His  commandments  is  not  in  earnest  be-  I 
eause,  as  a  matter  of  fact.  His  command- 
ments are  rift  en  set  at  noii(;-ht  bv  man.  | 
God's  will  i.>  iiilallilily  fultilled  oid'y  when 
the  executiem  ile])eiids  solely  and  entirely 
on  the  Divine  omnipotence ;  when  the 
execution  is  made  dependent  on  the  free  j 
co-operation  of  the  creatures,  it  may  be 
frustrated.    That  all  men  should  be  saved  ' 
is  like  a  Divine  commandment,  for  the  j 
fulfilment  of  w  hich  God  has  given  ample 
means  through  the  work  of  redemption  ;  j 
the  use,  however,  of  these  means  to  some 
extent  depends  on  the  co-operation  of  each  ' 
individual:  this  much  must  be  conceded 
to  save  the  freedom    of  human  will. 
They  who  refuse  the  required  measure 
of  co-operation  remain  unsaved,  not  on 
account  of  a  deficiency  in  God's  saving  j 
will  or  power,  but  of  their  own  free  I 
-will.    Still,  even  human  resistance  totlie 
Divine  oiler  of  salvation  cannot  entirely 
deprive  redemption  of  its  fruits.  Even 
though  the  final  grace  of  heavenly  bliss  I 
be  not  granted,  many  actual  graces,  suffi- 
cient in  themselves  to  secure  salvation, 
are  granted  to  each  and  all.    To  secure 
these  latter,  it  is  sufiicient  to  be  a  member 
of  Christ  as  the  "  Head  of  all  men  "  ;  to 
secure  the  former,  it  is  necessary  to  be  a 
member  of  Christ  as  the  "Head  of  the 
Church." 

REDEMPTORXSTS.  The  Congre- 
gation of  the  iMost  Holy  Reedeemer,  the 
members  of  whicli  are  commonly  known 
as  Kedemptorists,  and  in  some  countries 
as  Ligorians,  was  founded  by  St.  Al- 
phonsus  ]Maria  de  Liguori  in  the  year 
1732.  Born  of  a  noble  Keapolitan  family 
in  16i)6,  Alphonsus,  after  giving  promise 
of  a  brilliant  career  at  the  bar,  abandoned 
its  honours  at  the  nge  of  twenty-seven 
to  einljiaee  the  ecclesiastical  state.  His 
first  desire  was  to  join  the  Congregation 
of  the  Oratory;  being  unable  to  do  this 
on  account  of  the  oj)positiori  of  his  father, 
he  devoted  himself  to  evangelising  the 
poor  in  the  city  of  Naples,  and  to  the 
duties  of  preacher  and  confessor,  residing 


REDE.MrTOKISTS 

first  in  his  father's  house,  afterwards  la 
the  College  of  the  Chinese,  founded  by 
Father  .Matthew  Pvipa,  the  famous  Chi- 
lu'se  missionary.  lie  also  joined  a  secular 
con^iiration  of  missionaries  called  the 
Propai.;a!i<la,  and  with  them  gave  several 
missions  m  the  i)rovinces.  l!y  this  means 
he  came  to  laiow  the  spirit  ual  destitution 
of  the  poor  peasants  and  shepherds,  and 
felt  a  strong  desire  to  devote  his  life  to 
the  succour  of  the  rural  populations.  Hn 
was  confirmed  in  these  thoughts  especially 
by  the  advice  of  Monsignor  Falcoia,  bishop 
of  Castellamare.  'Ibis  prelate  had  long 
desired  the  establishment  of  an  institute 
of  apostolic  men,  who  should  strive  in  all 
things  to  copy  the  life  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  and  after  His  example  to  evange- 
lise the  poor.  He  had  founded  at  Scala 
a  community  of  ladies,  called  Nuns  of  the 
^lost  Holy  Saviour,  who  prayed  con- 
tinually for  the  same  intention.  It  was 
while  giving  the  spiritual  exercises  io 
these  nuns  that  St.  Alphonsus  at  last 
resolved,  under  the  direction  of  Bishop 
Falcoia,  to  gather  some  companions,  who 
should  on  the  one  hand  seek  their  own 
perfection  by  the  obligations  and  rules  of 
a  religious  life,  and  on  the  other  devote 
themselves  to  apostolic  work  among  the 
most  neglected  and  forsaken  souls.  The 
work  was  solemnly  begun  at  Scala  on 
November  0,  1732,  St.  Alphonsus  being 
then  thirty-six  years  old. 

In  carrying  out  this  design  the  saint 
encountered  innumerable  obstacles,  first 
on  the  part  of  good  men  who  looked  on 
him  as  misled  by  enthusiasm  or  spiritual 
ambition,  and  afterwards  from  the  civil 
authorities.  The  times  were  indeed  most 
unfavourable  to  such  a  project,  and  it  is 
one  of  the  miracles  of  the  saint's  life  tc 
have  founded  and  maintained  a  new  reli- 
gious congregation  at  the  time  when  the 
^Farquis  Tanucci  was  all-powerful  in 
Naples.  In  spite,  however,  of  these 
obstacles,  St.  Alphonsus  succeeded  in  esta- 
blishing several  houses  in  dift'erent  parts 
of  Naples  and  Sicily,  and  before  his  death 
saw  his  institute  spreading  in  the  Papal 
States,  and  already  transported  beyond 
the  Alps. 

On  February  25,  1749,  Pope  Benedict 
XIV.  approved  the  rules  and  confirmed 
the  new  institute  by  a  solemn  approba- 
tion. St.  Alphonsus  had  called  his  Con- 
gregation by  the  name  of  the  Most  Holy 
Saviour;  but  to  prevent  confusion  with 
the  canons  regular  of  that  name  in  Venice, 
the  Pope  himself  changed  the  title  to  that 
of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer.  The  members 


REDEMPTORISTS 


REFOIIMATIOX,  THE 


779 


of  the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy  Re-  | 
deemer,  besides  the  three  simple  but  per- 
petual vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obe- 
dience, bind  themselves  by  a  vow  of  perse-  j 
rerance  until  death  in  the  Institute,  which 
they  confirm  in  a  promissory  oath.  They 
are  bound  by  theirvow  of  poverty  to  refuse 
all  benefices,  offices,  or  dignities  outside 
their  Congregation.  Whenever  a  He- 
demptorist  has  been  raised  to  a  bishop- 
ric it  has  been  by  command  of  the  Sove- 
reign Pontitl',  and  by  his  dispensation.  It 
■was  in  this  way  that  St.  Alphonsus  him- 
self was  obliged  to  accept  the  bishopric 
of  St.  Agatha  of  the  Goths.  In  order 
also  more  effectually  to  pursue  the  princi- 
pal end  of  the  Institute,  which  is  to  suc- 
cour the  most  ig-norant  and  neglected 
souls,  St.  Alphonsus  forbade  his  Fathers  to 
undertake  such  works  as  the  instruction 
of  youth,  the  government  of  seminaries, 
the  direction  of  nuns.  Their  main  occu- 
pation is  the  apostolic  miuistrj'  iu  the 
preaching  of  missions  and  retreats  to  all 
classes  of  persons,  but  with  a  preference  j 
for  such  as  are  most  neglected,  especially  j 
those  who  live  in  remote  villages  and  ; 
hamlets.  As,  however,  in  many  countries  j 
the  most  neglected  souls  are  to  be  found 
in  the  great  cities,  the  intention  of  the 
founder  is  carried  out  in  labnuring  for 
them.  It  is  on  record  that  St.  Alphonsus, 
about  the  time  of  t!uM'stal)lishinent  of  his 
congregation.  >.  ri.Hi>ly  debated  the  ques-  i 
tion  of  going  liii)i,~>'lt'  to  the  savage  hea-  ' 
then  in  South  Africa,  and  that  he  wel-  ] 
corned  an  invitation  that  had  been  made 
to  him  to  send  out  missionaries  for  the 
conversion  of  the  Nestorian  heretics  in 
Asia.  It  was  also  his  wish  that  the 
members  of  his  Congregation  who  should 
have  reached  the  age  of  thirty  should  bind 
them.«elves  by  vow  to  give  missions  to  the 
heathen,  as  soon  as  they  should  receive 
the  command  of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  or 
of  the  Superior-General.  This  vow  was, 
however,  considered  superfluous  by  the 
cardinals  who  examined  the  rules  for  ap- 
probation. It  need  scarcely  be  said  tliat 
a  founder  wbose  pre-eminent  science  has 
gained  him  a  jjbice  among  the  nineteen 
doctors  of  the  Cliurch  could  not  be  in- 
different to  learning  among  his  disciples. 
He  insists,  therefore,  in  his  rule  on  the 
duty  of  continual  study,  so  that  his  priests 
"  may  be  of  use  and  profit  to  the  Church 
on  all  occasions." 

St.  Alphonsus  died  on  August  1, 
1787,  in  his  ninety-first  year.  Before  his 
death  he  foretold  the  spread  of  his  Con- 
gi-egation  beyond  the  Alps,  and  rejoiced 


when  he  heard  that  two  Germans  had 
asked  admission  from  the  sui)erior  of  the 
Roman  house.  One  of  the-c,  the  Blessed 
Clement  Maria  Hofbauer,  established  the 
order  in  Poland,  Austria,  and  Switzer- 
land, and  since  his  death,  iu  18i'().  it  has 
spread  through  most  of  the  countries  of 
Europe,  in  North  and  South  America, 
the  West  Indies,  and  Australia.  It  was 
introduced  into  England  by  Dr.  Baiues, 
vicar-apostolic  of  the  Western  District, 
in  1843,  shortly  before  his  death.  The 
British  Isles  at  present  (1892)  form  one 
Province,  with  houses  in  London,  Liver- 
pool, Perth,  Teignniouth,  Limerick,  and 
Dundalk.  In  the  many  revolutions  of 
this  century  the  Congregation  of  the 
Most  Holy  Pu'deemer  has  experienced 
more  than  the  usual  share  of  persecution, 
having  liicn  expelled  in  turn  from  Poland, 
Austria,  Bavaria,  France,  Sjiain,  Portugal, 
Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Germany.  Into 
Several  of  these  countries  the  missionaries 
have  returned  a  second  time  and  renewed 
their  labours.  From  some  they  have 
been  again  driven  out  when  revolution  or 
impiety  has  become  predominant. 

The  Congregation  is  under  the  Govern- 
ment of  a  superior-general,  culled  the 
Rector  Major,  who  is  elected  f  ir  life  by  a 
general  chapter,  and  is  assisted  l)y  six 
consultors.  His  residence  is  in  Home. 
The  superiors  of  the  various  provinces 
(Provincials)  and  of  the  houses  (Reetors), 
with  their  consultors,  are  appointed  for  a 
term  of  three  years  by  the  Rector  Major. 
Their  term  of  office  may  be  renewed  at 
his  discretion.  The  nuns  ali-eady  men- 
tioned, commonly  called  Redemptoris- 
tines,  form  the  Order  of  the  Most  Holy 
Redeemer,  as  distinguished  from  the  Con- 
gregation of  missionaries.  They  are  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  in  whose 
dioceses  they  reside.  They  are  strictly 
enclosed  and  contemplative,  assisting  the 
missionaries  by  their  prayers.  They  have 
monasteries  in  several  parts  of  Europe. 
That  of  Dublin  was  founded  by  Cardinal 
Cullen. 

REFECTORT  {refectorium,  place  of 
refre^llnlent ).    [See  Convent.] 

REFORIVlATXOia',  THE.  Since  the 
conversion  of  the  Barbarians,  who  broke 
up  and  divided  amongst  them  the  Western 
Empire,  wealth  in  every  form  had  been 
lavishly  poured  upon  the  Church  ;  and 
a  relaxation  of  discipline — against  which 
great  pontiffs,  saintly  bishops,  and  the 
founders  or  reformers  of  religious  orders, 
unceasingly  strove — had  been  too  fre- 
t  quently  the  result.    Through  the  opersr 


780      EEFOEMATION,  THE 


REFORMATION,  THE 


tion  of  this  and  other  causes — such  as  the 
Great  Schism,  wars  of  ambition,  national 
rivalries,  the  grovi'th  of  commercial  and 
other  purely  secular  interests,  «S:c. — the 
sense  of  the  essential  unity  of  the  Church, 
which  was  so  strc)ng  throughout  Christen- 
dom in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies, was  considerably  weakened  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth.  On  the  rise  and 
progress  in  Germany  of  the  series  of  con- 
flicts and  cluinges  which  go  by  the  name  of 
"  the  Reformat  ion,"  see  the  article  Luther 
AND  LuxHEKAXiSM.  The  Subversive  doc- 
trines of  the  German  reformer  found  a  will- 
ing disciple  in  Gustavus  Vasa  who,  on  the 
dissolution  (152-3)  of  the  Union  of  Cahnar 
became  king  of  Sweden.  Aided  by  the 
brothers  Peterson  and  by  Lawrence  An- 
derson, archdeacon  of  Strengness,  whom 
he  made  Chancellor,  Gustavus  (1527)  in- 
duced the  estates  of  the  realm,  in  the 
Diet  of  Westeriis,  to  sanction  the  confis- 
cation of  the  property  of  the  monasteries. 
The  work  of  change  then  went  rapidly 
on.  Lawrence  Peterson  was  appointed 
by  the  king  (15-31)  archbishop  of  Upsala, 
and  married.  The  king  declared  himself 
supreme  in  matters  ecclesiastical,  and, 
;<etting  aside  entirely  the  authority  of  the 
Holy  See,  deposed  or  appointed  bishops 
at  his  will.  The  last  remains  of  Catholic 
usages  were  abolished  at  a  second  Diet 
of  Westeras  in  1544.  Under  the  reign  of 
King  John  (1569)  there  seemed  to  be 
some  hope  of  a  Catholic  reaction ;  an 
envoy  was  sent  to  the  court  of  Gregory 
XIII.,  and  the  Jesuit  Possevin  was  re- 
ceived at  Stockholm  ;  but  a  sudden 
change  in  the  sentiments  of  the  king  re- 
stored things  to  their  former  state.  The 
system  adopted  in  Sweden,  in  organising 
which  Lawrence  Peterson  was  mainly 
instrumental,  was  Lutheranism ;  but,  as 
in  England,  bishops  were  nominally  re- 
tained. The  episcopal  authority  of  Law- 
rence Peterson,  the  head  and  fountain  of 
the  new  hierarchy,  appears  to  have  been 
derived  solely  from  the  king;  according 
to  Rohrbacher  ("Hist,  de  I'Egl."  xxiii. 
;303),  there  was  a  true  Archbishop  of 
Upsala,  Glaus  Magnus,  alive  at  the  time, 
though  in  exile ;  he  did  not  die  till  1544. 

In  Denmark  the  tyrant  Christian  II., 
before  his  deposition  in  1523,  had  brought 
to  Copenhagen  a  Wittemberg  preacher,  a 
follower  of  Luther,  favoured  the  mar- 
riage of  the  clergy,  and  in  various  ways 
sought  to  tamper  with  the  faith  and 
law^s  of  the  Church.  His  successor, 
Frederick  I.,  instigated  by  his  son  Chris- 
tian, who  had  studied  in  Germany  and 


become  a  zealous  Lutheran,  established 
by  degrees  his  own  supremacy  in  religious 
matters,  and,  by  favouring  heretical 
preachers,  and  discouraging  and  punish- 
ing all  who  stood  up  for  the  ancient  faith, 
prepared  the  way  for  its  ruin.  At  a  diet 
held  in  1530,  at  which  no  representative 
of  the  clergy  was  admitted,  he  induced 
the  assembly  to  decree  the  abolition  of 
the  Catholic  worship  in  all  the  Danish 
dominions;  the  bishops  were  required  to 
cease  from  opposing  Lutheranism,  and 
the  beneficed  clergy  to  embrace  it.  The 
nobles  and  people  acquiesced  with  a  sin- 
gular apathy  in  all  these  changes.  The 
king  then  invited  Bugenhagen,  a  friend 
of  Luther,  into  Denmark,  appointed  him 
court  preacher,  and  commissioned  him  to 
reorganise  the  Danish  church.  Bugen- 
hagen crowned  the  king  afresh,  as  if  to 
show  that  his  previous  coronation  with 
Catholic  rites  had  been  invalid  ;  he  also 
consecrated  superintendents  in  the  place 
of  the  deposed  Catholic  bishops.  As  these 
last  successively  died  out,  the  superin- 
tendents assumed  the  title  of  bishop  ;-and 
this  is  the  origin  of  the  present  Danish 
episcopate. 

On  the  Reformation  movement  in 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  see  the 
articles  English  Church  ;  Presbt- 
TEBTANs ;  Scottish  Church  ;  and  Irish 
Church. 

In  France  the  Protestants,  there  called 
Huguenots,  became  very  numerous ;  civil 
war  broke  out  in  1562,  and  was  renewed 
at  frequent  intervals  during  more  than 
thirty  years,  till  the  abjuration  of  Pro- 
testantism by  Henry  IV.  in  1593.  By 
the  edict  of  Nantes  (1598)  liberty  of  wor- 
ship was  granted  to  the  Huguenots,  and 
certain  cities,  of  which  the  chief  was 
Rochelle,  made  over  to  them.  In  the 
eighteen  flourishing  provinces  of  HoUand 
and  Belgium  the  reforming  party,  owing 
to  the  neighbourhood  of  France,  adhered 
to  the  system  of  Calvin.  Under  the  rule 
of  Charles  V.,  and  afterwards  of  his  son, 
Philip  II.,  the  designs  of  the  innovators 
were  severely  repressed.  The  seizure  of 
Brille  by  the  Gueux,  in  1572,  was  the 
commencement  of  the  long  civil  war 
which  ended  in  the  disruption  of  the 
seven  northern  provinces  from  the  eleven 
provinces  of  Belgium,  and  the  consolida- 
tion of  the  former  into  a  Republic.  The 
necessity  of  providing  a  rallying  point 
and  symbol  of  union  caused  the  adoption 
by  the  Dutch,  in  the  Synod  of  Dordrecht 
(1574),  of  the  "Belgic  Confession,"  drawn 
up  by  Qui  de  Bres,  a  Walloon,  a  few 


REFRESHMENT  SUNDAY 


REGALIA  781 


^ears  before.  This  confession  is  Calvin- 
istic.  In  1582  the  provinces  of  Holland 
and  Zeeland  proscribed  the  Catholic 
worship,  and  the  w  holesale  plunder  and 
desecration  of  churches  followed.  The 
final  success  of  the  revolt  was  the  signal 
for  a  series  of  penal  enactments  which 
had  for  their  object  the  extirpation  of 
Catholicism  from  the  Republic.  This, 
however — since  the  Belgian  provinces, 
conterminous  in  their  whole  breadth 
•with  those  of  Holland,  had  remained 
Catholic — was  found  a  task  impossible 
of  achievement. 

"  In  Switzerland  the  Reformation 
arose,  independently  of  Luther,  by  the 
exertions  of  Zwinglius,  in  Zurich  (who 
fell  October  11,  1531,  at  Cappel,  in  a 
battle  -with  the  Catholics).  It  spread 
rapidly;  in  1528  it  had  been  adopted, 
altogether  or  partially,  by  the  cantons  of 
Zurich,  Bern,  Basle,"  Appenzel,  Glarus, 
and  Schaifhausen.  A  separation  from 
those  [the  Lutherans]  who  followed  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg  grew  in  1526  out 
of  the  .  .  .  difference  of  opinion  respect- 
ing the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  ; 
and  thus  originated  the  Reformed  party, 
which  was  first  luUv  developed  in  Geneva, 

through  Calvin,  lo36-1564  The 

forms  and  discipline  of  the  Reformed 
Church  were  here  fully  developed.  By 
means  of  the  university,"  founded  in  15.30, 
under  the  direction  of  Calvin,  and  sup- 
ported by  his  exertions  and  those  of 
Beza,  Geneva  became  the  principal  school 
of  theologv'  for  the  professors  of  these 
opinions,  and  in  those  days  the  only  one 
■where  the  French  language  prevailed." 
(Heeren,  "  Political  System  of  Europe," 
i.  76.)  By  the  "  Consensus  Tigurinus," 
arranged  in  1549  between  Calvin  and 
BuUinger,  of  Zurich,  a  concord,  at  least 
external,  was  brought  about  between  the 
Calvinist  and  Zwinglian  factions. 

The  true  and  Catholic  reformation, 
long  desired  but  delayed  by  many  diffi- 
culties, was  taken  up  and  successfully 
accomplished  by  the  Council  of  Trent 
(1545-15»!.3):  see  that  article. 

REFRESHMEIfT  SWDAT.  [See 
L.ITARE  Sunday." 

RECAIiZA..  The  right  claimed  by 
kings  of  receiving  the  revenues  of  a 
bishopric  during  a  vacancy,  and  of  appoint- 
ing, pending  the  election  of  a  successor, 
to  all  benefices  in  the  bishop's  patronage, 
not  involving  the  cure  of  souls,  which 
might  fall  vacant  in  the  interval. 

In  England,  as  is  well  known,  the 
Norman  and  Angevin  kings  exercised  this 


right,  and  were  accustomed  to  keep  the 
sees  vacant  for  years  in  order  that  they 
might  enjoy  the  revenues.  After  the 
mart\Tdom  of  St.  Thomas,  Henry  II. 
(1176)  promised  the  Pope  that  he  would 
in  future  not  keep  any  vacant  bishopric 
or  abbey  in  his  hands  for  more  than  a 
year,  unless  it  were  required  by  the 
evident  necessity  of  the  case.' 

In  France  the  regalia  was  introduced 
about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,* 
at  first  with  reference  to  certain  provinces 
onlv;  but  there  was  a  tendency  to  e.xtend 
it  further  and  further.  The  Council  of 
Lyons  (1274)  in  its  fifth  session  sanctioned 
the  right  in  cases  where  ancient  custom 
could  be  pleaded  for  it,  but  forbade  on 
pain  of  excommunication  its  extension  to 
churches  hitherto  free.'  In  spite  of  this 
the  kings  of  France,  supported  by  the 
lawyers,  went  on  developing  and  extend- 
ing the  regalia,  until  bv  three  edicts  of 
Louis  XIV.  (1673,  1674')  it  was  declared 
to  be  applicable  to  all  the  provinces  of 
the  French  monarchy.  The  patronage 
which  it  conferred  was  now  declared  to 
be  inherent  in  the  crown  until  such  time 
as  the  new  bishop  should  sue  out  his 
temporalities  in  the  Parliament  of  Paris 
and  pay  certain  fees ;  and  to  this  clause  a 
retrospective  effect  was  given,  so  that  any 
beneficiary  appointed  by  a  bishop  who 
had  not  complied  with  these  formalities 
might  be  dispossessed  in  favour  of  a 
royal  nominee. 

Most  of  the  French  bishops,  seeing 
the  overwhelming  power  of  the  crown, 
submitted  to  these  innovations ;  but  the 
bishops  of  Aleth  and  Pamiers  (Pavilion 
and  Caulet)  resisted  them ;  and  when 
royal  nominees  were  inducted  by  the 
secular  arm  into  canonries  to  which  these 
bishops  had  already  made  appointments, 
they  exconiiiinnicaf  ed  the  intruders.  The 
struggle  he<j!\n  in  107-)  .■ind  lasted  sr^veral 
years.  Tlu'  i'xc<Miuiinnic:iii'il  ffcli  si.'istics 
appealed  to  tli('inftnipr)lltniis(Arclil)isliops 
of  Toulouse  and  Nnrbonne)  of  the  two 
bishops,  and  obtained  from  them  decisions 
nullifying  the  episcopal  censures.  The 
bi.shops  then  a^ipealed  to  Rome :  Innocent 
XI.,  regarding  the  question  as  one  in 
which  the  liberties  of  the  Church  were 
involved,  espoused  their  cause,  and  an- 
nulled the  decrees  of  the  metropolitans. 
Great  confusion  and  excitement  followed. 

The  king's  interpretation  of  the  regalia 
was  supported  against  the  Holy  See,  not 

'  Linfrard,  ii.  97. 
3  Ferraris. 

*  Fleury,  livr.  Ixxxvi. 


782  REGENEEATION 


RELICS 


only  by  the  Parliament  and  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris  (Harlay),  but  also  by 
the  Jesuits.  The  ex])lanation  of  this 
reiuarliable  fact  is  found  in  a  complica- 
tion of  the  question  connected  with  the 
spread  ot  Jansenism  [Jaxsexism.]  The 
Jjishops  of  Aleth  and  Pamiers  ■were 
known  to  be  favourable  to  Arnauld  and 
his  party,  and  tliev  had  ajipointed  to 
canom-ies  in  their  gii't  per^tm.-;  iiiorc  or 
less  imbued  witli  these  ojiiniiins.  If  the 
reij'alla  were  maint  aininl,  and  in  the  extent 
now  elainiiid  for  it,  these  uu>n  miglit  be 
ejected,  and  ecclesiastics  nominated  by 
the  Kino's  confessor,  the  Pere  la  Chaise, 
■with  whom  the  .Jesuits  were  on  a 
thoroughly  good  footing,  might  be  put  in 
their  place. 

This  united  opposition  neutralised  the 
efforts  of  the  Pontifi' ;  and  when,  in  1  ()>^2, 
the  assembly  of  the  French  clergy  issued 
its  celebrated  Four  Articles  [see  Galli- 
CANISm],  the  question  of  the  regalia,  in 
view  01  this  fresh  subject  of  solicitude, 
fell  into  the  background.  (Ferraris, 
Jief/alia ;  Wetzer  and  Welte,  art.  by 
Do'llinger.) 

REGENBRATXOW.  [See  BAPTISM.] 

REGIITA.  CtEZiX.  An  anthem  in 
honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  which  be- 
gins with  these  words,  and  after  each  of 
whose  four  clauses  the  Alleluia  is  re- 
peated ;  it  is  said  at  the  end  of  the  offices 
(if  the  Breviary  during  the  Easter  season. 
Pope  Benedict  XIV.,  confirming  on  April 
20,  1742,  the  indulgences  granted  to  tlie 
recitation  of  the  "  .■^ngelus,"  oixlered 
that  the  "  Regina  Cceli  "  with  its  verses 
and  prayers  should  be  said  standing-;  in- 
stead, during  the  Paschal  season.  An 
ancient  tradition  relates  that  in  the  days 
of  St.  Gregory  the  Great  a  plague  broke 
out  in  Pome.  The  Pope  orde-red  all  the 
people  to  march  in  pmcessio;!,  carrying 
the  picture  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  painted 
by  St.  Luke.  As  the  crowds  went  to- 
wards St.  Peter's  and  reached  the  bridge 
across  the  Tibei',  a  multitude  of  angels 
were  seen  above  the  picture  singing-  the 
first  three  lines  of  the  anthem.  Tlie 
Pontifi'  cried  out,  "  Ora  pro  nobis  Deum, 
Alleluia,"  completing  the  anthem,  and 
the  angel  of  the  plague  was  seen  sheath- 
ing his  sword  above  Adrian's  mausoleum, 
whicli  hencelbrth  was  known  as  the  castle 
of  Sant'  Angelo. 

RECZOiNrAroiVS.  Pope  Fabian,  it 
is  said,  di\-i(le<l  Rome  into  seven  regions, 
founded  no  doubt  on  the  fourteen  liuown 
since  the  Augustan  age,  and  he  assigned 
each  to  the  charge  of  a  deacon,  who  was 


responsible  for  the  distribution  of  alms, 
care  of  hospitals,  &c.  These  regionary 
deacons  were  the  seven  chief  deacons  of 
the  Roman  Church;  they  were  subject  to 
the  archdeacon,  while  the  "titular" 
deacons — i.e.  deacons  of  the  panjchial 
churches — were  placed  under  the  arch- 
liriest  of  each  church.  From  the  time  of 
llonorius  II.  Rome  had  twelve  regionaiy 
deacons,  and  six  with  the  name  of 
Palatinales.'  The  regionarii  sang  the 
Gospel  when  the  Pope  officiated  at  the 
stations,  the  Palatinales  when  he  did  so 
at  the  Lateran.  There  was  a  similar 
division  of  subdeacons  and  acolytes. 
Sixtus  V.  fixed  the  number  of  cardinal 
deacons  at  fourteen.  (Mabillon,  "  Museum 
Italicum,"  vol.  ii.  p.  xi.  seq.  and  p.  567 
seq.) 

RECXrxARS.  Persons  of  either  sex 
observing  a  common  rule  of  life,  bound 
by  the  three  vows  of  religion,  and  obey- 
ing, with  regard  to  dress,  food,  and  the 
employment  of  their  time,  the  statutes  of 
the  particular  order  or  congregation  to 
M'hich  they  belong.  (See  the  articles 
Ordees,  Religious;  Clerk  Regular; 
Profession,  Religious  :  Exemption.) 

REXiZCS.  The  word  includes  the 
bodies  of  departed  saints,  fragments  of 
their  bodies,  articles  or  portions  of  articles 
which  they  have  used,  such  as  clothes, 
vestments,  rosarie.-,  and  the  liki^  The 
Church  also  M.iicral  e>  ]-(-]ics  of  Christ  and 
Ills  Blessed  Mother.  Such  are  the  holy 
nails,  lance,  spear,  or  fragments  of  the  True 
Cross,  the  gii-dle,  veil,  &c.,  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  The  devotion  to  relics,  solemnly 
approved  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (sess. 
XXV.  De  Invoc.  Sanct.)  rests  on  two  great 
principles  of  Catholic  belief. 

First,  the  Church  honours  the  bodies 
of  the  dead  who  sleep  in  Christ.  Our 
Loi-d  lias  opened  the  Idngdom  of  heaven, 
and  given  us  the  pledge  and  .-issurance  of 
the  resurrection  of  the  body.  Ileuce, 
Christians  have  lost  that  horror  of  dead 
bodies  which  was  characteristic  of  the  hea- 
then, and  even  of  Jews.  But  the  Church 
s])ecially  venerates  the  bodies  of  the 
martyrs  and  other  saints;  because,  while 
they  were  on  earth,  theii-  bodies  were  the 
temples  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  they  them- 
selves living  members  of  Christ.  Their 
souls  are  already  in  heaven,  their  glorious 
resurrection  is  a  matter  of  certainty,  and 
therefore  the  Church  joyfully  anticipates 
the  glory  which  God'  will  give  to  the.-e 
remains  at  the  last  day.  She  testifies  at 
'  "Cui  (lu*  alia;  demuni  ndditse  diacoiiiiu 
numerumxx  constituerunt "  (Mabill.  p.  xviii.;. 


RELICS 

once  the  firmness  of  her  belief  in  the 
resurrection  and  her  love  of  the  virtues 
■which  shone  forth  in  the  saints.  For 
these  were  not  virt  ues  of  the  soul  only :  they 
were  proper  to  th»;  whole  man,  body  and 
soul,  which  toiled  and  suffered  together. 
The  same  reasons  which  make  the  resur- 
rection of  the  body  credible  also  tell  in 
favour  of  the  veneration  due  to  relics. 
And  so  Christians  have  felt  from  the  very 
infancy  of  the  Church.  They  gatherefl 
the  bones  of  St.  Ignatius  of  Anti"x;h 
(anno  107)  and  placed  them  in  linen, 
"  as  a  priceless  treasure,  being  left  to  the 
Holy  Church  by  the  grace  which  was  in 
the'maitj-r"  ("Act.  Mart."  6).  When 
Polycarp's  body  was  burned  in  167  the 
Christians  exhumed  the  lyjnes  they  could 
find  "as  more  precious  than  costly  stones 
and  more  valuable  than  gold.''  The  Jews 
sugge.-ted  that  the  Christians  would  leave 
Christ  and  worship  Polycarp,  ignorant 
that  Christians  could  "never  leave  Christ 
or  worship  another"  ("Act.  Mart."  17, 18). 
When  in  2->S  Cyprian  was  about  to  be 
beheaded,  the  Christians  cast  towels  and 
napkins  before  him,  clearly  that  they 
might  be  soaked  in  his  blood  ("Act. 
Procons."  5).  So  baseless  is  the  state- 
ment that  devotion  to  relics  came  into 
the  Church  firom  Pagan  influences  after 
Constantine's  conversion. 

Xext,  Catholics  believe  that  God  is 
sometimes  pleased  to  honour  the  relics  of 
the  saints  by  makiug  them  instruments 
of  healing  and  other  miracles,  and  also  by 
bestowing  spiritual  graces  on  those 
who  with  pure  hnarts  keep  and  honour 
them.  For  this  principle  the  Fathers 
{e.g.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, ''  Catech."  iviii.) 
appeal  to  the  Old  Testament,  which  re- 
lates the  resurrection  of  a  dead  body 
which  touched  the  bone.s  of  Eliseus 
(IV.  Kings  xiii.  21),  and  to  the  New, 
which  tellfl  us  that  the  sick  were  healed 
by  towels  which  had  touched  the  living 
body  of  St.  Paul  (Acts  xijc.  12 ;  cf.  v.  15). 
"  There  is  a  power,"  says  CJyril  {loc.  cit. 
p.  iO.j),  "  latent  {(yKeirai',  even  in  the 
bodies  of  the  just.  "So  proof  Is  needed 
that,  after  the  heathen  pers*;cution 
was  over,  the  Christians  sought  and 
believed  that  they  obtained  graces 
through  the  relics  of  the  saints.  St. 
Ambrose,  St.  Augustine,  and,  indeed  the 
Fathers  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries 
generally,  are  witnesses  to  the  belief.  A 
catena  of  passages  will  be  found  in 
Petavius,  "De  Incamat."  xiv.  cap.  xi. 
(See  also  Newman's  "  Development,"  ch. 
X.  §  1,  Kenurecti'jn  and  Ilelics.) 


RELIGION,  RELIGIOUS  783 

I  Abuses  no  doubt  have  occurred  in  all 
'  ages  with  regard  to  rehcs.  In  1215, 
canon  02  of  the  Fourth  Lateran  f^'oun- 
cil,  inserted  in  the  "Corpus  Juri.-."  for- 
bade relics  to  be  sold  or  to  bt;  e.xposed 
outside  of  their  cases  or  shrines,  and  pro- 
hibited the  public  veneration  of  new 
relics  till  their  authenticity  had  been 
approved  by  the  Pope  (Mansi,  "  Concil." 
torn.  xiii.  104!)-50;  see  also  Fleurv. 
"  ri.  E."  livr.  Ixxvii.  'A ).  The  Council  of 
j  Trent   (sess.   xxv,    De   Invoc.  Sanct.) 

renews  these  prohibitions  and  ree^uires 
I  bishops  to  decide  on  the  authenticity  of 
■  new  relies  after  careful  consultation  with 
j  theologians,  or,  if  necessary,  with  the 
I  metropolitan  and  other  bishops  of  the 
province  assembled  in  council. 

Relics  are  usually  venerated  in  public 
;  by  being  exposed  in  their  cases,  with 
I  burning  lights,  upon  the  altar.    They  are 
;  often  placed  there  at  Hi^h  Mass  and 
incensed.    They  are  carriedf  in  procession 
and  the  people  .'tre  blessed  with  them. 
A  special  Mass  and  office  are  pemiitted 
^  to  churches  which  have  an   "  in,=:;:ni5 
reliquia  "  of  a  saint  named  in  the  Roman 
Martyrology.    (See  the  decrees  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Breviary  and  Missal.) 

KEXZCZOar,  a£Z.ZGZOTTS  (religi/j, 
prob.  from  rehgo  ;  releynis,  attentive, 
studious,  would  be  the  opposite  of  negle- 
gem,  cari^less '_).  The  word  "  religion  "  ia 
often  used  in  a  technical  sense  by  Catholic 
writers  to  denote  the  virtue  which  deals 
with  giving  to  God  the  honour  which  is 
Ills  due.  .St.  Thomas  looks  upon  it  as  a 
part  of  the  virtue  of  jusrice.  God  ia  the 
supreme  Lord  of  aU ;  all  other  beings  are 
entirely  dependent  upon  Him.  Man  by 
his  reason  can  know  this  di;niity  of  God 
and  his  own  dependence  up^^n  God.  He 
is  therefore  bound  to  acknowledge  thU 
dignity  and  dependence ;  to  adore,  praise, 
and  thank  his  Creator,  and  to  ask  Him 
for  all  that  he  stands  in  need  of.  Thvse 
;  acts  of  homage  ar^^  paid  C!.i>^uy  by  prayer 
and  sacrifice  (see  these  articiesj. 

As  religion  is  a  moral  virtue,  it  lies 
I  midway  between  two  extremes.    The  de- 
fect of  religion  is  called  irreligion.  To 
i  this  belongs  all  want  of  reverence  for 
j  God,  or  for  persons  or  things  dedicated 
;  to  Him.    Thus,  temjiting  God,  perjury, 
and  sacrilege  are  instances  of  this  vice. 
The  opposite  extreme  is  superstition.  We 
cannot,  of  course,  give  God  too  much 
honour,  but  it  is  possible  to  honour  Him 
in  an  unbecoming  way.  or  to  give  to 
creatures  the  bonour  due  to  Him  alone, 
i  »  Skeat,  EtynioL  Did. 


784  llEOiiDIXATlON 


KESEIiVATIOX  OF  BENEFICES 


To  offer  Mo>aic  .sacridces  now  that  the 
new  law  has  been  estaLlished  would  he 
an  instance  of  the  former  kind  of  super- 
stition ;  idolatry,  divination,  and  vain  ob- 
servance are  instances  of  the  latter. 

Religion  is  sometimes  used  in  a  still 
narrower  sense  to  designate  the  state  of 
those  who  have  entirely  devoted  them- 
selves to  God  by  the  three  vows  of 
poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience  (see 
Oedees,  Religious;  Monk,  Nun,  &c.). 
Hence  the  various  religious  orders  are 
styled  "  religions."  Trench  ("  Study  of 
Words,"  p.  9)  infers  from  this  use  of  the 
word  that  monks  and  nuns  are  the  only 
"  religious  "  people  among  Catholics.  St. 
Thomas  long  ago  met  this  objection  in 
a  way  that  should  commend  itself  to  a 
writer  on  language.  "  A  name  common, 
to  many  things  is  sometimes  appropriated 
to  that  one  to  which  it  eminently  belongs ; 
as,  for  example,  Rome  is  often  called  'the 
city.'  Now,  religion  is  the  virtue  by 
which  a  man  does  something  for  the  ser- 
vice and  worship  of  God.  And,  there- 
fore, they  are  said,  by  antonomasia,  to  be 
religious  who  have  devoted  themselves 
entirely  to  the  service  of  God,  offering, 
as  it  were,  a  holocaust  to  Him"  (2*  2®,  qu. 
clxxxvi.  a.  1).  St.  Thomas  has  treated 
of  religion  at  some  length,  2*  2"^,  qq. 
Ixxxi.-c. ;  and  of  the  religious  state,  qq. 
clxxxiv.-clxxxix. 

REOBSzivATZonr.  [See  Ordina- 
tion.^ 

REQiVZEnx.    [See  Mass.] 

RESERVATIOir  OF  BESTE- 
FZCES.  Mandates  and  favours  in  ex- 
pectation {mandata,  graticp  expectativa^, 
by  which  Popes  had  been  accustomed  to 
require  that  bishops  and  others  having 
the  right  of  conferring  benefices  should, 
as  soon  as  they  fell  vacant,  confer  them 
upon  particular  persons — and  mental 
reservations,  by  which  a  Pontiff  an- 
nounced, but  without  mentioning  their 
names,  that  he  had  reserved  certain  bene- 
fices, when  they  should  fall  vacant,  in 
favour  of  particular  persons — were  all 
abolished  by  the  Council  of  Trent.' 
AVith  other  Papal  reservations  the  Coun- 
cil did  not  inti-rfere. 

The  reservation  of  benefices  is  desir- 
able for  many  reasons:  it  is  a  ]>rac'tical 
means  of  giving  effect  in  wi(L  'l\-  |i;:i  :itt'(l 
countries  to  the  supremf  p;i-l(iriiW'  ..1'  tlic 
Roman  Pontiffs  ;  it  links  the  different 
national  Churches  more  closely,  by  per- 
sonal ties  of  gratitude  and  affection,  to 
the  Apostolic  See,  and  through  it  to  each 
«  Sess.  xxiv,  c.  19,  De  Ref. 


other ;  and  it  provides  the  Pope  with  the 
means  of  rewarding  those  who  have 
laboured  meritoriously  in  his  cause  and 
that  of  the  Church. 

Considered  with  reference  to  the  legal 
foundation  on  which  they  rest,  reserva- 
tions are  divided  into  four  classes— (1) 
those  which  are  containedinthe  "  Corpus 
Juris  "  ;  (2)  those  which  are  found  in  the 
"  Extravagants,"  outside  the  "  Corpus  ; " 
(.3)  those  specified  in  the  constitutions  of 
later  Popes  ;  (4)  those  specified  by  the 
rules  of  the  Chancery.  Another  classi- 
fication, founded  on  differences  in  the 
quality  of  reservations,  is  suggested  by 
Cardinal  Soglia.  According  to  this 
arrangement,  reservations  are  fivefold  : — 
(1)  Benefices  are  reserved  on  the 
ground  of  their  own  quality  ;  thus  the 
second  rule  of  the  Chancery  reserves  to 

j  the  Pope  all  vacant  bishoprics,  and  the 
abbacy  or  headship  in  any  monastery  of 
men,  the  revenues  of  which  exceed  a  cer- 

I  tain  amount.  The  fourth  rule  reserves 
the  gi-eater  dignities  in  cathedral 
churches,  and  the  principal  dignities  in 
collegiate  churches  possessing  a  certain 
revenue.  One  such  dignity  only  in  each 
church  is  understood  to  be  affected  by 
the  rule.  "With  regard  to  all  the  reser- 
vations under  this  head,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  they  do  not  take  effect 
in  countries  where  there  is  any  pact  or 
concordat  regulating  the  course  of 
patronage,  for  it  is  a  maxim  that  pactum 
prastat  mri, 

■  (2)  Benefices  are  reserved  on  the 
ground  of  their  being  held  by  particular 

\  persons — e.g.  by  cardinals,  members  of 
the  Curia,  and  officials  of  the  Holy  See. 

(3)  The  third  ground  of  reservation 
is  connected  with  the  manner  in  which  a 
benefice  has  become  vacant.  Thus  a 
benefice  may  be  vacated  on  account  of 
heresy,  or  collusive  simony  (sinwnia  cov^ 
Jidentialis),  or  informality  (as  in  the  case 
of  parishes,  in  appointing  to  which  the 
conciirsm  ordered  by  the  Council  of  Trent 
has  been  neglected),  or  deposition  pro- 
ceeding from  a  particular  cause ;  in  all 
these  cases,  under  constitutions  emanat- 
ing from  St.  Pius  V.  and  other  Pontiffs, 
reservation  takes  effect. 

(4)  The  fourth  ground  is  connected 
with  the  place  where  the  vacancy  has 
occurred.  The  benefice  of  any  eccle- 
siastic dying  at  the  court  of  Rome  is  a 
familiar  instance ;  this  is  mentioned  in 
the  "  Corpus  Juris,"  and  is  the  most 

j  ancient  of  all  reservations. 

I      (5)  The  fifth  ground  depends  on  th» 


RESERVATION 


RESERVATION 


785 


time  at  which  the  vacancy  has  occurred. 
The  ninth  rule  of  the  Chancery  reserves 
all  benefices  strictly  so  called  (not  being 
in  lay  patronage),  whether  with  or  with- 
out cure  of  souls,  which  fall  vacant  in 
eight  months  of  the  year — viz.  in  January, 
February,  April,  May,  July,  August, 
October,  and  November.  In  the  case  of 
bishops,  however,  who  reside  continu- 
ously in  their  dioceses,  and  who  appl^ 
for  the  privilege,  the  above  rule  is  modi- 
fied to  this  extent,  that  the  Papal  reser- 
vation only  takes  effect  in  alternate 
months,  the  patronage  being  thus  equally 
divided  between  the  Pope  and  the  ordi- 
nary. 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  rules 
of  the  Chancery  have  no  legal  force  during 
a  vacancy  of  the  Holy  See ;  each  Pope 
renews  them  immediately  after  his  elec- 
tion. Reservations,  therefore,  which  de- 
pend only  on  a  rule  of  the  Chancery,  and 
not  also  on  a  Papal  constitution,  do  not 
take  efiect  in  the  case  of  benefices  vacated 
in  the  interval  between  the  death  of  one 
Pope  and  the  election  of  another. 
(Soglia,  "  lustit.  Canon."  III.  2,  §  20.) 

HCSERVATZOia-  OF  THE  HOI.T 
EircHARZST.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Church  on  this  subject  has  been  ex- 
plained under  the  word  Ettchaeist.  In 
this  article  we  propose  to  give  a  brief 
history  of  the  reservation  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist  in  the  Church. 

a.  Causes  of  Reservation. — In  all  ages, 
of  course,  the  Blessed  Sacrament  has 
been  reserved  for  the  sick,  and  the  first 
Christians,  in  the  times  of  persecution, 
kept  the  Eucharist  at  home  and  gave 
communion  to  themselves.  But,  besides 
this,  (1)  the  Eucharist  was  sent  from 
bishop  to  bishop  as  a  sign  of  charity. 
Irenseus  (apud  Euseb.  "H.  E."  v.  24) 
testifies  that  the  bishops  of  Rome  sent 
the  Eucharist  to  other  bishops,  and  al- 
though the  Council  of  Laodicea  (canon 
14)  forbade  the  sending  of  the  Eucharist 
at  Easter  into  strange  dioceses,  and  this 
prohibition  found  general  acceptance, 
still  a  supposed  decretal  of  Pope  Innocent 
to  Decentius  proves  that  the  Bishop  of 
Rome  sent  the  fennentum  or  consecrated 
host  "  per  titulos " — i.e.  to  the  chief 
chirches  of  the  city.  (2)  In  Rome,  as 
we  know  fi-om  the  earliest  Ordo,  a  Host 
consecrated  at  one  Mass  was  placed  on 
the  altar  at  the  Mass  of  the  next  day,  to 
signify  the  unity  of  the  sacrifice.  A 
similar  custom  prevailed  in  Gaul  under 
the  first  dynasty.  (3)  The  Eucharist  was 
carried  by  lay  persons,  or  even  catechu- 


mens (see  Ambros.  "  De  Eicid.  Sat."  i. 
43),  as  a  protection  against  danger.  This 
custom  must  have  lasted,  at  least  in  the 
case  of  clerics,  till  late  in  the  middle 
ages,  for  St.  Thomas  k  Becket  carried 
the  Eucharist  with  him  when  he  went  to 
meet  Henry  11.    St.  Louis  of  France 
carried  the  Eucharist  with  him  beyond 
the  sea,  but  by  permission  of  the  Papal 
legate,  and  from  about  this  time  the 
privilege  seems  to  have  been  rest-rved  to 
the  Pope,  though  one  or  two  instances  of 
priests  carrying  it  for  their  own  protec- 
tion occur  in  later  times — e.g.  in  the  life 
of  Savonarola.    Among  the  Greek  monks 
it  was  still  maintained  when  Arcudius 
wrote  his  work  "  De  Concordia  Eccl.  Occid. 
et  Orientalis  in  VII  Sacramentorum  admi- 
nistratione  " — i.e.  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. (4)  In  Rome  and  France,  as  appears 
from  the  Ordo  Romanus  and  Alcuin,  a 
bishop  at  his  consecration  kept  a  part  of 
the  Host  presented  to  him  by  the  conse- 
crator  and  consumed  it  during  the  next 
forty  days.    The  same  usage  obtained  in 
some  parts  of  France  at  the  ordination  of 
priests.    (5)  Many  councils  reprove  the 
custom,  which  must  have  been  widely 
spread,  of  giving  communion  to  the  dead 
(Concil.  Hippo,  c.  4;  Auxerre,  c.  12; 
Statut.  Bonifac.  20).     (G)   The  Host 
was  buried  with  the  dead.    This  was 
done  on  one  occasion,  according  to  St. 
Gregory  the  Great,  by  St.  Benedict 
("  Dial."  ii.  24),  and,  according  to  an 
ancient  author,  in  the  case  of  St.  Basil  at 
I  the  saint's  own  desire.    (7)  The  pen  was 
I  sometimes  dipped   in   the  Communion 
!  under  the  spi'cies  of  wine  in  subscribing 
I  decrees  of  councils,  &c.    Pope  Theodore, 
j  for  example,  signed  the  condemnation  of 
[  Pyrrhus  in  this  way.    (8)  In  dedicating 
'  churches  three  portions  of  the  Host  were 
\  put  in  the  altar  and  sealed  up  with  cement. 
I  This  rite  was  followed  by  Pope  Urban  II. 
'  in  dedicating  the  abbey  church  of  Mar- 
moutier  (Martene,  "  De  Rit."  tom.  i.  c.  5, 
a.  4  ;  quoted  by  Chardon).' 

b.  The  Case  or  Tabernacle  in  which  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  was  Reserved. — The 
oldest  tabernacles  had  the  form  of  a 
tower.  According  to  Anastasius,  Con- 
stantine  presented  St.  Peter's  Church  at 
Rome  with  a  tower  of  pure  gold  adorned 
with  jewels  and  with  a  dove  upon  it, 

1  In  modern  times  the  Holy  Eucharist  ia 
also  reserved  for  exposition  and  benediction, 
and  in  order  that  the  faithful  may  be  able 
throughout  the  day  to  adore  Chri.st  present  on 
the  altar.  See  Benediction;  Exposition; 
Visits  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament. 

■6  E 


786 


EESERVED  CASES 


RESERVED  CASES 


while  Innocent  T.  and  Hilarius  1.  gave 
towers  of  the  same  kind  to  the  churches 
of  SS.  Gervase  and  Protase  and  of  St. 
John  Lateran.  Such  a  tower  existed  in 
Chardon's  time  (the  middle  of  the  last 
century)  at  Marraoutier.  Their  turrical 
form  was  succeeded  in  many  churches  by 
tabernacles  in  the  shape  of  a  covered  cup  ; 
in  others  by  small  boxes  suspended  over 
the  altar.  The  custom,  so  common  in 
France,  of  suspending  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment in  a  tabernacle  made  like  a  dove  has 
been  described  elsewhere  (art.  Dote). 
Tabernacles  were  of  very  various  material, 
of  precious  metal,  of  precious  stone  such 
as  onyx,  of  fiias.-s,  or  even  wood. 

c.  The  Place  of  Heservation.  —  The 
most  ancient  use  was  to  reserve  the  Holy 
Eucharist  in  naa-Tocpopia  or  tlialami — i.e. 
in  chambers  at  the  side  of  the  church. 
Jerome,  in  cap.  40  Ezech.  (quoted  by 
Chardon),  alludes  to  this  custom.  This 
custom  of  reserving  the  Eucharist  in  the 
sacristy  was  not  extinct  in  France  even 
during  the  last  century.  In  the  middle 
ages  the  Eucharist  was  often  reserved  in 
an  ambry  [Ambrt],  or  press,  in  the  corner 
of  the  building  or  in  a  piUar — such  a  press 
as  we  now  use  for  the  holy  oils.  The 
modem  Greeks  reserve  the  Eucharist  for 
the  Mass  of  the  Presanctified,  whence  it 
is  carried  in  procession  to  the  altar.  For 
the  sick  they  keep  it,  according  to  Goar,  [ 
in  a  place  called  dprocjiopiov  behind  the  ; 
altar,  with  a  lamp  burning  before  it.  j 
Such  no  doubt  is  their  rule,  but  j 
M.  Nointel,  ambassador  from  the  French  J 
king  to  the  Sultan,  gives  an  interesting 
account  (printed  in  the  "  Pei-p(5tuite  de 
la  Foi  ")  of  the  different  ways  in  which 
he  saw  the  Eucharist  reserved  among 
the  Greeks.  Sometimes  the  box  which 
held  it  was  on  the  altar ;  very  often  it 
was  put  in  a  silk  bag  and  hung  on  a  nad. 

Gavantus  approves  the  custom  which 
exists  in  many  Catholic  churches,  of 
placing  the  tabernacle  on  the  altar  in  a 
side  chapol ;  but  in  most  English  churches  j 
the  tabernat-le  with  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment is  placed  over  the  chief  altar. 
(From  Chaidon,  "Hist,  des  Sacrements," 
torn.  ii.  "  De  I'Eucharistie,"  torn.  ii.  §  3, 
ch.  viii.-x.) 

RESERVED  CASES.  Certain  sins, 
power  to  absolve  from  which  is  reserved 
by  the  superior  to  himself  and  not  im- 
parted to  inferiors,  who  have  ordinary  or  - 
delegated  jurisdiction  over  other  sins. 
Papal  cases  are  reserved  to  the  Pope, 
episcopal  cases  to  the  bishop,  the  reseiwed 
cases  of  regulars  to  the  prelates  of  the 


order.  Jurisdiction  given  by  a  superior 
is,  as  has  been  shown  in  the  article  on 
Penance,  necessary  for  the  validity  of 
absolution.  But  a  superior  may  either 
confer  the  whole  of  the  jurisdiction 
which  he  himself  holds,  or  only  a  part  of 
it,  just  as  in  England  the  Crown  em- 
powers magistrates  to  try  petty  cases, 
but  not  the  more  serious  crimes.  Hence, 
the  Council  of  Trent  (sess.  xix.  De  Poenit. 
can.  11)  defines  that  bishops  have  the 
power  of  reserving  cases,  and  that  abso- 
lution from  them  cannot  be  validly  given 
by  an  ordinary  confessor.  The  object  of 
the  reservation  is  to  increase  the  shame 
of  the  penitent,  to  impress  the  serious 
nature  of  the  offence  upon  him,  and  to 
give  the  superior,  who  is  likely  to  have 
more  experience  than  the  ordinary  con- 
fessor, the  opportunity  of  prescribing  a 
fitting  remedy.  This  power  of  reserva- 
tion, however,  is  given  for  edification, 
not  destruction.  Clement  VIH.  warns 
prelates '  only  to  reserve  "  the  more 
atrocious  and  grievous  crimes,"  and  it  is 
generally  assumed  that  the  reserve  falls 
only  on  sins  which  are  grievous,  external, 
certain,  and  complete  in  their  kind.  The 
reserved  sin  may  also  have  a  censure 
attached  to  it,  and  this  is  almost  always 
the  case  in  Papal  reserves.  Absolution 
from  a  reserved  sin  may  be  given  by  the 
superior  who  reserves  it,  by  his  succes- 
sors, by  those  whom  he  delegates,  by  his 
own  superiors.  For  full  information  we 
refer  to  the  common  treatises  on  moral 
theology;  only  adding  that  in  the  dioceses 
of  England  very  few  sins,  and  those  of 
most  rare  occurrence,  are  reserved  either 
to  the  Pope  or  ordinary. 

The  practice  of  the  modem  is  con- 
sonant with  that  of  the  ancient  and 
mediaeval  Church,  which  usually  "re- 
served to  the  bishops  the  absolution  of 
public  penitents "  (Chardon,  "  Hist,  des 
Sacrem."  torn.  ii.  ch.  vii.).  Some  of  the 
cases  quoted  by  Chardon  scarcely  seem 
to  the  point — e.ff.  the  direction  of  ancient 
Rituals  that  priests  are  to  hear  the  con- 
fessions of  those  who  present  themselves, 
and  take  them,  if  they  seem  well  dis- 
posed, to  the  bishop  for  absolution;  or 
the  statement  of  Peter  the  Cantor  in  his 
"Sum  of  the  Sacraments,"  that  formerly 
monks  used  to  hear  conlessions  and  the 
abbot  alone  to  absolve.  But  he  quotes 
from  the  Acts  of  a  Benedictine,  St. 
Redou,  who  lived  in  the  tenth  century, 
and    from  Constitutions    of  Richard, 

1  He  actually  limited  the  power  of  reserva- 
tion on  the  part  of  religious  superiors. 


I'.ESIDEXCE 


KESiGNATION 


787 


bishop  of  Salisbury,  clear  cases  of  Papal 
reserve.  In  1171,  Pope  Alexander  III. 
■wrote  to  the  Archbishop  of  Upsala,  that 
women  guilty  of  child-murder  and  other 
abominations  were  to  be  sent  to  Rome 
for  absolution.  "  This,"  says  Fleury 
("  II.  E."  Ixx'u.  35),  "  is  the  beginning 
of  Papal  reserves  for  more  atrocious 
crimes ;  but  the  instances  just  given 
show  that  this  is  scarcely  correct.  Mr. 
Maskell  ("  Monum.  Rit."  vol.  i.  p.  97) 
gives  some  account  of  reserved  sins  in  the 
old  English  Church.  Thus,  a  Council  of 
Durham  in  12-^0  lays  down  the  principle 
that  greater  sins  are  to  be  reser\-ed  to 
those  higlii-r  in  office.  The  penitent  is 
to  go  to  the  bishop  or  the  penitentiary 
with  a  letter  from  his  confessor  stating 
the  nature  and  circumstances  of  his  sin, 
or  else  the  confessor  is  to  accompany  him. 
In  1367,  Thoresby,  archbishop  of  York, 
reserved  thirty-seven  sins  to  himself  or 
his  penitentiary. 

RESISENCE.  Before  the  Council 
of  Trent  the  non-residence  of  ecclesiastics, 
even  of  bishops,  had  long  been  a  crying 
evil.  Li  the  sixth  session,  the  Fathers 
adopted  a  decree  of  reformation,  which 
provided  that  anypatriarch,  metropolitan, 
or  bishop,  who  should  remain  without 
legitimate  cause  for  six  months  together 
absent  from  his  church,  should  forfeit  a 
fourth  part  of  the  revenues.  A  still  more 
protracted  and  contumacious  absence  was 
eventually  to  be  reported  to  the  Pope, 
who  would  meet  it  by  appropriate  mea- 
sures. Finding  that  this  decree  had  been 
by  some  perversely  understood,  as  if  a 
bishop  might  without  incurring  censure 
be  absent  five  mouths  in  the  year  from 
his  diocese,  the  Council  in  the  twenty- 
third  and  twenty-fourth  sessions  returned 
to  the  subject,  and  declared  that  "  all 
the  rulers  of  patriarchal,  metropolitan, 
and  cathedral  churches,  under  whatsoever 
name  or  title,  even  if  they  be  cardinals  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Chmch,  are  bound  to 
personal  residence  in  their  own  cliurch 
or  diocese,  where  it  is  their  duty  to  dis- 
charge the  functions  of  their  office,  and 
cannot  be  absent,  except  for  the  causes 
and  under  the  circumstances  hereunder 
specified."  There  are  many  legitimate 
causes  of  absence,  but  these  must  be 
approved  in  writing  either  by  the  Pope 
or  the  metropolitan ;  except  in  the  case 
of  some  urgent  political  exigency,  the 
occun-ence  of  which,  being  usually  sud- 
den, and  at  the  same  time  notorious, 
dispenses  the  bishop  from  the  necessity 
of  notifying  his  absence.    As  a  rule,  the 


period  of  absence  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
apart  from  the  urgent  causes  above 
noticed,  "  ought  on  no  account  to  exceed 
two  or  at  most  three  months ;  and  care 
should  be  taken  that  there  be  a  sufficient 
cause,  and  that  the  bishop's  flock  suffer 
no  harm  ;  judgment  on  which  point  [the 
Council]  leaves  to  the  conscience  of  those 
absenting  themselves,  hoping  that  it 
[their  conscience]  will  be  scrupulous  and 
full  of  fear,  since  hearts  are  open  before 
God,  whose  work  they  are  bound  at  their 
peril  not  to  do  deceitfully." ' 

Canons  in  cathedral  and  collegiate 
churches  are  ordinarily  bound  to  residence 
during  nine  months  in  the  year.-  But 
where  a  foundation  possesses  a  privilege, 
conhrmed  by  the  Pope,  in  virtue  of  which 
the  canons  are  permitted  to  be  absent  for 
a  longer  time,  it  is  held  that  the  concihar 
decree  does  not  derogate  from  that  privi- 
lege.^ In  the  case  both  of  bishops  and 
canons  the  period  of  absence  ouglit  not 
to  comprise  the  times  at  which  the  great 
festivals  (Christmas,  ICaster,  Pentecost, 
Corpus  Christi)  are  celebrated,  nor  the 
days  of  Lent  or  Advent.  The  obligation 
on  individual  canons  to  reside  does  not 
bind  when  they  have  a  lawful  excuse  for 
not  doing  so.  Such  excuses  are — illness, 
permitted  sojourn  in  a  foreign  country 
for  the  purpose  of  study  or  teaching,  and 
employment  in  the  immediate  service  of 
the  bishop. 

Parish  priests  and  other  beneficiaries 
having  cure  of  souls  cannot  be  absent 
from  their  cure  for  more  than  a  week 
without  the  bishop's  permission.  Two 
months  in  the  year  is  the  period  beyond 
which  the  bishop's  permission  of  non- 
residence  to  his  clergy  is  not  ordinarily 
i  extended. 

1       Diocesan   statutes,   concordats,  and 
I  the  civil  law  in  certain  countries,  contain 
i  a  great  variety  of  particular  regulations 
respecting  the  residence  of  ecclesiastics. 

JtESXCrNATXOVr.  The  resignation  or 
renunciation  of  a  benefice  is,  "  the  spon- 
taneous relinquishment  of  an  ecclesiastical 
benefice,  made  before  the  lawful  superior, 
and  accepted  by  him."  *  It  is  either  tacit 
or  express.  A  resignation  is  tacitly  or 
ipso  facto  made  of  any  church  preferment 
held  by  the  resigner  in  the  following  cas^.:-  ■ 
by  one  who,  already  having  one  benefice, 
is  nominated  to  another  incompatible  with 
the  first ;  by  a  clerk  in  minor  orders  who 

1  Jer.  xlviii.  10. 

»  Ses.-i.  xxiv.  12,  De  Ref. 

•  Ferraris,  ''Canonicatus,"  art.  5. 

*  Ferraris. 

3£2 


788  RESPOXSORY 


RESURRECTION  OF  THE  BODY 


enters  into  a  contract  of  marriage ;  by  a 
clerk  becoming  professed  in  a  religious 
order  [Proi-ession,  Religious]  ;  and  by 
a  clerk  becoming  a  soldier  or  a  strolling 
player.  An  express  resignation  is  made 
either  in  words  or  in  writing,  and  is  either 
pure  or  conditional.  A  pure  resignation 
is  an  unqualified  absohite  surrender  of  the 
preferment ;  a  conditional  resignation  is 
made  mb  conditione,  and  is  of  five  kinds, 
according  as  it  is  made — (1)  in  favour  of 
a  third  person ;  or  (2)  with  the  reserva- 
tion of  a  pension  out  of  the  revenues  ;  or 
(3)  with  the  right  of  resumption,  if  the 
resignatary  should  die  before  the  resigner; 
or  (4)  with  the  right  of  resumption  at 
some  given  date  in  the  future  ;  or  (5)  in 
pursuance  of  an  arrangement  for  an  ex- 
change of  benefices.  But  these  condi- 
tional resignations,  the  status  of  the 
clergy  relatively  to  the  civil  power  being 
so  different  from  what  it  formerly  was, 
are  now  of  rare  occurrence. 

Publicity  is  necessary  to  the  validity 
of  a  resignation,  and  the  mode  of  publi- 
cation under  varying  circumstances  is 
minutely  regulated  by  canon  law. 

Reserved  benefices,  the  collation  of 
which  belongs  to  the  Pope  alone,  cannot 
be  resigned  into  the  hands  of  any  ordinary 
lower  than  the  Pope. 

According  to  a  decretal  of  Innocent 
III.,'  a  bishop  can  only  resign  his  see  for 
one  of  six  causes,  which  are  summed  up 
in  the  memorial  lines: — 

Debilis,  ignarus,  male  coDBcius,  irregularis, 
Quern  mala  plebs  odit,  dans  scandala,  cedere 
possit. 

The  lawful  causes,  therefore,  are  physical 
infirmity;  ignorance,  or  a  want  of  the 
knowledge  necessary  for  the  discharge 
of  his  office ;  the  consciousness  of  some 
crime,  such  as  heresy,  which,  even  after 
penance  done,  would  impede  him  in  the 
performance  of  his  duties  ;  irregularity 
(see  that  article) ;  great  personal  unpopu- 
larity, and  some  gTave  scandal,  which 
nothing  short  of  his  resignation  could 
remove.    (Ferraris,  Jtinif/natio.) 

RESPOn'SORT.  Ver-ses  said  after 
the  Le.«sons,  so  called  according  to  Isidore 
because  part  of  it  is  said  by  one  reader  or 
singer  to  whom  the  choir  answer  with 
the  rest  of  the  responsory.  "  Historia  " 
is  the  name  given  in  the  Micrologia,  be- 
cause they  mostly  refer  to  the  histoiy  in 
the  Lesson  or  commemorated  on  the  day. 
(Probst,  "  Brevier  und  Breviergebet,"  p. 
107  seq.) 

>  Ferraris,  "  Eesignatio,"  §  29. 


RESTITITTIOHT.  The  principle 
"  Do  wrong  to  no  man  "  implies  that  if  we 
have  done  another  any  injury  we  are 
bound  to  make  good  the  loss.  Thus,  if 
we  have  converted  another's  property  to 
our  own  use,  we  must  give  it  back  to 
him  ;  if  we  have  destroyed  anything  that 
is  his,  even  without  benefiting  by  the 
action,  we  must  hand  over  to  him  an 
equivalent  at  our  own  cost.  We  are  also 
bound  to  indemnify  him  for  any  incon- 
venience that  he  may  have  svLffered  by 
being  deprived  of  his  property.  Re.stitu- 
tlon  applies,  as  far  as  the  case  admits,  to 
any  injury  to  another's  life  or  limb,  wife, 
goods,  or  good  name  fV.,  VI.,  VII.,  and 
VIII.  commandments),  and  is  binding 
tmder  pain  of  mortal  sin  where  the 
matter  is  serious.  Absolution  may  be 
given  before  restitution  is  actually  made, 
provided  that  the  penitent  has  the  inten- 
tion of  restoring  as  soon  as  possible.  If 
the  intention  is  not  carried  out,  the 
penitent  grievously  sins.  It  should  be 
noted  that  they  who  co-operate  in  caus- 
ing injury  are  bound  to  make  restitution. 
The  exact  details  of  this  branch  of  the 
subject  cannot  here  be  entered  into. 
Restitution  is  not  necessary  where  the 
iniurer  cannot  make  good  the  loss,  or 
where  he  may  prudently  judge  that  the 
injured  party  does  not  require  him  to  do 
so,  or  where  an  equivalent  compensation 
has  been  made.  Thus,  Dr.  Crolly  holds 
that  a  bankrupt  who  has  passed  his 
examination,  at  least  in  England,  is  not 
afterwards  bound  to  pay  his  liabilities. 
Lehmkuhl  accepts  tliis  opinion  only  with 
hesitation  and  with  some  qualification. 
(See  the  last  named  writer's  "  Theol. 
Moralis,"  i.  579  seq.) 

RESVRRECTXOTiT  OF  THS  BOD  Y. 
The  doctrine  of  a  general  resurrection  of 
[  the  dead,  both  good  and  bad,  is  nowhere 
I  taught  in  the  Hebrew  Bible.    The  Book 
{  of  Isaias,  xxvi.  19,  certainly  expresses 
J  faith  in  a  resurrection.    The  prophet  ex- 
I  presses  the  disappointment  of  the  Jewish 
nation  when  their  land  was  restored  to 
them  and  they  were  not  numerous  enougli 
to  people  it.    But  they  must  not  lose 
heart.    "  Thy  dead  shall  live :  thy  dead 
bodies  shall  arise.    Awake  and  shout,  ye 
I  who  lie  in  the  dust,  for  thy  dew  is  a  dew 
of  lights,  and  the  earth  shall  bring  forth 
the  shades  " — i.e.  the  power  of  God  shall 
descend  like  dew,  instinct  with  the  light 
of  life ;  the  corpses  shall  arise,  and  the 
departed  spirits  from  the  nether  world 
will  quicken  them  into  their  old  life. 
We  have  in  Osee  vi.  2  ("  He  will  quicken 


RESURRECTION  OF  THE  BODY     RESUIIRECTIOX  OF  THE  BODY  789 


"US  after  two  days  :  on  the  third  day  Ho 
will  raise  us  up  aud  we  shall  live  in  His 
sight"),  and  in  Ezech.  xxxvii.  11-14 
allusions  to  a  resurrection,  but  only  in  an 
allegorical  sense.  In  Daniel  xii.  2,  as  in 
Isa.  x.wi.  19,  it  is  a  literal  and  not  a 
metaphorical  resurrection  which  is  in- 
tended, and  the  writer,  who  has  the  verse 
of  Isaias  in  his  mind,  goes  further,  and 
teaches  a  resurrection  to  shame  as  well 
as  to  joy.  "  Many  of  them  that  sleep  in 
the  dusty  earth  shall  awake,  some  to 
eternal  life  and  .some  to  eternal  reproach 
and  horror."  The  chai'acter  of  the  book 
makes  it  likely  that  the  "  many "  who 
are  to  rise  are  all  Lsraelites,  some  of 
whom  have  been  faithful  to  the  law, 
others  apostates ;  but  in  any  case  it  is  a 
resurrection  of  many,  not  of  all,  which  is 
predicted.  We  have  still  to  consider 
the  famous  passage  in  Job  xix.  27.  We 
venture  to  give  the  following  as  an  exact 
translation  of  tlic  Hebrew: — "I  know 
that  my  avenger  liveth,  and  at  the  last 
[lit.  as  the  last  one — i.e.  to  speak  the  last 
decisive  word]  he  shall  rise  up  on  the 
dust.  And  alter  my  skin  has  been  thus 
destroyed  Tit.  which  they  have  thus 
destroyed]  and  [away]  from  my  flesh  I 
shall  see  God,  whom  I  shall  behold  for 
myself,  and  mine  eyes  shall  have  seen  [a 
"preterite  of  confidence]  and  not  another : 
my  reins  waste  [with  longing]  in  my 
breast."  There  are  very  strong  grounds  | 
for  believing  that  Job  here  asserts  his 
expectation  of  immortality,  aud  this  iu-  ; 
terpretation  is  held  by  critics,  such  as  j 
Ewald  and  Dillmaun,  who  cannot  be 
suspected  of  dogmatic  prejudice.  The 
coiiident  hope  of  immortality  shines 
forth  clearly,  just  when  Job's  desolation,  j 
when  the  absence  of  all  human  comfort 
is  most  complete.  The  puem  leads  us  up  j 
naturally  to  this  expression  of  confidence. 
There  is  a  gradual  advance  from  the 
doubts  of  ch.  .xiv.  to  tiie  sublime  prayer 
and  trust  of  xvi.  18  ad  fin.  All  this  cul-  j 
minutes  in  the  passa^^e  before  us;  nor 
does  Job  fall  back  again  to  the  depth  of 
his  former  despair.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  "from  my  flesh"  may  quite  well, 
according  to  Hebrew  usage,  mean  "  away 
from  my  flesh."  This  use  of  the  particle 
is  very  common  in  Hebrew  (see,  e.g., 
Gen.  xxvii.  2Q,  Jer.  xlvlii.  45),  and  a 
striking  instance  of  the  double  sense  of 
"  from "  in  English  will  be  found  in 
-"Richard  III."  act   iv.  scene  4.'  In 

•  K.  Rich.   Then  know  that  from  my  soul 
I  love  thy  daughter. 
What  do  yoii  think  .' 


Second  Maccabees  we  find  the  doctrine 
of  the  resurrection  strongly  asserted,  but 
even  there  nothing  is  said  about  a  resur- 
rection of  all  men.  And  altliougli  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead  (D^ni^n  n;nn) 
is  the  thirteenth  article  of  the  Jewish 
creed,  the  doctrine  of  a  resui-rectiou  of 
both  good  and  bad,  says  Weber 
("Altsynag.  Theol."  p.  372),  cannot  be 
proved  from  the  Talmud  or  Midrashim ; 
and  he  quotes  the  dictum  of  Maimouides, 
"  The  resui-rectiou  of  the  dead  is  a  funda- 
mental article  of  Moses  our  teacher  .  ,  . 
but  it  only  belongs  to  the  just."  Hea- 
then, or  Jews  who  are  to  be  reckoned  as 
heathen,  have  no  part  in  it.  We  may 
add  that  David  Ivimchi  on  Ps.  1.  5  (''  the 
wicked  shall  not  rise  in  judgment ") 
denies  the  resurrection  of  the  wicked, 
and  on  Ps.  civ.  30  he  says  "  it  is  disputed 
among  our  sages  "  whether  the  resui-rec- 
tion  will  be  geueral ;  but  adds  that  the 
"  ways  "  or  style  of  the  Talmud  favours 
the  belief  that  it  is  the  just  only  who 
will  rise.  This  doctrine  of  the  most 
orthodox  Jewish  doctors  is  by  no  means 
to  be  confounded  with  the  Sadducee 
denial  that  the  bodies  of  just  or  unjust 
rose  again. 

The  New  Testament,  however,  clearly 
teaches  that  the  wicked  also  will  rise 
again  (see,  e.g.,  Matt.  v.  29,  x.  28).  In 
it  the  resurrection  of  the  just  assumes  a 
new  prominence,  and  the  "  resurrection 
of  the  flesh "  became  an  article  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed,  aud  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  '  doctrines  of  Christianity. 
St.  Paul  insists  that  as  death  came  by 
sin  (Rom.  v.  15),  so  Christ  completes  His 
redeeming  work  by  raising  to  new  life  the 
bodies  of  those  who  sleep  in  Him  (1  Cor. 
XV.  54  8eq.)  From  the  very  first  the 
doctrine  was  an  object  of  Pagan  ridicule 
(Acts  xvii.  32),  and  the  Fathers  down  to 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century  were  con- 
stantly employed  in  answering  Pagan  aud 
heretical  objections.  (See,  e.g.,  Athenag. 
"De  Resurrect."  c.  4;  D-en.  "  Adv.  Ilrer." 
V.  3;  Tertull.  Apol."  48;  "  De  Carne 
Christi,"  15  ;  "  De  Resurrect."  3  ;  Minuc. 

Qu.  Eliz.     That    thou    dost  love  my 

daughter  from  thy  soul. 
So  from  thy  soul's  love  didst  thou  love 

her  brothers, 
And  from  my  heart's  love  I  do  thank 

thee  for  it. 

K.  Rich.    Be  not  too  hasty  to  confound 
my  meaning. 
'  The  Babylonians,  however,  and  the  Per- 
sians had  believed  in  a  resurrection.  The 
former  ascribed  it  to  the  god  Marduk,  who 
himself  died  and  rose  again. 


790  RESUERECTION  OF  THE  BODY        RESUIIKEGTION  OF  CHRIST 


Felix,  11;  Cyril  Hieros.  "Cat."  xviii; 
August.  "  Eiicliirid."  20.)  \Ve  cannot 
■wonder  at  the  objectious  which  Pagans 
and  heretics  such  as  the  Gnostics  felt. 
Plato,  the  noblest  of  heathen  philosophers, 
had  regarded  the  body  as  the  prison- 
house  of  the  soul,  and  death  as  an  escape 
from  the  bonds  of  matter.  It  was  long 
before  the  world  could  accept  the  deeper 
view  of  the  Christian  Church— viz.  that 
the  body  is  a  constituent  part  of  human 
nature  ;  that  man,  body  and  soul,  is  the 
work  of  God,  and  that  both  are  precious 
in  his  sight.  The  Christians,  on  the 
other  hand,  during  times  of  persecution 
comforted  themselves  with  the  thought 
of  the  resun-ection.  The  symbols  of  it — 
e.g.  the  tree,  the  eagle,  the  egg,  the  pea- 
cock—occur on  the  oldest  monuments; 
and  so  also  the  types  of  the  resurrection 
— the  three  youths  in  the  furnace.  Job, 
Ezechiel,  Daniel  in  the  lions'  den,  the 
ascent  of  Elias,  &c.  (See  Kraus,  "  Encycl. 
Archaol."  art.  Auferstehung.) 

All  the  Creeds  confess  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  body,  but  the  fullest  definition 
is  that  of  the  Fourth  Lateran  CoLuicil  in 
1215  (cap.  i.  "  Adv.  Albig.") :  "  All  will 
rise  with  their  own  proper  bodies  which 
they  now  wear."  St.  Thomas  ("  Supp." 
Ixxix.  a.  2)  says  it  is  heretical  to  deny 
the  numerical  identity  of  the  body  which 
dies  and  rises  again ;  and  the  opinion 
attributed  to  Durandus  (see  Jungmann, 
"De  Noviss."  cap.  iii.  a.  2),  viz.  that  the 
body  will  be  the  same  in  this  sense  only, 
that  it  will  be  informed  by  the  same  soul, 
does  not  seem  to  satisfy  the  terms  of  the 
Lateran  definition.  But  this  identity 
must  not  be  pressed  too  strictly.  Our 
bodies  remain  the  same,  though  the  atoms 
of  which  they  are  composed  are  in  con- 
stant change.  Jungmann  [loc.  cit.)  lays 
it  down  as  the  common  teaching  of  all 
Catholic  theologians  that  we  may  sup- 
pose part  of  the  elements  of  the  risen 
body  to  be  supplied  by  the  power  of  God 
without  in  any  wa}'  denying  the  truth  of 
the  resurrection.  He  admits  that  modern 
writers  "  of  the  best  reputation  "  mention 
(and  apparently  hold)  opinions  which  go 
much  further  than  this. 

We  learn  from  St.  Paul  that  the 
bodies  of  the  just  will  rise  incorruptible, 
glorious  and  spiritual — i.e.  subject  no 
longer  to  animal  wants,  but  entirely 
dominated  by  the  spirit  (so  Estius,  ad 
1  Cor.  XV.  44).  The  Schoolmen  have 
expanded  this  Pauline  doctrine  into  the 
theory  that  the  risen  body  will  have 
four  gifts  or  endowments :  impassibility  ; 


tlaritus  or  splendour,  the  glory  of  the 
soul  shining  forth  in  the  body  ;  subtlety, 
i.e.  the  power  of  penetrating  other  bodies, 
as  Christ  passed  through  the  closed  doors; 
agility,  i.e.  the  power  of  moving  and 
acting  swiftly  at  the  will  of  the  spirit. 

RESURRSCTIOXr  OF  CHRIST. 
This  greatest  of  Christ's  miracles  and 
strongest  proof  of  His  Divinity  is  the 
object  of  persistent  attac^is  on  the  part  of 
unbelievers.    Against  them  we  show : 

I.  The  historical  truth  of  Christ's  resur- 
rection ;  viz.  (1)  His  real  death,  and  (2) 
His  coming  to  life  again. 

1.  His  death  is  attested  unanimously 
by  the  four  Evangelists :  "  He  gave  up  the 
ghost"  (Matt,  xxvii.  50;  Mark  xv.  37; 
Luke  xxiii.  46  ;  John  xix.  30).  Pilate 
asked  the  Roman  centurion  in  command  at 
the  crucifixion  if  Christ  was  already  dead, 
and  only  when  he  had  understood  it  from 
the  centurion,  he  gave  the  body  to  Joseph 
of  Arimathea  (Mark  xv.  43-45).  Other 
witnesses  are  the  soldiers  who  broke  the 
legs  of  the  two  thieves  crucified  with 
Jesus,  but  did  not  break  His  legs  because 
they  "  saw  that  he  was  already  dead  " 
(John  xix.  32,  33).  All  doubt  as  to  His 
death  is  removed  through  the  opening  of 
His  side  by  a  spear,  which  would  have 
killed  Him  had  He  not  been  dead  already. 
According  to  Roman  law,  the  rela- 
tives of  the  condemned  were  entitled  to 
take  possession  of  His  body  and  to  bury 
it,  yet  not  before  death  had  been  made 
certain  by  a  thrust  of  the  spear.  The 
thrust  left  behind  a  large  open  wound 
into  which  Thomas  was  able  to  introduce 
his  hand.  Again,  the  water  and  blood 
that  flowed  from  the  side  are  a  sure  sigu 
of  death.  The  observations  of  older 
doctors  testify  that  water  gathers  in  the 
pericardium  of  those  who  die  after  a  long 
and  painful  agony.  The  thrust  of  the 
spear  was  given  soon  after  death  and 
before  the  blood  had  coagulated,  as 
appears  from  the  great  number  of  things 
which  took  place  between  that  moment 
and  the  evening  of  the  same  day,  before 
the  Sabbath  commenced.  If  death  had 
only  been  apparent,  the  handling  of  the 
body  in  removing  it  from  the  cross  would 
certainly  have  restored  life ;  not  to 
mention  that  His  Mother,  Mary  Magdalen, 
and  .Joseph  of  Arimathea  would  not  have 
performed  the  rites  of  the  burial  if  they 
had  not  been  convinced  of  His  death. 
Nay,  these  very  ceremonies,  especially 
j  the  wrapping  up  in  linen,  would  have 
I  been  sufficient  to  extinguish  the  last 
I  gleam  of  life  if  any  remained.  Again, 


RESURRECTION  OF  CHRIST 


RESURRECTION  OF  CHRIST  791 


the  hatred  of  the  Pharisees  and  Scribes 
is  a  guarantee  that  they  did  Bot  leave  the 
place  of  execution  before  being  sure  of  the 
deat  li  of  their  victim.  They  never  contended 
that  His  death  was  only  apparent  in  order 
to  disprove  His  resurrection.  Modern 
rationalists  were  the  tirst  to  put  forward 
the  theory  of  Christ's  merely  apparent 
death.  They  founded  it  on  Pilate's 
astonishment  at  the  Saviour's  early  death, 
and  on  the  fact  that  men  have  been 
known  to  live  two  or  more  days  on  the 
cross.  In  the  case  of  Christ,  however, 
death  was  accelerated  by  His  previous 
sufi'erings,  spiritual  and  corporal ;  although 
it  may  be  permitted  to  attribute  death  to 
an  act  of  His  free  will. 

2.  Net  less  certain  than  Christ's  death 
is  His  coming  to  life  again.  The  Evange- 
lists with  one  voice  declare  that  Christ 
rose  from  the  dead,  and  that  an  angel 
announced  His  resurrection  to  the  women 
who  had  gone  to  the  sepulchre  (Matt, 
xxviii.  1-7;  Mark  xvi.  1-8;  Luke  xxiv. 
1-8 ;  John  xx.  1  seg.).  After  His  resur- 
rection Christ  appeared  to  many  and  gave 
them  tangible  proofs  of  His  being  alive. 
He  appeared  to  Mary  Magdalen  and  to 
the  women  who  came  to  the  sepulchre 
(Matt,  xxviii.  9-10 ;  Mark  xvi.  9 ;  John 
XX.  14-17) ;  to  the  two  disciples  on  the 
way  to  Emmaus,  who  recognised  Him  by 
the  breaking  of  the  bread  (Luke  xxiv. 
13  seg.) ;  to  Simon  Peter  (Luke  xxiv.  34 ; 
1  Cor.  XV.  5) ;  to  the  Apostles  gathered 
together  in  the  absence  of  Thomas,  to 
whom  He  showed  His  hands  and  His  feet, 
whom  He  allowed  to  touch  Him  and  to 
whom  He  gave  the  power  of  forgiving 
sins  (Luke  xxiv.  36-43 ;  John  xx.  19-24 ; 
Mark  xvi.  14;  1  Cor.  xv.  5) ;  eight  days 
later  to  the  Apostles  when  Thomas  was 
with  them  (John  xx.  26-29) ;  repeatedly 
in  Galilee,  especially  to  seven  disciples 
fishing  on  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  (John 
xxi.  1  seq.),  and  to  more  than  five 
hundred  brethren  on  a  mountain  in 
Galilee,  many  of  whom  were  still  alive 
when  St.  Paul  wrote  his  first  epistle  to 
the  Corinthians  (1  Cor.  xv.  6 ;  Matt, 
xxviii.  16-20;  Mark  xvi.  15-18;  Luke 
xxiv.  44-49) ;  to  James  (1  Cor.  xv.  7) ; 
lastly,  to  the  Apostles  before  His  ascension 
into  heaven  (Mark  xvi.  19 ;  Luke  xxiv. 
50;  Acts  i.  6-10;  1  Cor.  xv.  7).  Strauss 
and  Renan  treat  these  many  witnesses  as 
visionaries.  "The  Apostles,"  they  say, 
"  were  at  tirst  bewildered  and  confused  by 
the  death  of  Christ.  Yet  they  were 
unable  to  shake  ofl"  their  belief  in  Jesus  as 
the  expected  Messiah.    Hence,  in  Galilee, 


where  everything  reminded  them  of  the 
Master,  they  sought  to  conciliate  their 
belief  '  that  Christ  abideth  for  ever ' 
(John  xii.  34)  and  the  prophecies  of  the 
Old  Testament  (e.</.  Isaiah  Ixiii.  and  Psalm 
XV.)  with  the  events  they  had  witnessed, 
and  thus  gradually  they  evolved  the  idea 
of  His  resurrection  from  the  dead.  Their 
enthusiasm,  and  the  excited  imagination 
of  women,  created  imaginary  visions  of 
the  departed,  which  tradition  transformed 
into  real  apparitions."  But  such  a  hypo- 
thesis is  incredible  on  the  face  of  it.  The 
Apostles  and  other  disciples,  who  during 
Christ's  lifetime  were  often  rebuked  for 
their  incredulity,  were  not  the  men  to  per- 
suade themselves  that  Christ  had  risen 
from  the  grave,  had  appeared  to  and  been 
touched  by  them,  had  taken  meals  with 
them,  and  communicated  to  them  things 
of  the  utmost  importance  which  they 
faithfully  relate.  The  Gospel  narrative, 
on  the  other  hand,  bears  upon  it  the  stamp 
of  consistency  and  truth.  After,  as  before, 
the  resurrection,  the  Apostles  remained 
slow  in  believing.  The  words  of  the 
women  seemed  to  them  as  an  idle  tale, 
and  they  did  not  believe  them  (Luke 
xxiv.  11 ;  Mark  xvi.  11,  13)  ;  they  were 
rebuked  for  their  incredulity  by  the 
risen  Christ  Himself  (Mark  xvi.  14  ; 
Luke  xxiv.  25)  ;  even  when  Christ  stood 
in  their  presence  and  said  to  them  "  Peace 
be  to  you  ;  it  is  I,  fear  not,"  they  were 
troubled  and  afi"righted  and  supposed 
they  saw  a  spirit.  To  convince  them, 
He  showed  them  His  hands  and  His 
feet;  they  saw  and  felt,  yet  they  be- 
lieved not  until  He  had  eaten  bel'ore 
them  a  piece  of  broiled  fish  and  a  honey- 
comb (Luke  xxiv.  36-43).  Still  more 
unbelieving  than  the  rest  was  Thomas, 
who  was  not  with  the  Apostles  when 
Jesus  appeared  to  them.  When  they 
said  to  him  "  "We  have  seen  the  Lord," 
he  answered,  "  L'nless  I  shall  see  in  His 
hands  the  print  of  the  nails,  and  put  my 
finger  in  the  place  of  the  nails,  and  put 
my  hand  into  His  side,  I  will  not 
believe  "  (John  xx.  25  seq.)  After  eight 
days,  the  Lord  again  appeared  and  invited 
Thomas  to  put  his  hands  in  the  wounds, 
and  only  then  the  Apostle  exclaimed: 
"  My  Lord  and  my  God  !  "  The  slowness 
of  belief  in  Thomas,  as  St.  Gregory 
observes,  has  been  more  useful  to  us  than 
the  faith  of  the  other  Apostles,  for  by 
putting  his  hands  into  the  wounds  of  the 
Lord  the  doubting  disciple  has  cured  the 
wounds  of  our  incredulity.  The  above 
facts   entirely    upset    all  rationalistic 


792  RESURRECTION  OF  CHRIST 


RESURRECTION  OF  CHRIST 


theories  attributing  the  Apostles'  preach- 
ing on  the  resurrection  of  Christ  to 
preconceived  ideas  or  to  an  over-excited 
imagination.  The  multiplicity  and  in- 
controvertible evidence  of  the  proofs 
of  the  resurrection  are  evidenced  by  the 
enthusiasm  and  uufiiucbing  constancy 
with  which  the  Apostles  published  it 
everywhere  and  appealed  to  it  as  the  best 
proof  of  the  divinity  of  their  teaching. 
St.  Peter  commences  his  public  preaching 
by  proclaiming  the  fact  of  the  resurrec- 
tion to  the  Jews  who  had  crucified  Christ 
(Acts  ii.  22  seq.) ;  he  insists  upon  it  in 
presence  of  the  authorities  and  of  the 
people,  and  no  threat  deters  him  (Acts 
iii.  15,  26  ;  iv.  10,  33  ;  v.  30  ;  x.  40  seq.). 
In  his  tirst  epistle  he  again  appeals  to  the 
resurrection  (I  Pet.  i.  3,  21).  St.  Paul 
likewise  bears  frequent  witness  to  the 
r-^surrection  of  Christ ;  in  Antioch  of 
Pisidia  and  at  Thessalonica  (Acts  xiii. 
30  seg. ;  xvii.  3)  ;  at  Athens  in  the  midst 
of  the  Areopagus  (Acts  xvii.  31),  and 
very  often  in  his  epistles  (e.^.  Rom.  iv.  25  ; 
viii.  34 ;  xiv.  9  ;  1  Thess.  iv.  13,  &c.).  He 
lays  special  stress  on  it  in  his  tirst  epistle 
to  the  Corinthians,  where  be  makes  the 
certitude  of  our  faith  entirely  dependent 
on  the  certitude  of  the  resurrection. 
"  With  great  power  did  the  Apostles  give 
testimony  of  the  resurrection  of  .Jesus 
Christ  our  Lord  "  (Acts  iv.  33) ;  they 
liked  to  call  themselves  witnesses  of  His 
resurrection,  and  they  confirmed  tlieir 
testimony  by  dying  to  maintain  its  truth. 
God  corroborated  the  testimony  of  the 
Apostles  throtigh  miracles  wrought  in 
the  name  of  the  risen  Lord  (Acts  iii.  15 
seq. ;  iv.  10).  Nobody  contradicted  the 
Apostles  when  they  preached  the  resur- 
rection to  the  people  of  Jerusalem  who 
had  seen  the  crucifixion.  On  the  contrary, 
3,000  conver.sions  were  made  by  the  first 
sermon  of  St.  Peter,  and  more  on  other 
occasions  (Acts  ii.  41 ;  iv.  4).  Many 
priests  were  among  the  converts  (Acts 
vi.  7).  The  conduct  of  Christ's  enemies 
affords  another  confirmation  of  His  resur- 
rection. They  had  sealed  the  tomb  and 
placed  guards  round  it.  When  the 
guards  told  them  that  an  angel  had 
removed  the  stone  and  that  the  grave  was 
empty,  "  They  gave  a  great  sum  of  money 
to  the  soldiers,  saying,  '  Say  you  that  Ilis 
disciples  came  by  night  and  stole  Him 
away  when  we  were  asleep'"  CMatt. 
xxviii.  12,13).  Only  perfect  helplessness 
could  suggest  such  an  explanation.  Why 
did  they  not  punish  the  soldiers  who 
failed  to  do  their  duty?  How  could  they 


appeal  to  sleeping  witnesses  ?   Why  not 
exact   a  judicial   inquiry?     Why  not 
accuse  the  Apostles  of  breaking  the  seal 
attached  by  lawful  authority  ?  They  did 
nothing  of  all  this,  although  the  Apostles 
publicly  reproached  them  with  the  murder 
I  of  Jesus,  and  found  credence  among  the 
I  people.    All  they  did  was  to  forbid  the 
Apostles  to  teach  in  the  name  of  Jesus 
(Acts  iv.  18;  v.  40).    Thus  the  conduct 
'  of  the  Jews  shows  that  they  did  not 
believe  in  their  own  assertion,  which, 
moreover,    is    intrinsically  impossible. 
The  Gospels  characterise  the  Apostles  as 
simple  and  honest  men,  quite  unable  to 
perform  the  feat  of  stealing  Christ's  body. 
Then,  what  could  have  induced  them  to 
act  thus  dishonestly  ?   If  Christ  did  not 
rise.  His  whole  undertaking  was  at  an  end  ; 
they  had  nothing  more  to  expect  from  the 
man  who  had  so  utterly  deceived  them. 
God  also  would  punish  them  for  giving 
testimony  against  Him  (1  Cor.  xv.  15). 
The  world  ofiered  no  other  reward  to  their 
I  dishonest  schemes  than  the  hatred,  scorn, 
and  persecution  which  it  had  bestowed 
on  their  Master.    With  such  prcspects 
nobody  practises  deceit.    Moreover,  any 
[  scheme  of  stealing  tlie  body  was  doomed 
I  to  fail.    The  Roman  soldiers  who  guarded 
the  sepulchre  were  not  likely  to  be  all 
sleeping ;  and  granted  that  they  were, 
1  the  removal  of  a  heavy  stone  and  the 
I  carrying  off  of  the  corpse  would  have 
disturbed  their  sleep.    Among  the  many 
1  whom  it  was  necessary  to  let  into  the 
secret,  how  is  it  that  none  betrayed  them  ? 
Remorse,  fear,  hope  of  reward,  unguarded- 
ness  of  speech,  would  certainly  have  led 
one  or  more  of  the   conspirators  into 
divulging  the  conspiracy.    The  modern 
opponents  of  Christianity  have  abandoned 
the  Jewish  theory  as  indefensible;  they 
substitute  for  it  the  theories  of  visions 
and  fancies  dealt  \\nth  above.    The  com- 
mon ground  of  all  objections  to  the  resur- 
rection of  Christ  is  disbelief  in  miracles 
generally,  and  rejection  d  priori  of  the 
;  historical  value  of  all  books  that  admit 
I  miracles.    Certain  contradictions  in  the 
I  Gospel  narratives  are  also  adduced  as 
objections  against  the  resurrection.  But 
these  contradictions  are  only  apparent, 
and  rather  confirm   than  weaken  the 
authority  of  the  narratives.    The  writers 
I  constantly  keep  in  view  the  main  point, 
on  which  they  all  agree ;  the  fact  that 
they  differ  on  minor  and  unimportant 
details  merely  proves  that  they  wi'ote 
[  independently  of  one  another.    A  very 
I  ancient  objection — Celsus  raised  it  Ions 


KESUPJIECTION  OF  CHPJST 

ago — is  the  question  why  Christ  did  uot 
appear  to  His  enemies.  To  this  we  may 
reply  that  Christ's  enemies  were  among 
the  tirat  to  receive  certain  news  of  His 
resurrection  through  the  guards  who  had 
witnessed  it.  Such  testimony  would  have 
been  sufficient  if  their  hearts  had  not  been 
hardened.  But  as  formerly  they  had  attri-  , 
buted  Christ's  miracles  to'  the  influence  of 
the  devil  (Matt.  .\ii.  24) ;  as  they  had  been 
prepared  to  kill  Lazariis  raised  from  the 
dead  (John  xii.  10)  rather  than  acknow- 
ledge the  miracle,  so  now  they  remained 
unmoved  by  the  miracles  which  accom- 
panied the  death  of  Christ,  or  which  were 
wrought  by  the  Apostles.  An  apparition 
of  Christ  to  them  would  have  increased 
their  guiltiness  rather  than  have  brought 
about  their  conversion  (cf.  Luke  xvi.  31). 

II.  The  resurrection  as  proof  of  the 
divinity  of  Christ's  teaching  — Christ  often 
foretold  His  resurrection,  and  declared 
that  He  would  rise  by  His  own  power. 
"  I  have  power  to  lay  down  my  life,  and  ! 
I  have  power  to  take  it  up  again  "  (John 
X.  18).  '-Destroy  this  temple,  and  in  I 
three  days  I  will  raise  it  up  "  (John  ii.  19).  I 
"When  the  Pharisees  would  see  a  sign  of 
Him,  He  answered :  "  A  sign  shall  not  be 
given,  but  the  sign  of  Jonas  the  prophet," 
&c.  (Matt.  xii.  39,  40),  thus  holding  out 
His  resurrection  as  a  proof  in  itself  j 
sufficient  of  His  Divine  mission.  And 
often,  when  foretelling  His  passion  and  ! 
death,  He  added,  '"and  the  third  day  He 
[the  Son  of  Man"I  shall  rise  again " 
(Matt.  xtI.  21;  .XX.  19;  cf.  xvii.  9). 
Hence  the  resurrection  of  Christ  is  at  the 
same  time  a  miracle  and  a  prophecy,  and 
affords  a  double  proof  of  the  divinity  of 
His  mission  and  of  His  whole  teaching. 
It  is  a  miracle  wrought  by  His  own 
power,  and  therefore  the  sti-ongest  proof 
of  His  oft-asserted  Divinity.  It  is  the 
greatest  of  all  miracles  ever  wrought, 
because  more  than  any  other  it  transcends 
the  power  of  created  causes.  Hence  it  is 
a  fit  crowning  and  sealing  of  Christ's 
other  miracles,  and  for  this  reas<jn  St. 
Paul  has  no  hesitation  in  making  all 
Christian  truth  dependent  on  the  truth  of 
the  resurrection  (1  Cor.  xv.  14-20).  ' 
Hence,  also,  the  other  Apostles  always  ' 
bring  to  the  front  the  fact  of  the  resurrec- 
tion to  make  their  doctrines  acceptable  to 
Jews  and  Gentiles,  although  with  cul- 
tured Gentiles  they  might  have  succeeded 
better  by  simply  holding  out  to  them  the 
beauty  and  reasonableness  of  Christian 
teaching.  The  world  accepted  tbe  testi- 
mony of  the  Apostles ;  the  foundation, 


ROCHET  793 

progress,  continuance  of  the  Church  are  a 
great  fact  which  in  its  turn  bears  out  the 
truth  of  the  resurrection.  For  the  world 
to  Ijelieve  the  Apostles  without  any 
miracles,  would  be  in  itself  a  greater 
miracle  than  any  attributed  to  them, 
(From  Herder's  "  Kirchenlexicon,"  2nd 
ed.) 

KSTREAT.     [See  EXEECISXS.] 
SEVEZiATZOir.  'See  LS'3PIEATI03r.] 

RzcoazsK.    [Se~e  Moral  Theo- 

LOST." 

KZWG.  [See  Mabeiasb  ;  Bishops.] 
RZTVAXiE.  A  book  which  contains 
the  forms  to  be  observed  by  priests  in  the 
administration  of  the  sacraments  (com- 
munion out  of  Mass,  baptism,  penance, 
marriage,  extreme  unction),  in  church- 
ings,  in  burials,  in  most  of  the  blessings 
which  they  can  give  by  ordinary  or  dele- 
gated authority.  Such  a  book  (under  the 
title  "  Manuale ")  is  mentioned  in  the 
year  1279  in  the  synodal  statutes  of  Odo, 
Archbishop  of  Paris.  It  was  known  by 
many  names — "  ilanuale,"  "  Sacerdotale,"' 
"  Agenda,"  "  Institutio  Baptizandi," 
"Pastorale,"  " Obsequiale,"  "Sacramen- 
tale,"  &c.  "Manuale"  seems  to  have 
been  the  common  name  in  England 
(" Rituale  "  and  "Manuale"  in  France), 
and  the  last  edition  of  the  '•  Sarum 
Manvtal "  was  printed  at  Douay  in  1610. 
The  contents  of  these  books  agree  on  the 
whole,  but  not  in  all  details;  some,  for  ex- 
ample, contain  the  order  of  confirmation, 
the  blessing  of  beUs,  a  few  Masses,  and 
the  like,  which  are  not  in  our  Roman 
Ritual.  A  Sacerdotale  was  edited  by 
Castellanu.s  and  printed  at  Rome  in  1537. 
Previously  the  different  dioceses  were  free 
to  follow  their  own  Rituals,  but  in  1614 
an  edition  with  the  title  "  Rituale  "  was 
drawn  up  under  Paul  T.,  who  in  the  bull 
"  Apostolicffi  Sedi "  exhorted  all  prelates, 
secular  and  regular,  to  conform  to  it 
exactly.* 

(From  Zaccaria,  "  Bibliothec.  Rit." 
torn.  i.  There  is  an  edition  of  the  Roman 
Ritual,  with  an  elaborate  commentary 
by  Baruflaldius,  3rd  Venetian  ed.,  1763, 
which  is  useful  for  practical  purposes,  but 
gives  hardly  any  historical  information. 
The  commentary  of  Catalani  is  also  well 
known.  Zaccaria  also  mentions  one  in 
Italian  by  Mariscandolo.  Lucca,  1742.) 

ROCHET.    A  vestment  of  linen,  fit- 

'  The  bull  says  "  hortamur  "  merely  ;  bat 
the  Cong,  of  Rites  declared  (Sept.  7.  IS.jii)  that 
the  laws  of  the  Roman  Ritual  '-affect  the  uni- 
versal Church."  and  (October  .5,  16.5-2)  fhat  all 
regnlars    were  bonnd  "  to  follow  it  exactly. 


794         ROGATION  DAYS 


ROMAN  COLLEGE 


ting  closely,  with  close  sleeves  reaching 
to  the  hands,  proper  to  bishops  and 
abbots.  The  use  of  it  is  also  granted  to 
certain  other  dignitaries  {e.g.  to  some 
canons  in  virtue  of  privilege).  The  length 
and  closeness  of  the  sleeves  distinguish  it 
from  the  surplice.  Priests  who  are  allowed 
to  wear  it  are  to  regard  it  as  a  choir 
vestment,  and  are  not  to  use  it  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  sacraments.  Bishops, 
on  the  other  hand,  wear  it  in  giving  con- 
firmation. 

Our  word  rochet  is  from  the  French, 
the  French  from  the  Low  Latin  rochettus, 
and  that  again  from  the  old  High  German 
hroch,  rorcli,  which  is  the  same  as  the 
modern  High  German  Rock,  a.  coat.  (So 
Littre,  '*  Diet.  Fran^.")  From  the  in- 
stances given  in  Ducange  it  appears  to 
have  been  first  an  upper  garment  of  com- 
mon life,  then  a  clerical  dress.  Lynd- 
wood,  our  great  English  canonist  of  the 
fifteenth  century  ("  Provinciale  Eccles. 
Cant."  lib.  iii.  tit.  27,  quoted  by  Ducange) 
speaks  of  it  as  sometimes  used  by  clerics 
serving  Mass,  or  priests  baptising,  because 
it  left  their  arms  free,  usages  now  strictly 
forbidden  (see  "  Manuale  Decret."  art.  v.), 
so  that  the  modern  limitation  of  the  rochet 
to  dignitaries  recognised  by  Urban  VIIL 
cannot  have  been  old  in  that  Pope's  time. 

The  mozzetta  and  uncovered  rochet 
are  signs  of  plenary  jurisdiction.  Hence, 
a  bishop  may  wear  his  rochet  uncovered 
within  his  own  diocese  even  in  the 
churches  of  religious  who  are  exempt, 
but  not  beyond  its  limits  (Gavant.  P.  II. 
tit.  iii.). 

ROCATZOia-  DA.YS.  The  Monday, 
Tuesday,  and  Wednesday  before  Ascen- 
sion Day  are  observed  by  all  Catholics  of 
the  Latin  rite  as  days  of  solemn  supplica- 
tion, and  are  called  Rogation  days  be- 
cause the  Litany  of  the  Saints  is  chanted 
in  the  procession  which  takes  place  on 
each  of  the  three  days,  rogatio  being  the 
Latin  equivalent  for  the  Greek  word 
litany.  Those  who  are  bound  to  recite 
the  breviary  are  also  bound  to  say  the 
litany  privately,  if  not  in  procession. 
These  litanies  are  called  lesser,  by  com- 
parison with  the  more  ancient  and  solemn 
chanting  of  the  litany  on  St.  Mark's  Day. 
[Litanies.] 

The  Rogations  began  in  the  kingdom 
of  Burgundy,  where  they  were  instituted, 
or  at  least  made  solemn  and  public,  by 
Mamertus,  bishop  of  Vienne,  at  a  time 
when  the  province  suffered  from  earth- 
quake and  other  troubles  (Sidon.  Apollinar. 
Ep.  vii.  1).    Thence  they  passed  into  the 


'  kingdom  of  Clovis,  where  the  Council  of 
Orleans  (c.  27),  in  511,  requires  the  faith- 
ful to  rest  from  servile  work  and  to  fast, 
or,  as  Thomassin  thinks,  to  abstain,  on 
these  days.'  In  England  the  synod  of 
Cloveshoe  in  747  prescribes  processions 
and  fasting  till  none  on  the  three  days 
before  Ascension,  "  according  to  the  way 
of  our  fathers."  A  Spanish  council 
(Concil.  Gerund,  can.  2)  in  517  recognises 
Rogations  with  abstinence,  but  on  ihe 
Thursday,  Friday,  and  Saturday  after 
Pentecost.  The  ancient  custom  at  Milan, 
enforced  by  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  was 
to  hold  the  Rogations  and  to  fast  on  the 
Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday  after 
the  Ascension.  At  Rome,  according  to 
Anastas.  Bibliothec,  it  was  Leo  III.  who 
introduced  the  Rogation  days.  But  the 
obligation  of  fasting  and  rest  from  work 
which  still  existed  in  the  French  church^ 
of  Thomassin's  time  was  not  imposed  at 
Rome.  (From  Thomassin,  "Trait6  des 
Jeunes,"  1  P.  ch.  24,  2  P.  ch.  21.) 

ROMAN'  COI.X.EGE.  Founded  by 
St.  Ignatius  in  1551.  At  first  only  the 
ordinary  school  subjects  (humanities) 
were  taught,  but  soon  afterwards  philo- 
sophy and  theology  were  added.  Gregory 
XIII.,  the  great  patron  of  ecclesiastical 
studies,  caused  the  present  magnificent 
structure  to  be  built  and  richly  endowed. 
He  raised  the  two  above-named  faculties 
to  the  dignity  of  a  university  bearing  his 
name  ( Universitag  Gregoriuna),  and  gave 
it  the  right  of  conferring  degrees.  The 
college  was  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
Jesuits,  but  students  attended  from  many 
of  the  other  colleges,  notably  those  founded 
by  Gregory  XIII.,  and  also  from  the 
town.  After  the  suppression  of  the 
society  (1773),  it  was  continued  by  the 
secular  clergy  until  the  year  1824,  when 
Leo  XII.  restored  it  to  its  original 
owners.  The  Piedmontese  took  possession 
of  the  building  soon  after  their  invasion 
of  Rome,  but  the  philosophical  and  theo- 
logical faculties  are  still  flourishing  under 
another  roof  When  the  whole  curricu- 
lum was  taught  the  students  numbered 
from  1,500  to  2,000;  they  are  now 
about  800. 

We  have  not  space  to  give  a  list  of 
the  distinguished  personages  who  have 
taught  or  studied  at  the  Roman  College. 

1  The  Council  of  Tours  in  567  (can.  17) 
requires  monks  to  fast  on  the  Rogation  days. 

2  English  Catholics  were  bound  to  abst.iin 
from  flesh-meat  on  the  feast  of  St.  Mark  and  the 
Rogation  days,  till  thev  were  dispensed  by  Pius 
VIII.  in  1830  (Cone.  Prov.  West.  III.  Appen- 
dix II.). 


ROME 


ROSARY 


796 


The  names  of  St.  Aloysius,  St.  John 
Berchmans,  St.  Camillus  of  Lellis,  St. 
Leonard  of  Port  Maurice,  and  St.  John 
Baptist  de  Rossi  -n-ill  occur  to  everyone. 
It  can  boast  of  having  educated  ten  popes, 
including  his  present  holine.■^8  Leo  XIII. 
Among  the  professors  in  times  past  were 
ToletuE,  Bellarmine,  Cornelius  a  Lapide, 
Suarez,  De  Lugo,  Pallavicini,  and  Segneri ; 
and,  in  our  own  day,  Passaglia,  Perrone, 
Tongiorgi,  Patrizi,  Tarquini,  Ballerini, 
Frauzelin,  Kleutgen,  and  Palmieri.  As 
early  as  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century 
an  observatory  was  established  in  con- 
nection with  tlie  college,  and  bas  produced 
the  famous  astronomers  Scheiner,  Bosco- 
vich,  and  Secchi.  The  museum,  called 
after  Kircher,  its  most  energetic  curator, 
contains  many  objects  of  interest.  It 
was  seized,  together  with  the  valuable 
library  (6;3,(X)0  books,  2,000  MSS.),  by 
the  Piedmontese.  (From  the  art.  in  the 
new  ed.  of  the  "  Kirchenlexicon,"  by 
(rrisar.) 

ROME.    [See  Pope.] 

ROOD -BEAM       AHH  B003>- 

scREEXr.  The  rood-beam  separates 
the  clioir  from  the  nave,  and  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  cross.  There  is  no  proof 
that  any  such  thing  was  known  in  the 
early  Church  (see  the  article  "Rood"  in 
Smith  and  Cheetham),  but  it  is  common 
in  modern  churches,  and  was  introduced 
as  early  at  least  as  the  twelfth  century. 
Other  "figures  besides  the  crucifix  were 
often  placed  on  it  {e.g.  those  of  the  B. 
Virgin  and  St.  John),  and  lights  were 
burnt  on  it.  Ducange  quotes  a  mediaeval 
writer  who  mentions  fifty  candles  being 
placed  on  the  tables  or  rood-beam.  A 
veil  used  to  be  suspended  from  it  during 
Holy  AVeek.  (Ducange,  art.  Trabes  ; 
Viollet  le  Due,  "Diet,  de  1' Architecture," 
art.  Trabes.) 

Screens  separating  choir  from  nave 
were  introduced  in  French  cathedrals 
towards  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, and  the  richest  examples  date  from 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth.  It  was  not 
till  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  that 
the  heavy  stoue  screens  were  replaced  by 
grilles.    (Viollet  le  Due,  art.  Clotures.) 

ROSARTT.  A  form  of  prayer  in 
which  fifteen  decades  of  Aves,  each  decade 
being  preceded  by  a  Pater  and  followed 
by  a  Gloria,  are  recited  on  beads.  A 
mystery  is  contemplated  during  the  re- 
cital of  each  decade,  and  the  rosary  is 
divided  into  three  parts,  each  consisting 
of  five  decades,  and  known  as  a  corona 
or  chaplet.    In  the  first  chaplet  the  five 


joyful  mysteries  are  the  subjects  of  con- 
templation— viz.  the  Annunciation,  Visi- 
tation, the  Birth  of  our  Lord,  His  Pre- 
sentation in  the  Temple,  His  being  found 
after  the  three  days'  loss.  The  som  .wful 
mysteries  contemplated  in  the  second 
chaplet  are  the  Agony  in  the  Garden,  the 
Scourging,  the  Crowning  with  Thorns, 
the  Carrying  of  the  Cross,  the  Crucifixion. 
The  glorious  mysteries,  which  are  allotted 
to  the  third  chaplet,  are  the  Resurrection 
of  Christ,  His  Ascension,  the  Descent  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Assumption  and  the 
Coronation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The 
word  rosarj-  first  occurs  in  Thomas 
Cantipratanus,  who  wrote  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  thirteenth  century  ("De 
Apibus,"  ii.  13' — quoted  by  the  Bolland- 
ists,  "  Vita  S.  Dominici  ").  The  original 
meaning  is  very  doubtful.  We  think  it 
most  likely  that  the  word  was  used  in  a 
mystical  sense  and  meant  Mary's  rose- 
garden.  (So  the  writer  of  the  article 
Mosenkranz  in  Herzog,  "  Encycl.  fiir 
protestant.  Theol.")  It  was  also  called 
"  Psalterium  Marianum  "  because  of  the 
number  150.  Catholics  of  the  humbler 
class  still  speak  of  a  pair  of  beads,  thus 
preserving  a  pure  and  ancient  mode  of 
speech,  "pair'  meaning  "set,"  as  in  "pair 
of  organs  " — i.e.  a  set  of  organ  pipes,  or, 
in  other  words,  an  organ. 

The  practice  of  using  beads,  &c.,  as  a 
help  to  memory  in  reciting  a  set  number 
of  prayers  is  not  distinctively  Christian, 
but  it  has  long  existed  in  the  Church. 
Palladius,  a  writer  of  the  fifth  century 
("  Hist.  Lausiac."'  cap.  2y),  tells  us  that 
the  Egy  ptian  monk  Paul  in  Pherme  put 
300  pebbles  in  his  lap  and  flung  away  one 
as  he  finished  each  of  the  three  hundred 
prayers  he  said.  The  English  synod  of 
Cealchythe  (Mausi,  "  Concil."'  tom.  xiv. 
360)  in  816  orders  "septem  beltidum 
Paternoster "  to  be  sung  for  a  deceased 
bishop.  We  can  only  guess  at  the  mean- 
ing. But  Spelman's  conjecture  that  it 
means  belts  or  circles  of  Paters  is  plau- 
sible. "William  of  Malmesbury  ("De 
Gest.  Pont.  Angl."  iv.  4,  quoted  by  the 
Bollandists,  loc.  tit.)  says  that  Godiva, 
who  founded  a  religious  house  at  Coven- 
try in  1040,  left  a  circle  of  gems  strung 
together,  on  which  she  used  to  tell  her 
prayers,  that  it  might  be  hung  on  a  statue 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 

So  far  we  have  only  considered  the 
general  question  of  reciting  prayers  on 
beads,  .Sec.  From  the  eleventh  century 
the  Bollandists  produce  the  following  in- 

1  As  a  title,  however  ;  oot  in  the  text 


79G 


ROSAKY 


ROSMIMANS 


stances  of  a  fixed  number  of  Aves  ad-  | 
di-essfd  to  the  Bk;^^ed  Virgin.  Heri- 
mannus,  at  the  close  of  the  century, 
mentions  a  person  wlio  recited  sixty 
Aves  daily.  The  monk  Albert,  who 
lived  about  1005,  said  150  every  day  ;  so 
did  St.  Agbert,  who  died  in  1140. 

Thus  we  find  early  traces  of  the  use 
of  something  corn;sponding  to  beads,  and 
we  can  trace  the  150  A\  es  back  I'arther 
than  St.  Dominic's  time,  but  no  instance 
presents  itself  of  150  Aves,  much  less  of 
150  Aves  and  15  Paters,  said  on  beads, 
before  the  lifetime  of  that  saint.  The 
notion  that  the  Venerable  Bede  intro- 
duced the  rosary  is  founded  on  an  absurd 
etymology  ("Bead,"  from  "Beda"),  and 
the  statement  of  Polydore  Virgil,  who 
lived  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, that  Peter  the  Hermit  instituted 
the  rosary,  comes  too  late  to  have  any 
weight.  The  common  story  that  St. 
Dominic  learnt  the  use  of  the  rosary 
from  the  Blessed  Virgin  by  revelation, 
and  propagated  it  during  the  crusade 
against  the  Albigeuses,  has  been  accepted 
by  later  Popes — viz.  Leo  X.,  Pius  V., 
Gregory  XIII.,  Sixtus  V.,  Alexander 
VII.,  Innocent  XI.,  Clement  XI.  This 
belief  rests,  according  to  Beuedict  XIV. 
("Be  Fest."  §  IGO),  on  the  tradition  of 
the  order;  no  contemporary  writer 
vouches  for  it.  But  the  Dominican  Friar 
Nicolas  (Qu6tif  and  Echard,  "  Scrijit. 
Urd.  Prsed."  torn.  i.  p.  411)  gave  in  1270 
to  the  B.  Christina  a  Paternoster,  "  quod 
personaliter  iv  annis  portaverat."  Do- 
minicans, too,  are  represented  on  a  tomb 
of  Ilumbertus  Delphinus,  who  became  a 
Dominican  about  1350,  with  rosaries  in 
their  hands,  so  that  the  rosary  in  the 
strict  sense  cannot  be  much  later  than 
St.  Dominic. 

But,  of  course,  the  Ave  of  those  days 
was  not  identical  with  the  modern  form. 
It  was  sinii)]y  "  Hail,  Mary,  full  of  grace, 
the  Lord  is  witli  thee ,  blessed  art  tbou 
amongst  women,  and  blessed  is  the  fruit 
of  thy  womb."  Further,  the  great  Do- 
minican writers  Qu6tif  and  Echard  sliow 
that  the  meditation  on  the  mysteiies  is 
much  later  than  St.  Dominic.  It  began 
with  a  Dominican,  Alanus  de  Rupe  (Do 
la  Roche),  born  about  1428  ("Script. 
0.  P."  torn.  i.  p.  852).  (The  authorities 
consulted  for  this  part  of  the  article  are 
the  Bollandist  dissertation  on  the  Rosary, 
in  the  first  vol.  for  August ;  Qu6tif  and 
Echard;  Benedict  XIV.  "  De  Fest."  For 
Feast  of  the  Rosary,  see  INIaet,  Feasts 

OF.) 


According  to  Benedict  XIV.,  a  Con- 
fraternity of  the  Rosary  at  Piacenza  was 
indulgenced  as  early  as  1254  by  Alex- 
ander IV.  The  Living  Rosary,  in  which 
fifteen  persons  unite  to  say  the  whole 
rosary  every  month,  was  approved  b7 
Gregory  XVI. 

A  popular  manual  by  Labis,  trans- 
lated by  an  English  Passionist,  enume- 
rates the  following  rosaries  besides  the 
Dominican — viz.  that  of  St.  Bridget,  7 
Paters  and  63  Aves,  in  honour  of  the 
joys  and  sorrows  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
and  the  63  years  of  her  life ;  that  of  the 
Seven  Dolours,  a  Servite  devotion ;  that 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  approved 
by  Pius  IX.  in  1855  ;  the  Crown  of  our 
Saviour,  attributed  to  Michael  of  Flor- 
ence, a  Camaldolese  monk,  in  1516,  and 
consisting  of  33  Paters,  5  Aves,  and  a 
Credo  ;  the  Rosary  of  the  Five  Wounds, 
approved  by  Leo  XII.  in  1823  at  the 
prayer  of  the  Passionists. 

ROSnuM'iAN'S.  That  is,  the  Fathers 
of  the  Institute  of  Charity,  a  congrega- 
tion founded  by  the  Italian  philosopher 
j  Antonio  Rosmini  in  1828.  Accoi-ding  to 
the  design  of  the  founder,  the  members 
of  the  new  society  were  to  "  embrace 
with  all  the  desire  of  their  souls  every 
work  of  charity,  without  arbitrary  limi- 
tation to  any  particular  branch,  under- 
taking all  that  should  be  required  of 
!  them  of  which  they  should  be  capable." ' 
The  first  house  of  the  institute  was  built 
on  the  Monte  Calvario,  near  Domo 
d'Ossola.  In  1831  a  branch  of  the  society 
was  established  at  Trent,  and  another  at 
Verona  two  years  later.  In  1835,  Fr. 
Gentili,  over  whose  impulsive  and  un- 
equal character,  as  may  be  seen  in  his 
biography,^  the  unwavering  majesty  of 
virtue  seen  in  Rosmini  had  gained,  after 
a  long  struggle,  a  complete  and  salutary 
ascendency,  was  sent  by  the  founder  on 
a  mission  to  England.  After  a  short 
stay  with  the  Trelawney  family  in  Corn- 
wall, Gentili  was  settled  by  Bisliop 
Baines  in  the  college  of  Prior  Park,  near 
Bath ;  before  long  he  began  to  preach 
missions  with  signal  success  in  the  large 
towns,  and  died  at  Dublin  while  thus 
engaged  in  1854.  The  variety  of  work 
done  by  the  society  in  the  first  ten  years 
of  its  existence  was  fully  in  accord  with 
its  declared  aim;  it  consisted  in  giving 
retreats,  preaching,  sick-visiting,  taking 
care  of  prisons  and  hospitals,  teaching, 
missions  abroad,  literary  work,  and  alms- 

1  Life  of  Rosmini  (Father  Lockhart,  1856). 

'  By  Father  Pagani. 


ROTA  ROM ANA 


RULE,  RELIGIOUS  797 


piving.  In  1838,  ou  the  report  of  the 
Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars, 
the  Institute  of  Charity  and  its  rule  were 
approved  by  the  reigiiing  Pontiff",  Gregory 
XVI.,  who"  bad  a  singular  affection  and 
admiration  for  Rosmini.  Three  months 
afterwards  the  founder  and  all  his  fol- 
lowers took  the  vows  required  by  the 
rule,  and  in  1839  the  Pope,  by  letters 
Apostohcal,  nominated  Rosmini  Superior- 
General  of  the  Institute  for  life.  It  is 
well  known  that  two  of  his  smaller  works, 
one  of  which  was  "  Delle  Cinque  Piaghe 
della  Santa  Chiesa,"  were  condemned  by 
the  Congregation  of  the  Index  in  1850. 
Rosmlni's  submission  to  the  decree  was 
absolute  and  unreserved  ;  but  a  far  more 
serious  matter  was  behind,  even  the 
general  examination  of  all  his  philosophi- 
cal works,  including  the  "  Nuovo  Saggio 
suU'  Origine  dell'  Idee.'"  After  a  severe 
and  protracted  scrutiny,  the  decision  of 
the  Congregation  was  given  in  1854, 
"  Dimittantur  opera  Antonii  Rosmini- 
Serbati.'"  Finally,  however,  forty  propo- 
sitions taken  from  his  writino-s  were  con- 
demned by  the  Holy  See  (Dee.  U,  18S7). 
Meantime  a  novitiate  had  been  opened 
on  the  side  of  the  hill  above  Stresa,  on 
the  Lago  Maggiore ;  and  here  Rosmini 
chiefly  resided  in  the  last  years  of  his 
life.  The  Piedmontese  Government, 
some  years  after  Rosmini's  death,  which 
was  in  1855,  confiscated  the  house  at 
Stresa,  and  converted  it  to  some  secular 
purpose.  There  are  at  the  present  time 
nine  houses  of  the  Institute  in  England 
and  Wales:  at  Cardiff  (2),  London  (Ely 
Place),  Loughborough,  Market  Weigh- 
ton,  Xewport,  Ratcliffe,  Rugby,  and 
"Wadhurst. 

ROTA  ROMAXTA.  A  tribunal 
within  the  Curia  Romana,  ''formerly  the 
supreme  court  of  justice  in  the  Church, 
and  the  universal  court  of  appeal."''  It 
was  instituted  by  John  XXTI.  in  1.326,  and  \ 
regulated  by  .Sixtas  IV.  and  Benedict 
XIV.  It  is  of  le>s  importance  now  than 
formerly,  because  the  spiritual  causes 
of  foreign  countries,  which  used  to  be 
brought  before  it,  are  now  usually  tried 
and  settled  on  the  spot  by  judges  dele- 
gated by  the  Holy  See.  [Delkgatiox.] 

The  assembled  court,  or  Plenum,  of 
the  Rota  consists  of  twelve  members, 
called  Auditors,  presided  over  by  a  Dean. 
It  is  divided  into  two  colleges  or  senates. 
One  of  these  was,  before  1670.  the  court 
of  second  instance  for  civil  suits  which 
had  been  originally  tried  in  the  local 
I  Wetzer  and  Welte,  art.  "  Curia  Romana."  i 


!  courts  of  Rome,  Perugia,  Spoleto,  and 
I  other  towns  of  the  ecclesiastical  state, 
j  The  other  was  the  court  of  third  instance, 
I  that  is,  of  final  ap]ieal,  for  suits  coming 
from— (1)  the  appeal  courts  (second  in- 
stance) of  the  Papal  States  ;  (2)  all  spiri- 
tual courts,  in  the  secular  affairs  belonging 
j  to  their  competence  ;  (3)  the  Rota  itself, 
'  deciding  in  the  second  instance. 

The  e.vplanation  of  the  name  is  said 
to  be  (Ducange)  that  the  marble  floor  of 
the  chamber  in  which  the  Rota  used  to 
sit  was  designed  so  as  to  exhibit  the 
appearance  of  a  wheel. 

The  Auditors,  in  Pleno,  sit  in  a  fi.xed 
order  on  either  hand  of  the  Dean,  the 
junior  member,  Xo.  12,  being  exactly 
opposite  him.  In  any  case  coming  before 
the  Rota  on  appeal,  the  appealing  party 
can  select  any  auditor  at  discretion,  to  be 
the  "Referendary"'  or  presiding  judge. 
The  Referendary  so  chosen,  and  the  four 
auditors  sitting  next  to  him  in  Pleno,  on 
the  left  hand,  form  the  senate  for  the 
trial  of  the  case.  The  ''  Decisions  of  the 
Rota,"  owing  to  their  importance  as  pre- 
cedents, have  been  frequently  published. 
(Wetzer  and  Welte.) 

RVBRZCS.  Directions  for  the  order 
to  be  followed  in  Mass  and  other  sacred 
rites.  The  word  is  taken  from  the 
Roman  law,  in  which  the  titles,  maxims, 
and  principal  deci.sions  were  written  in 
red.  Juvenal's  words — "  Causas  age,  per- 
fice  rubras  majorum  leges  "  ("  Sat."  xiv.) 
— refer  to  this.  MS.,  and  even  the  first 
printed  Missals,  have  scarcely  any  rubrics. 
These  were  contained  in  Directories, 
Rituals,  Ceremonials,  Ordines.  It  was 
Burchard,  Master  of  Ceremonie-  under 
Innocent  VIII.  and  Alexander  who 
first  set  out  at  length  both  the  words  and 
the  ceremonies  of  the  ^lass  in  his  Roman 
Pontifical,  printed  at  Rome  in  1486,  and 
again  in  his  Sacerdotale,  printed  a  few 
years  later,  and  reprinted  under  Leo  X. 
After  this  the  ceremonies  were  joined  to 
the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass  in  some  printed 
Missals,  and  were  finally  arranged  under 
their  present  titles  by  Pius  V.  The  same 
course  has  been  followed  in  the  authori- 
tative editions  of  the  Pontifical,  Ritual, 
&c.  (Le  Brun,  torn.  i.  "  Traite  Prelim." 
a.  3.) 

RUZ.E,  REI.ZCXOVS.  At  the  time 
when  Ferraris  wrote,  about  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  it  was  con- 
sidered that  there  were  ^our  principal 
rules  of  the  religious  life — the  Basilian, 
the  Benedictine,  the  Augiustinian,  and 
the  Franciscan — under  which,  or  soma 


798        RULE,  RELIGIOUS 


RUSSIAN  CHURCH 


modification  of  which,  the  majority  of 
the  existing  orders   and  congregrations 
were  ranged ;  -n-hile,  in  a  few  isolated  ; 
cases,  rules  unconnected  with   any  of 
these  four  were  observed.    So  great  a  i 
number  of  religious  institutes,  especially  j 
of  women,  has  subsequently  arisen  in  the 
Church,  and  obtained  the  approbation  of 
the  Holy  See,  that  the  classification  of 
Ferraris   is  far  from  accuratelj-  corre- 
sponding to  the  present  state  of  things.  | 

The  rule  of  St.  Basil,  founded  by  that  ' 
saint  about  380,  besides  being  that  gene- 
rally observed  by  ca?nobites  in  the  Eastern 
Church,  was  followed,  down  to  the  recent 
secularisations,  by  a  number  of  monas- 
teries in  Sicilv,  Italy,  and  Spain. 

The  rule  of  St.  Augustine  (390),  ac- 
cording to  the  computation  adopted  by 
H(51yot,  was  followed  by  no  less  than 
ninety-seven  cougTegations,  including 
military  orders.  Among  these  were  the  j 
Lateran  Canons,  the  Canons  of  Arouaise,  i 
the  Hermits  and  Regular  Canons  under 
the  name  of  St.  Austin,  the  Premonstra- 
tensians,  the  order  of  Preachers,  the  Scr- 
vites,  the  Theatines,  and  the  Barnabites. 
Connected  with  every  general  congrega- 
tion following  this  rule  were  nmis  of  cor- 
responding observance. 

H6lyot  enumerates  sixty-seven  congre- 
gations (including  the  moulis  of  Camaldoli, 
the  Cluniacs,  the  Cistercians,  the  Bridgit- 
tines,  &c.)  as  under  the  rule  of  St.  Bene- 
dict (540),  besides  military  orders. 

The  rule  of  St.  Francis  (1208)  was 
and  is  professed,  with  more  or  less  of  j 
rigour,  by  the  various  branches  of  the 
Franciscan  order;  of  which  the  principal 
are  the  Obsorvnnts,  the  Conventuals,  the 
Poor  Clares,  and  the  Capuchins. 

Among  the  rehgious  following  inde- 
pendent rules  were  the  Carthusians,  the 
Cai-melites,  the  Discalced  CarmeUtes  of 
St.  Teresa,  and  the  Society  of  Jesus. 

Many  of  the  institutes  contained  in 
Helyot's  enumeration  are  now  extinct;  on 
the  other  hand,  if  we  consult  the  Abbe 
Badiche's  continuation  of  Il^lyot,  or  tum 
over  the  pages  of  Terra  Incognita,"  '  we 
find  that  in  the  last  eighty  years  an  ex- 
traordinarj-  number  of  new  institutes,  for 
the  most  part  with  determinate  practical 
aims,  under  carefully  adapted  rules,  and 
with  simple  vows,  has  arisen  in  the  Church. 
Such  are  the  Marists,  the  Faithful  Com- 
panions of  Jesus,  the  Rosminian  Fathers, 
the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  the  Sisters 
of  Providence,  the  Nazareth  Sisters,  &c. 
&c. 

'  By  J.  N.  Murphy  (Lougmans,  187."). 


XtVRAX.  {decani  rurales). 

In  the  article  Dean  it  was  explained  how 
that  title,  which  originally  arose  in  the 
monasteries,  was  introduced  into  cathedral 
and  collegiate  chapters.  The  institution 
of  rural  deans  appears  to  have  commenced 
in  Italy  in  the  following  manner.  The 
first  parishes,  owing  to  the  thinness  of  the 
population,  were  very  large;  as  the  popu- 
lation increased,  the  inconvenience  of  their 
size  was  felt ;  and  Alexander  III.  ordered 
that  new  churches  should  be  built  in 
places  where  they  were  required,  and 
endowed  out  of  the  revenues  of  the  parish 
churches.  The  new  churches  would 
naturally  be  dependent  on  the  church 
within  the  district  of  which  they  were 
built ;  this  would  be  their  matii.v  ecclesia, 
aud  its  rector  would  appoint  priests  to 
them.  Such  larger  districts  came  to  be 
called  plebes,  and  the  ecclesiastic  in 
charge  of  one  was  named  plebanus,  or 
arckiprcsbyter,  or  dec-arms.  The  prac- 
tice grew  up  of  monthly  meetings  of 
the  priests  in  each  plebs  or  rural- 
deanery,  under  the  presidency  of  the 
plebayim.  An  archpriest  in  this  sense 
differed  entirely  from  the  cathedral  arch- 
priest,  who  was  at  the  head  of  the  clergy 
serving  a  cathedral  church.  The  rural 
deans  were  always  subject  to  the  arch- 
deacon; nevertheless,  by  deputation  from 
the  bishop,  they  gradually  drew  to  them- 
selves a  considerable  jurisdiction,  of  which 
in  later  times  they  have  been  deprived. 
(Thomassin,  "  Yet.  et  Nova  Eccl.  Disc."  i. 
2,  6 ;  Ferraris,  Decanus.) 

RUSSZAir  CHVRCH.  According 
to  the  Russian  legend,  St.  Andrew  first 
preached  the  gospel  in  Russia  and  planted 
a  cross  at  Kiev,  but  the  truth  is  that 
Christianity  came  to  Russia  from  Con- 
stantinople in  the  latter  part  of  the  ninth 
ceutury.  At  that  time  the  Russian  Slavs 
liad  been  united  under  the  rule  of  Scandi- 
navian princes,  and  Ruric  founded  the  great 
Russian  monarchy  in  864.  Soon  after, 
however,  two  other  princes,  Ascold  and 
Dir,  alsd  of  Scandinavian  origin,  founded 
an  independent  kingdom  at  Kiev,  so  that 
Russia  wa?  divided  into  two  kingdoms, 
both  luuier  Scandinavian  rulers — viz.  a 
northern  monarchy  with  Novgorod,  and  a 
southern  with  Kiev,  for  capital.  In  866 
Ascold  and  Dir  attacked  Constantinople, 
and  are  said  to  have  been  converted  by 
miracles,  variously  reported ;  but  the  fact 
is  certain  that  their  expedition  led  to  the 
sending  of  missionaries  from  Constanti- 
nople to  Russia.  The  exact  chronology, 
which  has  a  curious  interest  here,  is  hard 


RUSSLOC  CHURCH 


RUSSIAN  CHURCH  799 


to  fix.  According  to  Constant  ine  Por- 
phvrogenitus,  the  mission  from  Constanti- 
nople was  sent  in  ^67,  ■when  Ignatius, 
the  lawful  and  Catholic  Patriarch,  was 
in  possession,  so  that  the  tirst  Russian 
Christians  were  CathoUcs,  united  to 
Rime.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  Nestor,  the 
father  of  Russian  history  (d.  1113),  is  to 
be  believed,  the  mission  was  sent  in  866, 
and  therefore  under  Photius,  the  schis- 
matical  Patriarch,  so  that  the  first  Russian 
church  was  not  in  union  with  Rome.  In 
any  case,  the  impression  made  on  the 
mass  of  the  people  at  this  time  was  very 
slight. 

In  882  Russia  was  again  subject  to  a 
singleruler, Oleg,  Ruric's  successor;  KieT, 
however,  being  the  capital.    In  955,  Olga, 


stantinople;  and  in  988  her  grandson  I 
Vladimir  the  Apostolic  also  became  a  1 
Christian,   and   strove    successfully  to 
Christianise  his  people.    Vladimir,  whose  ! 
life  had  been  stained  by  infamous  cruelty, 
sent  ambassadors  to  examine  the  rites  and 
doctrines  of  the  Latins,  Mohammedans, 
and  Greeks,  and  attached  himself  to  the  j 
latter  Ijecause  their  worship  was  the  most 
imposing.    He  sent  missionaries  throurrh 
his  dominions,  destroyed  idols,  and  though 
there  were  heathen  Russians  even  in  the  ' 
twelfth  century-,  still  Madimir  may  fairly 
be  considered  to  have  made  the  mass  of 
the  nation  Christian.    So  far,  then,  what-  1 
ever  the  date  of  the  first  mission  may  i 
have  been,  Russia,  like  the  mother-church 
of  Constantinople,  was  in  communion  ' 
with  Riime.    The  union  was  severed  in 
the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  by  the 
schism  of  Michael  Caerularius.    But  for 
a  time  the  Russian  church  was  in  schism 
unawares,  and  knew  little  of  the  anti-  ] 
Roman   bitterness   which  prevailed  at 
Constantinople.    Even  to  this  day,  the 
Russians,  in  their  liturgical  books,  written 
in  Old  .Slavonic,  assert  the  primacy  of  the 
Roman  See.    Pope  Sylvester  is  call-^  d  the 
"  Divuie  head  of  the  holy  bishops  :  '  Pope 
Leo,  "  the  successor  on  the  highest  throne 
of  St.  Peter,  the  heir  of  the  invincible  rock 
and  the  successor  in  his  kingdom."  ilar- 
tin,  Pope  in  the  seventh  century,  is  thus 
addressed:  "Thou  didst  adorn  the  divine 
throne  of  Peter,  and,  holding  the  Church 
upright  on  this  rock  which  cannot  be 
shaken,  thou  didst  honour  thy  name  "  ; 
and  Leo  III.  (about   800):   "0  chief 
shepherd  of  the  Church,  do  thou  represent 
the  place  of  Jesus  Christ ''    The  feeling  ; 
was  changed,  though  the  liturgy  still  wit- 
nessed to  the  past,  under  Vladimir Mono- 


machus'  (1113).  He  was  filled  with 
hostility  to  Rome  by  Nicephorus,  who 
came  from  Constantinople  and  was 
metropolitan  of  Kiev.  This  spirit  was 
fostered  by  successive  metropolitans  from 
Constantinople,  and  has  lasted  ever  since. 

Unsuccessful  attempts  to  unite  the 
Russians  with  the  Papacy  were  made  by 
Alexander  HI.,  who  corresponded  with 
John  III.,  metropolitan  of  Kiev  (since 
1164);  by  Innocent  IH.  during  the 
Latin  occupation  of  Constantinopte :  by 
Clement  III.,  who  tried  to  engage  Russia 
in  the  third  crusade;  by  Innocent  IV'.. 
when  the  Russians  were  groaning  under 
Mongol  domination  (Mongol  supremacy, 
1238^1462).  Gallicia,  however,  which 
had  fallen  under  Hungarian  rule,  be- 
came Catholic,  retaining  its  Slavonic 
rites,  under  Pope  Houorius  IH.  But  there 
were  causes  which  favoured  the  success 
of  Catholicism  in  part  of  Russia.  First, 
the  Russians,  weakened  by  Mongol  op- 
pression, could  not  cope  with  their  ene- 
mies on  the  West — viz.  the  Poles  and 
Lithuanians,  and  of  these  the  Poles  were 
Cathohcs.  The  Lithuanians,  at  fir.st 
heathen,  were  won  over  to  a  great  extent 
by  the  zeal  of  Dominican  and  Franciscan 
friars;  in  1-386  t'liey  became  dependent  on 
the  Polish  kingdom,  and  in  1.387  all 
Lithuania  except  the  Ruthenian  pro- 
vinces declared  itself  Catholic.  The 
Lithuanian  prince  Vitolt  seized  strips  of 
Russian  territory,  and  was  averse  to  the 
connecti'^n  between  his  Ruthenian  subjects 
and  the  Russian  metropolitan.  Next,  the 
metropolitan  see  of  the  Russian  church 
had  been  transferred  to  the  city  of  Madi- 
mir  in  1299,  to  Moscow  in  1323,  though 
the  title  "  Metropolitan  of  Kiev  and  all 
Russia"  was  retained.  This  weakened 
the  hold  of  the  Russian  church  in  the 
South-West.  In  1414  seven  Russian 
bishops  renounced  allegiance  to  the  metro- 
politan at  Moscow  and  chose  one  of  their 
own,  resident  at  Kiev.  After  a  vacancy 
of  some  years  this  metrop^htan  see  of 
Kiev  was  occupied  by  Isidore,  a  Greek 
of  Thessalonica.  who 'at  the  Council  of 
Florence  in  1438  warmly  supported  the 
cause  of  union.  To  this  union  the 
church  of  Northern  Russia  and  the 
temporal  ruler,  Vassili  II.,  were  from 
the  first  bitterly  opposed,  but  it  was  ac- 
cepted at  Kiev  and  in  the  nine  sufi'ragan 
dioceses.    All  subsequent  attempts  at  the 

1  He  was  the  first  prince  who  was  called 
"Czar"  (  =  -Upi>er  Kitii.-");  bn:  the  title 
■was  not  usual  till  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
centurv. 


SCO       RUSSLIN  CHURCH 


RUSSIAN  CHURCH 


conversion  of  Russia  Proper — e.g.  under 
Sixtus  IV.,  Leo  X.,  and  Clement  VII. — 
proved  fruitless.  Russia,  freed  in  1462 
Irom  the  Mongol  yoke,  won  and  converted 
vast  provinces  in  the  North  and  East. 
Even  the  union  of  Kiev  and  its  suftVarran 
sees  to  the  Catholic  Church  was  neither 
real  nor  lasting  ;  though,  as  we  shall  see 
in  a  subsequent  artic'le  on  the  RuTHENIAlT 
CHrKCii,  it  was  afterwards  renewed  in  a 
much  more  ^olid  way. 

The  discipline  of  the  Russian  church 
has  undergone  many  changes.  In  the 
jniddle  ages  the  Metropolitan  of  Rus^^ia 
was  nominated  by  the  Duke  and  conse- 
crated by  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 
Once  consecrated,  the  metropolitan  had 
immense  power  even  in  secular  matters  ; 
it  was  seldom,  even  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tiu-y,  that  the  Duke  dared  to  resist  him. 
The  other  archbishops  and  bishops — in 
whose  election  the  Prince,  the  clergy  and 
l)eople,  and  the  metropolitan  all  took 
part — were  placed  in  the  strictest  subjec- 
tion to  the  metropolitans.  Yet  the 
Ijishops,  on  their  part,  had  great  influence. 
They  were  well  supported  by  tithes,  and 
held  secular  jurisdiction  in  theii-  own 
lands.  They  had,  moreover,  the  pri\  ilcnc 
of  interceding  for  condemned  persons  ; 
and  no  prince  could  engage  in  war  till  a 
bishop  had  given  his  blessing ;  if  the 
blessing  was  withheld,  no  soldier  would 
follow  the  banner.  Thus,  in  spite  of 
much  ignorance  and  superstition,  wretched 
disputes  on  the  right  way  of  making  the 
sign  of  the  cross,  controversies  whether 
pi'ocessions  should  move  from  east  to 
west  or  west  to  east,  ready  belief  in  gro- 
tesque miracles,  still  the  influence  of  the 
bishops,  who  were  taken  from  the  monas- 
tic orders  and  were  superior  both  in 
knowledge  and  character  to  the  rest  of 
the  clergy,  was  a  beneficent  one  on  the 
whole.  They  did  much  to  temper  the  i 
barbarism  of  the  times.  At  the  end  of  | 
the  middle  ages  the  power  of  the  Crown 
was  con.solidated,  that  of  the  nobles  and 
clergy  declined,  and  the  Czars  began  to  ; 
act  more  and  more  as  the  heads  of  the  j 
Church.  Ivan  IV.  (16.3;i-84)  deposed  : 
and  even  murdered  bishops,  confiscated  I 
Church  property,  and  forced  the  prelates 
to  confirm  his  fourth  marriage,  which 
was  against  the  Greek  canon  law,  and  to 
endure  without  protest  his  frequent 
divorces,  his  fifth,  sixth,  and  even  seventh 
marriage.  In  1589,  Jeremias  II.,  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  consecrated  Job, 
the  metropolitan  of  Moscow,  Patriarch  of 
the  Russias,  and  recognised  him  as  the 


third  Patriarch  of  the  Eastern  Church, 
inferior  only  to  those  of  Constantinople 
and  Alexandria.  The  metropolitan  gained 
nothing  by  his  change  of  title,  but  it 
suited  the  policy  of  the  Czars  to  make 
the  church  national  and  independent. 
The  strife  of  the  Patriarch  Nicon  with 
the  Czar  Alexis  Michaelovitz  ended  with 
the  deposition  of  the  former  at  a  council 
of  Moscow  in  1667,  and  early  in  the  fol- 
low-ing  century  the  entire  subjection  of 
the  ecclesiastical  to  the  imperial  power 
was  completed.  For  Peter  the  Great  left 
the  Patriarchal  See  vacant  for  twenty 
years,  and  then,  in  1721,  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  Eastern  Patriarchs,  placed 
the  whole  government  of  the  Russian 
church  in  the  hands  of  the  "Holy  Synod," 
which  depended  entirely  on  the  Czar. 
Catharine  II.  seized  all  the  Church  pro- 
perty, and  since  then  the  prelates  have 
had  a  regular  salary  apportioned  to  them 
by  the  State. 

The  synod  consists  of  twelve  members, 
though  the  number  has  varied  at  difierent 
times.  The  members  are  nominated  by 
the  Czar,  who  may  remove  them  at  will.* 
The  synod  in  1881  was  made  up  of  the 
[Metropolitan  of  Novgorod,  president,  four 
other  metropolitans,  the  Emperor's  con- 
fessor, and  the  grand  chaplain  of  the 
army  and  fleet.  The  two  last  are  secular 
priests.  To  these  is  attached  a  chief 
procurator  as  representative  of  the  Czar 
and  other  lay  officials.  This  procurator, 
who  in  1770  was  a  brigadier,  may  put 
his  veto  on  any  measure,  till  it  has  been 
laid  before  the  sovereign.  Further,  each 
member  on  entering  office  swears  that  he 
recognises  the  Czar  "  as  supreme  judge  in 
this  spiritual  assembly."  But  if  on  the 
one  side  the  synod  is  entirely  subject  to 
the  Crown,  on  the  other  the  centrahsing 
system  of  the  Russian  Government  gives 
the  synod  enormous  power  in  the  church. 
It  proposes  suitable  candidates  for  vacant 
sees  to  the  Czar,  it  translates  and  deposes 
bishops,  it  can  with  the  Czar's  formal 
approval  make  new  laws  for  the  Church, 
it  gives  dispensations,  it  watches  over 
doctrine  and  ritual,  sees  to  the  printing 
of  liturgical  books,  examines  relics  and 
the  evidence  for  alleged  miracles,  has  the 
control  of  ecclesiastical  colleges,  receives 
appeals  from  the  bishops,  it  decides  on 
the  money  to  be  given  for  building 
churches  and  mona.steries,  and  superin- 
tends the  payment  of  the  clergy.  Nay, 
since  1809  tlie  bishops  must  transmit  to 

1  There  is  only  one  ex-officu>  member — viz. 
the  Metropolitan  of  Tiflis,  Exarch  of  Georgia. 


RUSSIAN  CHURCH 


RUSSIAN  CHURCH 


^01 


the  synod  the  money  made  in  their  dio- 
ceses by  sale  of  candles,  use  of  churches, 
sale  of  bridal  crovms,  collections  in 
churches,  &c.  The  whole  sum  is  then 
apportioned  to  the  dilFerent  dioceses  ac- 
cording to  their  needs. 

Bishops  are  really  all  equal,  except  so 
far  as  they  are  divided  into  three  classes, 
and  receive  more  or  less  support  from  the 
Government.  Since  the  time  of  Peter 
the  Great,  metropolitan  and  archbishop 
have  become  mere  titles  of  honour  given 
by  the  Czar  and  not  attached  to  any  dio- 
cese, except  that  the  Bishops  of  Kiev  and 
of  Novgorod  and  St.  Petersburg  are 
always  archbishops,  while  Siberia  is 
always  placed  under  a  metropolitan.  If 
a  see  is  vacant,  the  Holy  Synod  recom- 
mends two  candidates  to  the  Czar,  who, 
however,  often  takes  the  first  step  and 
names  a  person  whom  the  synod  have  to  j 
choose.  The  bishops  are  all  unmarried, 
and  therefore  chosen  from  the  monks. 
They  cannot  leave  their  dioceses  on  any  \ 
account  without  leave  from  the  synod. 
They  must  make  a  complete  visitation  at  \ 
least  every  three  years.  They  are  urged 
to  be  zealous  in  establishing  schools,  and 
they  may  enforce  discipline  in  the  case  of 
the  secular  clergy  by  punishment,  not,  j 
however,  in  that  of  the  regulars,  unless  ; 
they  are  armed  with  a  decree  from  the  i 
synod.  The  bishop  is  assisted  by  a  Con- 
sistory composed  of  the  most  experienced 
and  distinguished  secular  and  regular 
clergymen.  The  bishop  presents  them 
to  the  synod,  but  cannot  remove  them 
when  once  approved.  The  Consistory 
watches  over  orthodoxy,  prepares  returns 
on  the  state  of  the  diocese  for  the  synod, 
and  for  this  purpose  has  a  body  of  offi- 
cials in  Government  pay  at  its  disposaL 
Appeal  lies  from  the  Consistory  to  the 
bishop,  thence  to  the  synod.  In  very 
large  dioceses — e.e/.  Novgorod  and  Mos- 
cow— a  district  is  placed  under  a  vicar 
who  is  in  episcopal  orders,  but  differs  in 
this  from  other  bishops,  that  there  is  an 
appeal  from  him  to  his  metropolitan. 
Vicars  were  also  appointed  in  18-32  for 
countries  where  the  people  are  mostly 
Catholic  or  Protestant.  The  number  of 
those  who  compose  the  bishops'  house- 
hold is  settled,  and  each  official  fed  and 
paid  by  the  Government.  There  are  j 
three  prelates  of  the  first  class — viz.  the 
Metropolitans  of  Kiev,  of  Novgorod  and 
•St.  Petersburg  (united  since  1764),  of 
Moscow  and  Colomna.  There  are  seven- 
teen bishops  of  the  second  class,  thirty 
of  the  third,  nine  vicars.   Since  1801  ! 


'  Georgia  was  incorporated  within  the 
Russian  Empire,  and  there  the  Metropo- 
litan of  Tiflis  is  Exarch,  and  there  are 
five  bishops.  There  is  also,  since  135S,  a 
Russian  bishop  at  Jerusalem.  The 
classes  of  bishops  have,  of  course,  nothing 
to  do  with  their  jurisdiction,  for  in  that 
respect  aU,  except  the  vicars,  are  on  one 
dead  level  under  the  synod.  The  classes 
simply  refer  to  the  amount  of  their  allow- 
ance from  the  Government. 

The  "  white  "  or  secular  clergy  must 
all  be  married,  and  are  mostly  sons  of 
priests.  They  begin  their  education  at 
the  parish  school,  continue  it  at  the  dis- 
trict school  and  diocesan  seminary,  and 
finish  at  one  of  the  four  ecclesiastical 
academies — th  ^se  of  St.  Petersburg,  Kiev, 
Moscow,  and  Kasan.  Three  or  four  years 
are  spent  at  each  of  these  stages.  The 
benefices  are  aU  conferred  by  the  bishop, 
except  that  landed  proprietors  have  often 
a  right  of  patronage  in  cotmtry  churches 
— so  far,  at  least,  that  they  can  put  a 
veto  on  the  nomination  of  a  cleric  whom 
they  do  not  wish  to  have.  The  Govern- 
ment supports  a  certain  number  of  clergy- 
men in  churches  which  had  more  than 
twenty  serfs  before  the  confiscations  of 
Catharine  II.  There  are  numerous  ofli- 
cials  at  the  cathedrals,  and  even  small 
country  churches  are  supposed  to  have  a 
deacon  as  well  as  a  priest.  Each  regi- 
ment has  a  priest,  reader,  sacristan,  door- 
keeper, and  sometimes  also  a  deacon.  In 
peace,  military  chaplains  are  subject  to 
the  bishop  of  the  place  ;  in  the  field,  to  a 
Proto-Pope  who  is  set  over  them.  A 
canon  of  the  fifteenth  century  required  a 
priest  who  lost  his  wife  to  live  like  a 
layman  in  a  monastery.  This  law  of 
enforced  seclusion  was  set  aside  by  Peter 
the  Great.  A  widowed  priest  may  now 
get  leave  from  the  synod  to  officiate  as 
before;  and  even  in  the  case  of  second 
marriage  an  edict  of  Peter  the  Great  in 
1724  permits  a  priest  to  be  employed  as 
vector  of  a  seminary,  or  in  the  episcopal 
chancery,  if  he  has  applied  himself 
diligently  to  study,  and  especially  to 
preaching. 

The  Russian  religious  follow  the  rule 
of  St.  Basil.  Men  must  not  be  professed 
till  they  are  forty,  women  till  they  are 
fifty.  The  noviciate  lasts  three  years,  and 
is  followed  by  another  period  of  proba- 
tion. The  (Uscipline  is  strict,  and  only  a 
few  monks  receive  holy  orders.  Regular 
priests  never  have  parishes,  but  the  naval 
chaplains  are  taken  from  monks  educated 
in  the  Monastery  of  St.  George  at  Bala- 


€02       RUSSIAN  CHURCH 


RUTHENIAN  CATHOLICS 


clava ;  and  not  only  the  bishops,  but  also 
many  preachers,  confessors,  and  prelates 
generally,  are  supplied  by  them.  Accord- 
ing to  the  synodal  report  of  1838,  there 
were  225  monasteries  and  100  nunneries 
receiving  support  from  the  State  in  place 
of  confiscated  property,  besides  161 
monasteries  and  thirteen  nunneries  main- 
tained by  themselves  or  by  the  people. 
Only  seven  religious  houses  are  stauro- 
pegia — i.e.  exempt  from  episcopal  rule  and 
subject  immediately  to  the  synod. 

The  great  symbolical  book  of  the 
Russian  church  is'Eic^fo-tf  Tijf  rii/'Pcoo-ctfi/ 
Uiarfois  ("  Exposition  of  the  Faith  of  the 
Russians  ")  drawn  up  by  Mogila,  metro- 
politan of  Kiev,  and  his  suifragans  be- 
tween 1630  and  1640.  At  the  desire  of 
the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  it  was 
examined  by  a  commission  of  delegates 
from  Constantinople  and  Kiev,  received 
the  title  of  "  Confession  of  Faith  of  the 
Catholic  and  Apostolic  Eastern  Church  " 
(^O^oKoyia    r^y   Ili'oTecof    r^s  \i.a6o\iKrji 

KCll    'ATTOaToXlKtjS   'ExxXlJCTtaS'   TTjS  AvaTO- 

XiK^i),  was  approved  by  the  four  Eastern 
Patriarchs,  and  again  by  the  Synod  of 
Jerusalem  in  1672.  There  are  .autho- 
ritative translations  into  Slavonic,  and  it 
has  been  edited  with  a  Latin  version  by 
Kimmel  ("Libri  Symbol.  Eccles.  Orien- 
talis,"  1843).  The  Little  Catechism 
brought  out  by  order  of  Peter  the  Great 
is  merely  a  compendium  of  the  "  Exposi- 
tion "  or  "Confession." 

This  Confession  shows  that  except  on 
a  very  few  points  the  Russians  believe 
as  the  Catholic  Church  believes.  Their 
Confession  teaches  the  necessity  of  good 
works  for  salvation;  that  Scripture  and 
tradition  are  the  two  sources  of  faith; 
the  intercession  and  invocation  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  the  saints,  and  the  angels ; 
that  the  faithful  departed  are  helped  by 
prayers,  alms,  and  the  sacrifice  of  the 
Eucharist;  the  Seven  Sacraments,  tran- 
substantiation  (jMerovaiioais),  &c.  The 
coran.andments  of  the  Church — such  as 
fasting,  hearing  Mass  on  Sundays  and 
feasts,  &c. — are  much  the  same  as  those 
in  Catholic  Catechisms.  But  the  Russians 
deny  the  Pope's  supremacy,  and  the  pro- 
cession of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Son; 
further,  they  hold  that  marriage  may  be 
dissolved  on  account  of  adultery,  and 
maintain  that  baptism  by  sprinkling  is 
invalid.  On  this  last  point  they  differ 
from  the  Greeks.  On  Purgatory,  their 
doctrine  is  less  sharply  defined  than  ours, 
but  they  hold  all  which  we  hold  as  of 
faith. 


Such  is  the  formal  teaching  of  the 
Russian  church.  But  since  the  latter 
half  of  the  laat  century  education  has 
made  great  strides,  and  Western,  but 
especiaUy  German,  theology  has  exercised 
a  marked  influence  on  the  more  educated 
members  of  the  clergy.  Prelates  in  high 
place  have  shown  their  leanings  to  Pro- 
testant views,  and  this  tendency  has  ap- 
peared in  books  printed  with  the  approval 
of  the  Holy  Synod.  The  Catechism  of 
Plato,  archbishop  of  Moscow  and  tutor 
to  Paul  I.,  difl'ers  essentially  from  the  old 
Catechism  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Sacra- 
ments, and  especially  that  of  the  Eu- 
charist. In  1 805,  Archbi  shop  Methodius, 
of  Tver,  published  in  Latin,  with  the 
approval  of  the  synod,  a  work  on  the 
first  four  centuries  of  the  Church,  founded 
chiefly  on  Bingham.  Philaret,  the  late 
patriarch  of  Moscow,  a  man  of  talent  and 
of  cultivated  mind,  formed  a  school  of 
theologians  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
German  Protestantism.  He  issued  a 
Catechism,  and  a  Review  of  the  Contro- 
versies between  East  and  West.  While 
Germans  like  Neanderand  Schleiermacher 
have  been  read  and  studied.  Catholic  theo- 
logians are  little  known,  and  there  is  a 
constant  tendency  to  soften  the  points 
of  difference  between  Russians  and  Pro- 
testants, and  to  accentuate  those  which 
separate  Russians  from  Catholics.  At 
the  same  time,  the  interest  in  the  Greek 
Fathers  and  in  the  old  Russian  orthodoxy 
has  been  revived  in  a  certain  section  of 
the  younger  clergy. 

(The  historical  account  and  the  sketch 
of  doctrine  are  from  Hefele's  "  Essay  on 
the  Russian  Church,"  1864;  the  statistics 
from  Silbernagi,  "Klrchen  des  Orients," 
ch.  iii.,  1865.  An  article  by  Professor 
Lamy,  of  Louvain,  in  the  "Dublin 
Review"  for  April  1881,  has  also  been 
consulted.') 

SttTTHEXrZAM' CATHOI.ZCS.  The 
name  is  given  to  Christians  who  use  the 
Greek  liturgy  translated  into  Old  Sla- 
vonic, but  own  obedience  to  the  Pope. 
They  are  descendants  of  converts  from 
the  Russian  church,  who  have  kept  their 
old  rites  and  discipline. 

The  metropolitan  see  of  Kiev  and  its 
Bufiraran  dioceses  were  united  to  the 
Catholic  Church,  as  has  been  said  in  the 
article  on  the  Russian  church.  The  union 
was  never  satisfactory,  and  the  last  trace  of 

'  The  reader  will  find  a  vivid  and  inte- 
resting account  of  the  Russian  church  in  a 
work  of  Mr.  Palmer,  edited  by  Cardinal  New- 
man. 


RUTIIEXIAX  CATHOLICS 


S-ABELLI-IXISM  ?05 


it  had  disappeared  early  in  the  sixteenth  1 
century.  But  the  cause  of  union  was  zeal-  I 
ously  promoted  by  the  Jesuit  school  estab- 
lished at  Vilna  by  Father  Possevin  and  bv 
the  Polish  king  Calixtus  III.  In  1595  the 
Metropolitan  of  Kiev  and  seven  suffragans 
•were  at  their  own  request  received  by  1 
Clement  VIU.  into  the  Catholic  commu-  I 
nion.    Thus,   the   Ruthenian  province  ' 
arose;  the  metropolitan  was  chosen  by  the  ' 
bishops  and  all  were  placed  under  Propa- 
ganda, which  was  represented  by  the 
Polish  nuncio.    But  at  the  partition  of  i 
Poland    all    the    Catholic    Ruthenian  ! 
dioceses,  except  Lemberg,  Przemysl,  and 
part  of  Brezk,  became  Russian  dominion. 
In  1795  Russia  suppressed  all  the  dioceses  i 
except  one;  in  1798  three  dioceses  were  [ 
tolerated,  a  fourth  in  1800,  two  only  by  [ 
X'ichnlas  in  1828.    In  1839  three  bishops  j 
joined  the  schismatic  Russians,  and  there 
was  till  lately  only  one  see  of  the  United  | 
Ruthenians    in    Russian    Poland — viz. 
Chelm  and  Belz — immediately  subject  to 
the  Pope.    At  present  there  is  another 
bishopric — viz.     Minsk — suffrasan  to 
Mohilew.    There  were  in   1865  about  | 
250,000  Catholics  of  the  Ruthenian  rite  | 
in  Russian  Poland.    The  see  of  Suprasl 
was  erected  in  1799  for  the  Ruthenians 
in  Prussian  Poland;  they  numbered  about 
40,000. 

In  the  Austrian  territory  the  see  of 
Lemberg,  with  its  suffragan  sees  of 
Przemysl,  Sanek,  and  Sambnr,  belongs  to 
the  Ruthenian  church  of  Poland,  and  the 
history  of  its  union  with  the  Catholic 
Church  has  been  just  given.    The  metro- 


politan see  of  Lembei'g  was  erected  for 
the  two  millions  of  Ruthenian  Catholics 
in  GalUcia  by  Pius  VII.  in  1807,  Kalik 
and  Kamenek  being  united  to  it.  But 
besides  this,  many  schismntical  Slavs  in 
Hungary  followed  the  example  set  by 
their  Polish  brethren  in  1595.  The  union 
only  lasted  till  1627,  and  though  a  bishop 
of  Munkacs  became  Catholic  in  1649,  the 
population  remained  schismatic.  More 
was  done  for  the  Catholic  cause  by  the 
Ruthenian  bishop  De  Camillis  at  the  end 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  in  1771 
the  diocese  of  Munkacs  was  properlv  con- 
stituted by  Clement  XIV.  Th*i  Catholic 
population  amounts  to  .360,000  souls. 
From  the  diocese  of  Munkacs  that  of 
Eperies  was  divided  in  1816.  It  contains 
160,000  souls.  Munkacs,  Eperies,  and 
Creis  (apparently  a  new  see)  are  under  the 
Latin  Archbishop  of  Gran.  In  Croatia 
the  Ruthenians  had  one  diocese,  that  of 
Kreutz,  with  20,000  souls,  erected  in 
1777,  and  subject  to  the  Latin  Metro- 
politan of  Agram.  But  the  see,  though 
it  existed  very  lately,  is  omitted  in  the 
latest  official  lists. 

The  Ruthenians  have  a  married 
secular  clergy  and  religious  who  follow 
the  rule  of  St.  Basil.  The  bishops  are 
usually  taken  from  the  monks.  The 
Ruthenians  are  under  the  laws  made  by 
Propaganda  for  Catholics  of  Greek  rite 
living  among  Latins.  Their  bishops  at 
their  consecration  make  the  profession 
of  faith  prescribed  for  the  Greeks  bv 
Urban  Vin.  (SHbernagl,  "Kirchen  de* 
Orients.") 


SABAOTB.    This  word,  retained  in 

the  Sanctus,  is  often  confounded  with 
Sabbath,  but  has  an  entirely  different 
significance,  being  from  niS3V,  hosts. 
[See  Saxcttts.] 

SABBATB.  [See  Sunday.] 
SABEX.x.ZAsrzsM.  A  name  given 
to  two  very  different  forms  of  doctrine, 
which,  however,  agreed  in  this  that  they 
denied  any  real  distinction  of  Persons  in 
God.  The  Catholic  Church  teaches  that 
there  are  three  divine  Persons  really  dis- 
tinct from  each  other,  and  yet  one' God. 
The  Sabellians  confessed  with  Catholics 
the  numerical  unity  of  God,  but  denied 
the  mystery  of  the  Trinity  by  explaining 
away  the  real  distinction  of  the  Persons. 
(1)  The  earliest  form  of  the  heresy 


was  Patripassianism.  Praxeas,  who  came 
from  Asia  Minor  to  Rome  under  Pope 
Eleutherus  (175-189),  Noetus  of  Smyrna, 
who  was  excommunicated  in  his  own 
province  about  230,  Epigonus  and 
Cleomenes,  who  transplanted  the  doc- 
trine of  Noetus  to  Rome,  all  held  that 
God  the  Father  of  all  is  the  only  God, 
and  that  this  one  God  became  man, 
suffered  and  died.  Thus  Praxeas  held 
"that  the  Father  came  down  into  a 
virgin,  that  He  himself  was  born  of  her, 
that  He  himself  suffered;  tinally,  that 
He  himself  is  Jesus  Christ"  (tertuU. 
"Adv.  Prax."  1,  and  so  28,  29,  30). 
Pressed  to  explain  how  it  was  that 
Father  and  Son  could  be  said  on  this 
theorv  to  exist  at  all  after  the  Incama- 
3f2 


804  SABELLIANISM 


SACRAMENT  ALS 


tion,  Praxeas  replied  that  Christ  so  far  as 
He  was  flesh  was  Son,  and  so  far  as  He 
was  spirit  or  God  was  the  Father  {fh. 
27).  The  tenets  of  Noetus  were  pre- 
cisely the  same  (Hippolytus,  "  C.  Noet." 
ed.  Lagarde,  "  Philosoph.""  ix.  7-10).  And 
such  also  was  the  original  doctrine  of  Sa- 
bellius,  a  Libyan,  who  ciune  to  Rome  under 
Zephyrinus,  was  ha?i'-^li<'d  from  the  Ro- 
man Church  by  Cnl'  st  ■,  and  took  refuge 
in  the  Libyan  Penuipolis.  The  testi- 
monies as  to  the  original  teaching  of 
Sabellius  are  too  early  and  express  to  be 
set  aside.  "He" (Sabellius)  "blasphemes," 
i^ays  Dionysius,  bishop  of  Rome,  in  the 
middle  of  the  third  century,  "saying  that 
the  Son  himself  is  the  Father,  and  rice 
j'f'/>v/."  (The  Epistle  of  Dionvsius  is  con- 
tained in  Athanas.  "De  Decret.  Nicen. 
Syn.-'  and  edit.'d  by  Routh,  "Rell.  Sacr." 
vol.  iii.  p.  .■i7.3  srtj.)  Xovatian,  another 
author,  nearly  coiitcniporniu'ous,  speaU's 
of  Rnbellius  as  one  "  who  calls  Christ  tlie 
Father"  (Novat.  "  De  Trin.''  c.  12). 
The  Macrostich,  a  Semiarian  creed  of  th(> 
Eusebians  (apud  Athanas.  "De  Synod." 
26),  refers  to  "those  whom  the  Latins  call 
the  Patripassiaiis  and  we  the  Sabellians." 
So  also  Athanasius,  iii.  ^IH :  and  Cardinal 
Newman  ("Oxford  Tran>lalion  ol'  St. 
Athanas."  p.  "(ilt)  quotes  on  tli'-  -  iini'  side 
Euseb.  "Eccl.  Theol."  i.  p.  IM  :  Kasil. 
E]).  210,  5:  Rufiu.  "In  Symb."  5; 
Ano-ust.  "Haer."  41;  Theodor.  "  Haer. 
Fab."  ii.  9). 

(2)  The  doctrine  of  the  Sabellians, 
and  perhaps  of  Sabellius  himself,  under- 
went a  complete  transformation,  and 
resolved  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity  into 
three  manifestations  of  God  to  man. 
It  was  dillicult  for  Sabellianism,  in  its 
original  form,  to  assume  even  the  ap- 
pearance of  conlormity  to  the  traditional 
teachin;:,  embodied  in  the  form  of  baptism, 
on  the  Holy  Ghost.  A  very  early  author, 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria  (apud  Euseb. 
"  n.  E."  vii.  6)  reproaches  the  Sabellians 
with  this  very  thing,  '•  that  they  had  no 
idea  of  the  Holy  Ghost"  {dvaia-Onaiav 
mil  ayiov  Trvevfiaros.)  It  was  conceivable 
that  the  Father  should  have  been  incarnate 
in  (Christ,  but  there  was  no  room  for  such 
.111  incarnation, and  therefore,  on  Sahellian 
principles,  for  a  real  existence  of  the  third 
Person  in  the  Trinily.  I  h  nee  Sabellius, 
or  at  least  the  Sabellians,  eaiiie  to  hold 
that  the  same  Person  is  the  Holy  Ghost, 
so  far  as  He  manifests  Himself  in  the 
Christian  Church,  and  by  parity  of 
reasoning  the  Son,  so  far  as  He  appeared 
iu  Christ.  The  same  Person  or  Hypostasis 


(so  Theodor.  "Haer.  Fab."  ii.  9,  reports 
the  doctrine  of  Sabellius)  was  Father 
when  He  gave  the  law,  Son  when  He 
became  flesh  in  Christ,  Holy  Ghost  when 
Tie  descended  on  the  Apostles,  being 
"  one  person  with  three  names "  (ef 
TpiMuv^ov  TTpocrwTrov).  He  compared  the 
three  nfjoa-onra  or  characters  of  God 
(Epiphan.  "  Hrer."  R2,  1)  to  the  spherical 
form,  light,  and  heat  of  the  one  sun. 
Such  late  authorities  are  not  decisive  for 
the  supposition  that  Sabellius  himself 
held  this  view,  Init  undoubtedly  the 
Sabellians  did.  Patripassianism  was  thus 
avoided  altogether;  but  on  the  other  hand 
tlie  Incarnation,  no  less  than  the  Trinity, 
was  in  eff'ect  denied,  for  the  manifestation 
of  God  in  Christ  could  differ  in  degree 
only,  and  not  in  kind,  from  His  union  with 
other  holy  men.  This  Sabellian  doctrine, 
which  takes  rrpocrcoTroj'  or  personn  in  its 
original  meaning  of  mask,  character,  &c., 
has  been  maintained  by  many  Protestant 
divines — e.g.  by  Archljishop  Whately  in 
his  "Logic."  It  is  of  course  completely 
incompatible  with  Catholic  belief,  and  is 
contrary,  e.g.,  to  the  first  chapter  of  St. 
John's  Gospel. 

(.3)  Closely  akin  to  the  later  Sabel- 
lianism is  the  doctrine  of  Marcellus  of 
Ancyra.  He  was  a  strenuous  defender  of 
the  Nicene  definition  against  the  Arians, 
and  this  and  the  obscurity  of  his  doctrine 
accoimt  for  the  fact  that  he  was  defended 
by  Pope  Julius,  the  Synod  of  Sardica,  and 
Athanasius  himself  (Athanas.  "  Apol.  c. 
Arian."  93,  .32;  "Ep.  ad  Monach.  et 
llist.  Arian."  6.)  He  made  the  .\oyos  a 
mere  attribute  of  God  like  the  reason  of' 
man,  manifesting  itself  in  the  creation,  iu 
the  Incarnation,  and  in  the  sanctification 
of  Christians.  (Theodor.  "Hjer.  Fab."  ii. 
10.)  In  Christ  the  Word  dwelt  with 
extraordinary  power,  to  retire  from  Him 
at  the  consummation  of  all  things,  when 
the  manhood  of  Christ  would  no  longer 
reign.  (Euseb.  "  Adv.  Marcell."  ii.  2-4 ; 
"Eccl.  Theol."  iii.  8-17.) 

(Newman,  "  Notes  on  Athanasius  "  ; 
Petavius,  "De  Trinitate";  Kuhn,  "Trini- 
tatslehre  " ;  DoUinger,  "  Hippolitus  and 
Callixtus.") 

SACKATVXETTTAX.S.  We  shall  show 
in  the  article  on  Sacraments  that  the 
word,  not  only  by  Fathers  like  St.  Augus- 
tine, but  even  by  mediajval  theologians, 
was  widely  used  for  the  most  sacred  and 
solemn  rites  of  the  Church.  We  have 
seen  that  St.  Augustine,  like  the  Roman 
Rituale  in  present  u^e,  called  the  salt  in 
baptism  a  sacrament  urn,  while  mediaeval 


SACRAMEXTARY 


SACR-UIEXTS  OF  NATURE  SOo 


^rriters  use  the  word  of  rnlijioui  profession, 
holy  water,  &c.  After  Peter  Lombard, 
when  the  use  of  the  word  and  its  defini- 
tion became  restricted  and  fixed,  the  name 
•"  sacramental was  given  to  rites  which 
have  some  outward  rest^mblance  to  the  sa- 
craments, but  which  are  not  of  divine  in- 
stitution. The  word  sacramental ia  <3ccurs 
in  the  "  Summa  "  of  St.  Thomas  (3,  q.  71, 
a.  3),  but  he  does  not,  so  far  as  we  know, 
enumerate  or  classify  them,  and  with 
him  sacramentalin  sterns  only  to  mean 
ceremonit  s  accompanying  the  sacraments. 

The  sacramentals  are  enumerated  in 
the  following  line — 

Orans,  tinctus.edens,  confessus,  dans,  beneUicens 

— i.e.  the  prayers  of  the  Church — above 
all  the  Lord's  prayer — and  alms  (how- 
ever, to  be  called  "  sacramentaLs,"  prayer 
must  be  said  or  the  alms  given  in  the 
name  of  the  Church  or  in  a  consecrated 
place;  otherwise,  as  Billuart  says,  they 
do  not  ditfer  from  other  good  works), 
blessed  bread,  the  confession  at  Mass  and 
in  the  Ofiice,  the  blessing  of  bishops  or 
-abbots,  holy  water  (with  which  we  may 
class  blessed  ashes,  candles,  palms,  &c.). 
If  the  sacramentals  are  used  with 
pious  dispositions  they  excite  increased 
fear  and  love  of  God,  detestation  of  sin, 
and  so,  not  in  themselves,  but  because  of 
these  movements  of  the  heart  towards 
God,  remit  venial  sius.  They  have  a 
special  etScacy,  bt-cause  the  Church  has 
blessed  them  with  prayer,  and  so  when,  e.g.,  j 
-a  person  takes  h•^ly  water,  accompanying 
the  outward  act  with  the  desire  that  God 
may  cleanse  his  heart,  the  prayer  of  the 
whole  Christian  people  is  joined  to  his 
own.  The  opinion  that  ••sacramentals"  re- 
mit venial  sin»  by  a  power  given  them  by 
God  over  and  above  the  good  dispositions 
with  which  they  are  used,  is  held  by  some, 
but  rejected  by  Juenin,  and  even  by 
Billuart,  as  destitute  of  warrant  in  Scrip- 
ture or  tradition. 

SACB.AMEWTA.RVrorZi'J^r.Sncra- 
ment'ji  um.)  A  book  containing  the  rites 
for  Mass  and  the  sacraments  generally — 
e.g.  Hilly  Orders,  Baptism,  &c. ;  also  for 
various  sacramental  rites — e.g.  dedication 
of  churches,  consecration  of  nuns,  vtc. 
It  is  represented  by  our  Missal,  Pontifical, 
and  Ritual.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Sacramentary  had  few  rubrics. 

An  imperfect  Roman  Sacramentary, 
without  Ordo  or  Can.m,  was  published 
by  Muratori  in  his  '•  Liturgria  Romana 
Vetus."    It  is  known  as  the  Leonine, 


though  some  of  the  Misuse  are  probably 
later  than  Leo  I.  The  Gelasian  Sacra- 
ment arv-  was  published  from  a  ninth-cen- 
tury MS,  in  the  Vatican  by  Cardinal 
Thomasius.  The  Gregorian  is  a  revision 
of  the  Gelasian  Sacramentary.  Three 
Galilean  Sacramentaries  (Missale  Gothi- 
cum,  Gallicum,  Franconmi)  were  pub- 
lished by  Thomasius,  and  reprinted  by 
Mabillon  and  Muratori.  Another  known 
as  B-jbbiense  was  discovered  by  Mabdlon 
at  Bobbio,  and  printed  by  him  in  his 
"Museum  Italicum."  (See  LrnTEGiES; 
Missii:  Oedo:  Rn3Rics."t 

SACBAMENTS  OP  NATTTSE 
AITD  OF  THE  JEWISH  CHTTSCH. 

If  we  define  a  sacrameut  as  •'  a  sign  of  a 
sacred  thing,  which  thing  sanctifies  men,"' 
we  are  able  to  include  the  sacraments  of 
nature,  the  old  law,  and  the  Christian 
Church  in  one  common  class.  All  are 
outward  signs :  all  were  instituted  by  God ; 
and  hence  distinguished  from  "sacra- 
mentals."  But  they  do  not  all  confer 
grace  ex  opere  operato.  It  was  the  pri- 
mary and  direct  object  of  the  Jewish 
sacraments  to  typify  the  mysteries  of  the 
Christ  who  was  to  come.  Moreover,  the 
grace  which  most  at  least  of  the  Jewish 
sacraments  efiected  was  not  grace  in  the 
proper  sense,  but  an  outward  and  legal 
status,  a  position  as  members  of  the 
Jewish  Church.  We  lay  down  these 
principles  provisionally,  for  there  is 
scarcely  a  question  in  theology  which  has 
occaslouei  a  greater  variety  of  opinion. 

The  existence  of  grace  given  by  sacra- 
ments before  Christ  does  not  seem"  to  have 
occurred  to  anyone  previous  to  St.  Augus- 
tine. H  is  clear  apprehension  of  the  doctrine 
of  original  sin  led  him  to  believe  that  some 
remedy  for  it  must  have  been  prescribed 
before  Christ  came,  and  this  remedy  he 
found  in  circumcision  ("  De  Nupt.  et 
Concupisc."  ii.  11;  "Adv.  Donat."  iv.  24"). 
This  explanation,  however,  did  not  touch 
the  case  of  children  bom  before  Abraham 
received  the  covenant  of  circumcisii-in. 
He  thinks  it  incredible  that  those  under 
the  law  of  nature  had  no  sacred  sign 
of  the  Mediator  [sacrament um)  by  which 
they  "helped  their  little  ones,"  though 
he  does  not  profess  to  know  what  this 
sign  was  ^"  Adv.  Julian."  v.  11).  Sub- 
sequent Latin  Fathers,  and  the  School- 
men generally,  adopted  St.  Augustine's 
I  theory,  and  the  term  "  sacraments  of  the 
old  law  "  has  l>.-en  adopted  by  the  Coun- 
cils of  Florence  and  Trent.  The  latter 
council  anathematises  (sess.  vii.  De  Sacr. 
can.  2)  the  view  of  Calvin  ("  Instit,"  iv. 


806   SACRAMENTS  OF  NATURE      SACRAMENTS  OF  TUE  GOSPEL 


14) '  that  there  is  uo  difierence  except  in  ' 
the  outward  rite  between  the  sacraments 
of  the  old  law  and  the  new ;  but  this  is 
all  the  Church  has  decided  in  the  matter. 
It  is  agreed  that  the  statement  of  Eugenius 
IV.  in  the  Council  of  Florence  ("  Instructio 
pro  Armen.") — viz.  that  the  sacraments  of  j 
the  old  law,  unhke  those  of  the  new,  did  ; 
not  confer  but  only  typified  grace — is  not 
a  definition  of  faith.    (See  Toumely,  "  De 
Sacr.  in  Gen."  qu.  3,  a.  3.) 

We  have  to  distinguish  between  the 
sacrament  or  sacraments  of  the  law  of 
nature  and  circumcision  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  many  sacraments  of  the  Mosaic 
law — e.g.  the  paschal  lamb,  the  ordination 
of  priests  and  Levites,  legal  purifications, 
&c. — on  the  other.  The  opinions  of  the 
School  divines  are  thus  given  by  Toumely. 
(1)  "With  regard  to  the  Mosaic  sacraments, 
excluding  circumcision.  The  Master  of 
the  Sentences  denied  that  anyone  was 
justified  by  them,  even  if  they  were  per- 
formed in  faith  and  charity.  Durandus 
believed  that  grace  was  given  by  some 
of  the  Mosaic  sacraments — at  least  by 
ordination  to  the  priesthood.  Hugo  of 
St.  Victor  and  Bonaventure,  followed  by 
Estius,  hold  that  the  old  sacraments  gave 
grace  ex  opere  operato,  not  indeed  in  them- 
selves and  primarily,  but  so  far  as  they 
were  signs  by  which  men  confessed  their 
faith  in  the  Redeemer.  St.  Thomas  and 
many  others  have  thought  that  the  sacra- 
ments of  the  old  law  gave  grace  not  ex 
opere  operato,  but  ex  opere  operantis~i.e. 
because  of  faitli  in  the  minister  and  reci- 
pient. (2)  As  to  circumcision.  The  Master 
of  the  Sentences,  Bonaventure,  and  many 
of  the  most  celebrated  Schoolmen — e.g. 
Alexander  of  Hales,  Scotus,  Durandus, 
held  that  circumcision  was  primarily 
and  directly  instituted  as  a  remedy  for 
original  sin,  and  of  itself  sufficed  to  re- 
move it.  We  may  notice  in  passing  that 
neither  Scripture  nor  Philo  and  Josephus, 
nor  the  Rabbins,  attribute  any  such  effi- 
cacy to  circumcision.  Lastly,  St.  Thomas 
holds  that  circumcision  did  indeed  remit 
sin  and  confer  grace,  not,  however,  in 
itself,  but  as  a  type  of  Christ's  Passion, 
the  faith  of  the  recipient  if  an  adult  being 
requisite,  and  in  the  case  of  an  infant  the 
faith  of  others  in  his  behalf.  On  these 
conditions  it  remitted  original  and  actual 
sin  if  the  latter  had  been  committed. 

'  He  of  course  admitted  this  difference,  that 
the  sacraments  of  the  old  law  shadowed  forth 
Christ  who  was  t(i  come,  while  those  of  the 
gospel  "bear  testimony  to  Him  as  already 
come." 


In  the  case  of  children  who  died  before- 
the  eighth  day  (or,  we  may  add,  of  female 
children)  he  suggests  that  some  other  sign 
of  faith  on  the  part  of  the  parents  sufficed. 
But  he  points  out  that  circumcision  did 
not,  like  baptism,  impress  a  character 
which  incorporates  a  man  with  Christ ; 
nor  did  it  give  a  title  to  the  immediate 
possession  of  heaven,  nor  bestow  such 
abundant  grace  as  baptism  (iii.  70,  4). 

SACRAmENTS  OF  THE  COSPEX.. 
1.  Definition  and  General  Opposition 
between  Catholic  and  Protestant  Doctrine. 
—The  Roman  Catechism  (P.  II.  cap.  i. 
n.  4),  following  the  Council  of  Trent 
(sess.  xiii.  cap.  3),  defines  a  sacrament 
as  "  a  visible  sign  of  invisible  grace  in- 
stituted for  our  justification."  There 
must  be  a  visible  sign.  Constantly,  in- 
deed, is  grace  bestowed  without  sign  at 
all ;  God  justifies  at  once  the  sinner  who 
turns  to  Him  with  sorrow  and  love,  and 
His  grace  is  continually  descending  on 
the  hearts  of  the  just,  but  in  all  these 
cases  there  is  no  sign,  and  therefore  no 
sacrament.  This  sign  is  efficacious — i.e. 
it  really  eS'ects  the  grace  which  it  signifies. 
Moral  and  spiritual  dispositions,  it  is 
true,  are  required  in  order  that  those  who 
have  come  to  the  use  of  reason  may 
receive  the  grace  of  the  sacraments ;  but 
these  dispositions  are  the  condition  and 
not  the  cause  of  grace ;  the  grace  given  is 
far  beyond  the  pious  feelings  which  the 
mere  sign  awakens,  and  herein  lies  the 
difference  between  sacraments  such  as 
baptism  and  sacramental  rites  instituted 
by  the  Church,  such  as  sprinkling  with 
holy  water.  Lastly,  it  is  beyond  the 
power  of  man  to  make  earthly  things  the 
channels  of  divine  grace ;  the  Churck 
may  bless  holy  water  and  hope  that  her 
prayers  for  those  who  use  it  wiU  be 
heard ;  she  cannot  make  water  "  the 
laver  of  new  birth."  Such  power  belongs 
to  Christ,  the  author  and  the  finisher  of  our 
salvation,  and  therefore  the  institutor  of 
the  sacraments. 

Very  different  was  the  Protestant 
doctrine  against  which  the  definitions  of 
Trent  were  framed.  According  to  the 
Lutherans,  the  sacraments  did  not  pro- 
duce grace,  but  were  pledges  and  seals  of 
God's  promises  to  us.  Thus  Melanchthon 
says,  God  invites  us  to  His  table  in  order 
to  remove  all  doubt  from  our  minds  that 
He  has  forgiven  us;  and  the  Augsburg 
Confession  describes  the  sacraments  as 
"signs  and  testimonies  of  God's  good  will 
towards  us."  Calvin's  teaching  is  sub- 
stantially the  same,  while  Zwingh  mad* 


SACRAMENTS  OF  THE  GOSPEL     SACRAMENTS  OF  THE  GOSPEL  807 


the  sacrament*  signs,  not  of  God's  fidelity, 
but  of  ours.  We  receive  the  sacraments 
to  show  that  we  believe:  they  are 
merely  the  badges  of  Christian  pro- 
fession. Several  consequ'-nces  followed 
from  the  Lutheran  definition.  It  became 
necessary  to  reduce  the  number  of  the 
sacraments,  for  it  could  not  be  said — e.g. 
of  man-iaje  and  holy  order — with  any 
show  of  reason  that  their  primary  and  ; 
direct  object  was  to  excite  faith.  Next,  ; 
the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  the  sacraments 
was  out  of  all  harmony  with  Lutheran 
belief  in  consubstantiation.  Why  should 
Christ  work  a  miracle  and  place  His  true 
body  and  blood  under  the  bread  and 
wine  if  He  did  but  mean  to  confirm  and 
renew  His  promises  ?  A  simple  feast  of 
bread  and  wine  received  in  His  name  and 
at  His  bidding  was  surely  enough,  and  so 
Luthers  doctrine  naturally  led  to  that  of 
the  Sacran^entarians,  which  he  so  bitterly 
opposed.  Further,  the  Anabaptists  were 
fully  justified  by  the  Lutheran  definition 
of  a'  sacrament  in  rejecting  infant  baptism, 
since  a  sacrament  cannot  possibly  excite  : 
faith  or  assurance  in  an  unconscious  child.  [ 
Equally  logical  were  the  Society  of 
Friends  and  other  small  sects  which 
abandoned  the  sacraments  entirely ;  the 
perfect  behever  might  fairly  plead  that  to 
him  God's  word  was  enough,  and  needed 
no  confirmation  by  outward  signs  or  seals. 
So  it  happened  that  while  the  Calvinists, 
Zwinglians,  Anabaptists, &c.,  advanced  on 
the  path  of  negation,  the  later  Lutherans 
retreated  and  almost  accepted  the  Catholic 
doctrine.  The  "  Apology  '"  admits  that  a 
"  promise  of  grace "  is  annexed  to  the 
sacraments  ("sacramenta  vocamus  ritus, 
qui  habent  maudatum  Dei  et  quibus 
addita  est  promissio  gratise."  For  refer- 
ences on  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
doctrine,  see  Mohler,  "  Symbolit,"  book 
i.  eh.  4). 

The  fact  is  that  the  difiFerences  be- 
tween Catholics  and  Protestants  on  the 
doctrine  of  the  sacraments  spring  from  the 
still  more  radical  difference  between  them 
on  redemption  and  justification.  The  Re- 
formers held  that  man's  nature  was  wholly 
and  incorrigibly  bad;  he  could  only  appro- 
priate Christ  by  faith  and  have  the  merits 
of  another  set  down  to  his  account.  The 
Church,  on  the  contrary,  teaches  that 
Christ's  grace  purities  man  within,  really 
makes  him  just,  and  ennobles  his  whole 
earthly  life  by  imparting  to  it  a  divine 
and  heavenly  character.  And  just  as 
Christ  appeared  in  flesh,  just  as  virtue 
went  forth  from  that  body  which  He 


took,  just  as  He  saved  us  by  that  blood 
which  He  willingly  shed  in  love  for  us, 
so  He  continues  to  make  sensible  things 
the  chunnels  of  that  grace  by  which  our 
lives  are  elevated  and  sanctified.  In 
baptism  we  are  bom  again  ;  in  confirma- 
tion we  grow  up  to  perfect  men  in 
Christ ;  communion  is  the  daily  bread  by 
which  the  life  of  the  soul  is  maintained  ; 
in  penance  God  "heals  the  soul  which 
has  sinned  against  Him  " ;  when  death  is 
near,  unction  comes  to  remove  the  last 
remnant  of  infirmity  and  prepare  the  soul 
for  fiual  glory.  But  man  has  a  social 
as  well  as  an  individual  nature.  Marriaire 
is  given  that  natural  impulses  which 
have  often  proved  the  source  of  corrup- 
tion and  crime  may  become  the  fountain 
of  blessing,  that  the  young  may  be 
brought  up  in  God's  love  and  fear,  and 
the  Church  be  the  fruitful  mother  of 
children.  Order  is  instituted  that  the 
Church  may  be  ruled  by  those  whom  God 
has  set  over  her,  may  be  fed  by  the  word 
of  life  and  with  the  other  sacraments, 
(St.  Thomas,  III.  qu.  Lxv.  a.  1.) 

(2)  The  Number  of  Sacraments. — We 
have  already  touched  on  this  division  of 
the  subject,  for  we  have  just  given  a 
rationale  of  the  Seven  Sacraments  from 
the  "  Summa  "  of  St.  Thomas.  The  Ca- 
tholic Church  has  defined  that  there  are 
seven  sacraments  of  the  new  law,  and 
seven  only.  That  there  are  seven  sacra- 
ments is  proved  by  the  arguments  given 
in  favour  of  each  from  Scripture  and  the 
perpetual  tradition  of  the  Church,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  as  we  shall  presently 
show,  there  is  no  other  rite  which  can 
claim  a  place  in  the  same  category. 
Again,  thdugh  it  is  quite  true  that  the 
enumeration  of  seven  sacraments  was  un- 
Icnown  for  nearly  twelve  centuries  of 
Church  history,  this  is  explained  by  the 
fact  that  the  word  sacramentiim  has  various 
senses,  and  till  its  sense  had  been  definitely 
fixed,  or  some  other  word  found  as  a  sub- 
stitute, the  enumeration  of  seven  sacra- 
ments was  impossible.  Indeed,  the  history 
of  this  enumeration  furnishes  an  argument 
on  our  behalf.  How  was  it  that  when 
once  Peter  Lombard  had  fixed  the  number 
and  names  of  the  seven  sacraments,  his 
view  was  at  once  and  universally,  or  all 
but  universally,  accepted  ?  The  answer 
is,  because  he  supplied  the  complete  and 
correct  formula  for  the  doctrine  which  the 
Church  already  held.  His  statement  came 
like  a  right  word  which  exactly  expresses 
a  man's  meaning,  but  which  he  has  been 
long  searching  for  in  vain.    Once  more» 


€08  SACRAMENTS  or  THE  GOSPEL     SACRAMENTS  OF  THE  GOSPEL 


tlie  Greeks  separated  from  the  Cjitliolic  '. 
Church  before  the  list  of  sacrameut:^  had 
been  made.  Yet  they,  too,  reached  the 
same  conclusion.  The  ■' Orthodox  Con- 
fession of  the  Eastern  Church,"  solemnly 
accepted  by  allthe  Eastern  patriarchs  and 
used  by  the  Russians,  gives  (ad  Qu.  97) 
the  number  of  sacraments  as  seven,  corre- 
sponding to  the  Seven  Gifts  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  names  the  same  seven  -which 
•we  confess  (Confirmation  Ix'ing  called  to 
fivpov  Tov  ;(pi'a-fi(iroy).  So,  too,  the  Con- 
fession of  Dositheus,  schismatical  patri- 
arch of  Jerusalem,  accepted  in  the  Coun- 
cil of  Jerusalem  in  1672,  declared  that 
there  vi-ere  seven  sacraments,  and  that 
it  was  a  si<rn  of  "  heretical  madness"  to 
say  there  were  more  or  less.  The  Pro- 
testant Confessions,  with  scarcely  an  ex- 
ception, deny  that  there  are  more  than 
two.  But  sucli  a  denial  had  never  been 
made  before,  except  by  some  of  the  me- 
diiBval  heretics,  .^ud  even  the  Protest- 
ants were  not  sure  of  their  ground.  The 
"  Apohipy ''  of  ;Melanchthon,  subscriljed 
by  the  chief  Lutherans,  acknowledges  that 
"  baptism,  the  supper,  and  absolution,  are 
three  true  sacraments."  And  it  adds  a 
fourth,  since  "  no  ditiiculty  need  be  made 
against  putting  Order  in  this  rank,  if  it  be 
taken  to  mean  the  ministry  of  the  Word, 
because  it  is  coumiauded  by  God  and 
lias  great  promi.-es  "  Confirmation  and 
Extreme  Unction  are  said  to  be  "  cere- 
monies received  by  the  Fathers,"  which 
Lave  no  express  promise  of  grace.  In 
Marriage  they  recognise  divine  institu- 
tions, but  with  promises  ol'  temporal  bles.s- 
ing  only.  "  As  if,''  says  Bossuet,  "  it  were 
a  temporal  tliinp  to  bring  up  children  of 
God  for  the  Church,  and  to  be  saved  by 
begetting  them  m  this  fashion  (1  Tim.  ii. 
15),  or  as  if  it  were  not  one  of  the  fruits 
of  Christian  marriagi^iocausethe  children 
born  in  it  to  be  called  holy,  as  being 
destined  for  sanctity  "  (Bossuet,  "  Varia- 
tions," livr.  iii.  cli.  nl). 

In  tracing  the  lii>ti'ry  of  the  numera- 
tion within  the  Church,  we  may  dis- 
tinguish four  diilerent  stages.  Till  about 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  we  find 
usually  two,  and  sometimes  three  rites 
placed  together  as  sacraments.  Tert  ullian, 
for  example,  speaks  in  the  same  place  of 
Baptism  and  the  Eucharist  ("  De  Corona," 
3),  and  he  calls  the  latter  a  "  sacramen- 
tum  " — though  nothing  can  be  made  of 
this,  for  he  uses  sacrament  ran  for  the 
oath  or  obligation  of  Christian  service, 
for  a  mystery,  and  for  a  sign  of  any 
iiind  which  conceals  a  sacred  meaning. 


This  use  of  the  words  sacrament um  and 
fxv(TTi)piov  is  common  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  Old  Latin,  the  Vulgate,  and  all 
the  Fathers,  and  is  stiU  retained  in  Greek 
and  Latin.  A  century  before,  Justin 
(1  Apol.  61  seq.)  had  explained  together 
the  two  sacraments  of  Baptism  and  the 
Eucharist,  and,  long  after,  Chry.sostom 
("In  Joann."  Hom.  84),  preaching  on 
the  water  and  blood  which  flowed  from 
Christ's  side,  said,  "Thence  the  sacra- 
ments [^vcrTr)p(a]  take  their  origin" — viz. 
Baptism  and  the  Eucharist — "  which  the 
initiated  know."  On  the  other  hand, 
Cyprian  (Ep.  73)  classes  Baptism  and 
Confirmation  ("  signaculum  dominicum  ") 
together,  clearly  making  each  a  chamiel 
of  sacramental  grace  in  the  strict  sense ; 
and  in  like  manuer  Pacian  ("De  Baptism." 
6)  speaks  of  the  sacrament  or  mystery  of 
tlie  laver  and  of  chrism  ("lavacriet  chris- 
matis  et  autistitis  sacramentum" — mean- 
ing only  two  rites,  not  three,  for  the 
action  of  the  prelate  is  common  to  b.itL 
sacraments.  Furtl^er,  Ambrose  ("  De 
Virgin."  cap.  10)  seems  to  attribute  a 
sacramental  efficacy  to  the  washing  of  the 
I'eet.  And  here  we  add,  for  the  sake  of 
convenience,  that  the  author  of  the  famous 
treatise  "De  Sacrameutis  "  (iii.  7),  long 
attributed  to  St.  Ambrose,  but  really 
written  in  our  second  period,  eagerly 
ado])t>  this  theory,  though  he  owns  the 
practice  of  the  Roman  Church  wa.s  against 
him. 

Augustine  sometimes  (see,e.y.,  "Contr. 
Faust."  xix.  14,"ProbaptismoChristi,pi-o 
eucharistia  Christi,  pro  signo  Christi  ") 
classes  Baptism,  Confirmation,  and  the 
Eucharist  together,  and  this  was  the  pre- 
vailing classification  down  to  the  end  of 
the  tenth  century.  Thus,  Isidore  of  Seville 
("Etymolog."  vi.  19)  writes,  "  X  sacra- 
mentinii  consists  in  a  certain  rite,  when  a 
thing  is  so  done  that  we  understand  some- 
thing to  be  signified  which  must  be  re- 
ceived with  holy  dispositions.  Now,  the 
sncramentn  are  baptism,  and  chrism,  the 
body  and  blood."  .\ytho,  bishop  of  Basle, 
in  his  capitulary:  "They  are  to  be  taught 
to  know  what  the  sacramentum  of  Bap- 
tism and  Confirmation  is,  and  of  the  Body 
of  the  Lord,  how,  in  these  same  mysteries 
\7nyste7-iiii\,  the  visible  creature  is  seen 
and  still  invisible  grace  is  supplied  for  the 
eternal  life  of  the  soul."  Rabanus  Maurus 
("  De  Univcrso,"  v.  11)  repeats  Isidore 
almost  verbally.  So  the  writers  of  this 
period  generally,  when  they  eimmerate 
the  sacramentn,  though  they  often  speak 
of  two  "principal  sacramenta"  two  which 


SACRAME^"rS  OF  THE  GOSPEL     SACRAMENTS  OF  THE  GOSPEL  809 


•flowed  from  the  side  of  Christ,  Szc,  &c. 
W  e,  of  course,  ky  no  stress  on  the  mere 
use  of  the  word  sacrameit/um,  else  we 
mi^ht  have  not  iced,  e.^r., that  St.  Augustine 
("t>e  Peccat.  et  Remiss."  ii.  2G;  "  De 
Catech.  Rud."  50)  calls  the  salt  in  baptism  I 
by  that  name.  | 

From  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  to  ] 
the  time  of  Peter  Lombard  (d.  1164),  we 
find  a  lonfr  list  of  siicramenta  in  vogue. 
Peter  Damian  (Serm.  69)  says  there  are 
"twelve  sacramenta  in  the  Church." 
Huiro  of  St.  Victor  ("De  Sacr."  ix.  7) 
•counts  (u)  two  necessary  sacramenta — viz.  ! 
Baptism  and  the  Eucharist ;  (/3)  sacra-  \ 
menta  useful  for  sanctification — e.g. 
spriukling  with  holy  water,  blessed  ashes, 
&c.,  &c. ;  (y)  those  which  prepare  us  for 
other  sacred  rites — e.g.  ordination,  &c. 
St  Bernard  (Serm.  "  La  Cojua  Domini  ") 
tells  his  hearers  there  are  many  sacra- 
menta, but  he  will  only  speak  then  of 
three — viz.  Baptism,  Eucharist,  and  the 
washing  of  feet. 

The  first  distinct  and  certain  mention 
of  seven  sacraments  occurs  in  Peter  Lom- 
bard ("  Seutent."  IV.  dist.  ii.).  "Let  us 
now  come  to  the  sacraments  of  the  new 
law,  which  are  seven  in  number."  It  has 
been  said  that  the  Master  of  the  Sentences 
was  anticipated  by  Otto  of  Bamberg,  the 
Apostle  of  Pomerania  (1124-i'S).  The 
question  is  of  little  moment,  but  the  state- 
ment rests  on  tlie  word  of  a  biogTapher, 
not  on  any  writing  of  Otto  himself.  A 
work  of  Hugo  of  St.  Victor,  often  referred 
to — viz.  "De  Caerimoniis  " — is  not  his,  but 
later  than  Peter  Lombard. 

To  sum  up:  in  the  earliest  ages.  Bap- 
tism and  the  Eucharist — the  two  sacra- 
ments most  clearly  and  directly  instituted 
by  Chi'ist  and  most  necessary  for  all — 
were  classed  together.  Then  Confirmation, 
long  given  along  with  Baptism,  was  added 
to  the  number.  Xe.xt — as  this  number  of 
three  did  not  seem  to  rest  on  any  fixed 
principle — various  writers  chose  various 
rites  of  the  Church  and  put  them  together 
under  the  common  name  of  sacraynenta. 
At  last,  theological  reflect  ion,  just  when 
systematic  theolngy  was  beginning  to  be, 
led  Peter  Lombard  to  the  conclusion 
that  there  were  seven  rites,  with  this  in 
common,  which  separated  them  from  all  ! 
others — viz.  that  they  were  the  ordained  ! 
means  of  grace.  lie  called  them,  and  | 
them  only,  sacraments.  The  Schoolmen 
at  once  perceived  the  accuracy  of  his 
doctrine  and  the  convenience  of  his 
nomenclature,  and,  finally,  the  number  of 
the  sacraments  was  defined  to  be  seven, 


in  1274,  at  the  Second  Council  of  Lyons 
("Prof.  Fidei  Mich.  Palajolog."),  at  Flo- 
rence ("Decret.  pro  Armen.")  and  under 
anathema  at  Trent  (Sess.  vii.  "  De  Sacr." 
c.  1). 

(3)  The  Matter  and  Form  of  the  Sacra- 
me7its. — Eugeuius  IV.  ("Instr.  pro  Ar- 
men."') states  that  the  sacraments  are 
etlected  by  the  things  which  stand  for  the 
matter  ("  tanquam  materia"),  by  the  words 
which  stand  for  the  form,  and  by  the  per- 
son of  the  minister  ;  and  that  if  any  one 
of  these  three  things  be  wanting,  there  is 
no  sacrament.  The  terms  "  matter  "  and 
"  form "  are  borrowed  from  Aristotle, 
matter  being  the  indeterminate  element 
which  form  stamps  with  a  definite  cha- 
racter. Thus,  water  may  be  used  for  the 
washing  of  the  body,  as  drink,  and  for  a 
thousand  other  ends.  But  when  the 
minister,  as  he  S])rinkles  the  water  on  the 
catechumen,  adds  the  words,  "I  baptise 
thee,"  Sic,  the  end  and  meaning  of  his 
action  is  apparent,  and  we  have  the  three 
constituents  of  the  sacrament — viz.  the 
person  of  the  minister,  the  washing  with 
water,  which  is  the  matter,  and  the  words, 
which  are  the  form.  The  special  diffi- 
culties about  the  matter  and  form  of  par- 
ticular sacraments — e.g.  Penance,  Oriler, 
Marriage,  &c. — have  been  discu-sed  under 
these  titles  ;  but  we  may  sa^-iu  this  place 
that  theologians  distinguish  a  double 
matter  in  the  Eucharist.  While  that 
sacrament  is  being  produced,  the  matter 
is  bread  and  wine;  after  consecration  the 
matter  consists  in  the  outward  ajipearances 
or  accidents  of  bnad  and  wine.  The 
difficulty  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
Eucharist,  unlike  all  the  other  sacraments, 
continues  to  exist  after  the  words  have 
been  spoken.  Its  duration  isnot  transitory 
but  permanent,  so  long  as  the  specie's 
last. 

This  terminology  began  with  the 
Aristotelian  or  Scholastic  theologians. 
It  is  unknown,  says  Juenin  (diss.  1. 
cap.  2),  not  only  to  the  Fathers,  but  to 
Lanfrunc,  Anselm,  Bernard,  Hugo  of  St. 
Victor,  and  Peter  Lombard,  all  of  whom 
wrote  formal  treatises  on  the  sacraments, 
and  it  first  appears  in  William  of  Auxerre 
about  1215.  In  early  times,  the  "  form  " 
of  a  sacrament  means  something  quite 
difl'erent— viz.  the  whole  rite.  The  Fa- 
thers commonly  distinguish  between  the 
"  sign,"  which  includes  both  matter  and 
form,  and  the  invisible  thing,  between 
"things"  and  "  words"  and  between  the 
sacramentum,  which  includes  all  the 
outward  part,  and  the  res  sacratnenti, 


m  SACEAMEXTS  OF  THE  GOSPEL     SACRAMEXTS  OF  THE  GOSPEL 


tlie  invisible  part.  This  last  distiuction 
is  of  capital  moment  for  the  right  under- 
standing of  patristic  texts. 

The  Council  of  Trent  defines  that 
though  the  Church  may  change  rites  and 
ceremonies,  it  cunnot  alter  the  "  suh- 
stance  "  of  the  sacraments.  This  follows 
from  the  very  nature  of  a  sacrament.  I 
The  matter  and  form  have  no  power  in 
themselves  to  give  gxace.  This  power 
depends  solely  on  the  will  of  God,  who  ■ 
hiis  made  the  grace  promised  depend  on  : 
the  use  of  certain  things  and  words,  so  j 
that  if  these  are  altered  in  their  essence 
the  sacrament  is  altogether  absent.  The  | 
custom  of  the  Church  in  dilferent  ages 
and  countries  shows  that  the  form  is  not 
fixed  in  its  particular  words.  It  is  often 
very  hard  to  determine  what  change  in 
the  form  would  render  the  sacrament  in- 
valid. Common  sense  makes  the  decision 
turn  to  a  great  extent  on  the  intention 
with  which  the  change  is  made.  Thus 
to  baptise  "in  the  name  of  the  Father, 
the  S(in,  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Blessed 
Virgin,"  would  always  show  gross  igno- 
rance or  gross  perversity ;  but  if  the  inten- 
tion were  to  baptise  in  the  name  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  as  if  she  were  one  of  the 
divine  Persons,  or  as  if  her  name  were 
operative  in  the  sacrament,  the  baptism 
would  be  null  (St.  Thomas,  HI.  qu.  Ix. 
a.  8). 

"V\  e  first  hear  of  a  conditional  form 
("I  do  not  rebaptise  thee,  but  if  thou 
art   not,"  &c.)  in   the  Capitularies  of 
Charlemagne  (lib.  vi.  cap.  181,  quoted 
by  Jueniu).    The  expediency  of  express- 
ing a   condition   was   not   universally  ; 
admitted  till  it  was  approved  by  Gregory 
IX.  ("  Extra,  de  Baptism."  cap.  2,  apud 
eundem).  Till  about  I'iOO  the  conditional  [ 
form  was  only  used  in  the  three  sacra- 
ments which  imprint  character  (Juenin, 
i.  a.  2).    Even  now  it  is  not  usual  to  , 
express  the  condition  in  the  other  sacra-  J 
ments,  and  a  sacrament  must  never  be  j 
reiterated  under  condition  expressed  or  j 
implied,  unless  the  minister,  after  diligent  t 
examination,  is  unable  to  satisfy  himself 
as  to  the  validity  of  the  previous  act. 

(4)  The  Author  of  the  Sacraments. — 
The  Council  of  Trent  defines  that  the 
seven  sacraments  were  all  instituted  by 
Christ  Himself,  and  this  for  a  rea.son 
already  given.  But  the  Council  does  not 
say  that  Christ  instituted  them  directly 
and  immediately.  Some  of  the  older  ' 
Scholastics  held  that  some  sacraments 
wereinstitutedby  the  Apostles.  Tournely  i 
quotes,  for  this  opinion,  Peter  Lombard  i 


("  IV.  Sent."  dist.  23),  Hugo  of  St, 
Victor  ("  De  Sacr."  ii.  2),  St.  Bonaven- 
ture  ("In  Lib.  IV.  Sentent."  ad  dist.  17, 
a.  1,  qu.  3),  and  Alexander  of  Hales 
("  Summa,"  p.  iv.  qu.  24,  1),  the  last  of 
whom  believed  that  Confirmation  was 
instituted  in  84o  at  the  Council  of  Meaux. 
This  last  opinion  must  certainly  be 
rejected.  But  although  Tournely  holds 
it  to  be  "  true  and  certain  "  that  Christ 
immediately  and  directly  instituted  each 
of  the  sacraments,  he  by  no  means  agrees 
with  Becanus,  Bellarmine,  and  Vasquez 
in  accepting  this  as  an  article  of  faith  or 
considering  that  it  is  now  heresy  to  attri- 
bute the  institution  of  some  sacraments 
to  the  Apostles,  acting  with  power  granted 
them  by  our  Lord.  He  quotes,  on  his 
own  side,  these  "  most  grave  theolo- 
gians" Sotus  and  Estius,  the  former  of 
whom  was  a  leading  theologian  at  Trent. 
Indeed,  Estius  goes  further  t  han  Touniely, 
for  he  is  inclined  to  admit  that  something 
may  be  said  for  each  opinion — that  of 
.St.  Bonaventure  and  that  common 
among  Post-Tridentine  theologians — 
though  more  for  the  latter  ("  ut  aliquid 
prol)abilitatis  habeat,  majori  tameu  pro- 
babilitate  diversse  sententise  superatur  "). 
Juenin  likewise  denies  that  the  immediate 
institution  by  Christ  is  of  faith.  Billuart 
tends  the  other  way,  but  speaks  doubt- 
fully. 

(5)  The  Minister  of  the  Sacraments. — 
Little  need  be  said  here  about  the  per- 
sonal holiness  required  in  the  dispensers 
of  the  mysteries  of  Christ.  "  Holy  things 
are  to  be  handled  in  a  holy  manner,"  and 
the  minister  is  guilty  of  sacrilege  if  he 
confers  the  sacrament  on  others  while  he 
himself  is  at  enmity  with  God.  But  at 
the  same  time  the  Church  held  against 
the  Donatists  that  the  validity  of  the 
sacraments  does  not  depend  on  the  worthi- 
ness of  the  minister,  since  in  any  case 
Christ  is  always  present  as  the  invisible 
dispenser  of  grace.  A  person  may  even 
be  ju-tified  in  seeking  the  sacraments 
from  one  whom  he  knows  to  be  unworthy, 
if  he  cannot  obtain  them  otherwise. 
Neither  schism  nor  heresy  deprives  a 
man  of  the  power  of  Holy  Order  (see 
Oebeks,  Holy).  But  a  great  difiiculty 
remains.  The  Council  of  Trent  (sess. 
vii.  De  Sacr.  can.  11)  requires  us  to 
believe  that  the  minister  of  the  sacra- 
ments must  have  '•  the  intention  of  doing 
that  at  least  which  the  Church  does." 
This  definition  ha.s  been  the  occasion  of 
much  controversy  within  and  without 
the  Church.    Protestants  have  attacked 


SACRAMENTS  OF  THE  GOSPEL     SACRAMENTS  OF  THE  GOSPEL  811 


it  as  making  the  effect  of  the  sacraments 
uncertain.  Catholics  hare  interpreted  it 
Tariously. 

Intention  is  "an  act  of  the  will,  by 
which  a  man  chooses  a  particular  thing." 
This  intention  may  be  actual — i.e.  present 
at  the  time ;  habitual— once  present 
and  never  recalled,  but  not  actually 
present,  or  even  present  in  effect ;  virtual 
— i.e.  once  present  and  still  surviving  as 
the  cause  or  motive  of  a  man's  acts.  Thus, 
if  I  make  up  my  mind  to  take  a  journey, 
my  intention  is  actual ;  I  set  out  and 
continue  walking,  though  the  purpose  is 
not  at  the  moiiit-ut  present  to  my  mind, 
then  my  intention  is  virtual.  I  make  up 
my  mind  to  take  a  journey  next  day,  and 
meantime  go  to  bed;  while  I  am  asleep 
my  intention  is  habitual.  All  theologians 
agree  that  a  virtual  intention  is  needed 
for  the  validity  of  the  sacraments.  St. 
Thomas,  indeed,  pronounces  an  habitual 
intention  enough,  but  only  because 
habitual  meant  then  what  virtual  meant 
later. 

So  far  aU  is  plain.  But  what  must 
the  object  of  my  intention  be  ?  Several 
answers  are  conceivable.  The  minister 
(a)  may  intend  to  perform  the  outward 
rite,  but  as  an  open  mockery,  or  as 
•children  might  do  in  play,  actors  on  the 
stage,  &c.  (3)  He  may  intend  to  perform 
the  outward  rite  seriously,  (y)  He  may 
intend  to  confer  the  grace  of  the  sacra- 
ment, to  regenerate,  e.y.,  the  child  whom 
he  baptises,  &c.  The  first  and  third 
solutions  are  inadmissible.  A  perform- 
ance of  the  sacramental  rite  in  open 
mockery  is  allowed  by  all  to  be  invalid, 
and  on  the  other  side,  no  one  doubts  that 
an  infidel  or  Calvinist  may  baptise,  or,  if 
he  is  a  priest,  may  say  Mass,  anoint,  &c., 
&c.,  validly.  "We  will  give  the  words  of 
Tonmely  ("  De  Sacr."  qu.  vi.  a.  1) : 
"  "VMiatever  a  man's  opinion  may  be 
about  the  sacrament,  its  effect  and  end, 
or  about  the  Church  itself,  whether  he 
rejects  all  these  things  or  admits  them, 
makes  no  dili'-rence  to  the  substance  of 
the  sacrament."  "He  need  not  intend 
to  produce  the  effect  of  the  sacrameat  or 
to  perform  the  rite  of  the  Church  as  a 
sacrament,  or  to  do  what  the  Catholic 
and  Roman  Church  does ;  it  is  enough 
that  he  should  intend  in  some  general 
way  to  do  what  the  Church  does,  what- 
ever his  notion  about  the  Church,  the 
sacrament,  its  effect  and  object  may  be."' 
Unless  the  Church  held  this,  she  would 
not,  as  she  certainly  does,  recognise  the 
validity  of  many  sacraments  given  by 


heretics,  infidels,  and  even  Pagans.  Pro- 
testants sometimes  urge  that  bishops 
have  been  secret  infidek,  Jews,  &c.,  and 
that  therefore  on  Catholic  principles  the 
orders  and  other  sacraments  given  by 
them  must  have  been  invalid ;  but  it  is 
evident  that  they  have  utterly  failed  to 
grasp  what  the  doctrine  of  intention,  as 
held  by  any  Catholic,  is. 

But  is  it  enough  for  validity  if  the 
minister  merely  perform  the  external  rite 
in  a  serious  manner,  even  if  internally  he 
withhold  his  intention — i.e.  even  if  from 
malice  or  impiety  he  says  to  himself,  "  I 
don't  mean  to  act  as  the  minister  of  the 
Church,  I  don't  intend  to  baptise,  con- 
secrate, or  the  like,  but  merely  to  deceive 
the  people  "  ?  VTe  follow  the  opinion  of 
those  who  answer  in  the  affirmative,  and 
we  give  our  reply  in  the  words  of  Bossuet 
("  Sententia  Episcopi  Meldensis,  on  the 
*  Cogitationes  Privatae  '  of  Leibnitz  ''). 
"It  is  a  most  common  opinion  among 
Catholics  that  the  intention  necessary  for 
the  validity  of  the  sacraments  consists  in 
this — viz.  the  will  on  the  part  of  the 
minister  seriously  to  perform  the  rites 
prescribed  by  the  Church,  and  to  do 
nothing  which  is  calculated  to  show  a 
contrary  intention,  which  intention  he 
himself"  cannot  make  void  by  any  secret 
intention  whatsoever."  This  clear  ex- 
planation removes,  as  we  believe,  every 
diiSculty.  The  people  are  in  no  posiible 
danger  of  deception.  The  serious  per- 
formance of  the  exterior  rite  is  all  that 
is  required.  The  difficulty  that  there  is 
no  mention  of  the  necessity  of  intention 
in  Scripture  or  tradition  falls  to  the 
ground.  The  sacraments  are  to  be  given 
iby  men — by  men  acting,  in  St.  Paul's 
words,  as  the  ministers  of  Christ  and 
dispensers  of  the  mysteries  of  God  (1  Cor. 
iv.  1).  We  only  ask  that  they  be  given 
by  conscious,  human  action.  For  example, 
in  some  Masses  the  words  of  consecra- 
tion occur  in  the  Gospel,  while  the  bread 
and  wine  are  on  the  altar.  Will  any 
one  maintain  that  the  consecration  takes 
place  there  and  then  ?  Does  anyone 
suppose  that  the  ancient  Church  thought 
so  F  Scarcely.  Yet,  if  not,  then  the 
ancient  Church  admitted  the  whole  doc- 
trine of  intention  which  every  Catholic  is 
bound  to  maintain. 

This  opinion  which  we  have  been  de- 
fending was  propounded  by  Catharinus, 
a  Dominican  theologian  present  at  the 
very  session  in  which  the  doctrine  of  in- 
tention was  defined.  Some  time  after 
the  definition  the  work  of  Catharinus  was 


812  SACRAME^'TS  OF  THE  GOSPEL     SACEAMENTS  OF  THE  GOSPEL 


reprinted  at  Rome  in  15o2  by  Baldu?, 
printer  to  the  Apostolic  Chamber.  (So 
Tonrnely.)  Cardinal  Pallavicino,  in  his 
"  History  of  the  Council,"  ix.  6,  allows 
that  the  Fathers  of  Trent  did  not  suspect, 
much  less  condemn,  the  doctrine  of 
Catharinus.^  The  great  Jesuits  Salmeron 
and  Becanus,  and  the  celebrated  Domini- 
can Contenson,  espoused  it.  So  in  the 
last  century  did  the  learned  Oratorian 
Juenin.  It  was  defended  in  the  Sorbonne 
in  1685  by  Harlai,  afterwards  archbishop 
of  Purls.  "We  have  seen  how  Bossuet 
speaks  of  it.  It  has  never  been  censured 
by  any  competent  authority,  for  a  propo- 
sition condemned  before  Alexander  VIII. 
by  the  Roman  Inquisition  in  1690  was, 
as  Juenin  shows,  quite  diiferent.  F. 
Ryder,  in  his  recent  book  on  "  Catholic 
Controversy,"  admits  that  the  question  is 
still  quite  open,  though  he  himself  holds 
the  contrary  opinion.  It  is  quite  true 
that  the  majority  of  school  theologians 
believe  that  secret  withholding  of  the 
intention  is  enough  to  invalidate  the 
sacrament.  Our  objection  to  this,  the 
common  theory,  is  grounded,  not  so  much 
on  the  diflieulties  which  follow  from  it, 
as  on  the  fact  that  its  advocates  can 
adduce  no  proof  from  Scripture  or  tradi- 
tion (neither  Billuart  nor  even  Tournely 
gives  a  single  argument  from  the 
Fathers  while  we  fail  to  see  the  force 
of  the  argument  from  reason.  Reason 
no  doubt  requires  us  to  look  on  the  valid 
administration  of  the  sacraments  as  a 
human  act  distinguislxed  by  the  outward 
circumstances  from  possible  combinations 
of  the  same  words  and  acts  which  have 
no  sacramental  character.  But  this  does 
not  carry  us  beyond  the  opinion  of 
Catharinus  and  others  whom  we  follow. 

(6)  The  Snhject  or  Suscipient  of  the 
Sacraments. — The  sacraments  are  meant 
for  the  whole  race  of  mankind ;  but  in 
ordpr  that  they  may  be  received  with 
profit  by  adults,  certain  dispositions  are 
indispensable.  To  the  sacraments  of  the 
dead — i.e.  Baptism  and  Penance— the  re- 
cipient must  come  at  least  with  faitli  and 
hope,  sorrow  for  sin,  and  purpose  of 
amendment ;  the  sacraments  of  the  living 

1  The  doctrine  condemned,  as  Pallavicino 
shows,  was  that  of  Luiher — viz.  that  a  sacra- 
ment given  in  open  mockery  (con  modo  aper- 
tamente  heffaturt  e  giocnsn')  is  valid. 

^  luniicent  III.  is  the  cirliest  authority  they 
quote.  Their  te.xt  from  St.  Paul  certainly 
finivcs  the  necessity  of  intention,  but  only  as 
Catharinus  understood  it.  For  a  priest  who 
behaves  with  exterior  seriousness  always  acts 
as  a  minister  of  Christ. 


— i.e.  the  other  five — must  be  received  by 
tliose  who  are  already  in  the  grace  and 
love  of  God,  the  living  membersof  Christ.' 
Otherwise  the  sacraments  only  add  to  the 
condemnation  of  those  who  receive  them. 
As  regards  mere  validity,  the  sacrament 
of  the  Eucharist  is  always  the  same,  in 
whatever  state  it  is  received,  because  in 
any  case  it  remains  the  true  body  and 
blood  of  our  Saviour.  In  order  that  the 
other  sacraments  may  be  valid,  some  in- 
tention is  necessary  on  the  part  of  the 
recipient  as  well  as  of  the  minister.  But 
whereas  the  latter  must  have  an  actual 
or  virtual  intention,  it  suffices  for  the 
validity  of  Baptism,  Confirmation,  Pen- 
ance, and  Extreme  Unction  if  they  are 
received  with  an  habitual  or  interpreta- 
tive intention  of  accepting  the  rite  of  the 
Church.  This  is  plain  from  decisions  of 
early  councils.  For  example,  the  First 
I  Council  of  Orange  in  442  (c.  12)  ordains 
j  that  Baptism  or  Penance  may  be  given 
[  to  a  man  who  has  fallen  into  phrensy. 
At  the  time,  he  has  no  intention  of  re- 
ceiving the  sacrament,  but  he  is  to  receive 
it,  so  the  council  directs,  if  others  give 
"  testimony  to  his  past  desire."  There  is 
a  special  difficulty,  however,  wnth  regard 
to  Penance,  for  many  theologians,  be- 
lieving that  sorrowful  confession  by  word 
or  other  sensible  sign  is  the  matter  of  the 
sacrament,  are  obliged  by  their  theory  to 
hold  that  the  actual  presence  of  some 
such  sign  is  always  necessary  for  the 
validity  of  absolution.  The  Scotists,  who 
make  absolution  both  the  form  and  matter 
of  Penance,  are  able  to  consider  the  mere 
desire  of  absolution  in  the  past  enough, 
even  if  the  penitent  is  unable  to  express 
it  ever  so  indistinctly  at  the  moment. 
Again,  the  mere  purpose  of  living  a 
Christian  life  involves  the  intention  re- 
quisite for  Baptism,  Confirmation,  and 
Extreme  Unction.  It  is  diff"erent  with 
Matrimony  and  Holy  Order,  states  of 
life  the  desire  of  which  is  no  way  implied 
in  the  general  resolve  to  live  like  a 
Christian ;  and  it  is  usually  said  that  a 
definite  desire  is  also  needed  for  Penance 
(so  Billuart,  "De  Sacr."  diss.  vi.  a.  1). 
We  have  the  same  disputes  here  as  in 
the  previous  section  on  the  necessary  ob- 
ject of  the  intention.  The  common  opinion 
IS  that  it  must  be  an  internal  one  of  re- 
1  Accidentally,  however,  the  sacraments  of 
the  living  may  restore  a  soul  to  the  grace  of 
God  ;  e.g.  if  a  person  has  attrition — i.e.  sorrow — 
for  his  mortal  sins,  which  is  supernatural,  but 
iinperlect,  and  a  firm  purpose  of  amendment, 
believing  erroneously,  but  in  good  faith,  that  he 
is  already  justified. 


SACllAMENTS  OF  THE  GOSPEL 


SACEIFICE 


813 


ceMng  the  sacred  rite;  while  Juenin 
thinks  it  likely  that  a  man  "  who  with- 
held his  intention,"  and  did  but  mean  to 
submit  to  the  rite  with  external  serious- 
ness, would  still  receive  it  validly.  The 
whole  doctrine  of  intention  on  the  part 
of  the  recipient,  interpret  it  as  we  will,  is 
not  without  historical  difficulties.  His- 
tory furnishes  several  instances  in  early 
times  of  men  ordained,  and  supposed  to  be 
validly  ordained,  iu  spite  of  their  struggles 
and  resistance.  Generally,  it  may  be  said 
that  such  persons  did  give  a  final,  though 
reluctant,  consent ;  and  Augustine  speaks 
("  Ad  Bonat."  Ep.  173)  of  those  who  were 
made  bishops  after  being  imprisoned  and 
severely  handled,  "  until  they  consented 
to  undertake  a  good  work."  No  such  ex- 
planation will  fit  the  ca.se  of  the  hermit 
Macedonius,  concerning  whom  Theodoret 
("Hist.  Relig."  cap.  13)  relates  that  he 
was  ordained  priest  by  the  celebrated 
Flavian  without  the  least  knowledge  of 
what  was  going  on,  and  was  furious  when 
he  learnt  what  had  occurred.  The  only 
answer,  so  far  as  we  can  see,  is  to  say 
that  Flavian  was  mistaken,  and  the  ordi- 
nation good  for  nothing.  It  may  be 
asked  wherein  does  the  vaUdity  of  a 
sacrament  consist  if  no  inward  grace  ac- 
companies the  outward  sign  ?  We  reply, 
first,  that  three  sacraments  confer  cha- 
racter which  is  always  bestowed,  even  if 
no  grace  accom])any  it ;  and,  next,  that 
Baptism  certainly,  Confirmation,  Order, 
Marriage,  Extreme  Unction  probably, 
confer  grace  which  revives  when  tlie 
recipient  enters  into  due  dispositions, 
even  if  hi.<  malice  impeded  the  grace  at 
the  time  they  were  received.  Some  even 
suppose  that  this  holds  good  of  Penance 
and  a  few  of  the  Eucharist.  (Liguor. 
"Tlieol.  Moral."  vi.  Tract,  i.  cap.  1.) 

(7)  The  Grace  of  the  Saerainents  is 
twofold.  They  increase  that  sanctifying 
grace  which  is  the  supernatural  life  of 
the  soul,  and  they  bestow  a  sacramental 
grace — i.e.  one  which  is  special  and 
singular,  and  proper  to  each  sacrament. 
A  person,  e.g.,  who  receives  Confirmation 
worthily  obtains  besides  the  character 
and  the  increase  of  sanctity  a  title  to 
special  assistance  from  God  when  he  is 
tempted  to  forsake  the  faith,  has  occa- 
sion to  confess  it  by  word  or  deed,  &c. 
The  Thomist  opinion  is  that  the  sacra- 
ments cause  grace  physically,  which 
means,  not  of  course  that  sensible  things 
have  power  in  themselves  to  produce  it, 
but  that  they  become  instruments  in  the 
almighty  hand  of  God.     A   brush  is 


powerless  to  paint  a  picture,  but  it  is  the 
instrument  of  painting  in  the  artist's 
hand.  The  Scotists  look  on  the  sacra- 
ments as  merely  moral  causes  of  grace. 
T\'hen  the  outward  signs  are  present  and 
the  other  conditions  fulfilled,  then  God 
directly  and  without  any  instrumentality 
of  the  sacraments  infuses  grace.  Each 
opinion  has  found  many  advocates  outside 
of  the  Thomist  and  Scotist  schools. 

(It  would  be  vain  to  attemjjt  a  list  of 
writers  on  the  sacraments,  which  would 
be  in  fact  a  list  of  nearly  all  Catliolic 
theologians.  But  we  would  call  particu- 
lar attention  to  the  excellent  work  of  the 
French  Oratorian  Juenin,  "  Commen- 
tarius  Historicus  et  Dog-maticus  de  Sacra- 
mentis"  [Lyons,  17 17^  We  have  also 
derived  great  assistance  from  a  learned 
treatise  of  the  Protestant  Hahn,  "De 
Xumero  Sacramentorum  Septenario  ra- 
tlones  historic^  "  [Breslau,  1850].  The 
references,  as  the  writer  of  this  article 
knows  by  painTul  experience,  are  fre- 
quently inaccurate,  ami  the  general 
statements  require  sifting,  but  the  work 
is  one  of  learning  and  merit,  and  much 
may  be  learnt  from  it.  Chardon's 
"  Histoire  des  Sacrements  "  [Paris,  1745] 
has  no  treatise  on  the  sacraments  In 
general.  But  we  take  thi>  opportunity 
of  expressing  our  groat  obligations  to  this 
admirable  work.  Gibbon — we  quote  from 
memorj' — eulogises  it  as  containing  all 
that  can  be  known  on  the  subject,  and 
this  praise  is  due.  The  author  was  one  of 
the  most  learned  men  in  the  Benedictine 
Congregation  of  VaTuies.) 

SACRE  ciEVR.  This  cloistered 
order  of  nuns  was  founded  at  Paris  in 
1800  by  Fr.  Varin  (afterwards  well  known 
in  the  .^ocii'ty  of  .Tpsii~)  and  Madame 
Barat.  'V\iv]v  mam  nlijrct  is  tlie  educa- 
tion of  girls  wlio.-f  ]i:ii  i'nt<  are  in  easy  or 
wealthy  ciicuiiisl  aiu  i  -  They  have  four 
houses  in  liiii^laiid  and  as  many  in  Ire- 
land, the  cliit'f  \\vAivj:  llorhani]iton  in  one 
country  and  Roscrea  in  the  other. 

SACRED  HEART.     [See  HeAET.] 

SACRIFICE.  In  this  article  we 
confine  oiir-.  l\ .  .V  to  tln'  theological  notion 
of  Sacnticf,  without  -olng  into  its  Bibli- 
cal lii^Iorv.  .'-^acTitife  is  an  act  of  external 
wor>hi|)  in  wliieh  (4o<l  is  honoured  as  the 
Principle  and  End  of  man  and  all  things,  by 
the  oblation  of  a  visible  creature,  by  sub- 
mitting it  to  an  approjiriate  transformation 
by  a  (iul\-  i|iialifif(l  niini>ter.  The  term 
sacrific  e  is  also  (niefa]iliorically)  applied  to 
internal  acts  by  which  man  devotes  him- 
self to  the  service  of  God  through  either 


814  SACRIFICE 


SAINTS 


"reforming  or  giving  up  his  life"  for  ] 
Him.  No  external  sacrifice  is  perfect 
■without  sucli  internal  acts,  whereby  the 
soul  associates  itself  with  the  meaning 
and  object  of  the  external  rite.  This 
object  is  that  of  practical  religion  in 
general,  viz.  practically  to  recognise  and 
profess  our  dependence  on  God  as  regards 
our  existence  and  our  ultimate  happiness. 
Some  post-Tridentine  theologians  have  uar-  j 
rowed  the  idea  of  sacrifice  into  the  expres-  I 
sion  of  God's  dominion  over  life  and  death, 
or  of  the  Divine  Majesty  as  exalted  above 
all,  and  its  primary  object  into  atonement 
for  sin.  Liliewise,  the  external  form  of 
sacrifice— an  appropriate  transformation 
of  the  creature  nflered — has  been  limited 
hy  ^^asquez  and  his  followers  to  a  "  trans-  ; 
formation  by  destruction."  Neither  his- 
torical nor  docirinal  grounds  can  justify 
these  limitations,  unknown  to  the  leathers 
and  earlier  theologians.  (See  St.  Augus-  I 
tine,  "De  Civ.  Dei,"  Ix.  c.  C:  "  Verum  sac- 
rificium  est  omne  opus  quod  agitur  ut 
mnrta  societate  inhcereamus  Deo"  &c., 
St.  Thomas,  2»  2®,  q.  Ixxxv.  and  the 
collection  of  definitions  in  Tanner  in 
oam  Ota,  disp.  V.  q.  8,  dub.  1.)  The  burn- 
ing of  incense,  Ova-la,  which  has  furnished 
the  Greek  name  for  all  sacrifices,  is  not 
so  much  a  destruction  of  the  incense  as 
its  conversion  into  "an  odour  of  sweet- 
ness," the  symbol  of  the  soul  transformed 
by  the  fire  of  divine  charity.  In  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  "  the  immutatio,"  as 
the  Fathers  technically  call  the  sacrificial 
act,  is  not  the  destruction  but  the  produc- 
tion of  the  victim.  Similar  remarks 
apply  to  all  sacrifices.  (See  Scheeben, 
"  Dogmatilv,"  book  v.  n.  1425  scq.,  where 
the  subject  is  fully  developed.) 

A  lawfully  appointed  minister  is  neces- 
sary for  public  sacrifice  in  thi'  name  of 
the"  people.  If  llu'  -lu-rifice  is  to  have  a  I 
peculiar  dignity  and  elficacy  as  oblation 
and  as  action,  viz.  if  it  is  to  be  more  than 
the  most  expressive  act  of  external  worship 
and  of  man's  earnest  desire  of  sanctifica- 
tion,  a  consecrated  minister  is  required. 
Both  as  gift  and  as  action,  the  value  of 
the  saerifife  is  measured  by  the  personal 
dignitv  of  the  sacrificer.  Hence,  in 
the  Mosiiic  dispensation,  the  hierarchical 
or  lay  priesthood  of  the  sacrificer 
elevated  the  sacrifices  to  the  dignity  of 
sacrifices  of  the  covenant:  under  the 
Christian  dispensation,  individual  self- 
saci-ilicc  and  the  public  sacrifice  derive 
sujieriiatural  eilicacy  and  dignity  from 
the  supernatural  character  of  the  Christian 
layman  or  priest.    Sacerdotal  and  hier- 


archical consecration  are  especially  neces- 
sary to  the  minister  of  a  sacrifice  which 
is  an  objective  and  efiicacious  means  of 
sanctification,  a  perfect  sacrifice  of  the 
covenant  between  God  and  His  people  and 
a  vehicle  of  sanctifying  grace :  here  the 
sacrificer  must  possess  a  holy  power  in 
addition  to  his  holy  dignity,  a  power  that 
enables  him  to  act  in  the  name  and  power 
of  God,  and  to  be  a  principle  of  sanctifica- 
tion to  those  on  whose  behalf  he  acts. 
There  exists,  then,  between  peifect 
public  sacrifice  and  priesthood  a  relation 
of  interdependence :  without  the  priest- 
hood there  is  neither  a  true  nor  a  perfect 
sacrifice.  Acts  which  may  be,  or  actually 
have  been,  sacrifices,  cease  to  be  such 
when  withdrawn  by  God  from  public 
cultus  {e.g.  sacrifices  of  animals  in  the 
New  Testament),  or  when  deprived  of 
their  sacrificial  eiScacy  (e.g.  the  burning 
of  incense).  In  the  former  case  the  act 
simply  ceases  to  be  a  holy  act;  in  the 
latter,  it  still  is  holy,  but  only  retains  a 
distant  analogy  with  real  sacrifice ;  it  is 
used  as  a  ceremony. 

SACRZXiEGS.  The  violation  of  a 
sacred  object.  A  thing  is  called  sacred 
from  the  lact  that  it  is  set  apait  for  the 
service  of  God ;  it  therebj'  becomes  in  a 
sense  divine,  and  has  a  right  to  be  held 
in  honour.  Any  irreverence  to  it  is  an 
injury  to  God  to  whom  it  belongs.  The 
sin  of  sacrilege,  therefore,  is  opposed  to 
the  virtue  of  religion.  It  may  be  of 
three  kinds,  Pei-sonal,  Local,  and  Real, 
according  as  the  object  violated  is  a 
sacred,  person,  place,  or  thing.  Instances 
of  personal  sacrilege  are :  laying  violent 
hands  on  a  cleric,  summoning  him  before 
a  secular  tribunal,  having  immoral 
intercourse  with  a  cleric  in  sacred  orders 
or  anyone  bound  by  a  vow  of  chastity. 
I  (See  Privilege.)  Local  sacrilege  is 
committed  by  certain  profane,  violent 
or  immoral  acts  committed  in  churches, 
cemeteries,  &c.  (See  Desecration  of 
^  Churches,  &c.)  To  administer  or 
receive  the  sacraments  unworthily,  to 
i  turn  tlie  sacred  vessels  {e.g.  chalice, 
j  ciborium,  pyx)  to  profane  uses,  would  be 
cases  of  real  sacrilege.  Formerly  the 
civil  law  inflicted  the  penalty  of  death 
on  those  guilty  of  sacrilege.  The  Church 
still  inflicts  grave  spiritual  censures  for 
the  various  kinds  of  sacrilege.  (See  the 
constitution,  Apostolicce  Sedis;  St. 
Thomas,  2»  2'«,  q.  xcix.) 

SACRZSTV.     [See  DlACONICITM."' 
SAZI4-TS,  INTERCESSION-  AND 
INVOCATION  or.    The  Council  of 


SAINTS 


SAINTS 


816 


Trent  (sess.xxv.  De  Invoc.  Ranct.)  teaches 
that  "  the  saints  reifrning  with  Christ  offer 
their  prayers  for  men  to  God ;  that  it  is 
good  and'useful  to  call  upon  them  with 
supplication,  and,  in  order  to  obtain 
benefits  from  God  through  Jesus  Christ, 
who  alone  is  our  Redeemer  and  Saviour, 
to  have  recourse  to  their  prayers,  help, 
and  aid."  The  prayer  which  we  may 
address  to  the  saints  is  of  course  wholly 
different  from  tliat  which  we  offer  to  God 
or  Christ.  "We  pray  God,"  says  the 
Roman  Catechism  (p.  iv.  oh.  6),  "  Him- 
self to  give  good  or  free  us  from  evil 
things ;  we  ask  the  saints,  because  they 
«njoy  God's  favour,  to  undertake  our 
patronage  and  obtain  from  God  the  things 
we  need.  Hence  we  employ  two  forms 
of  prayer,  differing  in  the  mode  [of  ad- 
dress] ;  for  to  God  we  say  properly.  Have 
mercy  on  us.  Hear  us ;  to  the  saints, 
Pray  for  us."  Or,  if  we  ask  the  Blesseil 
Virgin  or  the  saints  to  have  pity  on  us 
we  only  beseecli  them  to  thiuk  of  our 
misery,  and  to  help  us  "by  their  favour 
with  God  and  their  interces:^i(in " ;  and 
■"  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  by  all 
not  to  attribute  what  belongs  to  God  to 
any  other"  ("Cat.  Rom."j6.).  Two  points, 
then,  are  involved  in  the  Catholic  doctrine 
— the  intercession  of  the  saints  and  the 
utility  of  invoking  them. 

(1)  Intercession  of  the  Saitits. — The 
whole  of  the  New  Testament  enforces  the 
principle  that  we  are  members  of  Christ, 
and  so  bound  to  each  other  as  members 
of  the  same  body  (see,  e.ff.,  1  Cor.  xii.  12 
seq.).  God  might,  had  it  pleased  Him, 
have  made  us  solely  and  directly  depen- 
dent on  Himself,  but  He  has  chosen  to 
di.«play  His  own  power  by  giving  great 
efficacy  to  the  intercession  of  the  just 
(James  t.  16).  He  tanglit  us  to  go  to 
Him  with  the  wants  of  others  as  well  as 
with  our  own,  and  He  has  deepened 
charity  and  liumility  by  making  us  de- 
pendent to  some  extent  on  the  prayrs  of 
others.  Everybody  knows  the  store  St. 
Paul  set  on  the  pravers  of  his  fellow- 
Christians  (Eph.  VI.  18,  19;  1  Tim.  ii.  1). 
Prayer  even  for  enemies  was  a  duty  en- 
joined by  Christ  Himself  (Matt.  v.  44). 
Now,  it  is  hard  to  imagine  a  reason  why 
souls  which  have  gone  to  God  should 
cease  to  exercise  this  kind  of  charity  and 
to  intercede  for  their  brethren.  The  Old 
TestamiMit  plainly  asserts  the  intercession 
of  angels,  as  has  been  proved  already  (see 
Mediator),  and  it  seems  at  least  to  imply 
the  intercession  of  departed  saints  in 
Jeremias  xv.  1 ;  and  undoubtedly  the 


later  Jews  believed  in  the  merits  and  in- 

terce.ssion  of  the  saints  of  Israel  (Weber, 
"  Altsynagog.  Theol."  p.  314).  We  find 
an  exphcit  statement  of  the  doctrine  just 
where  we  should  reasonably  expect  it. 
The  Apocalypse  was  written  later  at  least 
than  the  death  of  Nero  (June  9,  a.d.  68), 
and  the  writer  is  filled  with  the  thought 
of  his  martyred  brethren  who  had  gone 
before  him  to  God.  He  believes  that  they 
still  sympathise  with  and  intercede  for 
those  whom  they  had  left  behind.  "I 
saw  beneath  the  altar  the  souls  of  them 
that  were  slain  because  of  the  word  of 
God  and  the  witness  which  they  had,  and 
they  cried  with  a  loud  voice.  How  long,  0 
Lord,  holy  and  true,  dost  thou  not  avenge 
our  blood  from  them  that  dwell  on  the 
earth.  And  there  was  given  to  each  of 
them  a  white  robe,  and  they  were  told  tn 
lest  a  little,  until  their  fellow-serviu; 
and  their  brethren  be  completed  [m 
number,"  or  else  according  to  the  reading- 
avixiiKr)poi)(TOi(xiv,  complete  the  number] 
"  who  are  to  be  killed  even  as  they  ' 
(vi.  9  seq.).  So  again,  in  v.  8  (cf.  viii.  3), 
the  elders  before  the  heavenly  altar  are 
represented  as  falling  "  before  the  Lamb, 
having  each  a  harp  and  golden  vials  full 
of  perfumes,  which  are  the  prayers  ol 
the  saints."  It  matters  nothing  for  our 
present  purpose  whether  the  "saints" 
mentioned  were  or  were  not  still  on 
earth.  In  either  case  their  prayers  are 
offered  to  God  by  the  elders  in  heaven, 
so  that  the  imagery  implies  that  the 
saints  before  God  offer  up  our  prayers 
and  so  help  us  by  their  intercession. 

But  if  Scripture  were  silent,  tradition 
witnesses  to  the  doctrine  so  universally 
and  so  constantly  as  to  remove  all  doubt 
of  its  Apostolic  origin.  The  genuine 
"  Acts "  of  the  early  Martyrs  abound  in 
testimonies.  Thus,  the  contemporaries 
of  St.  Ignatius,  St.  John's  disciple,  tell 
us  that  some  saw  the  martyr  in  vision 
after  death  "  praying  for  us "  ("  Act. 
Mart."  7).  The  "Acts  "  of  the  Martyrs 
of  Scilla  (anno  202)  speak  of  them  as 
interceding  after  death  before  our  Lord 
(Ruinart,  "Act.:\Iiirt."ed.  Ratisb.p.  L32). 
Theodotus,  before  his  death,  says :  "  In 
heaven  I  will  confidently  pray  for  you  to 
God"(!6.  p.  384).  "Pious  men"  built 
the  Martyrium  of  Trypho  and  Respicius, 
"  commending  their  souls  to  the  holy 
patronage  of  the  blessed  martyrs  "  {ih.  p. 
210).  Fresh  evidence  comes  from  the 
early  Fathers.  Cyprian,  writing  to  Cor- 
nelius (Ep.  Ix.  5),  thus  exhorts  those  who 
may  be  martyred  first:  "Let  our  love 


816 


SAIXTS 


SAINTS 


before  God  endure ;  let  not  our  prayer 
to  the  Father's  mercy  cease  for  our 
brethren  and  sisters"  (see  also  "De 
Habit.  Virg."  24).  Origen  ("In  Cantic." 
lib.  iii.  p.  75,  ed.  Beued.)  thinks  it  no 
''unfitting"  interpretation  of  a  passage 
in  the  Canticles  if  we  take  it  to  mean 
that  "  all  the  saints  who  have  departed 
this  life  care  for  the  salvation  of  those 
who  are  in  the  world,  and  help  them  by 
their  prayers  and  mediation  [interventii] 
with  God."  It  is  useless  to  add  passages 
from  later  Fathers.  A  long  list  of  them 
will  be  found  in  Petavius. 

(2)  Invocnfiun  of  the  Saints. — If  it  is 
the  will  of  God  that  the  saints  should  help 
us  ou  the  road  to  heaven  by  their  prayers, 
we  may  be  sure  that  He  makes  the  com- 
munion between  the  Church  militant  and 
the  Church  triumphant  perfect  on  both 
sides ;  that  He  enables  us  to  speak  to 
them  in  order  that  they  may  speak  for 
us.  Our  Saviour  tells  us  that  the  angels 
rejoice  over  repentant  sinners  (Luke  xv. 
7),  and  a  passage  already  cited  from  the 
Apocalypse  shows  that  the  martyrs  in 
heaven  are  aware  of  what  happens  on 
earth.  The  inscriptions  in  the  Catacombs 
recently  brought  to  light  witness  to  the 
confidence  with  which  the  Church  invoked 
the  prayers  of  departed  saints.  We 
select  a  few  instances  from  those  given 
by  De  Rossi  (in  the  "Triplice  Omaggio" 
and  "  Collection  of  Epitaphs,"  as  quoted 
in  Kraus,  "  Real-Encycl."  art.  Gebet)  : 
"  Ask  for  us  in  thy  prayers,  because  we 
know  thou  art  iu  Christ"  (n.  15); 
"Beseech  for  thy  sister"  (n.  19);  "We 
commend  to  thee,  0  holy  [Domma] 
Basilla  Crescentius  and  5licena,  our 
daughter"  (n.  17).  The  gi-eat  Fathers  of 
the  fourth  century  directly  invoke  and 
bid  others  invoke  the  saints.  St.  Gregory 
Isazianzen  begs  a  martyr,  St.  Cyprian,  to 
"look  down  from  heaven  upon  him  with 
kindly  eye,  and  to  direct  his  discourse  and 
his  life"  (Orat.  xxiv.  ad  Jin.).  So  he 
invokes  his  friend  St.  Basil  (Orat.  xliv. 
ad  fin.).  St.  Gregory  Nyssen,  fearing  the 
Scythian  invasion,  attributes  past  pre- 
servation to  the  martyr,  and  not  only 
invokes  him,  but  begs  liim  in  turn  to 
invoke  greater  saints,  Peter,  Paul,  and 
John  (Orat.  in  S.  Theodor.).  St. 
Ambrose  ("De  Vid."  cap.  9,  n.  55)  ex- 
horts Christians  to  suppHcate  {obsecrandi) 
their  guardian  angels  and  the  martyrs, 
es])ecially  those  whose  relics  they  possess. 
"  Let  us  not  only  on  this  feast  day  but 
on  other  days  also  keep  near  them  ;  let 
us  beg  them  to  be  our  patrons,"  are  the 


words  of  St.  Chrysostom  on  the  martyr* 
Berenice  and  Prodoce.  In  his  verses  the 
early  Christian  poet  Prudentius  habit  ually 
invokes  the  saints;  and  St.  Augustine 
(Serm.  324)  tells  a  story  to  his  people 
of  a  woman  who  prayed  to  St.  Stephen 
for  her  dead  son,  "  Holy  martyr  .  .  .  give 
me  back  my  son,"  and  was  rewarded  by 
the  miracle  she  asked.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  these  passages  are  but  samples 
out  of  many  which  might  be  adduced. 
They  come  to  us  from  every  part  of  the 
Christian  world,  and  the  devotion  which 
they  attest  cannot  have  sprung  up  as  if 
by  magic  at  once  and  in  every  quarter. 
We  may  add  that  then,  as  now,  Catholics 
were  charged  with  idolatry  because  they 
venerated  the  saints.  Such  accusations 
were  made  by  the  heathen  generally,  and 
in  particular  by  Julian  the  Apostate,  by 
the  Manicheans,  Eunomiaiis  f'-xireme 
Arians),by Yigilantius, vte.  ("^  -  i:i\ius, 
"  De  Incarnat."  xiv.  14.)  Sr.  Augu-tine's 
reply  is  well  known — viz.  that  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  Mass  and  supreme  worship  of 
every  kind  was  offered,  not  to  the  mar- 
tyrs, but  to  God  who  "  crowTied  the  mar- 
tyrs "  (so,  e.g.,  "  Contr.  Faust."  lib.  xx. 
cap.  21). 

The  fact  that  the  saints  hear  our 
prayers  was  held  by  the  Fathers  as 
certain;  the  way  in  which  the}'  do  so  is 
a  matter  of  philosophical  or  theological 
speculation,  about  which  neither  they  nor 
we  have  any  certainty.  In  some  way, 
unkno-ttTi  to  us,  God  reveals  to  them  the 
needs  and  prayers  of  their  clients,  and 
Petavius  warns  us  against  curious  specula- 
tion on  the  matter.  The  very  uncertainty 
of  the  Fathers  on  this  point  throws  into 
relief  their  unshaken  confidence  in  the 
intercession  of  the  saints  and  the  advan- 
tage of  invoking  them.  Augustine, 
Jerome,  and  others  suggest  that  some- 
times departed  saints  may  actually  be 
near  those  who  are  calling  on  them. 
Modern  theologians  have  generally 
thought  that  the  blessed  beholding  God 
see  in  Him,  as  in  a  mirror,  all  which  it 
concerns  them  to  know  of  earthly  things. 
Whatever  theory  we  adopt,  the  know- 
ledge of  the  saints  depends  entirely  on 
the  gift  of  God.  We  should  be  idolaters 
indeed  were  we  to  think  of  them  as 
omnipresent  or  omniscient. 

An  account  has  been  given  of  the 
institution  of  the  Feasts  of  the  Saints  in 
a  previous  article  [Feasts].  The  devotion 
of  the  Church  has  turned  chiefly  to  the 
saints  who  died  after  Christ.  The  ancient 
liturgies  do  indeed   commemorate  the 


SALT 


SANCTUS,  THE  817 


Patriarchs  and  prophets.  Abel,  Melchise-  I 
dec,  and  Abraham  are  mentioned  in  the 
Roman  Mass,  and  more  than  a  score  of 
Old  Tcf-tament  saints  in  the  Roman 
Martyrology.  Abel  and  Abraham  are 
invoked  by  name  in  the  Litany  for  the 
Dying:  prescribed  in  the  Roman  Ritual. 
The  list  of  feasts  given  by  Manuel 
Comnenus  mentions  one  feast  of  an  O.T. 
saint,  that  of  Elias  ;  but  the  Church  of 
Jerusalem  had  many  such  feasts,  and  at 
Constantinople  churches  were  dedicated 
to  Elias,  Isaias,  Job,  Samuel,  Moses, 
Zacharias,  and  Abraham.  But  the  Macca- 
bees are  the  only  O.T.  saints  to  whom 
the  Latin  Church  has  assigned  a  feast.' 
The  reason,  as  Thomassin  thinks,  for 
the  exception  is,  that  the  mode  of  their 
martyrdom  so  closely  resembled  that  of 
tbe  Christian  martyrs,  and  that  their  date 
was  so  near  to  the  Christian  period. 
(The  chief  authority  followed  has  been 
Petavius,  "De  Incamat."  lib.  xiv.,  which 
treats  the  subject  exhaustively,  and  for 
the  last  paragraph  Thomassin's  "  Trait6 
des  Festes,"  lib.  i.  ch.  9). 

SAXT.    [See  BiPTTSir.] 

SAXiVE,  REGXN-A.  The  antiphon 
said  after  Lauds  and  Compline  from  Trinity 
Sunday  to  Advent.  Some,  with  Durandus, 
ascribe  its  composition  to  Peter  of  Com- 
postella  in  the  tenth  century,  but  Cardi- 
nal Bona,  with  better  reason,  attributes  it 
to  Hermannus  Contractus,  a  Benedictine 
monk  of  the  eleventh  century.  St. 
Bernard,  according  to  the  Chronicle  of 
Spires,  added  the  last  clause  "  0  clemens, 
0  pia,  0  dulcis  Virgo  I\raria."  Gre- 
gory IX.,  in  12-30,  is  said  to  have  ordered 
the  recitation  of  the  "  Salve  "  after  Com- 
pline, and  it  is  certain  tliat  the  four 
antiphons  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  now  in 
use  among  us  were  said  daily  by  the 
Franciscans  after  Compline  as  earlv  as 
1240.  "But  even  the  'Salve,  Regina' 
which  was  the  earliest  antiphon  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  commonly  recited  in  the 
Church,  did  not  find  a  place  in  the 
Breviary  till  it  was  put  there  by  Cardi- 
nal Quignon,  and  was  thence  transferred 
to  the  Roman  Breviary  of  Pius  V." 
(  Probst,  "  Brevier  iind  Breviergebet," 
p.  134.) 

SAM-CTXTART.  The  part  of  the 
church  round  the  high  altar  reserved  for 
clergy.  Euseb.  ("H.  E."  x.  6)  speaks 
of  the  altar  *in  the  church  built  by 

1  I.e.  a  fenst  kept  by  the  whole  Church; 
for  the  Carmelites  keep  the  feast  of  St.  Elias, 
and.  e.g.  at  Venice,  there  are  churches  dedicated 
to  Moses,  Job,  &c. 


Constantine  at  Tyre  as  enclosed  with 
wooden  rails.  In  ancient  times,  says 
Morinus  ("  De  Pen.''  vi.  c.  1,  n.  10),  both 
the  Latin  and  Greek  churches  were 
divided  into  two  parts,  the  atrium  or 
court  for  the  laity  and  the  sanctuary 
(called  by  the  Greeks  Ifparfwv,  but  most 
commonly  ^rjfia,  from  its  raised  position, 
also  ayiov  TQ>v  dyiw",  uSvra,  IXacrTripwv, 
<ii  (iKTnpov)  for  bishop,  priests  and  deacons. 
The  porch,  or  vap6>)^,  is  not  mentioned 
till  500  years  after  Christ.  [See  Xae- 
THEX.]  The  Latin  word  sanctuarium  oc- 
curs in  the  thirteenth  capitulum  of  the 
Second  Council  of  Braga,  in  563,  which 
forbids  any  lay  person  to  enter  the  sanc- 
tuary for  the  reception  of  communion. 
(Le  Brun,  tom.  iii.  diss.  i.  a.  viii.) 

The  name  of  sanctuary  is  also  applied 
to  a  church  or  other  holy  precinct,  to 
which,  in  the  middle  ages,  a  criminal  or 
a  refugee  from  secular  justice  might 
resort  and  find  immunity  [AsTLrJi]. 
The  degree  of  this  immunity  varied  at 
different  times  and  under  different  cir- 
cumstances. The  most  ancient  and 
famous  sanctuary  in  England  was  that 
of  Beverley,  the  immunities  of  which 
originated  in  a  grant  by  Athelstan  to 
St.  John  of  Beverley  (d.  721)  after  re- 
turning from  his  victory  over  the  Danes 
at  Brunanburg.  Under  the  grant  the 
limits  of  sanctuary  extended  for  a  mile 
around  the  town,  and  were  marked  out 
by  four  crosses,  of  three  of  which  tiere 
are  still  some  remains.  Violent  and 
arbitrary  men  often  strove  to  break 
through  or  disregard  the  immunity. 
"  The  pax  of  this  dead  man "  ]St. 
Cuthbert],  said  Barcwith,*  one  of  Earl 
Tosti's  soldiers,  "  ought  not  to  be  observed 
so  strictly,  that  thieves,  robbers,  and 
murderers,  if  they  flee  to  his  shrine, 
should  triumph  over  us  and  escape  with- 
out punishment."  Burj-  St.  Edmunds 
was  also  a  famous  sanctuary ;  see  a  story 
in  the  work  of  Hermannus  ("  ^lem.  of 
St.  Edmund,"  i.  31,  Rolls  series)  about 
the  breach  of  sanctuary  attempted  by 
sheriff  Leofstan,  about  a'.d.  1000,  and  its 
immediate  punishment.  In  London  the 
precinct  on  the  south  side  of  Fleet  Street, 
where  had  stood  the  monastery  of  the 
TSTiite  Friars  (Carmelites),  retained  the 
privilege  of  sanctuary  long  after  the 
Reformation.  Debtors,  swindlers,  and 
worse  criminals  frequented  it ;  it  was 
known  by  the  cant  name  of  Alsatia  ;  see 
Scott's  "Fortunes  of  Xigel." 

SAircTTTS,  THE,  also  known  a» 
■  Sim.  Dan.  i.  244. 

8s 


818  SAXCTTS,  THE  SARDICA,  COUNCIL  OF 

the  Tersanctus,  as  the  angelic  hymn  i  symbol  of  the  teacher's  duty  of  revealing 
among  the  Latins,  as  the  triumphal  '  the  Gospel  to  the  faithful  and  concealing 
hymn  (eVu-iKioj  vfivos)  among  the  Greeks,  it  from  infidels.  Pseudo-Alcuin  in  the 
forms  the  conclusion  of  the  Preface  in  tenth  century  ("  De  Div.  0£Bc."  39) 
all  the  liturgies.  It  is  composed  of  the  copies  the  authors  just  named.  On  the 
■words.  "Holy,  holy,  holy.  Lord  God  of  i  other  hand,  Hugo  of  St.  Victor  ("De 
Sahaoth,"  from  Is.  Vi.  and  a  fragment  of  I  Sacram.*"  ii.  iv.  14),  Innocent  HI.  ("  Dc 
Ps.  cxvii.  '26  (Heb.  cxviii),  "  Blessed  is  i  Altaris  Myster."  i.  10,  34,  48),  Honorius 
he  who  cometh  iu  the  name  of  the  Lord.  of  Autun  ("  Gemma  Animce,"  i.  210). 
Hosanna  in  the  hig-liest."  In  the  Roman  '  sboTr  that  in  their  time  the  sandals  of 
rite,  except  in  the  Pontifical  chapel  and  bishops  only,  not  of  priests,  belonged  to 
during  exposition  of  the  Blessed  Sacra-  the  liturgical  dress,  as  is  the  case  still, 
ment,  a  small  bell  is  here  rung.  But  Innocent  mentions  the  stockings  of 
Benedict  XIY.  says  he  could  not  discover  bishops  {caligcE,'^  also  tibialid),  which 
•vrben  this  custom  began.  It  is  to  be  since  the  twelfth  century  have  been  of 
observed  ihat  the  Missal  here  follows  j  silk.  (Hefele,  "  Beitrage,"  Tol.  iL  p.  210 
the  old  Latin  version,  which  retained  seq.) 

the  word  Sabacth,  while  the  Yulgate  has  I      SASSZCA.,  THE  coimczx.  or, 

exerciUium.  This,  no  doubt,  is  the  right  ]  was  summoned,  as  the  members  of  the 
translation,  but  scholars  are  not  agreed  j  synod  expressly  state,  by  the  two  em- 
AS  to  the  original  reference.  Ewald  perors  Constans  and  Constantius  (av-ot  ol 
believes  the  reference  is  to  the  armies  of  €i(Te3€crraToi  ^acriXe'is  crvi-rjyayov  fjfias — 
angels  (Ps.  ciii.  21,  cxlviii.  2  ;  1  Eiiiirs  apud  Athanas.  "  Apol.  contr.  Arian."  44). 
[3  Reg.],  xxii.  19,  "the  camp  of  God"  ;  The  wish  for  the  convocation  of  the  synod 
Gen.  xxxii.  2).  Schrader  suggests,  which  began  on  the  part  of  the  bishops  Julius  of 
is  very  unlikely,  that  the  hosts  of  Israel  Rome,  Hosius  of  Cordova,  and  Maximin 
are  intended;  while. probably, the  opinion  of  Treves.  They  addressed  themselves 
of  many  other  critics,  Kuenen,  Bandessin,  t  o  Const  ans,  and  he  arranged  matters  with 
Tiele,  belitxsch,  is  the  right  one — viz.  his  brother  (Athanas.  "Apol.  ad  Con- 
that  the  original  reference  was  to  the  ;  stant."  4).  The  date  of  meeting  was  long 
stars.  These  are  constantly  spoken  of  a  subject  of  debate,  but  the  discovery  of 
as  the  "  host  of  heaven,''  and  in  Is.  xl.  the  Paschal  letters  of  Athanasius  in  a 
26  as  the  host  which  God  musters.  The  Syriac  translation  (first  published  by 
title  never  occurs  in  the  Pentateuch,  Cureton,  London,  1S52)  makes  it  certain 
Josue,  or  Judges.  But  it  is  constantly  that  the  synod  was  held  either  in  343  or 
employed  in  the  historical  books  from  !  344,  and  Hefele  ("  Concil."  i.  535)  is  in 
Samuel  onwards,  in  Psalms,  in  the  Pro-  |  favour  of  the  latter  date.  The  place  of 
phets,  but  not  in  Osee,  Ezechiel,  or  in  I  meeting — Sardica,  now  Sophia  in  II- 
ATicheas.  except  iv.  1-4.  j  lyria — ^lay  conveniently  on  the  borders  of 

SAXroiLXtS  form  part  of  the  bishop's  !  the  two  empires.''  The  synod  gives  three 
liturgical  dress.  The  fact  is  interesting,  reasons  for  its  convocation :  first,  the 
as  one  of  many  proofs  that  Church  vest-  troubles  which  had  arisen  from  the  per- 
ments  are  derived  from  the  dress  of  daily  secution  of  orthodox  bishops,  particularly 
life,  and  had  originally  no  connection  with  Athanasius, MaiceUus of  Ancyra,  Asclepas 
the  garb  of  Jewish  priests,  who  officiated  of  Gaza;  next,  the  extirpation  of  the 
barefoot.  Axian  heresy ;  and,  thirdly,  the  restoration 

Sandals  are  first  mentioned  as  part  of  of  true  faith  in  Christ  (see  the  letter 
the  liturgical  dress  bv  Amalarius  of  Metz  quoted  above,  and  a  slight  variation  in  the 
("De  Eccl.  Offic."  i*  25  and  26).  He  statement,  Mansi,  "  Concil."  iii.  40.)  The 
distinguishes  between  the  sandals  of  the  bishops  of  the  Eusebian  or  Arian ising 
bishop,  which  were  fastened  with  thongs,  party  numbered  76,  those  of  the  Catholic 
because  he  had  to  travel,  and  those  of  ,  party  94  (see  Hefele,  "Concil."  i.  p.  541). 
priests.  The  deacon's  sandals  were  the  I  Julius  bishop  of  Rome  was  represented 
same  as  those  of  the  bishop,  whom  he  had  j  by  the  priests  Archidamus  and  Philo- 
to  accompany  :  those  of  the  subdeacons  i  i  So  Hefele  understands  the  term, 
were  again  distinct.  Rabanus  Maurus  is  j  ^  It  -n-as  in  Illvricum  Urientale,  and  so  in 
the  next  to  mention  sandals  ("  De  Cleric.  \  dcrainion  of  Ci>nstantius.  about  59  miles 
Institut."  i.  22):  he  sees  a  reference  to  '  '"•est  of  Constantinople.  The  present  town  is  in 
Afo^t-^  ci  T.r.v„~  ^  1=  „„j  1  European  Tnrkev.  It  has  .'-0,000  inhabitants, 
them  in  Mark  vi.  9,  Ephe».  n.  lo,  and,  „f  g  ,^(,0  ^-^  christians,  and  is  the  seat  of 
as  they  covered  the  under  but  not  the  ]  a  Greek  metropolitan  and  Catholic  vicar- 
upjer  part  of  the  foot,  he  sees  here  a  aj^iostolic. 


SARDICA,  COUNCIL  OF 


SAEDICA,  COr^TCl 


lemns:  bat  it  was  Hoeias  bi-iop  of  a  H?lK-ip  are  to  be  Jn'I^i  b- 

Cori:'va  who  presided  (Atfaamii.  -  Hist,  of  ta-?  prorinci.    Tt^n  f 

Arian  ad  Mocach.'' IT.  16,  i}  0710  <rEW>'?cs  ©jnciiniin^  appeal    ■  R  — - 

^«  rrjfliTyopos  Tf»  6  fieyas  'Oo-to<  :   aliO  b»r*ii  tt-i  sar  jei;t  of  ■rO^-r 

Thtr  ''-  7  ■■  'H'      ~  ':.      :                  -2  ->-r  end  of  canon  3.  il: 


e.  Ar 

medi 

tird-' 

AttanAaos. 

bLih  -   -  ■ 
to  t_- 
whe: 

i»v  ■ 

Atfc 
Aicl 
ran- 
Til- 


IT  rli-r  meoic-rv 
H-fek  -Conci"  L 
'liwing-  j7i3x-r:i77  of" 
-/.acio'Ds  ':rL  "iii  rl^i* 

.      :  loosed  by  his  coe.- 
-IV   icreal  to'  the  Pore 
.  or  ihriogii  rle 
"  Li^t.LZiCij — viz.  the  '?jnipr.- 
-  i  —L;  navs-  cocdenm-rii  lira. 


Sari; 


Ar- 
of  V 


("HrE-": 

the  Bailer-. 

Leo,  torn,  ii-      ixx-i.  . 

bftbilitT.  that  this  Creed. 

which J---'  b  -1-  T- 

TU" 
T7.- 


the 

a  coat  cf  mend 

..atta  eodit  is  to  eoosst  ^ 
^  aootii^,  aad  &at  a  ™»«gti>- 

PjfeinaTapr.  ■  - 
rs  and  to  pr-e- 

i^hopappeit "  .  - 

i-r    L ; : : ;  be  filled  op  621  f  :. .  l-t  - t  . 
e^nlinned  the  OEEiEiai  seitfcaice  or  defered 
-  :natter  to  a  eosrt  «^  seened  iKtajoee 
z  4  )  .   Of  eoci%,  in  the  Ia£t«  ea^ 
J  erald  be  taJss  tia  the 
.  Tried  a  ^eeood  time^ 
Iz.  many  eopKS  tie 
weze  appen<i<Hi  to.  aod  soeoafiBedwitk, 
:^  of  the  first  Nicene  eoancB.   ft  was 
ia  an  prT'bability,  whidi  led  Pope 
-  Li.  in  his  dispute  with  the  A&ican 
>  to  allege  a  Sicene  eama  wh&r& 
rTO  .ymiied  the  Pope's  ij^s&  at  te-exaaiz£- 
izi^  the  eaose  of  a  la^op  eoBdsomed  hr 
Ms  eone^oes.   Aad,  actiiig  en  this  pdo- 
eiple.  he  leeeired  the  appeal  of  ^  pcsest 
ApiarxQS  of  Sicca,  -wSn  had  beea  ccb- 
i-rzed  IB  his  own  waUj  (K*feie,  L 
oT).   The  AftiEBB  pidk&es  lepfied 
:aey  eoald  not  find  the  caoen  ia 
. » ;  and,  is  &ct,  eren  the  Saidsan 
:.  .z  a  does  not  «KitMH|[^te  appeals  feom 
priests^    It  was  not  oil  the  oizith  cen- 
tury ,  in  the  eoo£r<>i«n5->  with  Hxnemar  of 
Bhetzns,  chat  the  SaF&an  raleoBdenpent 
e^eeotial  ahezatioti,  so  that  all  ritafws 
irvi'TiBg-  thedepoatioB  oi  liAa^  wwe- 
--ed  to  Bome  as  rmmtm  mmjwet^  eT« 
r  fiist  iostaoee.   This  latter  prinapfe 
i  compfeie  expnessiiriB  in  the  fbcffed 
dr<;  ■rtak  i  Hrfele,  L  p.  57TV' 

>  T!t«  Car-ftagfnim  ^omi  of  -£34  *,fx  n- 


820      SARDICA,  COUNCIL  OF 


SCAPULAR 


Canons  7,  8,  9  restrict,  and  in  <rreat 
measure  prohibit,  the  visits  of  bishops  to 
the  Imperial  Court.  Canon  10  forbids 
episcopal  consecration/w  saZ^wwi.  Canons 
11  and  12  enforce  episcopal  residence, 
and  forbid  a  bishop  to  officiate  in  a  strange 
diocfse.  Canons  13  and  14  forbid  one 
bishop  to  restore  a  cleric  whom  another 
bisiiop  has  excommunicated,  but  permit 
the  cleric  to  appeal  to  the  metropolitan 
or,  in  his  absence,  to  the  nearest  biAop. 
Here  the  Latin  text  inserts  a  canon  which 
forbids  a  bislinp  to  ordain  for  his  own 
diocese  a  cleric  who  is  subject  to  another 
bishop.  Canon  16:  clerics,  like  bishops 
(see  above, canon  11),  must  not  be  absent 
from  their  diocese  more  than  three  weeks. 
Canon  17:  only  if  unjustly  expelled  from 
his  see  may  a  bishop  remain  iu  a  strange 
city.  Canons  18  and  19  concern  the  strife 
for"  the  bishopric  at  Thessalouica  and  the 
quarrels  that  had  arisen  thence.  Canon 
20  enforces  the  previous  canons  (7,  8,  9) 
on  episcopal  visits  to  the  Court,  and  gives 
a  certain  control  over  travelling  bishops  to 
the  prelates  of  the  sees  on  the  great  roads. 

Three  additional  documents  of  im- 
portance are  still  extant:  the  first  an 
encyclical  to  all  Christian  bishops:  the 
second  a  letter  to  the  Church  of  Alex- 
andria, declaring  the  innocence  of  Atha- 
nasius  ;  the  third  a  letter  to  Julius  bishop 
of  Rome,  recognising  his  reasons  for 
absence  and  giving  bim  an  account  of  the 
proceedings. 

By  some  historians  and  critics,  viz, 
Baronius,  Natalis  Alexander,  the  Balle- 
rini,  and  Palma,  the  Council  of  Sardica 
has  been  considered  oecumenical.  No 
doubt  it  was  convoked  as  an  oecumenical 
council.  Moreover,  its  canons  were 
approved  by  the  council  in  Trullo,  and 
received,  according-  to  Pope  Nicolas  I.,  bv 
the  whole  Church  (  spp  "  Hefele  "  i.,  p.  622 ). 
This  latter  fact,  however,  proves  nothing, 
since  the  disciplinary  enactments  of  many 
other  councils — e.g.  of  Ancyra  and  Neo- 
cwsarea — were  generally  received.  On  the 
otlier  side  it  is  to  be  remembered  that, 
although  the  episcopate  of  East  and  West 
was  summoned,  scarcely  any  Eastern 
bishops  were  actually  present  at  the  deli- 
berations. This  might  have  been  com- 
pensated by  subsequent  subscription  of 
the  decrees  on  the  part  of  absent  bishops. 

jected  appeals  to  Rome  as  infringing  the  ricrhts 
of  the  African  Church  (Hefele,  ii.  p.  137  sey). 
Yet  Popes  Celesiine  and  Leo  the  Great  and 
the  12th  synod  of  Toledo  make  the  same  con- 
fusion between  Nicsea  and  Sardica  (Hefele,  i. 
p.  621). 


But,  although  the  decrees  were  trans- 
mitted through  Christendom,  only  about 
200  absent  bishops  signed,  of  whom 
ninety-four  were  Egyptians.  No  single 
ancient  authority  speaks  of  the  council 
as  oecumenical.  St.  Augustine  ("  Contr. 
Crescon."  iii.  34,  iv.  44:  Ep.  44  ad 
Eleus.  3)  did  not  even  know  that  an 
orthodox  synod  had  met  at  Sardica. 
Gregory  the  Great  ("  Epist."  lib.  ii. 
Ep.  10)  and  Isidore  of  Seville  ("  Etymo- 
log."  vi.  16)  recognise  four  General 
Councils  only,  viz.  Nicaea,  Constantinople, 
Ephesus,  and  Chalcedon.  These  are  the 
chief  reasons  which  have  constrained 
Bellarmine,  De  Marca,  TiUemont,  Fleury, 
Du-Pii),  Ceillier,  Neander,  and  many 
other  scholars,  to  deny  Sardica  a  place 
among  the  General  Councils.  [Hefele, 
"  Concil."  i.  p.  533 

SARTTia  irsE.   rSee  Littjegies.] 

SAT  AW.    [See  DevelJ 

SATZSFACTzoio-.   [See  Penance 

ro  . 

SATTrRSAT.       [See  ABSTrSTINCE 

and  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.] 

SCAPUXiAR  (from  scapulcB,  shoul- 
ders). A  dress  which  covers  the  shoul- 
ders. It  is  mentioned  in  the  rule  of  St. 
Bt^nedict  as  worn  by  monks  over  their 
other  dress  when  they  were  at  work,  and 
it  now  forms  a  regular  part  of  the  re- 
ligious dress  in  the  old  orders.  But  it  is 
best  known  among  Catholics  as  the  name 
of  two  little  pieces  of  cloth  worn  out  of 
devotion  over  the  shoulders,  under  the 
ordinary  garb,  and  connected  by  strings. 

It  was  through  the  Carmelites  that 
this  devotion  began,  and  the  following  is 
the  story  told  of  its  origin  :  The  Blessed 
Virgin  appeared  at  Cambridge  to  Simon 
Stock,  general  of  the  Carmelite  order, 
when  it  was  in  great  trouble.  She  gave 
him  a  scapular  which  she  bore  in  her 
hand,  in  order  that  by  it  "the  holy 
[Carmelite]  order  might  be  known  and 
protected  from  the  evils  which  assailed 
it,"  and  added,  "  this  will  be  the  privilege 
for  you  and  for  all  Carmelites  ;  no  one 
dying  in  this  scapular  will  suffer  eternal 
burning."  Another  marvel  is  related  by 
John  XXII.  in  the  famous  Sabbatine 
bull.  The  Blessed  Virgin,  he  says, 
appeared  to  him,  and,  speaking  of  the 
Carmelites  and  those  associated  to  them 
by  wearing  the  scapular,  promised  that, 
if  any  of  them  went  to  Purgatory,  she 
herself  would  descend  and  free  them  on 
the  Saturday  following  their  death. 
"  This  holy  indulgence,"  says  the  Pope, 


SCAPITLAR 


SCAPULAP. 


821 


*'I  accept,  corroborate,  and  confirm,  as 
Jesus  Christ  for  the  merits  of  the  glorious 
Virgin  .Mary  granted  it  in  heaven."  To 
gain  this  privilege  it  is  necessary  to 
•observe  fidelity  in  marriage  or  chastity 
in  the  single  "state.  Those  who  read 
must  recite  the  Office  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  unless  already  bound  to  the 
Divine  Office ;  those  who  cannot,  must 
abstain  from  flesh  meat  on  "Wednesdays 
and  Saturdays,  unless  Christmas  falls  on 
one  of  these  days.  So  the  Sabbat ine  bull, 
as  given  in  the  Carmelite  "  Bullarium." 

Two  statements,  then,  have  to  be 
examined.  Is  there  any  proof  that  the 
Blessed  Virgin  appeared  to  St.  Simon 
Stock  and  made  the  promise  related 
above?  Is  the  Sabbatine  bull  genuine, 
and  the  story  it  tells  true  ? 

We  tiike'  the  latter  question  first  be- 
cause it  may  be  despatched  very  quickly. 
Launoy,  in  a  dissertation  of  wonderful 
learning,  to  be  found  in  the  second 
volume  of  his  collected  works  (the  edition 
we  have  used  is  dated  1731,  "  Coloniaj 
Allobrogum "),  proves  by  a  superabun- 
dance of  reasons  that  the  bull  of  John 
XXII.  is  a  clumsy  forgery,  and  that  nf 
Alexander  V.  another  forgery  made  to 
cover  the  former.  The  autograph  has 
never  been  found,  nor  has  it  any  ])lace  in 
the  Roman  ''Bullarium."  Its  authenticity 
is  unhesitatingly  denied  by  the  great 
BoUandist  Papebroch  in  his  reply  to  the 
attacks  made  upon  him  by  the  Carmelites, 
and  by  Benedict  XTV.  ("Do  Fest."  Ixxiv. 
l.xxvii".).  The  latter  says  it  is  as  hard, 
perhaps  harder,  to  believe  in  this  bull 
than  in  the  storj-  of  the  chapel  built  on 
Mount  Carmel  in  honour  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  during  her  life.  He  says  he  could 
give  more  reasons  against  it  than  he  cares 
to  produce,  and  arguments  drawn  "  from 
things  [in  the  bull]  which  Avant  all 
appearance  of  truth. '  llc'  alludes,  we 
suppose,  to  the  style  of  the  bull,  which, 
as  Launoy  points  out,  betrays  in  many 
ways  the  hand  of  the  impostor. 

As  to  the  fact  of  the  apparition  to 
Simon  Stock,  it  is  accepted  by  Benedict 
XIV.,  Papebroch,  and  Alban  Butler  on 
the  faith  of  a  "  Life  "  of  the  saint  by 
Swaynton,  who  was  his  secretary  and 
wrote  the  story  of  the  apparition  at  his 
dictation.  A  fragment  of  this  "  Life  " 
was  produced  from  their  archives  at 
Bordeaux,  and  printed  by  one  of  the 
Carmelites — viz.  Cheronensis.  We  may 
observe  that  the  Cai-melites  refused  a 
sight  of  this  "  Life  "  to  Papebroch.  (See 
Bollandist  "Acta  SS."  Mali,  tom.  iii.) 


Next,  to  understand  the  force  of  liaunoy's 
arguments  for  regarding  tliis  passage  in 
the  "Life"  if  it  be  authentic,  as  an 
interpolation,  we  must  remember  that 
the  miracle  is  represented  as  gaining 
immediate  notoriety.  These  are  Swayn- 
ton's  or  pseudo-Swaynton's  words :  "  The 
story  running  through  England  and 
beyond  it.  many  cities  offered  us  places 
in  which  to  live,  and  many  nobles  begged 
to  be  affiliated  to  this  holy  order,  that 
they  might  share  in  its  graces,  desiring 
to  die  in  this  holy  habit."  If  so,  the 
silence  of  Carmelite  authors  for  more 
than  a  century  after  is  remarkable. 
Simon  Stock  died  in  1250.  Ribotus, 
provincial  in  Catalonia  (about  1340),  in 
his  ten  books  "On  the  Institution  and 
Remarkable  Deeds  of  the  Carmelites," 
ignores  it.  So  does  Chimetensis  in  two 
books  specially  designed  to  glorify  the 
order  ('•  Speculum  Ilistoriale  "  and 
"Speculum  Ordinis  Carmeli"),  and  so 
do  three  other  authors  of  similar  books 

{  quoted  by  Launoy.  Strangest  of  all, 
Waldensis,  a  Carmelite,  an  Englishman, 
and  writing  in  England  ("  De  Sucramen- 
talibus"),  trieshard  to  prove  the  religious 
habit  a  sacramental,  and  speaks  particu- 
larly of  the  Carmelite  habit  and  the  form 
which  it  is  given.    Nothing  could  have 

I  been  more  to  the  point  than  Swaynton's 
story,  but  he  never  alludi'S  to  it.  The 
vision  is  mentioned,  ap]';ii'ently  for  the 
fir.st  time,  so  far  as  is  known  I'or  ei^rtain, 
by  Grossus,  a  Carmelite  of  Toul  "i-e.  hi 
his  "  Viriflai-ium"(l-'!'^!lKtlieii  by  I'aleoiii- 
dorus  ("Anti(i.  Ord.  C'ann."  vi.  ajiud 
Launoy),  published  in  14!i5.  It  is  right 
to   add,  however,  that  the  Carmelites 

'  claimed  the  support  of  an  anonymous  MS. 
in  the  Vatican  said  to  have  been  written 
early  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

Many  of  the  later  Popes  have  granted 

'  numerous  indulgences  to  the  Confra- 
ternities of  the  Scapular,  and  no  Catholic, 

I  Launoy  as  little  as  anyone,  doubts  the 

j  utility  and  piety  of  the  institution.  "The 

j  scapular,"  says  Bossuet.  "  is  no  useless 
badge.  You  wear  it  as  a  visible  token 
that  you  own  yourselves  Maiy's  children, 
and  she  will  be  your  mother  indeed  if  you 
live  in  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ("  Sermon 
pour  le  Jour  du  Scapulaire,"  vol.  xi.  p.  309, 
in  the  last  edition  of  Bossuet).  Benedict 
XIV.  speaks  in  a  similar  tone,  but  he 
admits  that  too  many  abuse  these  symbols 
and  badges  by  a  misplaced  confidence  in 
them. 

There  are  four  other  scapulars  used  in 
the  Church  :  that  of  the  Trinity,  of  white 


822 


SCHISM 


SCHOLASTICUS 


linen  -witli  a  red  cross,  given  by  tlie 
Trinitarians  or  priests  delegated  by  them : 
the  Servite  scapular  of  the  Seven  Dolours, 
which  is  of  black  woollen  stuff ;  that  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception,  of  light  blue 
woollen  cloth,  propagated  by  Ursula 
Benincasa  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
given  by  the  Theatines  who  governed  the 
congregation  to  which  this  nun  belonged; 
the  red  scapular  of  the  Passion,  origi- 
nated by  a  Sister  of  Charity  at  Paris, 
who  is  said  to  have  received  a  revelation 
on  the  matter  in  1846,  and  given  by  the 
Yincentian  Fathers.  All  these  Confra- 
ternities are  designed  to  promote  prayer 
and  other  good  works  in  their  mem- 
bers. 

(This  article  has  been  compiled  from 
Benedict  XIV.  "De  Festis";  the  Bol- 
landists,  Maii,  tom.  iii. ;  Launoy,  "  Dis- 
sertat."  tom.  ii.  Swaynton's  "  Life  "  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  published  entire. 
At  least,  we  have  searched  in  vain  for  a 
copy  at  the  British  Museum.  There  is 
nothing  in  Alban  Butler  which  had  not 
been  alreadystated  by  the  authors  quoted. 
The  brief  notice  on  the  other  scapulars  is 
from  a  little  book  of  Labis,  "  Notices  et 
Instructions  sur  les  Scapulaires,"  &c.  It 
is  merely  practical,  and  has  no  historical 
worth.) 

SCHZSMC  {a-xia-fjia.).  A  tear  or  rent 
(Matt.  ix.  16  ;  Mark  ii.  21)  ;  a  division  of 
opinion  (John  vii.  43;  ix.  16;  x.  19); 
party  spirit  in  the  Christian  Church  (1 
Cor.  i.  10  ;  xi.  18;  xii.  25) ;  and  then,  in 
Fathers  and  theologians,  a  technical  word 
to  denote  formal  separation  i'rom  the 
unity  of  the  Church.  "  Schismatics," 
says  St.  Thomas  (2''  2«=,  qu.  xxxix.,  a.  1), 
"  in  the  strict  sense,  are  those  who 
of  their  own  will  and  intention  sever 
themselves  from  the  unity  of  the  Church." 
This  imity  of  the  Church,  he  continues, 
consists  in  the  connection  of  its  members 
with  each  other,  and  of  all  the  members 
with  the  head.  "Now,  this  head  is 
Christ,  whose  representative  in  the 
Church  is  the  Supreme  Pontiff.  And 
therefore  the  name  of  '  schismatics '  is 
given  to  those  who  refuse  to  be  under 
the  Supreme  Pontiff  and  to  communicate 
with  the  members  of  the  Church  subject 
to  him."  Further,  he  thus  explains  the 
diflbrence  between  heresy  and  schism. 
Heresy  is  opposed  to  faith,  schism  to 
charity;  so  that,  although  all  heretics 
are  schismatics,  because  loss  of  faith  in- 
volves separation  from  the  Church,  all 
schismatics  are  not  heretics,  since  a  man 
may,  from  anger,  pride,  ambition,  or  the 


like,  sever  himself  from  the  coinmunion 
of  the  Church  and  yet  believe  aU  which 
the  Church  proposes  for  our  belief.  StiU, 
a  state  of  pure  schism — i.e.  of  schism 
without  heresy — cannot  continue  long — 
at  least,  in  the  case  of  a  large  number  of 
men.  The  words  of  St.  Jerome  (on  Titus, 
cap.  3),  quoted  by  St.  Thomas,  are  to  the 
point :  "  Schism,  at  the  beginning,  may 
be  understood  as  something  different  from 
heresy,  but  there  is  no  schism  which  does 
not  invent  some  heresy  for  itself,  in  order 
to  justify  its  secession."  History  abun- 
dantly confirms  this  observation.  Bodies 
which  at  first  separate  from  the  Church 
merely  because  they  think  their  personal 
rights  have  been  infringed  are  sure,  in 
the  end,  to  deny  the  Church's  unity  and 
to  lose  the  spirit  of  faith.  And  so  St. 
Thomas  remarks  that,  as  loss  of  charity 
is  the  way  to  loss  of  faith,  so  schism  ia 
the  road  to  heresy. 

Schismatics  do  not,  of  course,  lose 
the  power  of  order ;  their  priests  can  say 
Mass,  their  bishops  confirm  and  ordain. 
But  they  lose  all  jurisdiction,  so  that 
"  they  cannot  either  absolve,  excommuni- 
cate, or  grant  indulgences,  or  the  like; 
and  if  they  attempt  anything  of  the  kind 
the  act  is  null  "  (loc.  cit.  a.  3).  Whether 
pure  schismatics  do  or  do  not  cease 
thereby  to  be  members  of  the  Church  is 
a  question  controverted  in  the  Schools. 
Many  theologians  consider  that  aU  who 
retain  integrity  of  faith  are  members  of 
the  Chui-ch.  But  all  agree  that  they  are 
not  united  to  the  Church  by  chai-ity — 
that,  if  members,  they  are  dead  members 
— so  that  the  question  is  of  no  great 
moment. 

SCHOI.ASTZCU'S  (Fr.  ecoldfre). 
An  ecclesiastic  attached  to,  but  generally 
not  a  member  of,  a  cathedral  or  colle- 
giate chapter,  to  whom  the  administra- 
tion of  its  schools  was  entrusted.  The 
scholasticus  is  also  called,  in  charters  of 
the  eleventh  century,  capiscJwlus,  caput 
scJwkn-is,  and  mayister  scholarum.  The 
office  seems  to  have  arisen  along  with  the 
schools  which  the  Capitularies  of  Charle- 
magne order  with  such  earnestness  and 
reiteration  to  be  erected  in  all  the 
Frankish  dioceses.  Those  who  held  it 
often  combined  teaching  with  the  super- 
intendence of  teachers ;  this  was  the  case 
with  St.  Bruno,  the  founder  of  the 
Carthusians,  appointed  in  1056  Scholas- 
ticus in  the  Church  of  Rheims.  The 
Council  of  Trent  ordered  that  the  Scho- 
lastic! of  a  diocese  and  others  who  wer& 
bound  to  lecture  or  teach  should,  if  com- 


SCHOOLS 


SCHOOLS  82S 


petcnt,  themselves  give  instruction  in 
the  seminaries  of  which  the  Council  de- 
creed the  erection  in  all  dioceses;  and 
that  in  future  the  office  of  a  Scholasticus 
(sc/tolastena)  should  only  be  conferred  on 
doctors,  masters,  or  licentiates  in  theology 
or  in  canon  law,  and  other  fit  persons 
capable  of  teaching  ;  the  collation  other- 
wise to  be  void.i    (Thomassin,  i.  3, 70.) 

SCHOOXiS.  A  boy  is  usually  sent 
to  school  in  order  that  he  may  obtain, 
■with  greater  ease  and  fewer  interruptions 
than  would  be  possible  at  home,  know- 
ledge which  will  be  serviceable  to  him 
in  after  life.  This  is  a  motive  which  acts 
on  parents  independently  of  State  insti- 
gation ;  it  filled  the  school  of  Flavins  at 
A'enusia  with  "  big  boys,  the  sons  of  big 
centurions,"-  and  took  Horace  to  that 
superior  establishment  at  Rome  which 
received  the  sons  of  "  knights  and  sena- 
tors." To  these  voluntary  schools,  which 
doubtless  existed  in  every  part  of  the 
Roman  empire,  and  were  closely  con- 
nected with  the  movement  of  Pagan 
society,  it  does  not  appear  that  Christian 
parents  in  the  first  three  centuries  sent 
their  sons.  The  earliest  Christian  school 
of  which  we  have  a  distinct  account — 
that  of  Pautsenus  at  Alexandria  (a.d.  180) 
— was  one  for  religious  and  catechetical 
instruction  (I'epajy  Xoycov  mTri^riatav).^ 
The  earliest  State  provision  for  secondary 
instruction  was  made  by  the  Emperor 
Vespasian,*  who  established  a  group  of 
"  imperial  schools '"  at  all  the  great  pro- 
vincial towns  ;  Besanf  on,  Aries,  Cologne, 
Rheims,  and  Treves  are  particularly  men- 
tioned. In  these  schools  rhetoric,  logic, 
and  Latin  and  Greek  literature  were  well 
taught,  and  many  a  Christian  apologist 
owed  to  them  the  mental  culture  which 
he  employed  after  his  conversion  in  the 
service  of  Christ.  "When  the  empire  had 
become  Christian,  the  schools  still  re- 
tained the  old  methods  and  subjects  of 
instruction,  and  even,  to  a  great  extent, 
the  old  spirit.  St.  Jerome,  who  had  him- 
self been  educated  in  one  of  them,  was 
alive  to  the  perilous  nature  of  this  in- 
fluence, and  interdicted  the  reading  of 
the  Pagan  authors  to  all  those  under  his 
direction  who  were  in  training  for  the 
religious  life.  Every  bishops  residence 
was  from  the  first  more  or  less  definitely 
a  school,  in  which  clerics  were  trained 

1  Sess.  xxiii.  c.  18,  De  Ref. 

2  Hor.  Sat.  i.  6,  73. 

3  Eus.  Hist.  Eccl. 

*  J.  B.  .Mullinger,  The  Sfhoolt  of  Charlet 
the  Great  (1877),  p.  12. 


I  for  the  ecclesiastical  life.  SimDarly, 
after  the  commencement  of  the  monastic 
I  life  under  St.  Antony  and  St.  Hilarion, 
I  the  monastery,  besides  subserving  the 
[  ends  of  self-discipline  and  continual  in- 
tercession, became  a  school  for  training 
monks.  This  was  especially  seen  in  the 
monasteries  in  Gaul  which  followed  the- 
rule  of  the  abbot  Cassian  of  Marseilles. 
Early  in  the  fifth  century  the  invasions 
of  the  bai  ljarians  began  ;  for  four  cen- 
turies M'estern  Europe  weltered  in  chaos, 
and  the  institutions  of  civilised  life 
perished.  In  the  cities  of  Gaul,  as  the 
Franks  jiressed  southwards,  the  old 
municipal  schools — the  schools  of  the 
Rhetoricians  and  the  Grammarians — 
dwindled  and  were  dispersed.  Lay  life 
became  barbarous ;  and  the  arts  of  bar- 
barism—wliich  are  chiefly  fighting,  de- 
struction, and  coarse  indulp  nee— do  not 
stand  in  need  of  schools.  But  in  the 
wreck  the  episcopal  and  monastic  schools 
survived,  and,  through  the  degTadation 
of  lay  life,  became  ever  more  attractive. 
In  the  island  of  Lerins,  the  abbot  Honor- 
atus,  about  400,  founded  a  celebrated 
monastery,  the  school  of  which  was 
known  as  the  Studium  Insulanum.  Ire- 
land, soon  after  its  conversion  by  St. 
Patrick,  was  dotted  over  with  monastic 
schools,  in  which  such  learning  as  was 
then  accessible  was  prosecuted  with  re- 
markable success. 

The  suppression  of  the  schools  of 
Athens  by  order  of  Justinian  (529) 
sounded  the  knell  of  the  educational  in- 
stitutes of  antiquity.  These  schools  were, 
in  fact,  a  university,  although  that  name 
was  of  later  introduction.  They  had 
never  been  able  to  shake  off  the  Pagan 
modes  of  thought  which  gave  birth  to 
them,  and  now  the  advancing  tide  of 
Christian  ideas  engulfed  them,  without 
being  able  for  a  long  time  to  supply  their 
place.  A  few  months  after  the  suppres- 
sion St.  Benedict  founded  the  abbey  of 
Monte  Cassiiui,  and  the  schools  for  the 
erection  of  which  his  rule  provides  were 
soon  spread  over  Western  Europe.  These 
gTadually  produced  a  race  of  teachers  and 
students  whose  higher  and  wider  views 
suggested  the  resuscitation  of  academic 
life.  It  is  sufficient  to  mention  the  names 
of  lona,  Lindisfarne,  Canterbury,  York, 
Fulda,  Rheims,  Corbie,  Fleury,  and 
Seville — not  as  being  all  of  Benedictine 
origin,  but  as  among  the  best  schools  to 
be  found  in  the  troubled  period  from 
the  fifth  to  the  tenth  century. 

The  great  organising  mind  of  Charle- 


820      SCIEXTIA  MEDIA 


SCOTISM 


foundation  of  its  lasting  hope  in  the 
know  ledge  and  service  of  God. 

scxEiTTZA.  MEDIA..  [See  Geace, 
and  1'kei)i:stixatiox. 

SCOTCH  COXX.ECE.  In  the  time 
of  Henry  VIII.  the  Scotch  possessed  an 
ancient  church  and  hostel  at  Rome. 
Mary  Stuart,  soon  after  she  assumed  the 
government  of  Scotland,  put  the  institu- 
tion on  a  sound  footing;  but  in  conse- 
quence of  her  long  imprisonment  in  Eng- 
land it  was  abandoned.  Clement  VIII., 
by  the  bull  "  In  Supremo,"  founded  in 
1600  a  college  for  training  natives  of 
Sfotland  to  the  sacred  ministry  near  the 
Church  of  St.  Mary  of  Constantinople; 
whence,  in  1004,  he  removed  it  to  a  site 
opposite  the  Palazzo  Barberini,  granting 
to  it  at  the  same  time  the  neighbouring  ! 
Church  of  St.  Andrew.  In  1616  the 
college  was  made  over  by  Paul  V.  to  the 
Jesuits,  who  had  the  management  of  it 
down  to  their  suppression  in  1773.  It 
was  revived  in  1820  by  Pius  VTI.,  and  i 
placed  under  the  charge  of  a  Scotch 
secular  priest  as  rector.  The  college  is 
under  the  Propaganda.  The  students 
pursued  their  university  course  in  the  j 
Collegio  Romano,  before  the  iniquitous 
confiscation  of  that  establishment  by 
the  Italian  Government.  [See  Romait 
College.] 

scoTZsnx.  Scholastic  philosophy, 
as  has  been  shown  in  other  articles,  was 
the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  interpreted, 
developed,  and  reconciled  with  the  Chris- 
tian faith.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
middle  ages,  scholastic  theology,  accept- 
ing the  data  of  Catholic  faith,  occupied 
itself  in  arranging,  defending,  and  draw- 
ing deductions  from  them  on  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  scholastic  philosophy.  Of 
this  scholastic  philosophy  and  theology, 
there  were  two  great  schools,  of  which 
the  Thomist  found  its  home  in  the 
Dominican,  the  Scotist  in  the  Franciscan, 
order.  The  Nominalist  school  found  ad- 
herents in  both  of  these  orders  and  in  the 
Church  generally,  but  never  exercised  an 
influence  like  that  of  the  older  systems, 
and  really  marks  the  decay  of  Scholas- 
ticism as  a  whole.' 

Very  little  is  known  about  the  life  of 
Scotus.  His  full  name,  Joannes  Duns 
Scotus,  has  been  variously  interpreted. 
Some  {e.g.  Camden,  Leland,  Wharton, 
&c.)  suppose  that  he  was  bom  at  Dun- 
stane,  in  Northumberland.  Scotch  writers 
(Camerarius,  Dempster,  McKenzie)  have 
1  We  refer  to  Nominalism  in  its  later  form, 
M  represented  by  Occam  and  his  followers. 


claimed  him  as  their  countryman,  and 
argued  that  "  Duns  "  means  "  Dunse,"  a 
little  town  to  the  north-west  of  Berwick. 
Wadding,  the  Franciscan  annalist,  makes 
him  an  Irishman,  born  in  the  county  of 
Down  and  province  of  Ulster.  He  con- 
tends that  he  cannot  have  been  an  Eng- 
li.shman,  since  his  epitaph  runs,  "Scotia 
me  genuit,  Anglia  suscepit ; "  not  a 
Scotchman,  since  Bonaventure,  in  a  hst 
of  the  Franciscan  provinces,  mentions 
that  of  "  Scotia,  or  Ireland."  The  date 
of  his  birth  is  given  by  some  as  120.5,  by 
others  as  1274.  When  he  made  his  novi- 
ciate is  quite  uncertain.  Of  the  names 
of  his  teachers  one  only  has  been  handed 
do-mi — that  of  William  Varo,  or  Ware, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  the  chair  of  theo- 
logy at  Oxford.  He  went  to  Paris  in 
1304  ;  to  Cologne  in  LSOS,  where  he  died 
suddenly  the  same  year  and  was  buried 
in  the  Franciscan  church.  His  works 
consist  of  commentaries  on  the  logical 
works  of  Aristotle  and  the  "Isagoge"  of 
Porphyry,  a  commentary  on  Aristotle's 
"  De  Anima,"  two  commentaries  on  Ari- 
stotle's "  Metaphysics,"  besides  a  shorter 
work,  "  Conclusiones  ex  xii  Libris  Me- 
taphys.  Aristot.,"  "Grammatica  Specu- 
lativa,"  "  Tractatus  de  rerum  Principio" 
and  "  De  Primo  Principio,"  "  Theore- 
mata,"  "  Collationes,"  "Quoestiones  Mis- 
cellanese,"  "  Qusestiones  Quodhbetales," 
and  an  unfinished  "  Tractatus  do  Cogni- 
tione  Dei."  All  these  books,  except  the 
"  Collationes  "  and  "  Quodlibetica,"  were 
written  at  Oxford.  There,  too,  he  wrote 
his  "  Opus  Oxoniense,"  a  commentary  on 
the  "Four  Books  of  the  Sentences,"' 
which  contains  his  whole  philosophical 
and  theological  teaching  in  a  collected 
form.  The  "Reportata  Parisiensia"  is 
an  abridgment  by  Scotus  himself  of  the 
"  Opus  Oxoniense."  At  the  end  of  book 
iii.  dist.  18,  Scotus  was  called  to  Cologne, 
and  left  the  work  incomplete.  The 
"  Quodhbetica"  consists  of  twenty-one 
questions  on  which  .Scotus  disputed  in 
public  when  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor 
at  Paris.  In  general  chapters  of  the 
order,  and,  as  Wadding  thinks,  soon  after 
his  death,  decrees  were  passed  requiring 
the  Scotist  doctrine  to  be  taught  in  all 
the  Franciscan  schools.  His  works  were 
collected  by  the  Irish  Franciscan  Wadding 
in  twelve  folio  volumes  (Lyon.s,  1639). 
Commentators  on  Scotus  appear  in  the 
latter  half  of  the   fifteenth  century.' 

1  But  long  before  this  Scotus  had  distin- 
guished disciples — e.g.  Antonius  Andres,  the 
"  Doctor  Dulcificus  "  (d.  circ.  1320) ;  Franciscus 


SCOTISM 


SCOTISM  827 


Such  were  the  Irishman  Mauritius  a 
Portu  (d.  1513),  professor  at  Padua, 
afterwards  archbishop  of  Tuam  ;  Francis 
Lychetus  of  Brescia  (d.  1520),  minister- 
general  of  the  order;  Joannes  Poucius 
(d.  1550),  an  Irishman  and  professor  at 
Rome;  Hu^ro  Cavellus,  professor  at  Rome 
and  Louvain,  minister-general  of  the 
order,  finally  archbi.-hop  and  primate  in 
Irehiud;  Antonius  Iliquteus,  also  an 
Irishman.  Among  Scotist  theologians  j 
the  best  known  are  Albergoni  ('•  Resolutio 
Doctrinae  Scotisticaj,'' Lyons,  1643);  Baro 
on  the  Scotist  philosophy  (Cologne,  IG66) ; 
Frassen  ("  Scotus  Acadcniicus,"  Paris, 
IGSO) ;  Hieron.  de  Moute  Fortino,  who 
an-anged,  in  a  very  convenient  manner, 
the  teaching  of  Scotus  in  a  "Summa" 
which  corresponds  question  for  question 
to  that  of  St.  Thomas  ("  Summa  ex  Scoti 
operibus  concinnata  juxta  Ordinem  et 
Dispositiontan  Summae  S.  Thorn.  Aq." 
Romae,  I7'2b,  5  vols.  fol.).  In  the  middle 
of  the  last  century  Ferrari  undertook  the 
defence  of  Scotist  against  modern  philo- 
sophy ("  Philosophia  Peripatetica  adv. 
veteres  et  receutiores  praesertim  firmiori- 
bus  propugnata  rationibus  Joannis  Duns 
Scoti,"  Venice,  1746).' 

Scotists  no  less  than  Thomists  were, 
in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word.  Scho- 
lastics. The  one  as  well  as  the  other 
accepted  the  whole  tradition  of  the 
Church  as  it  was  collected  by  Peter 
Lombard ;  to  Scotus  no  less  than  to  St. 
Thomas  the  "  Pope  is  the  supreme 
guardian  and  divinely-instituted  expo- 
nent of  the  deposit  of  faith  left  to  the 
Church,  the  highest  guide  and  ruler  of  the 
Christian  commonwealth,  the  supreme  re- 
presentative of  the  Church's  judicial 
power"  (Werner,  p.  497).  Again,  to 
Scotus  as  well  as  to  St.  Thomas  Ari- 
stotle is  the  representative  of  human 
reason,  the  decisive  authority  in  philo- 
sophical discu.sftion.^  Hence,  the  ditler- 
ences  between  the  two  schools,  numerous 
as  they  are,  move  between  very  narrow 
limits.  Far  wider,  far  more  interesting 
and  important,  questions  arose  in  the 

deMayronis.the"  Mafrfster  Abstractionuin,"or 
"Doctor  Illuminatus"  (d.  circ.  1325)  ;  Walter 
Burleifiii,  "  Doctor  Planus  et  Pei-spicuus " 
(1275— eirc.  Vi^7).    (Ueberwepj,  p.  457.) 

'  There  is  also  a  handy  work  (not,  however, 
Scotist)  by  Joannes  de  Bada,  Controcersim 
inter  T/iomam  et  Scotum,  Venice,  1599. 

-  Still.  Scotus  adopted  many  Platonic  and 
Keojilalonic  conceptions,  with  which  he  became 
familiar  through  Avicebron's  (Ibn  Gebirol'.s) 
Fountain  of  Life  (Ueberweg,  Hi$t.  Phil.  Engl. 
Transl.  i.  p.  45ii). 


conflict  on  the  power  of  the  Pope  begun 
at  Constance  and  Basle  and  prolonged  in 
the  learned  French  church,  and  on  a  multi- 
tude of  questions  after  the  rise  of  .'scholar- 
ship and  historical  criticism,  in  the  war 
between  the  old  and  the  newi)liilo..:opliii's. 
Probably  just  because  the  limit  x  if  (>])iii  ion 
were  so  narrow,  it  came  to  jiii^-s  that 
Thomists  and  Scotists  fought  on  so  many 
points  which  have  httle  interest  for  us. 
j  So  numerous  are  they,  that  we  can  but 
make  a  selection  from  them  here. 

(1)  Both  Thomists  and  Scotists  were 
Realists,  but  the  Reahsm  of  the  latter  was 
more  pronounced.  To  St.  Thomas  no 
universal  exists  as  such.  The  essence  is 
only  actually  found  in  the  individual ;  it 
is  by  a  process  of  the  intellect — viz.  ab- 
straction— that  we  separate  humanity  in 
general  from  humanity  as  it  manifests 
itself  in  this  particular  man  and  reach 
the  idea  of  humanity  in  general.  "Univer- 
sale, dum  intelligitur:  siugulare,  dum 
sentitur."  At  the  !-ame  time,  St.  Thomas, 
unhke  the  Nominalists,  held  that  the 
universal  has  a  "  foundation  in  reahty," 
because  the  species  exists  with  identical 
qualities  in  a  number  of  individuals.  It 
has  precisely  the  same  character,  though 
it  is  not  numerically  one.  But  this  nu- 
merical unity  was  just  what  the  Scotists 
maintained.  To  them  the  nature  in  all 
individuals  of  the  same  species  was  nu- 
merically one.  The  obvious  ditiiculties 
of  this  theory  led  later  Scotists  to  modify 
it  till  it  was  scaree'ly  di>tiuguishable  from 
Thoraism,  or  else  to  take  refuge  in  unin- 
telligible subtleties.  (-2)  The  Thomists 
made  matter  the  principle  of  individua- 
tion, so  that,  e.g.,  in  spiritual  beings  like 
the  angels  there  could  only  be  one  indi- 
vidual in  each  S])ecies.  The  Scotists 
believed  that  in  individuals  there  was  an 
"  hcecceitas,"  something  which  made  them 
individual  apart  from  matter.  (3)  St. 
Thomas  held  that  second  causes,  in- 
cluding the  will,  only  move  so  far  as 
they  ai(!  moved  by  the  first  cause.  God 
moves  t  he  will  to  act,  gives  the  action  as 
well  as  the  power  to  act,  in  such  manner, 
however,  as  to  leave  the  freedom  of  the 
will  unimpaired.  So,  at  least,  the  Do- 
minicans— rightly,  as  it  seems  to  us — 
understood  their  master.  Scotus,  on  the 
contrary,  held  that  "  the  created  will  is 
the  total  and  immediate  cause  of  its 
volition,  so  that  God  in  respect  thereto 
has  no  immediate  but  only  mediate 
efficacy."  The  will  is  like  a  "  free  horse," 
grace  like  the  rider,  and  the  horse  can 
throw  its  rider ;  otherwise,  the  will  could 


828 


SCOTISM 


SCOTISM 


not  be  free,  and  there  would  be  no  possi- 
bility of  sin.  Observe  that  both  Scotus 
and  St.  Thomas  argue  on  general  philo- 
sophical grounds.  Very  dift'erent  from 
either  is  St.  Augustine's  position.  To 
the  first  man,  he  says,  a  grace  was  given 
"  without  which  he  could  not  abide  [in 
grace]  if  he  willed  ;  but  to  will  was  left 
in  his  own  power."  After  the  fall,  God 
gives  "  to  those  on  whom  He  sees  good 
to  bestow  it  an  assistance  so  great  and 
of  such  a  nature  that  we  do  will."  "  The 
first  freedom  of  the  will  consisted  in  the 
power  not  to  sin  {posse  non  peccare) ;  the 
last  is  to  be  much  greater,  not  to  be  able 
to  sin  {non  posse  p'ccare)."  "One  is  the 
help  without  which  a  thing  is  not  done 
[i.e.  grace  of  perseverance  before  the 
iair,  and  another  the  help  by  which  a 
thing  is  done"  ("De  Con-ept.  et  Gratia," 
cap.  xi.  xii.).  But,  clearly,  Scotus  is  far 
further  removed  from  St.  Augustine. 
Kindred  to  his  teaching  on  the  freedom 
of  the  will  is  the  tenet  of  Scotus  that 
"  man  without  grace  may  avoid  all 
mortal  sin  "  against  the  natural  law. 
Again,  whereas  St.  Thomas  places  final 
beatitude  in  the  intellect  which  knows 
God,  Scotus  attributes  it  to  the  will 
which  loves  God.^  (4)  Scotus,  against 
St.  Thomas,  denies  that  the  immortality 
of  the  soul  can  be  proved  by  reason ;  and 
he  separates,  by  a  much  sharper  line  than 
St.  Thomas,  natural  from  supernatural 
theology.  (5)  Scotus  held  it  "  more 
probable  "  that  the  Blessed  Virgin  never 
contracted  original  sin,  and  he  proved 
this  belief  consistent  with  the  fact  that 
she  was  redeemed  by  Christ.  (6)  He 
taught  that  the  Word  would  have 
become  man,  even  had  there  been  no 
full ;  that  the  merits  of  Christ  were  not 
infinite  in  themselve  and  from  the  union 
of  his  human  nature  with  the  Word,  but 
only  from  the  acceptation  of  them  as  in- 
finite on  the  part  of  God.  Consequently, 
he  denied  the  infinite  value  of  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  Mass.  (7)  With  respect  to 
the  Sacraments,  his  treatment  of  the 
mystery  of  the  Eucharist  differs  on  a 
multitude  of  subtle  points  from  that  of 
St.  Thomas  (Werner,  p.  283  seq.).  It 
is  more  interesting  to  observe  that  he 
rejected  the  Thomist  doctrine  of  physical, 
and  admitted  only  a  moral,  efficacy  in 
the  Sacraments.  [For  an  explanation  of 
this,  see  Sacraments  ;  and  for  the  Scotist 
doctrine  on  the   matter   and   form  of 

•  "The  fundamental  position  of  Scotus  in 
psychology  and  ethics  was  this:  Voluntim  est 
superior  inUllectu  "  (Uebenveg,  foe.  cit.  p.  456). 


Penance,  see  the  article.!  (8)  On  moral 
points,  two  doctrines  of  Scotus  may  be 
noted  here.  St.  Thomas  denied  that  any 
deliberate  action,  however  indifferent  in 
itself,  could  be  really  indifferent  at  the 
time  it  was  done.  Either  the  action  was 
referred  to  a  good  end  and  so  morally 
good,  or  not  so  referred  and  therefore 
evil.  Scotists  rejected  this  reasoning, 
and  held  that  the  end,  and  therefore  the 
action,  might  be  indifferent.  The  other 
point  is  connected  with  the  principles  of 
toleration.  Scotus,  against  St.  Thomas, 
held  it  lawful  to  take  away  the  children 
of  Jews  by  force,  baptise,  and  educate 
them  as  Christians. 

The  Scotist  philosophy  and  theology 
are  now,  we  believe,  abandoned,  or  all 
but  abandoned,  in  his  own  order.  But 
many  of  his  opinions  have  been  adopted, 
— e.ff.  by  the  eclecticism  of  some  Jesuit 
theologians  {e.g.  on  the  moral  efficacy  of 
the  sacraments ;  on  grace,  to  a  certain 
extent) — and  have  exercised  an  enduring 
influence.  His  opinion  on  the  Immacu- 
late Conception  finally  prevailed,  and  his 
theory  on  the  Incarnation  has  recom- 
mended it.self,  as  a  philosophical  view  of 
that  mystery,  even  to  writers  of  name 
outside  the  Church.  His  differences 
from  St.  Thomas  served  the  useful  pur- 
pose of  maintaining  intellectual  life  and 
preventing  a  servile  adherence  to  that 
great  author.' 

(This  article  is  drawn  chiefly  from 
Werner,  "  Johannes  Duns  Scotus,  Wien, 
1881.  It  forms  the  first  volume  of  his 
"  Scholastik  des  spateren  Mittelalters.") 

SCOTTISH  CHtTRCB.  The  Gospel 
was  originally  announced  in  Scotland 
by  three  principal  teachers,  St.  Ninian, 
St.  Kentigern,  and  St.  Columba.  The 
first,  a  Briton,  who  had  been  care- 
fully instructed  at  Rome,^  fixed  his  see 
at  Whithem  in  Galloway,  and  thence 
evangelised  the  Southern  Picts.  His 
death  is  placed  in  432.    St.  Kentigern  or 

1  The  Sacred  Congregation,  by  order  of 
Paul  v.,  declared  the  doctrine  of  Scotus  flee 
from  censure,  and  furbadc  anyone  to  presume  to 
prohibit  the  printing  of  any  book  known  as 
bis  (Viva.  Disp.  59,  6,  n.  5  ;  Franzelin,  De  Deo 
Trinn  et  tjno,  thesis  40).  Scotus,  as  Ueberweg 
jioints  out,  was  a  critical  rather  than  a  creative 
genius.  His  early  mathematical  training  made 
him  impatient  of  demonstration  which  was  not 
rigorous  ;  and,  accepting  the  Church's  doctrine, 
he  dismisses  manj*  Thomist  arguments  in  its 
favour.  Just  in  the  same  way,  Kant  accepted 
the  convictions  of  the  moral  sense  and  of  the 
"  religious  consciousness,  '  while  he  rejected  the 
proofs  which  Leibnitz  thought  valid. 

»  Beda,  Hut.  Eccl.  iiL  4. 


SCOTTISH  CHURCH 


SCOTTISH  CHtTRCH  829 


Mungo,  a  Stratli-Clyde  Briton,  became 
the  first  bishop  of  Glasgow,  and  in  the 
course  of  a  long  episcopate  planted  the 
faith  firmly  in  Strath-Clyde,  and  helped 
to  root  out  paganism,  "dying  probably 
about  003.  St.  Coluniba,  a  Scot  from 
Ireland,  founde'd  lona  (o63),  and  planted 
Christiiinity  among  the  northern  Picts — 
i.e.  in  the  Ilebrides,  and  in  the  Northern 
■mk\  Wt  stern  Highlands.  For  more  than 
a  thousand  years  only  one  religion  was 
known  in  Scotland,  that  taught  by  the 
Catholic  Church,  and  the  immense  good 
done  by  it  is  acknowledged  even  by 
enemies.  A  Protestant  historian  '  draws 
a  glowing  picture  of  the  state  of  the 
country  before  the  Reformation,  covered 
over  as  it  was  by  a  network  of  well- 
planned  uistitutions,  and  adorned  with 
magnificent  ecclesiastical  and  monastic 
buildings,  where  learning  was  prized  and 
art  encouraged— where  the  hungi-y  were 
fed  and  the  miserable  consoled.  One 
special  service  which  the  land  owed  to  its 
clergy  was  the  removal  or  mitigation  of 
slavery.  "The  priesthood  set  the  first 
example  of  mitigating  domestic  slavery — ■ 
that  curse  and  disgrace  of  the  middle 
ages — having  emancipated  all  the  bond- 
men belonging  to  their  estates,  before 
the  lay  proprietors  could  be  taught  either 
the  advantage  or  the  obhgation"*  of 
doing  so. 

In  the  art.  Pkesbtteeians.  Scottish, 
the  religious  revolution  of  1560  was  de- 
scribed. The  perferviditm  ingcnium  of  the 
Scotch  was  not  content  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Iviioxian  system,  unless 
the  old  faith  was  proscribed  at  the  same 
time.  Tytler' describes  the  anti-Catholic 
legislation  of  1560  as  consisting  mainly 
of  three  acts.  "  The  first  abolished  the 
Papal  supremacy  in  the  realm  ;  the 
second  repealed  all  previous  acts  in 
favour  of  Popery ;  the  third  enacted  that 
any  person  hearing  or  saying  Mass  should 
suffer  for  the  first  offence  confiscation  of 
his  property,  for  the  second,  banishment, 
and  for  the  third,  death."  Surprise  has 
often  been  e.xpressed  at  the  feebleness  of 
the  resistance  offered.  But  we  may 
assume  that  the  bishops  knew  their 
countrymen,  and  felt  that  resistance 
•would  no  longer  avail.    The  pride  and 

'  Russell,  History  of  the  Church  in  Scotland, 

-  Russell,  History  of  the  Church  in  Scotland, 

3  Quoted  in  Dublin  Review,  vol.  xxvii.  p. 
431  ;  see  also  Robertson's  Hist,  of  Scotl.  book 


overweening  self-confidence  of  the  Scot- 
tish character  had  become  irrevocably 
engaged  on  the  wrong  side  ;  and  the 
great  majority  of  the  active  spirits  were 
favourable  to  change.  For  men  so  obsti- 
nate, so  self-satisfied,  so  intensely  and 
enthusiastically  bent  on  having  their  own 
way,  after  they  had  once  turned  out  of 
the  path  of  Catholic  obedience,  it  was 
impossible,  humanly  speaking,  to  return 
to  it.  Error  must  take  its  course  ;  the 
Scottish  people  must  test  to  the  very 
utmost  the  system  which  it  had  preferred 
to  the  Catholic  faith  ;  and  not  till  the 
proud  edifice  of  Presbytery  had  been 
shivered  to  pieces,  and  its  ambitious 
discipline  become  a  laughing-stock,  would 
the  possibility  of  a  Catholic  reaction 
arise.* 

The  head  of  the  Scottish  hierarchy, 
Archbishop  Hamilton,  of  St.  Andrew's, 
was  executed  by  order  of  the  Regent 
Lennox  in  1571.  The  last  survivor  of 
the  bishops  dispni;?es>ed  in  1560  was 
James  Betoun,  archbishop  of  Glasgow  ; 
he  died  at  Paris,  in  his  eighty-sixth  year, 
in  1603.  Till  1623  the  Scottish  clergy 
were  subjected  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
archpriests  of  England,  and  afterwards  to 
that  of  local  prefects  of  the  Mission. 
From  1653  to  1694  Church  affairs  were 
administered  by  three  prefects-apostolic, 
"\V.  Bannatyne,  A.  Dunbar,  and  J.  Walker. 
The  first  vicar-apostolic  was  Thomas 
Nicholson,  who  was  consecrated  in  1695, 
and  arrived  in  Scotland  in  1697,  finding 
only  twenty-five  priests  in  the  whole 
coimtry. 

The  names  of  twelve  or  thirteen 
Scottish  noblemen  are  recorded  in  15'*3, 
and  again  in  1")'.)2,  as  belonging  to  the 
Catholic  party  ;  the  chief  of  these  was 
the  Earl  of  Huntly.  The  contemptible 
character  of  James  VI.  suggested  various 
plots  and  enterprises  to  turbulent  men  of 
all  parties  during  the  twenty  years  pre- 

1  Mr.  Hill  Burton  {Hist,  of  Scotl.  v.  204) 
says  that  Scottish  Presbyterians  at  the  present 
d.iy  are  split  up  into  a  number  of  sects,  all 
tracincT  their  de-cent  from  the  Kirk  of  1580, 
"of  which  every  Presbyterian  communion  in 
Scotland" — and  there  are  some  that  "count 
their  adherents  by  hundreds" — "prot'es-es  to 
be  the  representative,  and  the  only  le;;itiniate 
representative.  m11  others  n  ho  profess  that  title 
beinLT  impostor^."  Some  of  tli-se  sects  are — 
besides  tlie  Kstahlishcd  Churcli  and  the  Free 
Church— the  United  I'le-i.vterians,  tlie  Free 
Preshvterian  Church,  tlic"  United  Original 
SectsBi  n  Church,  the  Kefonncil  r'resbvterian 
Church  of  Scotland,  the  -.lohn  Knox"  Church 
of  Scotlanil.  Ikc.  (See Edinburgh  and  Glasgow 
Directories.) 


830       SCOTTISH  CHURCH 


SCOTTISH  CHURCH 


cedingliis  succession  to  tin;  English  crown. 
In  these  affairs  tlu-  Catholic  party  was 
mixed  up,  but  with  no  jjornuuient  result. 
About  1590,  the  state  of  things  was  this: 
All  the  northern  part  oi'  Scotland,  in- 
cluding the  counties  of  Inverness,  Caith- 
ness, Sutherland,  and  Aberdeen,  with 
Forfarshire  on  the  east,  and  "Wigtonshire 
and  Xithsdale  in  the  south,  were  for  the 
most  part  in  the  interests  of  the  Catholic 
party,  and  led  by  noblemen  professing  that 
faith.'  Negotiations  were  opened  between 
Iluntly,  Enoll,  Angus,  and  others  on  the 
one  side,  and  Philip  II.  on  the  other; 
Jesuit  missionaries  were  the  interme- 
diaries ;  even  after  the  failure  of  the 
Armada  it  was  hoped  that  a  Spanish 
army  of  30,000  men  might  be  landed  on 
the  south-west  coast  of  Scotland,  and, 
covered  by  a  force  of  cavahy  to  be  raised 
by  the  Scotch  Catholic  lords,  march  south 
into  England  to  put  down  the  government 
of  Elizabeth.''  This  was  known  as  the 
affair  of  the  "blanks,"  because  Huntly, 
Erroll,  &c.,  put  their  names  to  blank  sheets 
of  paper,  on  the  understanding  that  above 
their  signature.-  the  particulars  of  the 
entcrjirise  should  l)e  inserted,  according 
to  what  might  !)e  agreed  upon  between 
the  King  of  Spain  and  Fr.  \\'.  Creighton, 
the  Jesuit  rector  of  Louvain. 

The  General  Assembly  ne\  er  ceased  to 
press  upon  tlu'  Government  the  execution 
of  the  penal  laws  against  Catholics. 
Ordinary  intolerance  might  be  passed 
over,  but  one  of  tlicir  piM]M>als,  made  to 
James  I.  in  160S,  calls  l\n-  some  remarlc. 
It  was  "  that  the  suns  of  noblemen  pro- 
fessing I'opcry  should  be  committed  to 
the  custody  of  [such  of]  their  friends  as 
are  sound  in  religion."  ^  The  penal  legisla- 
tion of  England  and  Ireland,  bad  as  it 
was,  never  so  absolutely  ignored  parental 
authority  as  it  was  pro[)o>c(l  to  do  on 
this  occasion.''  Aukjul;  the  many  forms 
of  oppression  which  Catholic;-  had  to 
bear,  not  thi^  least  intolerable  was  that 
which  was  described  as  "  planting  wise 
pastors."  A  Catholic  family  was  com- 
pelled to  give  ho.-pitality  to  a  minister, 

'  Statement  of  Burghley  Riven  by  Tytler 
in  his  History ;  quoted  in  thi Month  for  januarv 
1878. 

-  •'  A  Disciiverie  of  the  unnatural  and 
triii^ci-Hus  (■(.!). pira.-ic  of  Scottish  Papists," 
black  icli.T,  i.uiHl.  l.-n.3. 

s  Thf  i\Iontli.  Nol.  xiii.  p.  00. 

In  IioI.'ukI  the  sdii-iol  ('iiili.>lic  landowners 
were  lakiMi  tmni  the  mi)tlii-]  '>  cMiilnil  when  the 
father  litid  died  Uaviii^  '.hcm  lunler  af;e,  but 
not  otherwise.  (See  LecUv  s  Uisi.  nf  Irelmtd  \ 
in  the  XVIIlth  Century.)  '  \ 


who  of  course  constituted  himself  a  spy 
on  all  their  movements,  and  was  em- 
powered to  "  catechize  their  families  twica 
a  day."  (Chambers,  "  Domestic  Annals  ol 
Scotland,"  i.  351.) 

About  1G12  the  Jesuits  and  other 
missionaries  were  very  active  ;  many 
conversions  were  made  and  apostasie? 
repaired.  The  Government  and  the  Pro- 
testant clergy,  both  Episcopalian  and 
Presbyterian,  were  somewhat  disturbed. 
Two  Jesuit  missioners,  Fathers  Moffat 
and  Ogilvie,  were  aiTested :  the  former, 
after  a  term  of  imprisonment,  was  banished ; 
the  latter,  being  plied  with  entangling 
questions  on  the  Pope's  deposing  power 
by  the  King's  order,  and  not  answering 
satisfactorily,  was  condemned  to  be 
hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered  (1615) ; 
and  the  sentence  was  can-ied  out.  How- 
ever, it  is  only  just  to  the  General 
Assembly  to  say  that  they  appear  to  have 
been  averse  to  shedding  blood  :  especially 
after  experience  had  proved  that  modes 
of  persecution  which  just  stopped  short 
of  killing  were  more  elfectual  than  death 
itself.  Banishment  from  Scotland,  with 
threat  of  death  or  perpetual  imprisonment 
in  case  of  return,  was  the  usual  penalty 
both  for  priests  and  laymen.  Being  joined 
to  a  greater  or  less  confiscation  of  pro- 
perty, and  rigorously  carried  out  year 
after  year,  this  policy  of  banishment 
biouglit  the  Catholic  party  to  a  state 
of  extreme  weakness  and  distress.  In 
1641  Father  Afambrecht  was  the  only 
priest  left  in  all  the  South  of  Scotland; 
where:is  in  England,  for  years  before  that 
date,  the  penal  laws  had  been  slackly 
executed,  and  Catholics  were  going 
openly  to  Mass  in  London  down  to  the 
meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament.  The 
same  unrelenting  bigotry  pursued  and 
hunted  down  every  symptom  of  the 
revival  of  Catholic  worship  till  fax  down 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  As  if  all 
truth  had  come  into  the  world  with  John 
Knox,  and  existed  not  outside  of  their 
own  sect,  the  ministers  rejected  with 
indignation  the  "toleration"  and  "liberty 
of  conscience"  pn>acheil  by  the  Indepen- 
dents,and  remin^led  thelukewarm English 
that  their  Parliament  had  joined  in  the 
same  covenant  with  the  Scots  for  the  re- 
form of  religion, with  the  extiipation  of 
Po))ery,  Prelacie,  and  all  tielonging  to  that 
hiei-archie."  '  In  ItiS.")  James  II.  vainlv 
licsdiight  the  Scottish  estates  to  relax  the 
]H'nul  laws  against  the  Catholics.  He 

'  Scots'  Derluration  against  the  Toleration 
of  Sects,  II)4<S. 


SCOTTISH  CHURCH 


SCOTTISH  CHURCH  831 


then  suspended  these  laws  by  an  exercise 
of  the  prerogative,  brought  over  several 
Jesuits  to  Edinburgh,  and  ordered  the 
chapel  of  Ilolyrood  to  be  fitted  up  for 
the  celebration  "of  Mass.  This  transient 
gleam  was  soon  extinguished  by  the 
Revolution.  Under  Anne  the  magistrates 
must  in  some  places  have  been  tolerant : 
for  we  find  the  General  Assemblyin  1713 
complaining  that  the  Catholics  had  set  up 
"  openly  in  divers  places  their  idolatrous 
worship,  notwithstanding  the  penal  laws 
which  stand  in  force  against  them." ' 
With  no  little  etirontery,  considering  that 
they  and  their  predecessors  had  allowed 
no  Catholic  to  live  in  peace  in  Scotland 
for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  past,  the 
ministers  attribute  to  their  victims  "  the 
hellish  design  of  extirpating  the  Protest- 
ant religion,  under  the  name  of  the 
Northern  heresie."  The  sou  and  grand- 
son of  James  II.,  in  the  risings  of  1715, 
and  1745,  found  great  support  in  the 
more  ardent  loyalty  of  those  Highland 
clans  which  had  retained  the  ancient 
■aith.  The  failure  of  the  attempt  of  1745 
was  disastrous  to  Catholic  interests  in 
Scotland.  At  that  time,  says  Archbishop 
Strain,-  "  not  only  individuals,  but  many 
entire  families  fell  away  from  their  re- 
ligion." Deep  inroads  were  made  in  the 
Catholicity  of  the  Nortli  through  the  fall 
of  many  heads  of  clans  and  great  land- 
holders, whose  exauiple  was  usually  imi- 
tated in  good  faith  by  their  simple 
followers.  "  The  territory  inhabited  by 
the  western  Celts  was  portioned  off,  like  a 
chess-board,''^  into  Catholic  and  Calviuist 
<listricts.  In  the  South  the  resolution  of 
those  holding  authority  to  repress  any 
Catholic  manifestation  was  so  weU  known 
that  the  attempt  was  seldom  made. 
There  were  but  seven  Jesuits  in  all  Scot- 
land when  the  order  was  suppressed. 
Aberdeenshire  was  perhaps  the  county  in 
which  religion  was  least  persecuted ;  the 
noble  house  of  Gordon  (Earls  of  Huntiy) 
always  "  gave  ready  shelter  to  priests  " ; 
and  we  read  of  "  an  inaccesssible  college 
of  priests  living  like  a  band  of  robbers  in 
the  wilds  of  Glenlivet." "  A  storm  of 
reviling  swept  over  Scotland  when  it  was 
aimounced  (1778)  that  the  Government, 
which  the  turn  that  events  had  taken  in 
America  had  seriously  alarmed,  was  bring- 

1  A  Seasnjiable  JFarning,  &c.,  issued  by  the 
■Gen.  Afsomlilv,  1713. 

'  In  the  Memoir  prefixed  to  the  Works  of 
Bishop  Hay,  1872-3. 

»  Burton,  viii.  429. 

*Ib. 


ing  in  a  bill  to  relax  the  penal  laws.  A 
multitude  of  addresses,  protects,  declara- 
tions, and  overtures,  from  everA-  kirk-ses- 
sion, presby terj-,  and  synod  in  the  kingdom, 
poured  in  upon  the  Parliament  at  West- 
minster, in  order  to  arrest  them  in  their 
wild  career.  These  were  collected  in  a 
neat  volume  of  350  pages  ;  '  in  the  intro- 
duction to  which  the  existence  of  an 
"  insidious  design  "  to  tolerate  Jesuits  and 
seminary  priests  was  deplored,  and  the 
legal  safeguards  were  declared  insecure 
which  forbade  "  the  very  dangerous  privi- 
lege of  Pa])i>is'  enjoying  heritable  pro- 
perty." In  17  j1  the  Vicariate  which  had 
been  established  in  1G94  was  divided  into 
two  districts,  the  Lowland  and  Highland. 
A  Papal  rescript  of  1827  erected  three 
Vicariates — the  Eastern,  the  Western,  and 
tlie  Northern.  "  This  last  arrangement 
remained  in  force  till  the  re-establishment 
of  the  luerarchy  by  the  Apostolic  letter 
'  Ex  supremo,'  March  4,  1878."  ("  Cath. 
Dir.  for  Scot.") 

In  the  article  on  English  Chtjkch 
it  was  mentioned  that  the  shock  of  the 
rioting  and  destruction  at  London  in  1780 
was  more  than  the  agfdframeof  ChaUoner 
could  bear.  Bishop  Hay,  vicar-apostolic 
for  Scotland,  had  a  rather  narrow  escape 
at  the  same  time.  He  had  lately  com- 
pleted a  chapel  and  house,  from  the 
exterior  of  which,  however,  every  mark 
of  their  ecclesiastical  use  was  carefully 
lianished,  in  Chalmers'  Close,  High  Street, 
Edinburgh.  In  the  February  of  1779  the 
excitement  against  the  Catholic  Relief 
Bill  was  at  Its  height.  Returning  from 
a  journey  the  bishop  found  the  High 
Street  occupied  by  an  enormous  crowd. 
He  asked  a  woman  what  it  meant ;  she 
replied,  "  Oh,  sir,  we  are  burning  the 
Po])ish  chapel,  and  we  only  wish  we  had 
the  bishop  to  throw  him  into  the  fire."" 
The  bishop  after  a  time  succeeded  in 
obtaining  some  compensation  for  the  pro- 
perty burnt  and  destroyed ;  but  he  did 
not  venture  to  rebuild  the  chapel;  that 
was  only  done  by  Bishop  Cameron,  three 
years  after  Dr.  Hay's  death,  In  1814. 

During  the  last  half  century  the 
Catholic  population  of  Scotland  has  been 
largely  augmented  by  an  Irish  immigra- 
tion, consequent  on  the  demand  for  labour 
arising  at  gi-eat  industrial  centres  like 
Glasgow  and  Paisley.  In  1878  the  Holy 
See  judged  in  its  wisdom  that  the  time 
had  arrived  for  restoring  to  Scotland  some 

1  Scotland's  Opposition  to  the  Fopish  Bill, 
1780. 

*  Archbishop  Strain  s  Memoir. 


f33 


SCRUTINY 


SEAL  OF  CONFESSION 


of  those  ancient  sees  which  had  beeu 
vacant  for  nearly  three  hundred  years. 
The  mitre  of  St.  Andrew's  was  now  con- 
ferred on  Bishop  Strain,  of  the  Eastern 
district,  with  the  title  of  "  Archbishop  of 
St.  Andrew's  and  Edinburgh."  The  arch- 
diocese of  Glasgow,  which  formerly  had 
four  suffragan  sees,  was  committed  to  Mgr. 
Eyre,  translated  from  the  "Western  district. 
The  sees  of  Aberdeen,  Dunkeld,  Galloway, 
and  Argyll,  which  had  all  been  vacant 
since  the  Reformation,  were  resuscitated 
at  the  same  time,  and  made  suffragan  to 
St.  Andrew's.  Bishop  J.  Mafdonald  was 
translated  to  Aberdeen  from  the  Northern 
district;  to  Argyll  the  old  see  of  "The 
Isles"  was  annexed.  The  number  of 
priests,  secular  and  regular,  having  cure 
of  souls  in  Scotland,  is  350.  The  Catholic 
population  appears  to  number  about 
350,000  souls. 

SCI11TTXW7  (scrutintum).  An  ex- 
amination of  those  -who  were  about  to 
receive  baptism  as  to  their  foith  and  dis- 
positions. They  were  taught  the  Creed 
and  the  Lord's  Prayer,  exorcised,  &c., 
during  those  scrutinies.  The  days  ap- 
pointed for  the  difterrut  scrutinies  vari^'d 
in  diti'erent  places.  At  Rome  the  Creed 
was  given  to  the  catechumens  on  the 
"Wednesday  of  the  fourth  week  in  Lent 
{traditio  symhdh),  and  they  made  profes- 
sion of  faith  (redditio  si/iitboli)  on  Iloly 
Saturday.  In  the  Roman  Church,  under 
Pope  Siricius,  there  were  apparently 
three  scrutinies  only  ;  at  a  later  date, 
seven  ;  then,  when  baptism  was  seldom 
-iven  e.xcept  to  infants,  the  number  fell 
again  to  three,  and  from  the  beginning  of 
the  twelfth  century — as  infants  were  bap- 
tised soon  after  birth,  even  if  there  was  no 
apprehension  of  death,  and  not,  as  formerly, 
at  Easter  and  Pentecost — the  ceremonies 
of  the  scrutiny  were  joined,  as  in  our 
present  Ritual,  to  the  actual  baptism. 
The  Gelasian  Sacramentary  contains  four 
Masses  "pro  scrutiniis  electorum."  (Char- 
don,  "Hist,  des  Sacr."  torn.  i.  £(ij)teine, 
P.  I.  ch.  vii.  viii.) 

SEAXi  OF  AIiTAR.  [See  Altab.] 
SEAX.  OF  CON'FESSZON'.  The 
obligation  of  keeping  ahsolutely  secret 
knowledge  gained  through  sacramental 
confession.  It  rests  on  the  natural  law 
which  binds  us  to  keep  secrets  communi- 
cated in  confidence,  and  on  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal law,  which,  as  we  shall  see,  forbids, 
under  most  severe  penalties,  anyrevelation 
of  sins  confessed  sacramentally.  But  it 
also  arises  from  the  positive  divine  law, 
and,  as  Suarez  points  out,  the  obligation 


of  the  seal  is  probably  connatural,  and 
belongs  to  the  verj-  essence  of  the  sacra- 
ment of  Penance.  In  other  words,  Christ 
did  not  impose  the  obligation  of  confess- 
ing mortal  sins  committed  after  baptism 
and  then  add  a  protective  law  binding 
the  priest  to  secrecy,  but  the  obligation 
of  the  seal  follows  necessarily  from  the 
nature  of  confession  as  instituted  by  Him  ; 
otherwise,  Penance,  which  is  the  ministry 
of  mercy  and  reconcihation,  would  become 
a  burden  intolerable  to  mankind,  "\^'hat 
the  priest  hears  in  sacramental  confession, 
he  hears  not  as  a  mere  man,  but  as  one 
who  stands  in  God's  place.  He  must  not 
hy  word,  or  look,  or  change  of  conduct 
remind  the  penitent  himself  of  anything 
he  has  heard,  much  less  convey  such 
knowledge  to  others.  To  do  so  is  sacri- 
lege, excusable  by  no  advantage  to  him- 
self, to  the  public,  or  even  to  the  penitent. 
The  law  admits  of  no  exception,  except 
where  the  penitent  freely  gives  the  con- 
fessor leave  to  use  his  knowledge.  Not 
only  sins  however  slight,  but  moral  or 
natural  weaknesses,  sins  of  accomplices, 
all  that  may  bring  the  penitent  inta 
trouble,  or  contempt,  or  suspicion  of  any 
sort,  fall,  if  known  through  confession, 
under  the  sacramental  seal.  A  priest 
mig'it  break  the  seal,  in  certain  circum- 
stances, merely  by  admitting  that  a  per- 
son has  confessed  to  him  ;  or,  again,  even 
if  there  be  no  danger  of  suspicion  fixing 
itself  on  any  individual,  by  revelations 
which  might  bring  bad  repute  or  suspicion 
on  a  community  or  a  certain  number  of 
men. 

The  first  express  mention  of  the  seal 
of  confession,  so  far  as  we  know,  occurs 
in  Canon  20  of  the  Armenian  Synod  at 
Dovin,  in  527.  It  anathematises  any 
priest  who  breaks  the  seal  (Hefele,  "  Con- 
cil."'  vol.  ii.  p.  718).  In  the  West,  there 
is  no  mention  of  penalties  for  breaking 
the  seal  till  very  late  ;  probably  because 
such  a  sacrilege  was  scarcely  thought 
possible.  There  is  a  decree  attributed  to 
a  Pope  Gregory  (as  Morinus  conjectures, 
Gregory  "^^11.),  and  quoted  by  the  Master 
of  the  Sentences  and  Gratian  (Can. 
"  Sacerdos,"  2,  causa  33,  qu.  .3,  dist.  6), 
which  sentences  a  confessor  guilty  of  this 
crime  to  deposition  and  to  perpetual  and 
ignominious  pilgrimage.  The  Fourth 
Lateran  Council  ("Extra,  de  Poenit.  et 
Remiss. ; "  Const,  "  Omnis  utriusque 
sexus  ")  condemns  such  a  priest  to  depo- 
sition and  pei-petual  imprisonment  in  a 
monastery.  The  sanctity  of  the  seal  is 
further  recognised  by  all  the  Oriental 


SECRET 


3ECEET 


-ecTs  (Denziapi,  "  Bit.  Orient."  voL  i.  p. 
101),  and  their  eanoB  law  tkreatens  with, 
the  mciSt  serere  panLshmeiita  thoee  who 
br>rai  it.  Trne,  a  law  of  Peter  the  Grea: 
re^nires  Baaeian  con6>«eors  to  Tt^vf^al  rhe 
c^ntVssions  "  --  .  .-lilty  of 
tPraion.  or   -  ■  mira- 

cks,  onltfSfe  =i  law 

onlj  prr.vr^T  -  -  li'us^Aa 

chunrh   has  rj«:om»:  tiie  slave  of  the 

Li  one  -  -     ■  m  are  stricter 

than  med:  ■:  with  respect 

to  the  ieal.  Suppl."  li.  1, 

adSisav-ir.  i  .    ..nowi  from  the 

confesf^ion  ol  iu-j  prior  that  the  office  is 
an  occasion  of  ruin  to  him  may,  on  some 
•ricnie.  relieve  him  of  his  office,  if  he 
will  not  resian  it  wiUiBglv,  provided 
always  there  is  no  dinger  of  the  confes- 
sion bein^  revealed.  According  to  St. 
Lignori  ( Thirol.  MoraL"'  lib.  vi  n.  656), 
thi*  is  the  doctrine  of  St.  BonaTenture 
and  Alexander  of  Hales,  bat  he  adds 
that  it  can  on  no  account  be  pat  in  prac- 
tice, and  this  seffms  to  be  certain  from  the 
eleventh  of  the  Pnjpositiooj  condemned 
in  1682  bv  Innocent  3lL 

SZCSZT.  Either  seereta,  neat.  pL 
"seer'---'        '  1  --r 

orpr- 

voir- 

him- 


and  this  ■■Bliswas  constantly  increaein^r 

in  Le  Bimfa  tiBe.   Thi.-*  zr^r  ^hrAai 

has  written  aa  dahorat^  -.  ■  ■  - 

siibiect,  which  fijrms  th>^ 

of  his  "  Explication,  de  '.i^  . -. 

foE'vwiivj  are  the  chief  p'  .-  : 

establishes. 

(1;  The   Xeanituj  of  the  word  ~  Se- 
creta.' — Boeenet  ("^  Expfic.  i  -  '-it 
la  ile-se,**  n.  2j  su;^;^e»te<I 
came  from  tecret.ia^  as  mi  ' 
&c.,  either  because  said 
tions,  which  were  then  •• 
the  rest  of  the  bread  otfr 
said  after  the  .*paration         r  ^  -.- 
mens  from  the  fiirhfuL    TLis  dcri.  i:.:. -. 
adopted  as  i>r;ain  bv  Vert,  is  pi-,  -fi 
faLe  by  Le  — -..r 

nenernereh:  -v  r- 

chomens.      ■  :  ^--r  .  ' 

iecT'ta — i.f.  --.  _    .7  -L - 

ancient  Sa/cramratAry  of  E'-^obic  1.. : 
Ordo  Bomanus,  which  have  "  1. , 
secreta.'  '•  dicta  rjiatione  secreta,"  1.1 
the  old  En-irgical  writers  —ej).  Az.  ■ 
who  raj-- :  "Secreta  mjminatnr  ■-- 
creto  diciTnr." 

(2 )    The  prenent  Ihncipline   of  the 
Church  majfp;'  it  unlawful  for  any  cele- 
brant (except  bishops  in  the  ^ass 
(fination)  to  aay  the  Secrets  or  '     .  1 
andibiv.    The  Coancil  of  Tre:.: 


mtmt  oce . 
bv  P  : -  - 


or  - 

the  marter  -r      .  .  : 

the  beii;niii^  ji  -.ia.:->-Q:ii  cturiiry. 
Ah  a:  IT'*-",  ^v^en  "h-  }-Ii^al  was  revised 
f  -r  -he  di-ce^  "jf  ^lea'ii  at  the  -order  oc' 
Biih-:'p  Bi--y  >  riv^  years  larer.  Cardinal), 
the  ne-x  ii-iri-ja  appeared  with  an  crmrii-rn'a" 
■•  An:  -  •  '  ■■  1"  3:  in  red  at  the    and  Quart!, 

end  •-  in  the  Canon;    tative  inte: 

an<i  -  .  -ae  prayerv  to 

be  -i  -     .  :      ivJymvuia  vocei 

was  exp.i^r^i  'jv  the  additional  clause — 
"  {.f.  wi-hout  sinking  ~  (ijt.  nne  raittu  1. 
The  ohar.-er  (  Jan.  '20.  1710*  and  the 
hishop  I  in  a  m/mfleTrwnt  two  or  three 
days  later  I  repu>iiated  all  complicity  in 
th-  change,  and  the  '?opies  rf  the  >Iissai 
were  again  corrected  by  episcopal  au- 
thority. Bat  the  innovation  of  .saying 
tee  ?ecreTr  and  Caa  c  aloud,  wLich  had 
Veen  or'-'d  'asly  Cfjcd-mne'i  by  Salary, 
bish.-p  •  t'  ■>^z.  in  ;i  rr-^/ui/'Tnent  of  lljO!?. 
was  e-i^-erly  d-feii':"l  .and  a<l.:'pt»'d  by  a 
number  of  pne-^r?  ^eciiar  and  regular. 


bv 


Car: 

faithful  ise 
the  wnr-ia 


834       SECULAE  CLERGY 


SEDILLA. 


Florus,  who  lived  in  the  ninth  centwry,  ! 
is  the  last  -writer  who  mentions  tms  j 
response.  That  the  people  did  answer 
"  Amen "  after  the  Consecration  is  an 
unquestionable  fact  :  but  there  is  no 
reason  to  beheve  that  they  did,  and 
many  weighty  reasons  for  thinking  that 
they  did  not, "do  so  immediately  after  the 
words  of  consecration  were  uttered. 
Neither  in  the  old  Gallican  Missal  edited 
hy  Thomasius,  nor  in  the  first  Ordo 
liomanus,  nor  in  any  of  the  Missals  older 
than  the  twelfth  century  examined  by 
Le  Brun,  is  any  "  Amen "  marked  till 
after  the  "  Per  omnia  saecula  sseculorum  " 
which  ends  the  Canon  and  precedes  the 
Pater  Xoster.  AU  the  Oriental  liturgies 
distinguish  the  prayers  to  be  said  aloud 
from  those  which  are  uttered  in  an 
under-tone.  True,  the  modem  Greeks 
say  the  words  of  consecration  in  a  loud 
voice,  but  this  custom  was  introduced  by 
a  constitution  of  Justinian  (Novella  132, 
cap.  6.  quoted  by  Le  Brun),  and  even 
now  the  Greeks  say  the  rest  of  tbe  Canon 
in  an  under-tone.  Add  to  all  this  that 
the  Canon  of  the  Mass  was  never  com- 
mitted to  writing  in  the  first  four  cen- 
turies ;  that  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  ("  In 
Joann."  lib.  xii.  apud  Le  Brun)  speaks  of 
the  doors  of  the  sanctuary  which  were 
closed  ;  St.  Chrysostom  of  the  curtain 
drawn  during  the  Consecration,  and  we 
shall  scarcely  doubt  that  Le  Brun  is 
right  in  claiming  immemorial  antiquity 
for  our  present  use.  "V\'e  may  quote,  in 
conclusion,  two  other  authorities.  Mar- 
tene.  in  a  letter  to  Le  Brim  (March  27, 
1726),  tells  him  he  has  treated  the  ques- 
tion in  a  manner  which  leaves  no  room 
for  reply,  and  he  says  Mabillon,  who  was 
his  master,  always  held  that  the  Canon 
had  never  been  said  audiblv  in  the  Latin 
Church.  The  names  of  ^labillon,  ^lar- 
tene,  and  Le  Brun  are  probably  the  very 
greatest  which  could  be  adduced  in  such 
a  controversy.  Nor  can  any  valid  ob- 
jection be  made  on  general  grounds  to 
the  practice  of  the  Church.  It  is  fitting 
in  every  way  that  the  priest,  in  these 
solemn  moments,  should  speak  in  the 
ears  of  God  alone,  and  that  the  fiiithful 
should  meditate  in  reverent  silence  on 
that  great  mystery  of  our  redemption 
which  is  represented,  continued,  and 
applied  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 

SECVK&R  CIiSRCV  {scscuhan,  the 
world).  From  St.  Cyprian  downwards, 
the  terms  Sfeculitm,  scecularis  were  habi- 
tually used  by  Christian  writers  to  express 
the  world  outside  the  Church,  and  the 


spirit  of  that  world.  In  proportion  as 
the  monastic  institution  grew  and  spread 
itself,  the  contrast  between  the  cloister 
or  the  cell  and  life  outside  of  these  was 
more  vividly  realised,  and  when  the 
profession  of  Christianity  had  become 
general,  the  contrast  was  no  longer  be- 
tween sacithan  and  ecclesia,  but  between 
the  secular  or  worldly  and  the  monastic 
or  regular  life.  To  the  clergy  of  all  ranks 
and  orders  serving  Christ  in  the  world, 
not  bound  by  vows  or  by  a  rule  of  life, 
the  term  "  secular  "  seems  to  have  been 
first  applied  in  the  twelfth  century. 
Honorius  II.  (1125)  permitted  the  monks 
of  Cluny  to  give  their  habit  to  secular 
clerks  who  desired  to  join  them  ;  laicos, 
sen  clericos  saculares  .  .  .  ad  convei'sionem 
susctpere.^    (Ducange,  Smcuhm.) 

SECVX.AazsATXO>r.  The  extinc- 
tion of  the  title  by  which  property, 
whether  real  or  personal,  is  held  by  the 
Church,  and  the  placing  of  that  property 
at  the  disposal  of  the  secular  power.  It 
is  obvious  that  such  extinction  of  title 
cannot  justly  take  elFect  except  with  the 
consent  of  the  Holy  See.  as  representing 
the  whole  Church.  Historically,  such 
consent  has  seldom  been  asked  or  ob- 
tained ;  the  utmost  concession  to  equity 
that  civil  governments  are  accustomed 
to  make  in  such  a  case  is  to  enter  into  a 
treaty  with  the  Holy  See  for  regulating 
the  compensation,  generally  a  most  in- 
adequate one,  awarded  to  the  clergy, 
secular  or  regular,  whose  property  has 
been  secularised.  This  has  been  done 
[Coitcorbat]  in  France,  Austria,  and 
Catholic  coxmtries  generally.  In  England, 
Ireland,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Holland, 
no  compensation  for  the  expropriation  of 
Church  property  has  ever  been  made. 

The  prmcipal  European  secularisations 
have  taken  place  in  the  foUowin?  order: 
Sweden,  1527;  England,  1534-8;  Den- 
mark, 1536;  North  Germany,  1521-1048; 
France,  1790.  In  Germany  the  great 
secularisation  took  place  in  1803,  when 
the  teiritories  of  the  three  ecclesiastical 
Electors,  the  Prince-Archbishops  of 
Cologne,  Mentz,  and  Treves,  with  those 
of  an  immense  number  of  bishops  and 
convents,  were  apportioned  among  the 
i  German  sovereigns  as  indemnity  for  the 
'  loss  which  the  Empire  had  sustained  at 
the  Peace  of  Lim^ville,  through  the  cession 
of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  to  France. 
Spain,  183.5-6;  Italy,  1851-1882. 
I      SEDZXiZA.    The  seats  in  the  sanc- 

[  1  Thomassin,  ii.  1, 10, 


SEMIARIAXS 


SEitrXAET  835- 


Ittarr  occupied  by  the  priest  and  hifl 

miiiiiters.  j 
SEMZASXAirs.   [See  AsLLsraJ 
SEIVIIDOTJBI.E.     See  Feasts.! 
SEMIN-ART.    A  school  OF  college 
for  the  craii'.ing  of  young  persons  destined 
for  the  priesth'ood-'  Under  the  headings 
Schools  and  Ustveesittes  will  be  found 
some  account  of  the  methods  employed  bv 
the  Church  to  impart  this  training,  and  to 
adapt  it  to  the  changing  circumstances  of 
European  society,  in  t£e  primitiTe  rimes 
and  during  the  middle  ages.     In  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  the 
university  system  was  greatly  extended  ;  . 
faculties 'of'  theology  were  everywhere  | 
erected  in  them ;  and  the  old  monastic  or 
cathedral  schools,  of  the  success  of  which  | 
Bee,  Fleury,  York,  Rheims,  and  Cologne 
had  given"  brilliant  examples,  fell  into 
decay.    In  the  sixteenth  century  many 
of  the  existing  universities,  comiug  alto- 
^'ether  under  Protestant  influences,  were 
lost  to  the  Church ;  and  even  in  the  re- 
mainder a  spirit  of  disatfection  or  doubt 
was  rife,  which  made  them  ill  adapted 
to  nourish  and  protect  that  pure  and 
peaceful  ecclesiastical  temper  in  which  it 
is  so  desirable  that  the  future  servants  of 
the  sanctuary  should  be  reared.  The 
Fathers  of  Trent,  comprehending  in  their 
full  bearing  the  difficulties  and  confusions 
of  the  time,  and  providing  with  equal 
■f.iety  and  wisdom  the  suitable  remedies,  ■ 
resolved  that,  so  far  as  in  them  lay,  no 
Catholic  diocese  should  in  future  be  j 
u-ithout  regular  and  permanent  means  ] 
for  supplying  itself  from  generation  to  I 
generation  with  pastors  carefully  trained  ! 
to  meet  its  spiritual  needs.   They  accord-  [ 
ingly  ordered  that  the  metropolitan  of ' 
every  province,  and  the  bishop  of  every 
diocese,  should  establish  at  some  suitable 
place  (if  there  were  no  institution  of  the 
kind  already  existing)  a  college  or  semi-  , 
nary,  into  which  a  certain  number  of 
boys  of  not  less  than  twelve  years  of  age, 
bom  in  wedlock,  able  to  read  and  write, 
and  giving  some  promise  of  perseverance 
in  the  service  of  the  Church,  should  be 
adnutted.    The  sons  of  poor  parents  were 
to  be  preferred ;  but  the  rich,  provided 
that  they  paid  their  own  expenses,  were 
not  to  be  excluded.    The  tonsure  was  to 
be  given,  and  the  ecclesi:\stical  dress  to 
be  worn  from  the  very  first.  All  branches 
of  study — such  as  the  ecclesiastical  chant, 
the  ritual,  the  administration  of  sacra- 
ments, and  especially  what  relates  to  the 
tribunal  of  Peuance — which  contribute  to 
form  a  well-instructed  priest,  were  to  be 


taught  to  the  students ;  besides,  of  course, 
Holy  Scripture  and  theology.  The  rule 
aut  disce  out  discede  was  to  be  stiictly 
enforced.  The  management  of  the  semi- 
nary was  to  be  in  the  hands  of  the  bishop 
and  two  of  the  senior  canons.  On  the 
important  question  of  "  ways  and  means  " 
the  Council  was  fuU  and  precise,  ordei-ing 
that  the  prebends  of  canons  and  the 
revenues  of  ecclesListical  benefices  of 
every  description  should  be  taxed  to  the 
extent  re<|uired  for  the  sustentation  of  the 
institution.  Two  poor  dioceses  might 
unite  to  found  one  seminary ;  and  a  rich 
diocese  might  found  more  than  one  within 
its  own  limits. 

The  wish  of  the  Council  was  but 
partially  fulfilled.  In  France  seminaries 
arose  in  every  direction  before  the  Revolu- 
tion ;  the  fame  of  Sr.  Sulpice,  founded  by 
il.  Olier  about  1650,  became  European ; 
but  the  Eevolutic>n  swept  away  every- 
thing. The  last  sixty  years  have  witnessed 
the  refouniling  of  the  seminaries  in  most 
of  the  dioceses  of  France,  Lu  the  shape 
both  of  grands  shninaires,  which  give 
the  final  training,  and  ofpetits  seminnirei, 
which,  besides  providing  for  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  ecclesiastical  traiiung,  give 
an  excellent  general  education  to  all  boys 
admitted  into  them,  whether  intending 
to  become  priests  or  not.  In  Germanv 
various  obstacles  have  all  alon^  Impeded 
the  execution  of  the  Council's  decree. 
The  usual  practice  has  been  for  clerical 
students  to  pass  two  or  three  years  at 
a  university,  and  afterwards  one  year  or 
even  less  in  an  episcopal  seminary,  to  ac- 
quire special  professional  knowledge.  Of 
this  mode  of  meeting  the  exigencies  of  the 
problem,  so  ditferent  from  that  appointed 
by  the  Councd,  Pius  VII.,  in  a  brief  dated 
August  10, 1S19,  expressed  his  disapproba- 
tion.' Recently,  we  believe,  the  German 
bishops  have  made  great  advances  towards 
the  introduction  of  the  seminary  system. 
In  Ireland,  besides  the  great  seminary 
of  Maynooth,  there  would  appear  to  be 
eight  diocesan  seminaries,  and  at  least  as 
many  diocesan  colleges,  the  ecclesiastical 
students  from  which  go  up  to  Maynooth 
to  receive  their  final  preparation  "for  the 
priesthood.  In  England  and  Scotland 
there  appear  to  be  as  yet  seven  diocesan 
seminaries  in  the  strict  sense  (West- 
minster, Birmingham,  Liverpool,  Leeds, 
Northampton,  Southwark,  and  Glasgow); 
but  there  are  also  a  nimiber  of  diocesan 
colleges,  in  each  of  which  a  certain 

'  Weuer  and  Welte. 


836  SKMIPLLAGLVNISM 


SEMirEL^GLLXISM 


number  of  ecclesdastical  students  are 
educated  for  the  priesthood. 

SBMZPErAGZAN'XSM.  A  heresy 
■which  arose  from  reaction  against  the 
doctrine  of  St.  Augustine  on  grace  and 
predestination.  The  Semipelagians  did 
not  go  so  far  as  Pelagius,  and  they  held 
their  errors,  so  far  as  can  be  known,  with- 
out any  intention  of  rejecting  Catholic 
doctrine.  They  were  not  considered 
heretics  ;  on  the  contrary,  St._  Augustine 
and  St.  Prosper  speak  of  them  as 
"  brethren."  "  holy  men,"  &c.,  though 
their  doctrine  was  undoubtedly  heretical. 
Contention  arose  among  the  monks  of 
Adrumetum,  occasioned  by  Augustine's 
letter  to  Sixtus,  priest,  afterwards  bishop, 
of  Rome  in  41 S.  To  these  monks  Augus- 
tine iu  426  addressed  two  letters  ("Ad 
Valentin.  Abbat.  et  Monach.  Adnuuet."), 
and  sent  along  with  them  his  little  work 
"On  Grace  and  Free-will,"  and  afterwards 
another"  DeCorreptione  et  Gratia," which 
Cardinal  Xoris  calls  the  key  to  the  whole 
doctrine  of  the  saint.  But  in  the  follow- 
ing year  St.  Augustine  had  to  write  to 
Tit  alls,  "a  certain  learned  man  in  the 
Carthaginian  church,"  who  held  that 
"right  belief  in  God  and  assent  to  the 
Gospel  was  not  the  gift  of  God  but  of 
ourselves — that  is,  from  our  own  will." 
(August.  "Ep.  ad  Vital."  ad  init.)  Here 
we  have  Semipelagianism  appearing  in  a 
definite  form.  Further,  Augustine  learnt 
from  the  letters  of  Prosper  and  Hilarius 
that  his  book  "De  Correptione  et  Gratia  " 
had  met  with  great  opposition  among  the 
monks  of  Marseilles.  These  letters  are  ex- 
tant, and  give  a  very  clear  and  coherent  ac- 
count of  theSemijielagian  tenets  which  are 
ofttn  called  the  her<rsyoi  the  ilassilienses. 
The  monks  objected  to  the  Augustinian 
doctrine  that  the  number  of  the  elect  was 
absolutely  fixed  by  the  decree  of  God. 
They  made  predestination  the  mere  fore- 
knowledge of  God  that  some  would, 
others  would  not,  persevere.  They  also 
held  that  God  allowed  some  infants  to 
die  without  baptism,  some  adidts  without 
hearing  the  Gospel,  only  because  He  knew 
they  would  have  made  no  use  of  these 
giaces  had  they  been  ofl'ered.  Again, 
admitting  that  "all  mankind  perishe'd  in 
Adam  and  could  not  be  freed  from  that 
state  by  their  own  free  will,"  that  "  no 
one  was  able  iu  his  own  strength  to  begin, 
much  less  to  finish,  any  [good]  work," 
they  still  maintained  that  the  wish  to  be 
healed,  the  beginning  of  faith,  "  if  not 
entire  faith,"  must  proceed  from  the  good 
use  of  the  natural  faculties.    Christ  was 


the  physician,  but  the  desire  to  be  healed 
by  Him  was  natural  and  human.  '•  To 
that  grace  through  which  we  are  new- 
born in  Christ,  man  comes  by  natural 
power,  by  seeking,  asking,  knocking." 
Lastly,  they  denied  that  God  gave  not 
only  the  power  to  persevere,  but  also 
perseverance  itself  ("  ut  eis  perseverantia 
ipsa  donetur  ").  These  two  letters,  from 
which  the  words  in  inverted  commas  are 
taken,  are  eminently  trustworthy,  for  they 
speak  of  the  Massilieuses  not  only  with 
courtesy  but  even  with  reverence.  St. 
Auorustine  replied  by  sending  his  two 
I  books,  "De  Predestinatione  Sanctoriuu  " 
and  "  De  Dono  Perseverantiie,"  written 
I  in  428  or  429.  It  was  at  this  time  that 
Cassianfinished  the  ■writing  of  his"  XXIV. 
Conferences  "  (begun  in  423,  finished  in 
42*-).  He  had  come  to  Provence  about 
509,  and,  having  been  ordained  priest, 
founded  two  monasteries,  one  for  men,  the 
other  for  women.  He  is  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  celebrated  abbey  of  St. 
Victor  at  MarseiUes,  and  is  said"  to  have 
had  5.000  monks  imder  him.  His  "  Con- 
ferences "  have  always  had  a  high  reputa- 
tion in  the  Church.  But  in  them  we  find 
Semipelagianism  in  its  most  developed 
and  offensive  form.  "Not  only,"  says 
Petavius  ("De  Pelag.  et  Semipelag. 
Hser."  cap.  vii.),  "  did  he  attribute  the 
beginning  of  good-will  to  the  will  of 
man,  but  even  ascribed  to  it  remarlcable 
and  heroic  virtues."  Thus  in  Collat.  xiii. 
cap.  14,  he  supposes  that  God  "  withdrew 
His  hand "  from  Job  and  left  him  to 
obtain  an  actual  victory  over  Satan  in 
t  his  o^svn  strength.  So  he  asserts  {ih.)  that 
I  the  centurion's  faith  which  Christ  praises 
:  (^latt.  viii.)  was  due  to  his  natural  efforts: 
'  else,  he  says,  Christ  would  not  have  praised 
it.  and  would  have  siud,  not  "I  have 
not  found  such  faith  in  Israel,"  but  "  I 
'  have  not  given  such  faith  in  Israel." 
,  Cassian  was  attacked  by  St.  Prosper  in 
i  his  '•  Liber  Ad  versus  CoUatorem.'"  wi-itten 
;  about  4ci2  or  rather  later.  It  is  specially 
^  directed  against  Conference  XIII.  ali-eady 
referred  to. 

.  Before  this,  in  431,  Pope  Celestine, 
appealed  to  by  Prosper  and  Hilarius.  had 
addressed  a  letter  of  capital  importance 
to  Veuerius,  bishop  of  Marseilles,  and  the 
other  bishops  of  Gaul.  The  Pope,  though 
he  speaks  of  St.  Augustine  as  one  whom 
previous  Popes  had  always  reckoned 
"among  the  best  mastei-s,"  carefully  ab- 
stains from  insisting  on  many  points  in 
the  Augustinian  doctrine  of  grace  and 
predestination  which  had  been  regarded, 


SEMIPELAGIANISM 


SEPARATION 


and  moat  naturally,  as  "hard  sayings" 
ty  the  Semipelagians.  But  he  teaches 
emphatically  (1)  that  "the  will  is  pre- 
pared by  God,"'  that  -'every  holy  thought, 
good  counsel,  movement  of  the  will  comes 
from  God,"  that  only  through  His  grace 
we  "bei/in  to  will  and  to  do  any  good," 
that  He  acts  in  us  in  order  "that  we 
may  do  and  will  what  He  wills'';  (2) 
that  "  no  one,  except  through  Christ,  can 
use  his  free  will  aright,''  that  none  can 
overcome  temptation  "  save  through  God's 
daily  help  " ;  (3)  that  "  we  must  refer 
final  perseverance  to  the  grace  of  Christ." 
These  statements,  he  adds,  are  enough ; 
■while  he  does  not  despise,  he  declines  to 
enter  on,  the  "  deeper  and  harder  parts  of 
the  questions  which  present  themselves." 
(Celest.  '•  Ad  Episc.  Gall.  '  ep.  21.) 

The  controversy  entered  on  its  last 
stage  about  475.  The  Predestinationist 
heresy  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  the 
person  of  Lucidus,  a  priest,  and  a  certixin 
Monimus  of  Africa.  We  have  little 
accurate  information  about  these  heretics. 
Lucidus  seems  to  have  denied  free-will, 
and  to  have  held  that  men  were  lost  by 
no  will  of  their  own  and  simply  b-cause 
they  were  reprobate  by  the  divine  decree. 
He  was  opposed  by  Faustus,  abbot  of 
Lerins,  and  afterwards  bishop  of  Riez,  and 
submitted  after  he  had  been  condemned 
by  two  councils  at  .\rles  and  Lyons  (pro- 
bably in  475 ;  see  Hefele,  "  Concil."  vol. 
ii.  p.  597  seq.).  But  Faustus,  in  his  two 
books  "  De  G ratia  Dei  et  IIiimanLe  Mentis 
Libero  Arbitrio,'"  showed  himself  a  Semi- 
pelagian,  and  Scythian  monks  laid  the 
matter  before  Pope  Horuiisdas  and  then 
before  Fulgentius  of  Ruspe  and  other 
African  bishops  who  had  taken  refuge  in 
Sardinia,  and  who  anathematised  Faustus 
in  5:^3  Fulgentius  refuted  Faustus  in 
three  books,  '■  De  Veritate  Prsedestina- 
tionis  et  Gratire  Dei.''  The  CathoUc  doc- 
trine was  defended  in  France  by  Avitus 
of  Vienne  and  Csesarius  of  Aries  (d. 
642).  In  529,  the  Synod  of  Orange 
(Arausio),  in  South  Gaid,  gave  the  final 
blow  to  Semipelagianism.  Although 
only  a  provincial  council,  it  possesses  the 
highest  dogm:^tic  authority,  for  it  was 
confirmed  by  Pope  Boniface  II.  It  de- 
fines that  man  can  neither  "  believe,  will, 
desire,  attempt,  labour,  watcb,  strive, 
seek,  ask,  knock  "  "  as  it  behoves  him  " 
(can.  6),  or  even  "  think  any  good  thing, 
which  pertains  to  the  salvation  of  eternal 
life"  (can.  7),  "  by  the  strength  of  nature  " 
and  "  without  God's  grace."  "  No  one 
has  aught  of  his  own,  except  lying  and 


I  sin  "  (can.  22).  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Council  teaches  that  the  free  will  of  fallen 
man  is  not  destroyed,  but  '•  perverted  and 
weakened  "  ;  ''A  reward  is  due  to  good 
works,  but  grace,  which  is  not  due,  comes 
first,  that  the  works  may  be  done  "  (can. 
18) ;  "  Men  do  their  own  wiU,  not  God's, 
when  they  do  that  which  displeases  God  " 
(can.  23) ;  That  some  are  predestined  to 
evil  by  divine  power  we  not  only  dis- 
believe, but  also  Lf  there  are  any  who 
believe  so  horrible  a  thing,  we  say  ana- 
thema to  them  with  all  detestation." 

(The  great  authority  oa  the  history 
of  Semipelagianism  is  Cardinal  Noris, 
"HLstoria  Pelagiana,"  Florence,  1673; 
Patav.  1677.  See  also  Petavius,  in  the 
work  cited  in  the  text.  The  chief  sources 
are  the  works  of  Augustine,  Prosper,  and 
Fulgentius  uientioneil  above.) 

SBiaPKIXrCBAM,  OSDES  OF. 
This  order  was  Sounded  by  Gdbert  the 
priest  of  Sempringham  in  Lincobishire, 
about  1135,  for  both  men  and  women. 
The  rule  for  the  women  was  that  of 
Benedictine  nuns,  that  of  the  men  was 
the  same  as  that  foUowei  by  Austin 
canons;  in  either  case  St.  Gilbert  added 
particular  statutes  of  his  own.  The 
habit  of  a  Gilbertine  canon  wiis  a  black 
cassock  with  a  white  cloak  over  it,  and  a 
hood  lined  with  lambskin.  At  his  death 
in  11S9  St.  Gilbert  left  thirteen  houses 
of  his  order,  of  which  nine  were  double, 
and  the  others  for  men  only.  In  the 
double  monasteries  the  only  common 
portion  was  the  church,  and  in  that  the 
nuns  and  canons  could  neither  see  nor 
hear  each  other;  the  other  buddings  were 
placed  at  a  considerable  distance  apart. 
Robert  Mannyng,  the  well-known  author 
of  one  of  the  old  English  "  Rhyming 
Chronicles,"  was  a  member  of  this  urder. 

At  the  Dissolution,  the  following 
twenty-five  Gilbertine  houses  were  sup- 
pressed :  — 

Aivinsham  (Line)  I  Mattersey  (Xotts) 
bulliuarton  (Line)  Mirmand' (Cambr.) 
Cambridiie  j  Xewstede  (Line) 

C.ittelev  (Line)  North  Ormesby 

I  Chicksind  (Beds.)  (Line.) 

'  Clattercote  ( Oxf.)        i  Old  Malton  (York) 

I  Elreton  (York)  |  Overton  (York) 

Fordham  (Cambr.)  I  Pulton  ( Wilts) 
Haverholm  (Line)  Sempringham 
Hitchin  (Herts)  Sishill  (Line.) 

I  Holland  Bridge  Shonldham  ( Nort) 

(Line.)  Walton  (York) 

1  Lincoln  i  York,  St.  Andrew's 

'  Marlborough  ' 

j  SEPARATION'.  [See  DiroBCS  and 
I  Maeriage.] 


838  SEPTUAGIXT 


SEPTUAGINT 


SEPTXTAGINT.  By  this  name  is 
known  the  first  Greek  translation  of  the 
Bible,  made  at  Alexandria,  about 
B.C.  286-284.  The  various  more  or  less 
fabulous  stories  concerning  its  origin  are 
all  founded  upon  a  Greek  letter  purport- 
in":  to  be  written  by  one  Aristeas,  an 
alleged  partaker  in  the  transaction. 
According  to  Aristeas,  "the  Athenian 
Demetrius Phalereus induced  the  Egyptian 
king,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  to  have  a 
Greek  translation  prepared  of  the  Jewish 
Book  of  the  Law.  By  buying  the  free- 
dom (if  the  whole  of  the  Jewish  bondsmen 
in  Egypt  for  a  sum  of  more  than  1,000 
talents  he  assured  for  himself  the  favour 
of  the  Jews.  He  then  requested  the  high 
priest,  by  means  of  an  embassy  in  which 
Aristeas  took  part,  to  send  him  men 
learned  in  both  languages  and  suitable  for 
the  translation,  six  out  of  each  tribe.  The 
high  priest  sent  the  number  of  men 
asked  for,  together  with  a  Hebrew  codex 
written  in  golden  characters.  These 
persons  were  highly  honoured  by  the 
king;  they  completed  the  translation  in 
seventy-two  days,  working  together  at  it 
in  a  beautiful  building  on  the  shores  of 
the  Island  of  Pharos.  Demetrius  wrote 
down  the  translation  as  soon  as  they 
agreed  on  any  portion  of  it.  Then 
Demetrius  convoked  an  assembly  of  the 
Jews,  and  read  out  the  translation  in 
their  presence  and  in  that  of  the  trans- 
lators, and  it  found  general  approval. 
The  Jews  asked  Demetrius  to  let  their 
principal  men  have  a  copy  of  this  trans- 
lation of  the  law  and  to  utter  an  anathema 
on  any  who  should  venture  to  alter  any- 
thing in  it.  The  king  was  highly  rejoiced 
at  the  success  of  the  work,  and,  command- 
ing Demetrius  to  take  particular  care  for  its 
preservation,  dismissed  the  translators  to 
their  homes  with  rich  presents"  (Venables' 
translation  of  Bleek's  "  Introduction  to  the 
Old  Testament,"  ii.  p.  390).  This  ground- 
work was  successively  embellished  by  Philo 
("  De  Vita  Mosis,"  1.  2,  §§  5-7),  Josephus 
("  Ant."  xii.  2);  Justin  Martyr  ("  Cohort,  ad 
Graecos,"  c.  xiii),  who  adds  that  the  seventy 
translators  worked  in  seventy  different 
cells,  had  no  communication  with  one 
another,  and  yet  translated  every  passage 
in  the  same  words  witliout  the  sligbtest 
diflVience.  Irenseus,  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, Augustine,  and  others  repeat 
Justin's  narrative  with  but  slight  varia- 
tions. The  fundamental  fact  of  Aristeas' 
letter,  viz.  the  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  Greek  under  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
is  corroborated   by  the  testimony  of 


A  ristobulus,  who  wrote  about  a  century 
alter  the  event  (Clement  of  Alex. 
"  Strom."  i.  p.  342,  and  Eusebius,  "  Praep. 
Evaug  "  ix.  6,  xiii.  12).  The  genuineness 
of  Aristobulus  is  almost  universally 
admitted,  whereas  the  letter  of  Aristeas 
is  almost  universally  regarded  as  spurious. 
The  reader  will  find  the  question  fully  de- 
bated in  Humphry  Hody's  "  De  Bibliorum 
textibus  originalibus,  versionibus  Graecis 
et  Latina  Vulgata,"  Oxford,  1705,  and 
in  Van  Dale's  "  Dissertatio  super  Aristea 
de  LXX  interpretibus,"  etc,  Amster- 
dam, 1705,  or  in  the  "lutrod.  to  the  Old 
Testament"  by  Bleek,  Keil,  etc.  After 
sifting  the  evidence  at  hand  Bleek  comes 
to  the  following  conclusions  as  to  the 
real  origin  of  the  Septuagint:  (a)  pro- 
bably the  translation  of  the  Book  of  the 
Law  was  put  in  hand  by  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  and  carried  on  by  Demetrius 

,  Phalereus  in  particular,  as  stated  by 
Aristobulus ;  (6)  we  have  no  ground  for 

!  assuming  that  this  translation  embraced 

'  any  books  of  the  Old  Testament  besides 
the  Pentateuch;  (c)  it  may  be  assumed 
as  certain  that  the  Pentateuch  was  then 
for  the  first  time  translated  into  Greek  ; 
{d)   the  character   of   the  translation 

i  decidedly  points  out  that  the  translators 
belonged  to  Egypt  and  not  to  Palestine,  and 
certainly  that  they  were  not  those  whom 
the  high  priest  expressly  sent  to  Egypt 
with  a  codex  of  the  Law  for  this  purpose. 

\  The  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
were  also  translated  in  Egypt,  some  time 

1  before  133  B.C.,  by  various  authors.  A 
variety  of  translators  may  be  inferred, 
both  from  the  different  character  of  the 
translation  in  different  books,  and  also 
from  certain  perpetually  recurring  varia- 
tions. These  translations  differ  in  impor- 
tant respects  from  our  Hebrew  Bibles. 
It  is  not  only  that  we  meet  with  various 
readings,  often  strongly  commended  by 
internal  evidence,  but  we  find  certain 
sections  present  in  the  Greek  and  want- 
ing in  the  Hebrew,  and  vice  versa.  These 
differences  are  most  striking  in  the  books 
of  Samuel  and  Kings,  in  Proverbs  and  in 
Jeremias,  in  the  last  of  which  no  fewer 
than  2,700  words  of  the  Hebrew  have 
nothing  answering  to  them  in  the  Greek. 
It  cannot  always  be  decided  whether  the 
translators  had  a  different  text  before 
them,  or  whether  they  themselves  ven- 
tured sometimes  to  make  additions  and 
alterations,  or  whether  the  translation 
afterwards  underwent  change.  The  Jews 
considered  the  LXX  as  an  authtntic  and 
even  inspired  version  of  their  Sacred  Books 


SEQUENCE 


SEKVITES 


and  used  it  even  for  doctrinal  purposes. 
Philo  and  Josephus,  and  the  writei-s  of 
the  New  Testament,  constantly  quote  it 
instead  of  the  Hebrew  original.  It  was 
read  out  and  explained  in  the  Alexandrian 
and  Hellenistic  synagogues.  This  reve- 
rence lasted  until'  the  Jews  returned  to 
the  study  of  Hebrew,  when  by  degrees  it 
gave  place  to  a  pronounced  aversion.  In 
the  Christian  Church  the  LXX  retained 
a  higher  and  more  continuous  authority. 
Most  of  the  Fathers  held  it  as  equally 
inspired  with  the  Hebrew  text,  e.g.  St. 
IreiifBus  (iii.  I'o),  Clement  of  Alexandria 
Strom."  i.  L'l>),  St.  Augustine  ("  De  Civ. 
Dei,"  xviii.  4-3  :  "  The  same  spirit  who 
was  in  the  prophets  when  they  spoke, 
was  in  the  seventy  men  when  they 
interpreted  the  prophets  ").  Origen,  how- 
ever, and  still  more  St.  Jerome,  discrimi- 
nate between  the  text  and  the  version, 
and  in  cases  of  discrepancy  give  the 
preference  to  the  original.  Iii  the  Greek 
Church  the  LXX  has  retained  its 
authority  to  the  present  day,  whereas  in 
the  Latin  Church  it  has  been  superseded 
bv  the  Vulgate  of  St.  Jerome.  (Johannes 
Bleek,  "Introd.  to  the  Old  Testament," 
§  o42;  Keil,  "Introd."  §  175;  Ewald, 
"  History  of  Israel,"  transl.  by  Carpenter, 
vol.  V.  p.  249;  Stanley,  "The  Jewish 
Church,"  §  47.) 

SEQUSirCE.  A  rhythm  sometimes 
sung  between  the  Epistle  and  Gospel:  also 
called  a  "prose,"  because  not  in  any  regu- 
lar metre.  At  first,  the  sequence  was 
merely  a  prolongation  of  the  last  note  of 
the  Alleluia  after  the  Epistle,  till,  to  avoid 
the  wearisome  effect  of  such  a  prolonga- 
tion, words,  approjiriate  to  the  occasion, 
were  substituted.  Notker,  a  monk  of  St. 
Gall,  who  wrote  about  SSO,  is  generally 
said  to  have  been  the  first  writer  of  se- 
quences ;  but  he  himself  tells  us,  in  his 
preface,  that  he  had  seen  some  verses  for 
the  notes  of  the  sequence  in  an  Anti- 
plionary  which  a  priest  brought  him 
from  Jumieges,  a  Benedictine  abbey  five 
leagues  from  Eouen.  Many  mediaeval 
Missals  have  sequences  for  eveiy  feast 
and  Sunday,  and  they  were  made  m  such 
number  and  so  carelessly  that  the  Car- 
thusians and  Cistercians  were  praised  for 
not  admitting  any  of  them.  In  the  re- 
vision of  the  Roman  Missal  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  only  four  sequences  were 
retained  :  "  Victimre  PascbaU,"  at  Easter 
(attributed  to  Wip^o,  chaplain  to  Conrad 
II.,  eleventh  century) ;  "  Veni,  Sancte 
Spiritus,"  at  Pentecost  (bv  Rob'^rt,  king 
of  France,  d.  1031) ;  "  Lauda,  Sion,"  at 


Corpus  Christi  (by  St.  Thomas  of  .\quin) ;. 
the  •'  Dies  Irie"  in  Masses  of  the  Dead  (by 
Thomas  of  Celano,  d.  cLrc.  1250).  A 
tiftli  prose,  "  Stabat  Mater,"  by  Jacopone 
da  Todi,  on  the  two  feasts  of  the  Seven 
Dolours,  must  have  been  added  very  re- 
cently, since  neither  Le  Brun  nor  Bene- 
dict XIV.  recognise  it.  Other  sequences 
are  found  in  the  Missals  of  religious  orders 
— e.g.  one  for  the  Feast  of  the  Holy  Name 
in  that  of  the  Franciscans.  The  Lyon* 
Missal,  in  use  till  a  few  years  ago,  is  rich 
in  sequences,  some  very  beautiful. 

SERAPHIC  DOCTOR,  THE.  St. 
Bonaventurej  he  became  Minister-General 
of  the  Franciscans  in  1256.  [See  Fran- 
ciscans.] 

SERVZTES.  The  order  of  the  "  Re- 
ligious Servants  of  the  Holy  Virgin," 
commonly  called  the  Servites,  was 
founded  in  1233  by  seven  Florentine 
merchants,  whose  names  were  Monaldi, 
^lanetti,  Amidei,  Lantella,  Ugiiccioni, 
Sostegni,  and  Falconieri.  The  last,  Alexis 
Falconieri,  who  lived  to  be  110  years  old, 
was  the  uncle  of  St.  Juliana  Falconieri, 
whom  Helvot  regards  as  the  foundress  of 
the  Servite  Third  Order  (1306).  The 
seven  founders,  who  were  already  mem- 
bers of  a  confraternity  instituted  to  sin^ 
the  praises  of  Our  Lady,  being  assembled 
in  their  chapel  on  the  festival  of  the  As- 
sumption, 1 233,  were  conscious  of  a  com- 
mon internal  admonition  that  they  should 
renounce  the  world.  They  began  by 
selling  their  goods  and  distributing  the 
price  to  the  poor ;  then,  having  found  a 
mean  house  outside  the  city,  they  took 
up  their  abode  there,  living  in  great  aus- 
terity and  continual  prayer,  and,  with 
the  consent  of  the  bishop,  Ardinghi, 
begging  their  bread  in  the  streets.  En- 
tering the  city  one  day  to  ask  the  bishop's 
blessing  and  counsel,  they  are  said  to 
have  been  greeted  \tj  infants  in  their 
mothers'  arms  with  cries  of  "  See  the  ser- 
vants of  the  Virgin  ";  and  the  name  thus 
given  has  adhered  to  them  ever  since. 
After  a  while  they  removed  to  the  Monte 
Senario,  three  leagues  from  Florence,  and 
built  a  convent  on  tbe  top  of  the  moun- 
tain, which  was  for  centuries  the  chief 
seat  of  their  institute.  Monaldi  was  their 
first  superior;  Sr.  Philip  Beniti,  who- 
joined  the  order  in  consequence  of  a 
vision  and  became  the  fifth  general 
(1267),  propagated  it  exceedingly,  and 
saved  it  from  the  ruin  with  which  it  was- 
I  threatened  in  1276,  when  Innocent  V. 
\  wished  to  suppress  it,  as  comin^  under 
i  the  prohibition  of  the  Council  of  Lyon* 


840   SERVrS  SER^'ORUM  DEI 


SE^-EX  GIFTS 


against  tlie  multiplication  of  religious 
orders.  The  habit  finally  adopted  by  the 
Servites  was  black,  with  a  leather  girdle, 
a  scapulary,  and  a  cope.  They  took  the 
rule  of  St.  Augustine,  adding  to  it  many 
particular  constitutions.  Alter  a  period 
of  uncertainty,  the  pontificate  of  Hono- 
rius  IV.  witnessed  the  first  of  a  series  of 
Papal  confirmations  and  graces  conferred 
on  this  order,  culminating  in  the  cele- 
brated constitution  "Mare  Magnum" 
(1487),  whereby  Innocent  VIII.,  con- 
firming all  former  grants,  bestowed  on 
the  Servites  equal  privileges  and  preroga- 
tives with  those  enjoyed  by  the  other 
four  mendicant  orders — viz.  the  Francis- 
cans, the  Dominicans,  the  Augustinian 
Hermits,  and  the  Carmelites.  So  rapidly 
did  the  order  spread,  that  at  the  death  of 
the  last  of  the  seven  founders,  Alexis 
Falconieri,  it  numbered  over  10,000 
religious,  besides  nuns,  distributed  into 
more  than  twenty  provinces.  Its  strength 
lay  chiefly  in  Italy  and  Germany;  in 
England  it  Lad  no  houses  before  the 
Reformation.  Among  its  distinpnished 
members  maj*  be  named — besides  the 
seven  founders,  who  have  all  been  canon- 
ised, and  St.  Philip  Beniti— the  B.  Pic- 
colomini  of  Sienna,  the  learned  Ferrari, 
Francis  Patrizzi,  Latiosi,  S:c.  Fra  Paolo 
Sarpi,  theologian  and  counsellor  to  the 
Republic  of  Venice,  belonged  to  this  order 
[see  Tkent,  Cottncil  of  J.  The  number 
of  Servite  houses  revived  in  various 
countries  since  the  French  Re\  olution 
is  considerable.  In  England  there  is  a 
flourishing  Servite  community  established 
in  the  Fulham  Road,  London,  with  an 
affiliated  house  at  Bognor;  also  three 
convents  of  Servite  nuns,  two  in  or  near 
London  and  one  at  Arundol. 

SSRVITS  SERVORirnX  DEI.  The 
servant  (if  the  servants  of  God.  Thomas- 
sin  seems  to  say'  that  the  phrase  was 
first  employed  by  St.  Desiderius,  bishop 
of  Cahors,  and  tlien  adopted  by  the 
Roman  Pontiff's.  But  a  comparison  of 
dates  precludes  this  supposition,  for  St. 
Desiderius  became  bishop  only  in  630 — 
i.e.  twenty-five  years  after  the  death  of 
St.  Gregory  the  Groat,  who  had  fre- 
quently used  the  phrase  at  the  commence- 
ment of  his  letters.-  St.  (iregory  had 
objected  strongly  to  the  title  of  Universal 
Bishop,  or  (Ecumenical  Patriarch,  which 
John,  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
had  assxrmed ;  if  any  new  title  was  needed 

1  Vet.  et  Nov.  Eccl.  Disc.  i.  1,  4,  4. 
«  See  Beda,  Hitt.  Eccl.  i.  23,  24,  &c. 


for  the  Vicar  of  Christ,  it  should  be  one 
which  likened  him  still  more  to  the  low- 
liness of  Jesus,  who  "  came  not  to  be 
ministered  unto,  but  to  minister." 

SEVEN  BOX.OTTRS.   [See  DOLOtTRS 

OF  B.  V.  M.] 

SEVEir  GXFTS  OF  THE  HOX.T 
SPXRXT.  They  are,  according  to  St. 
Thomas  (l^'  2®,  qu.  Lxviii.),  certain  gifts 
bestowed  upon  the  just  in  order  that  they 
may  promptly  follow  the  instinct  and 
movement  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  He  ap- 
peals to  the  authority  of  Scripture — viz. 
Isa.  xi.  2,  where  we  are  told  that  seven 
gifts  of  the  Spirit  are  to  rest  upon  the 
Messias.  "And  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord 
will  rest  upon  him  ;  the  spirit  of  wisdom 
and  understanding,  the  spirit  of  counsel 
and  strength,  the  spirit  of  knowledge  and 
piety,  and  the  spirit  of  the  fear  of  the 
Lord  will  fill  him."  Even,  says  St. 
Thomas,  when  the  soul  of  man  is  per- 
fected by  the  moral  and  the  theological 
virtues,  he  still  needs  to  be  moved  and 
led  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  Seven 
Gifts  enable  him  to  follow  this  movement 
promptly.  All  this,  however,  is  mere 
speculation,  for  the  Scotists  deny  that 
there  is  any  real  distinction  between  the 
gifts  and  the  corresponding  virtues. 

Next,  although  the  Fathers  generally 
(so,  e.g.,  Ambrose,  "De  Sp.  S."'lib.  i.  16: 
August,  in  Ps.  cl. ;  Greg.  "Moral."  i. 
27)  enumerate  the  seven  gifts  of  the 
Spirit,  just  as  St.  Thomas  does,  this  is 
because  they  followed  the  LXX  or  Vul- 
gate instead  of  the  original.'  Both  the 
LXX  and  Vulgate  render  the  same 
Hebrew  words  "  fear  of  the  Lord ' 
('^  HN")'.)  in  two  ways,  first  by  "  piety," 
then  by  "fear  of  the  Lord."  In  the 
Hebrew  the  words  simply  are,  "The  Spirit 
I  of  Jehovah  shall  rest  upon  him ;  the 
;  spirit  of  wisdom  and  understanding,  the 
I  spirit  of  counsel  and  strength,  the  spirit 
of  knowledge  and  tlie  fear  of  Jehovah, 
and  his  delight^  shall  be  in  the  fear  of 
Jehovah."  It  was  probably  from  mere 
wish  to  avoid  repetition  that  the  LXX 
varied  their  rendering,  and  Jerome  may 

'  It  is  strange,  however,  that  Jerome,  in  his 
Commentary  on  Isaias.  recognises  the  '-seven 
gifts  "  as  cmnmonly  enumerated  without  raising 
any  ilitiiculty. 

-  Lit  -liis  smelling":  sc.  "a  sweet  savour" ; 
others,  '•  the  breath  of  his  nostrils."  Either 
rendering  i?  possible,  but  the  doubt  does  not 
ti'ueh  the  point  in  the  text.  In  the  Targum 
the  London  Polyglot  has  copied  the  false 
pointing  inBuxtoi-fs  Rabbinical  Bible,  n^^Jip' 
(Peal)  for  n^JSlT  (Aphel). 


bEXAGESIMA 


SIMONY 


841 


iiave  been  unwilling  to  restore  a  mere 
literal  rendering,  since  the  enumeration 
of  the  seven  gifts,  based  on  the  LXX  and 
Old  Latin,  was  already  recognised  in  the 
Church.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  find 
fieven  gifts  (on  the  analogy  of  Zach.  iii.  9, 
Apoc.  iv.  5,  V.  6)  even  in  the  original. 
The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  seems  most 
naturally  to  mean  the  Divine  Spirit 
itself,  from  which  the  six  following  gifts 
descend.  But  the  "  Spirit  of  the  Lord  " 
may  be  itself  a  special  gift,  and  this  view 
is  represented  by  the  Cbaldee  Targum, 
which  has,  "  The  spirit  of  prophecy  shall 
i-f<t  upon  him  ;  the  si^irit  of  wisdom  and 
understanding,"  &c. 

SEXACSSZivtA.    [See  Qttinqua- 

.0  ESI  M  A.' 

SEXT.  [See  Ceeviaet.] 
SEXT.  [See  Canox  Law.] 
SHROVETZBE.  The  three  days 
following  Quin(]iiage>;ima  Sunday — the 
time  for  shrift  or  confession.  Shrove  is  a 
noun  formed  from  the  past  tense  of  the 
Terb  to  xhrii-e.    [See  Cae.vival]. 

SXIWOITY.  Giving  or  receiving,  or 
intending  to  give  or  to  receive,  anything 
temporal  for  anything  spiritual.  It  is  so 
I'alled  from  Simon  Magus,  who  offered 
St.  Peter  money  for  the  po'\\'er  of  com- 
municating the  gifts  of  the  Holv  Ghost 
(Acts  viii.).  The  guilt  of  this  si'n  arises 
from  the  fact  that  spiritual  things  are 
not  fit  matter  for  bargaining.  And  this, 
says  St.  Thomas,  for  three  reasons : 
because  the  value  of  a  spiritual  thing 
•cannot  be  estimated  in  money  or  the 
like  ;  because  the  holder  of  anything 
spiritual  is  merely  a  dispenser  and  not 
the  owner  of  it  (1  Cor.  iv.  1);  and 
because  sale  is  opposed  to  the  origin 
of  spiritual  things,  suice  they  come  from 
the  gratuitous  gift  of  God  ("freely  have 
ye  received,  freely  give,"  Matt.  x.  8). 
Hence  simony  is  a  species  of  real 
sacrilege  (see  the  art.  Sacrilege).  It  is 
of  two  kinds  :  (1)  simony  forbidden  by 
natural  or  divine  law,  and  (2)  simony  for- 
bidden by  ecclesiastical  law.  The  former, 
which  is  simony  properly  so-called,  is 
committed  when  something  temporal  is 
given  or  taken  for  something  spiritual  or 
connected  therewith,  e.g.  grace,  blessings, 
consecration,  jurisdiction ;  the  latter  when 
something  spiritual  or  connected  there- 
with is  exchanged  for  the  like,  e.g.  bene- 
fice for  benefice,  or  even  when  something 
in  itself  temporal  but  annexed  to  spiritual 
functions  is  bought  or  sold,  e.g.  the  office 
of  sacristan.  The  ground  of  the  distinc- 
tion between  the  two  kinds  is  that  in 


itself  there  is  no  harm  in  exchiinging  the 
spiritual  for  the  spiritual  or  the  temporal 
for  the  temporal ;  the  Church,  however, 
out  of  reverence  for  holy  things,  has  for- 
bidden such  trafficking. 

In  deciding  whether  an  act  is  simonia- 
cal  we  have  to  consider  (1)  whether  there 
is  any  idea  of  bargaining,  i.e.  of  giving  or 
receiving  the  temporal  as  the  price  of  the 
spiritual.  Though  it  is  not  lawful  to 
receive  anything  for  exercising  one's 
sacred  ministry,  as  the  price  of  such 
work,  yet  there  is  no  harm  in  taking 
something  by  way  of  stipend  for  one's 
suitable  support.  "To  sell  or  to  buy 
what  is  spiritual  is  simoniacal;  but  to 
receive  or  to  give  something  for  the 
support  of  those  who  minister  spiritual 
things,  in  accordance  with  the  statutes 
aud  approved  customs  of  the  Church,  is 
lawful,  yet  in  such  wise  that  there  is  no 
idea  of  buying  and  selling,  and  that  no 
pressure  is  brought  to  bear  on  those  who 
will  not  give  by  withholding  spiritual 
things  which  ought  to  be  administered, 
f  n-  this  would  look  like  sale.  But  after 
the  spiritual  things  have  been  freely 
bestowed,  then  the  statutory  and  cus- 
tomary ofi'erings  and  other  dues  may  be 
exacted  from  those  who  are  unwilling 
but  able  to  pay  "  (2^  l>«  q.  c.  a.  3).  We 
may  add  that  this  doctrine  is  founded 
upon  the  teaching  of  our  Lord  (Luke  x.  7) 
and  of  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  ix.  13,  14). 
Hence  all  theologians  hold  that  such 
stipends  are  due  ex  justitia.  Familiar 
instances  are  the  offerings  made  at  wed- 
dings, funerals,  and  baptisms,  and  when 
Mass  is  said  for  anyone's  special  intention. 
We  have  to  consider  (2)  what  is  under- 
stood by  the  word  "  temporal."  Canonists 
distinguish  three  kinds  of  '^munera"  or 
temporal  objects  which  must  not  be  given 
for  spiritual  things,  (a)  tnunus  a  manu, 
that  is,  anything  exchangeable  or  passing 
from  hand  to  hand,  e.g.  goods,  whether 
movable  or  immovable ;  (b)  munus  a 
lingua,  that  is,  favour,  defence,  and  the 
like;  (c)  munus  ah  ohsequio,  that  is,  any 
kind  of  service.  (3)  Lastly,  by  "spiritual" 
is  meant  any  supernatural  thing,  either 
formally,  such  as  grace  and  the  gifts  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  or  causally,  such  as  the 
sacraments,  prayers,  Src. ;  or  the  exercise 
and  results  of  supernatural  powers,  such 
as  consecration,  blessing,  jurisdiction,  &c. 
"  Things  annexed  to  spiritual  things  "  are 
in  themselves  tenip('iral,  but  assume  a  sort 
of  spiritual  character  from  their  connec- 
tion with  what  is  spiritual,  e.g.  the  sacred 
vessels,  vestments,  right  of  patronage,  &c. 


842 


SIMPLE 


SIN 


It  is  not  easy  to  draw  the  line  in  such 
matters.  The  Church  has  made  many 
positive  enactments  on  the  subject,  and  has 
imposed  the  followingpenalties :  (1)  excom- 
munication, reserved  to  the  Holy  See  ;  (2) 
invalidity  of  election,  presentation,  confir- 
mation, and  institution,  in  the  case  of 
benefices  ;  (3)  incapacity  for  holding  the 
same  benefices  even  if  afterwards  obtained 
without  simony.  Moreover,  restitution 
must  be  made,  as  the  whole  transaction  is 
unjust. 

Simony  was  one  of  the  worst  banes 
of  the  Church  in  mediaeval  times.  The 
great  pontiffs  St.  Gregory  VII.  and 
Innocent  III.  made  strenuous  efi'orts  to 
extirpate  it.  The  Council  of  Trent 
(Sess.  xxiv.  "  De  Reform.")  also  enacted 
wholesome  decrees  regarding  appoint- 
ments to  vacant  benefices.  (See  St. 
Thomas,  2»  2»  q.  c;  Ballerini,  "Opus 
Theologicum  Morale,"  ii.  p.  298  seq.) 

sxnxPi.E.    [See  Feasts.] 

SIW.  St.  Augustine's  definition  of 
sin — viz.  "any  thought,  word,  or  deed 
against  the  law  of  God,"  has  been 
adopted  by  St.  Thomas  and  theologians 
generally.  We  have  spoken  of  original 
sin  in  a  special  article,  and  many  of  the 
popular  classifications  of  sin,  e.ff.  into 
carnal  and  spiritual,  of  omission  and  com- 
mission, are  easily  understood,  and  need 
not,  therefore,  detain  us  here.  But  some- 
thing must  be  said  of  the  distinction  be- 
tween mortal  and  venial  sin,  both  because 
of  its  dogmatic  importance  in  itself,  and 
because  of  the  objections  made  to  the 
distinction  by  Protestants. 

The  early  Protestants  regarded  every 
sin  as  deserving  of  eternal  wrath.  They 
admitted  that  some  sins  were  more  heinous 
than  others,  but  they  looked  upon  all 
alike  as  mortal.  Even  the  daily  falls  or 
good  men,  accordingto  Calvin  ("Institut." 
iii.  4  ■),  make  them  "  liable  to  the  penalty 
of  death  before  the  judgment  seat  of  God." 
On  the  other  hand,  no  sin  is  imputed  to 
those  who  believe ;  so  that  we  may  sum 
up  the  Protestant  doctrine  thus :  All  sins 
are  mortal  in  their  own  nature,  but  in 
effect  no  sin  is  mortal  to  those  who  have 
faith,  all  sins  are  mortal  to  those  who  are 
without  saving  faith. 

Very  different  is  the  Catholic  doctrine. 
The  Church  holds  that  justification  con- 
sists in  a  real  renewal  o^  man's  nature  by 
the  grace  of  Christ,  and  cannot  therefore 

1  "The  sins  of  believers  are  venial,  not 
because  they  do  not  merit  death,  but  because 
.  .  .  there  is  no  condemnation  to  those  who  are 
in  Christ  Jesus,  their  sin  not  being  imputed." 


admit  that  one  who  is  in  friendship  with 
a  holy  God  is  guilty  of  sins  which  in  their 
own  nature  '  expose  him  to  eternal  death. 
The  fact  of  justification  implies  a  passage 
from  death  to  life,  from  sin  to  holiness. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Church,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  plainest  statements  of 
Scripture  and  tradition  (James  iii.  2;  1 
John  i.  8),  has  defined  (Concil.  Trident, 
sess.  vi.  can.  23)  that  no  one,  not  even  the 
most  holy,  can  avoid  sin  altogether  "  ex- 
cept by  a  special  privilege  of  God,  as  the 
Church  holds  concerning  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin." Hence,  by  inevitable  consequence, 
it  foUows  that  some  sins  are  mortal,  others 
venial.  There  is  an  analogy  between 
human  friendship  and  that  of  the  soul 
with  God,  and  just  as  some  oflfences  are 
sufficient  to  destroy  friendship  entirely, 
while  others  weaken  it,  so  there  are  some 
sins  which  destroy,  others  which  do  but 
weaken  the  grace  and  love  of  God  in  the 
soul.  There  are  some  sins  of  which  St. 
Paul  says  (Gal.  v.  21)  that  they  "  who  do- 
such  things  wiU  not  inherit  the  kingdom 
of  God,"  and  these  must  be  distinct  from 
less  serious  faults  which  none  entirely 
avoid.  This  is  the  basis  of  the  distinction- 
between  mortal  and  venial  sins.  The 
former  are  against  the  very  end  of  the  law, 
which  is  the  love  of  God,  utterly  destroy 
charity  and  grace,  cause  the  death  of  the 
soul,  and  deserve  eternal  punishment. 
Venial  sin,  though  it  disposes  to  that 
which  is  mortal,  and  is  the  greatest  of  all 
evils  except  mortal  sin,  still  does  not 
annihilate  the  friendship  of  the  soul  with 
God.  Venial  sin  is  a  disease  of  the  soul, 
not  its  death,  and  grace  is  still  left  by 
which  the  sin  may  be  repaired.  Mortal 
sin  is,  on  the  contrary,  irreparable,  and  a 
man  who  is  guilty  of  it  has  lost  every 
principle  of  vitahty,  so  that  he  is  as  un- 
able to  recover  life  as  one  who  has  suffered 
bodily  death.  Renewal  cannot  come  from 
within,  but  only  from  the  Almightypower 
,  of  God,  who  can  make  even  the  dead  hear 
j  Plis  voice  and  live  (St.  Thomas,  1"  2», 
qu.  Ixxviii.  a.  1).  It  is  very  hard  to  decide 
in  particular  what  is  or  is  not  mortal  sin. 
We  know  that  we  cannot  fall  away  from 
God  without  a  deliberate  act  of  the  will, 
and  those  walk  securely  who  avoid,  not 
indeed  all  transgression,  for  that  cannot 
be,  but  all  deliberate  transgression.  The 

'  The  doctrine  of  Baius  stands  midway 
between  that  of  the  Reformers  and  the  Church. 
He  held  that  "  no  sin  is  venial  in  its  own 
nature" — i.e.  apart  from  the  merciful  ordinance 
of  God  (Prop.  20;  condemned  b}-  Pius  V.,, 
Gregory  XIII.,  and  Urban  VIII.) 


distinction,  St.  Au^>tine  tells  us  ("En-  \ 
chirid.''  cap.  24),  between  grave  and  light 
eins  is  to  be  determined  by  the  judgm^^nt 
of  God,  not  of  man :  and  Scripture  does 
furnish  many  such  divine  judgments  on 
the  point.  ITie  tradition  of  the  Church 
and  natural  reason,  following  the  analogy 
of  faith,  must  als-o  b*^  taken  into  account ;  ! 
but  when  all  is  done  much  remains,  and  j 
must  ever  remain,  uncertain.  S'Ome  sins, 
Buch  as  those  of  blasphemy,  perjury,  im- 
purity, are,  if  deliberate,  always  mortal; 
others — e.g.  theft  —though  mortal  in  their  | 
own  natxire,  are  venial,  if  the  amount  of 
the  wrong  done  is  very  small.  Others, 
again,  are  venial  in  their  own  nature,  and 
only  become  mortal  under  superadded  cir- 
cumstances. Mortal  sins  difier  very  much 
in  gravity.  The  chief  subdivision  of  venial 
sins  is  that  into  deliberate  and  indeliber- 
ate, though,  strictly  speaking,  the  latter 
are  done  with  imperfect  deliberation,  for, 
when  deliberation  is  wholly  wanting, 
there  is  no  act  of  the  will,  and  therefore 
no  sin. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  in  the 
Fathers  "  mortal "  and  "  venial "  sin  are  | 
terms  which  have  quite  a  different  mean-  | 
ing  from  the  modem  one  explained  above.  I 
The  ancient  distinction,  often  misunder- 
stood by  scholastic  writers,  is  clearly  put 
by  Petavius  in  his  eflition  of  Epiphanius 
("  Animadv.  in  Haer."'  lii.).  The  Fathers,  | 
he  says,  mean  by  mortal  sins  ("  mortalia  | 
sen  capitalia,"  also  "  lethalia  ^  not,  as  we 
do,  those  which  deprive  us  of  grace,  bat 
eins  of  an  aggravated  character,  which 
were  specially  named  in  the  canons  and 
synodal  decrees,  and  which  subjected  any-  i 
one  who  was  guilty  or"  them  to  canonical 
penalties.  To  these  they  oppose  "  lighter 
and  daily  sins,"  including  in  this  class  : 
"  some  which  we  call  mortal  and  some  ; 
which  we  call  venial  sins."  Very  often  the 
Fathers  simply  distinguish  between  "mor- 
tal sins  "  for  which  public  penance  was 
due  and  the  dailv  faults  of  good  people. 
SoTertuU. "  Pudic."19:  "Adv.^Iarc.'  iv. 
9  ;  Ambrose,  '•  De  Poenit."ii.  10 ;  Cassian, 
**  Collat."xxii.  13:  Augustine, "InJoann." 
tract,  xii.  ad Jin. :  Serm.  352,  cap.  2  et  3 ; 
*'  De  Svmbolo  ad  Cat."  cap.  7.  But  the 
Fathers  acknowledged  in  fact  our  distinc- 
tion between  mortal  and  venial  sin,  though 
they  use  other  words  Thn?  St.  Augustine 
("De  Fide  et  Op."  26)  divides  sins  into 
three  classes — those  which  involve  excom- 
munication, sins  without  which  we  cannot 
live  ("  sine  quibus  vita  non  agitur  and 
sins  to  be  corrected,  not  indeed  by  public 
penance,  but  by  sharp  reproof.  We  have 


R70X,  NOTRE  DAME  DE  ^4-3 

8«en  alreadythat  he  distinguishes  bet  w»^n 
grave  and  light  sins,  and  means  just  what 
we  do  by  mortal  and  venial  sin.  Further, 
in  Serm.  .393,  and  "InJoann."  tract  xli. 
10,  he  distinguishes  between  "sins'"  and 
"  crimes  "  ("  peccatum ""  and  "  crimen  ~). 
Man,  he  says,  cannot  be  without  sin,  but 
ought  to  be  without  crime,  "  such  v, 
murder,  adultery,  the  impurity  of  fornica- 
tion, theft,  fraud,  sacrilege  "  ;  those  who 
are  exempt  from  crime  have  reached  *'  an 
inchoate  liberty  "  which  will  be  perfected 
in  heaven.  And  a  little  eariier  in  the 
same  treatise  he  defines  crime  as  "a  grave 
sin,  most  worthy  of  accusation  and  con- 
demnation." This  is  precisely  the  doctrine 
of  the  modem  Church. 

szig'xsssn'Ess  of  cbs.zst. 
[See  Ch?.:..; 

SZOI7.  NOXaE  SAME  DE.  Trie 
Congregation  o:  our  Lady  of  Sion  took 
its  rise  from  a  remarkable  event  which 
occurred  in  1842,  when  M.  Alphonse 
Ratisbonne,  a  member  of  an  influential 
and  wealthy  Jewish  family  at  Strasburi, 
and  himself  strongly  prejudiced  against 
Christianity,  being  then  in  his  twenty- 
seventh  year,  was  suddenly  converted  to 
the  Catholic  faith  by  the  apparition  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  with  which,  as 
he  declared,  he  was  favoured  while  stand- 
ing in  a  side  chapel  of  the  Church  of  S. 
Andrea  delle  Fratte,  at  Rome.  M.  Ratis- 
bonne at  once  asked  to  be  taken  to  a 
priest,  and  in  a  short  time  was  baptised 
and  confirmed.  He  was  engaged  to  be 
married  to  a  young  Jewess,  but  an  over- 
powering impulse  determined  him  to 
embrace  the  ecclesiastical  state,  and  he 
broke  off  the  engagement.  His  elder 
brother,  Theodore,  had  become  a  Catholic 
many  years  before,  and,  having  taken 
orders,  was  at  this  time  living  at  Paris. 
Alphonse  suggested  to  him  the  opening 
of  a  house  for  the  reception  of  Jewish 
chillren,  to  be  educated,  with  their 
I^rents"  consent,  as  Christians.  There 
se^ms  to  have  been  a  movement  in  the 
Jewish  mind  at  the  time  inclining  many 
to  embrace  Catholicism,  and  when  the 
Abb^  Theodore  resolved  to  act  on  his 
brother's  suggestion  there  was  no  lack  of 
candidates  for  admission.  They  were  all 
young  girls,  and  were  placed  provisionally 
m  the  Convent  of  the  "  Providence " 
under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Vincent  of  Paul.  In  May  1S43,  Theodore 
Ratisbonne.  with  the  aid  of  the  Abb^ 
Deseenett^rs.  the  venerable  founder  of  the 
.\rchconfratemityof  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Mary  for  the  Conversion  of  Sinners,  ob- 


844  SISTERHOODS 


SISTEEHOODS 


tained  the  approbation  of  the  Holy  See 
for  a  new  institute,  under  the  title  of 
"  Our  Lady  of  Sion,"  the  ladles  of  which 
should  devote  ibeiusflves  princiiially  to 
the  charge  and  education  of  converts  from 
Judaism.  The  centre  of  the  new  founda- 
tion was  fixed  at  Paris,  and  now  occupies 
a  magnificent  convent,  embracing  several 
distinct  departments,  in  the  Rue  Notre 
Dame  des  Champs.  The  rule  of  the  con- 
gregation alms  at  the  union  of  the  active 
with  the  contemplative  life.  "  The  no- 
viciate lasts  two  years,  after  which  the 
religious  consecrate  themselves  to  the 
Lord  by  the  simple  vows  of  poverty, 
chastity,  and  obedience.  These  vows  are 
annual  for  the  first  five  years  ;  at  the  end 
of  that  time  they  are  renewed  for  five 
years.  Finally,  after  ten  years  of  perse- 
verance, exclusive  of  the  noviciate,  the 
vows  can  he  taken  in  perpetuity."  '  Before 
long  the  institute  planted  itself  at  Jerusa- 
lem ;  a  site  was  obtained  bordering  on 
the  Via  Dolorosa,  where  tradition  places 
the  praetorium  of  Pilate  ;  and  a  large 
convent  was  opened  in  1862.  In  recogni- 
tion of  the  awful  memories  which  make 
this  spot  unique  on  earth,  the  religious 
repeat  three  times  a  day,  "  Pater,  dimitte 
illis,  non  enim  sciunt  quid  faciunt."  The 
congregation  has  since  opened  houses  in 
other  parts  of  Syria  and  at  Constanti- 
nople ;  in  England  it  has  three  convents, 
two  in  or  near  London,  and  the  third  at 
AVorthing.  A  "Community  of  Missionary 
Priests  of  Our  Lady  of  Sion,"  working  in 
concert  with  the  congregation,  was  or- 
ganised at  Paris  with  diocesan  sanction 
in  1863  ;  both  the  brothers  Ratisbonne 
joined  it. 

SISTERHOODS.  A  title  sometimes 
given  to  religious  orders  and  institutes  of 
women.  These  have  been  greatly  multi- 
plied in  quite  recent  times ;  and  the  fol- 
lowing enumeration  of  some  of  them, 
chietiy  the  most  recent,  must  be  taken  as 
very  imperfect : — 

1.  Sisters  of  the  Assumption. — Founded 
by  Monsignor  Afire,  archbishop  of  Paris, 
in  1839,  chiefly  as  an  educational  order. 
The  habit  is  violet,  with  a  cross  on  the 
breast,  and  a  white  veil.  At  the  convent  in 
Kensington  Square  there  is  the  Perpetual 
Adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament. 
There  are  three  other  houses  in  England. 

2.  Sisterhood  of  Bon  Secouvs.  This 
institute  was  founded  by  Mgr.  deQuelen, 
archbishop  of  Paris  in  1822,  for  the  care 
of  the  sick  in  their  own  homes,  and  also 
of  orphans.    It  was  formally  approved 

'  Wetzer  and  Welte ;  art.  by  Giischler. 


by  the  Holy  See  in  1875.  There  are 
three  or  four  houses  in  England. 

3.  sidifrs  of  St.  Briyid,  or  of  the  Holy 
Faith. — This  sisterhood  was  founded  by 
tile  late  Cardinal  Cullen,  in  1857,  to  take 
charge  of  poor  schools  for  girls  and  little 
boys.  They  have  eleven  schools,  all  in 
the  diocese  of  Dublin.  They  do  an  im- 
portant work  in  protecting  the  poor  of 
Dublin,  so  far  as  their  slender  means  will 
allow,  from  the  attempts  to  destroy  their 
faith  which  are  continually  being  made 
by  the  Irish  Church  Mission  Society  (so 
called),  and  other  heretical  bodies,  assisted 
by  English  monej\ 

4.  Sisters  of  Charity. — Called  also 
"  Gray  Sisters,'  "  Daughters  of  Charity,"' 
"Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  of  Paul."  This 
congregation,  after  many  and  long-con- 
tinued tentative  operations,  wasfounded  at 
Parisin  1634  by  St.  Vincent  of  Paul  for  the 
work  of  nursing  the  sick  in  hospitals,  and 
placed  under  the  care  of  Madame  Legras. 
The  constitution  of  the  society  has  never 
varied.  The  sisters  take  simple  vows, 
which  are  yearly  renewed;  they  add  a 
fourth  vow,  by  which  they  bind  themselves 
to  serve  the  sick.  Postulants  are  admitted 
to  the  habit  at  the  end  of  six  months ; 
the  period  of  probation  lasts  for  five  years. 
The  dress  of  a  Sister  of  Charity  is  too 
well  kuown  to  need  description.  Their 
houses  were  closed  in  France  at  the 
Revolution  ;  but  the  intrepid  woman,  the 
Mere  Deleau,  who  was  then  superior, 
yielded  not  a  foot  of  ground  that  she 
could  keep;  she  urged  her  children  to 
continue  to  serve  the  sick,  though  in  a 
secular  dress ;  and  a  decree  of  Napoleon 
(1801),  even  before  the  general  restoration 
of  religion,  authorised  the  reorganisation 
of  the  society,  and  assigned  to  them  large 
premises  in  the  Rue  du  Bac.  About 
18G0,  according  to  a  return  furnished  to 
the  Ahh6  Badiche  (the  continuator  of 
Helyot)  by  the  secretary  of  the  Lazarists, 
(under  whose  direction  the  sisters  have 
always  been),  they  numbered  between 
6,000  and  7,000,  in  upwards  of  600  houses 
scattered  over  all  parts  of  the  civilised 
world.  Besides  nursing  in  hospitals  and 
taking  charge  of  orphanages,  the  sisters 
sometimes  undertake  the  management  of 
poor-schools.  In  -England  they  have 
(1891)  twenty-seven  houses,  in  Scotland 
three,  in  Ireland  three ;  they  were  brought 
to  Ireland  by  the  late  Cardinal  Cullen  in 
1857. 

5.  Sisters  oj  Charity  of  St.  Paul. — 
This  congregation  was  founded  by  M. 
Chauvet,  a  French  cur6,  assisted  by 


SISTERHOODS 


SISTERHOODS  84S 


Mdlle.  de  Tylly,  in  1704.  Since  these 
teaching  sisters  were  introduced  into 
Endand  in  1847  they  have  multiplied 
witn  surprising  rapidity ;  they  have  now 
(1801)  fifty-one  houses  in  different 
English  dioceses.  They  do  a  great  work 
in  tlie  French  colonies.  In  1873  the 
total  number  of  theirpupils  was  estimated 
at  12,000.' 

6.  Sisters  of  Charity  (Irish).— This 
institute  was  founded  in  1815  by  Mary 
Frances  Aikenhead,  for  the  purpose  of 
ministering  to  the  sick  and  poor  in  hospi- 
tals and  at  their  own  homes.  The  sisters, 
though  not  in  any  way  connected  with 
the  celebrated  foundation  of  St.  Vincent 
of  Paul,  have  "very  nearly,  if  not 
exactly,  the  same  objects  of  Christian 
charity  in  view."'  Archbishop  Murray 
entered  warmly  into  the  plans  of  Mrs. 
Aikenhead,  gave  the  habit  to  the  first 
sisters,  and  established  them  in  North 
William  Street,  Dublin.  The  congi-ega- 
tion  was  approved  by  the  Holy  See  in 
18o4.  The  vows  are  perpetual ;  the  rule 
is  that  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  so  far  as 
it  is  suitable  for  women;  a  probation  of 
two  years  and  a  half  is  undergone  before 
admission  to  the  habit.  The  community 
is  strongly  centralised,  the  Superioress  in 
Dublin,  or  wherever  she  may  reside, 
having  jurisdiction  over  all  the  convents 
and  members  of  the  order  in  Ireland. 
The  Sisters  opened  St.  Vincent's  Hospital 
in  Stephens  Green,  Dublin,  in  1834.  The 
order  has  at  present  twenty-two  convents 
in  Ireland,  and  one  in  England  (Rock 
Ferry) ;  the  mother  house  is  at  Harold's 
Cross,  near  Dublin. 

7.  Sisters  of  t//e  (Jood  She])herd.— This 
society,  the  chief  object  of  which  is  the 
reforuuition  of  fallen  women,  was  founded 
by  the  Vhre  Eudes  [Ecdists]  and  Mar- 
guerite TAml  in  1646.  It  has  now  more 
than  a  hundred  houses;  of  these  seven 
are  in  Great  Britain  and  five  in  Ireland. 

8.  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child  Jesus.— 
This  is  a  recent  institute,  founded  by  an 
American  lady,  for  teaching  both  the  rich 
and  the  poor.  There  are  seven  houses  in 
England. 

9.  Sisters  (Little)  of  the  Poo;-.— This 
admirable  institute  was  founded  in  1840 
by  the  cui6  of  St.  Servan,  M.  le  Pailleur, 
aided  by  four  women  of  humble  birth, 

'  See  Term  Incognita,  by  J.  N.  Murphy 
(Lon  'iti.ins,  1873);  a  useful  compilntion,  from 
which  a  large  portion  of  the  information  given 
in  the  te.\t  is  derived. 

-  Sketches  of  Irish  Xiinneries,  by  the  Very 
Rev.  Dean  Murphv  l»C,5. 


whose  names  were  Marie  Augustine, 
Marie  Th^rese,  Jeanne  Jugou,  and 
Fauchon  Aubert,  for  the  support,  relief, 
and  nursing  of  aged  or  infirm  poor  persons. 
At  present  the  sisters  number  4,000,  and 
maintain  (their  resources  being  chielly 
got  by  begging  from  door  to  door)  30,000 
of  the  aged  poor.  They  jiossess  more 
than  250  houses ;  in  England  alone  they 
have  eighteen,  all  in  large  towns.  In 
Ireland  they  are  established  at  Dublin, 
Cork,  and  Waterford.  (See  "  The  Little 
Sisters  of  the  Poor,"  by  Rev.  J.  Con- 
nelly.) 

10.  Sisfers  of  Mercy. — This  important 
and  flourishing  order,  offshoots  of  which 
are  found  in  many  States  of  the  Americaa 
Union,  and  in  Australia  and  Xew  Zealand, 
was  founded  in  1827  at  Baggot  Street, 
Dublin,  by  Miss  Catherine  McAuley,  with 
the  approbation  of  Archbishop  Murray, 
for  carrying  on  all  the  works  of  mercy, 
both  spiritual  and  corporal.  The  foundress 
took  the  title  of  her  order  from  that  of 
St.  Peter  Nolasco;  its  rule,  with  some 
slight  modifications,  from  that  of  the 
Presentation  Nuns.  Except  in  the  case 
of  recent  filiations,  each  convent  is  inde- 
pendent of  every  other,  and  is  com- 
pletely undei  tlie  jnrisdicticm  and  control 
of  the  lji~hoji  of  tlie  diocese.  Besides 
the  three  e^sriitial  vows  the  sisters  take  a 
fourth — to  devote  tlifiii>clves  for  life  to 
the  service  and  iiistrtu  tion  of  the  poor, 
sick,  and  ignorant.  This  order  has  about 
3.50  hoii-es,  of  wliieh  120  are  in  Ireland 
and  77  in  Great  Britain. 

11.  Sisters  (Po,:/)  of  Nazareth.— An 
offshoot  from  the  institute  of  the  Little 
Sisters  of  the  Poor,  which  it  resmibles  in 
most  respects.  There  are  eleven  houses 
in  England,  two  in  Scotland,  three  in 
South  Africa,  and  one  at  Ballarat, 
Australia. 

12.  Sisters  of  the  Poor  Child  Jesus.'— 
This  institute  Las  two  houses  in  Kiighiiid, 
at  Oxford  and  Southam.  It  is  a  cloistered 
order. 

13.  Sisters  of  Providence. — Founded 
some  years  before  the  French  Revolution, 
chiefly  in  order  to  meet  the  ditticulty  of 
obtaining  sound  editration  in  country 
districts,  by  .M.  ^foye,  vicar  of  a  parish 
near  Metz."  The  institute  has  spread  into 
Belgium,  Italy,  and  South  America;  it 
has  five  houses  in  England. 

14.  Sistei-s  (School )  of  Xofre  Dame. — 

1  A  German  order,  forced  to  take  refuse  in 
England  by  the  persecutini;  laws  of  Prussia. 
"  Poor  Child "  does  not,  of  course,  correspond 
exactly  to  "  amies  Kind." 


646 


SLAVERY 


sla^t:ry 


A  commencement  made  at  Amiens  in 
1797  proved  abortive;  it  was  not  till 
1803  that,  with  the  sanction  of  the  bishop, 
and  by  the  counsel  of  the  celebrated  F. 
Varin,  Julie  Billiart  and  her  friend 
Fran^oise  Blin  de  Bourdon,  Viscountess 
de  Gr6zaincourt,  laid  the  permanent 
foundations  of  the  institute  of  the  Sisters 
of  Notre  Dame,  "an  order  which  had 
for  its  primary  object  the  salvation  of 
the  souls  of  poor  children."  In  1809  the 
mother  house  and  the  administration  of 
the  order  were  transferred  to  Kamur. 
The  foundress  lived  to  see  fifteen  con- 
vents of  her  institute,  dying  in  1816. 
The  rules  and  constitutions  received  the 
formal  approbation  of  the  Holy  See  in 
1844.  "  The  congregation  is  now  flourish- 
ing in  Belgium,  England,  and  America, 
the  number  of  liouses  here  being  at  pre- 
sent (1891)  about  twenty."  A  process 
for  the  beatification  and  canonisation  of 
Julie  Billiart  was  opened  at  Namur  in 
1881,  and  has  reached  the  stage  entitling 
her  to  be  styled  "  Venerable." 

15.  Stste7-s  of  La  Sainte  Union  des 
SacrSs  Caurs. — Founded  at  Douai  by 
the  Abb(5  Debrabant.  The  rule  and 
constitutions  are  chiefly  taken  from  the 
mild  rule  prescribed  by  St.  Francis  of 
Sales  to  the  nuns  of  the  Visitation 
[Visitation,  Ordee  of  the].  The 
object  of  the  institute  is  the  education 
of  girls  in  every  rank  of  society.  There 
are  about  200  houses  in  France  and 
Belgium,  and  seven  in  England.  Two 
have  lately  been  established  at  Buenos 
Ayres. 

16.  Sisters  of  the  Faithful  Virgin. — 
This  order  was  founded  about  sixty  years 
ago,  mainly  for  the  care  of  orphans.  The 
mother  house  is  at  La  Delivrande  in 
Normandy.  There  are  convents  at  Nor- 
wood and  Folkestone. 

SliAVERV.  The  state  of  a  human 
being  whose  present  and  future  lot  in 
life  is  dependent  on  the  arbitrary  wil;  of 
another  person,  or  of  other  persons.  The 
young  child  of  free  pareiits,  tliough  his 
present  lot  in  all  countrie.-,  whether 
civilised  or  not,  is  largely  determinable  at 
the  will  of  others,  knows  that  hxs  future 
will  be  his  own;  after  reaching  a  certain 
age  he  will  be  his  own  master.  Tlie 
slave  has  no  such  prospect ;  even  where 
the  law  gives  him  some  protection  from 
his  master's  cruelty  or  injustice,  he  has 
not  during  the  whole  course  of  his  life 
the  control  of  his  own  acts  or  movements, 
and  his  children  are  born  to  the  same 
condition  as  himself 


The  earliest  records  of  man  contain 
no  mention  of  slavery.  No  slave  went 
into  the  ark  with  Noe  and  the  other 
seven  persons  who  composed  his  family. 
It  seems  to  be  represented  in  the  book  of 
Genesis  as  the  punishment  of  the  sin  of 
Cham,^  whose  son  Chanaan  was  to  be  a 
"servant  of  servants''  (Vulg.  scrims 
servorum)  to  his  brethren.  The  first 
mention  of  actual  slaves  is  connected 
with  Egypt ;  both  male  and  female  slaves, 
with  cattle,  &c.,  were  given  to  Abram  by 
the  Egyptians on  his  surrendering  his 
wife  to  Pharao ;  and  Agar,  the  domestic 
slave  of  Sarai,  was  an  Egyptian  woman/' 
Under  the  law  of  Moses,  the  institution 
was  fully  sanctioned  among  the  Hebrews, 
perhaps  because  of  the  "hardness  of  their 
liearts " ;  but  they  were  to  take  slaves 
from  the  nations  around  them,  not  from 
their  own  people ;  if  any  Hebrew  were 
compelled  to  sell  himself  into  bondage, 
he  could  go  out  free  in  the  year  of 
j  ubilee.*  At  the  return  from  the  Captivity, 
the  slaves  are  said  to  have  stood  to  the 
free  Hebrews  in  the  proportion  of  one  to 
six ;  ^  but  the  rate  was  probably  much 
higher  than  this  in  times  of  national 
prospei'ity. 

Considering  the  corrupt  selfishness  of 
human  nature,  unaided  by  grace,  there  is 
nothing  to  wonder  at  in  the  institution  of 
slavery.  Men,  and  women  too,  like  to 
live  at  ease,  and  to  have  the  hard  work, 
without  which  neither  food  nor  luxuries 
are  obtainable,  done  for  them.  Especially 
is  this  the  case  in  hot  countries,  in  which 
physical  exertion  is  always  more  or  less 
distressing.  When  thenneitherconscience 
nor  civilisation  restrains,  any  well-armed 
human  tribe  has  a  strong  motive  for 
making  war  upon  any  neip-hbouring  tribe 
which  it  believes  to  be  weaker  than  itself, 
in  order  to  obtain  the  use  of  the  enforced 
labour  of  the  vanquished.  The  instruc- 
tive volumes  of  Dr.  Barth,  long  a  resident 
in  Central  Africa,  are  one  long  commentary 
illustrating  this  statement.  Wars  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  obtaining  slaves  were  then, 
and  are  still,  of  constant  occurrence  among 
the  teeming  nations  of  the  Soudan.  Con- 
version to  Islam,  which  for  many  years 
has  been  making  great  progress  in  Africa, 
far  from  checking  slavery,  tends  to  spread 
it ;  for  it  gives  to  the  converts  a  feeling  oi 
superiority  to  the  tribes  still  heathen, 
which  seems  of  itself  to  entitle  the  formei 
to  make  slaves  of  the  latter.  Nothing 

1  Gen.  ix.  22-27.  2  Gen.  xii.  16. 

3  Gen.  xvi.  1.  <  Lev.  xxv. 

5  1  Esdr.  ii.  6,t  ;  quoted  by  Dr.  Lightfoot. 


SLAA-ERY 


SLA\T:RY  847 


but  the  twofold  conviction  (1)  that  all 
men  are  equal  in  the  sight  of  Gud, 
(2)  that  a  man  is  hound  to  do  to  others  as 
he  would  they  should  do  to  him,  can 
restrain  from  making  slaves  of  their 
fellows  those  who  have  the  power  to  do 
so.  This  conviction,  now  generally  enter-  ' 
tained  among  civilised  nations,  is  the  fruit  i 
of  Christianity ;  and  it  has  produced  a  I 
state  of  things,  within  the  sphere  of 
peoples  equally  civilised,  which  removes 
the  power  to  enslave.  Were  the  belief  in 
Christianity  to  tail,  it  does  not  appear 
what  principle  would  remain  of  sufficient 
power  to  prevent  the  civilised  from  en- 
slaving the  uncivilised. 

Among  the  Greeks  the  notion  pre- 
vailed that  a  man  could  not  effectively 
discharj:e  the  duties  of  a  free  citizen  un- 
less he  were  exempted  from  the  drudgery 
of  life.  This,  except  in  the  cise  of  a  few 
rich  men,  could  only  he  done  hy  means  of 
slavery.  Accordingly  the  institution  was 
an  integral  part  of  Hellenic  civilisation  ;  [ 
and  in  proportion  as  a  people  was  more  1 
intellectual  and  refined,  it  availed  itself  1 
of  slave  labour  more  systematically.  The  I 
late  Dr.  Lee,  Protestant  bishop  of  Man-  ! 
che.'ter,  one  of  the  best  of  modern  school-  ' 
masters,  used  to  say  to  his  boys  at 
Rugby: — "Remember  now:  thirty  thou- 
sand Athenians  ;  four  thousand  Meto;cs  ; 
four  hundred  thousand  slaves  I  "  The 
'contrast  was  perhaps  accentuated  a  little 
too  strongly  '  ;  but  its  substantial  truth 
and  significance  are  unimpeachable.  We 
are  all  too  apt  to  forget,  in  admiring  the 
mai-vellous  fertility  of  the  Attic  genius, 
how  ruthlessly  these  pattern  men  e-iploited 
the  labour  of  a  gagged  and  fettered 
multitude  of  miserable  beings,  created 
equally  with  themselves  for  happiness 
and  immortality. 

When   the   Greek  mind  began  to 
speculate  upon  slavery,  it  rejected  the 
cynical  tenet  of  the  old  times,  that  force 
is  its  own  justification,  and  that  any  man 
who  can  enslave  another  mny.    It  sug- 
gested that  some  races  of  mankind  are 
naturally  inferior  to  other  races,  and  born 
to  be  their  servants.    Aristotle  mentions 
this  opinion,  without  however  adopting  it 
as  his  own."    But  there  were  Greeks  who 
expressed  nobler  views.    Not  to  mention  j 
the  well-kuown  lines  of  Homer  ' — 
Jove  fixed  it  certain  that  the  self-same  day 
"Makes  man  a  slave,  takes  half  his  worth  away, 

I  M.  Wallon  estimates  the  numbers  thus : 
Athenians.  f,7.000 ;  Metoecs,  4O.i.i00 ;  slaves, 
•bont -200,(100. 

'  PoL  i.  2-6.  3  Od.  xvii.  322. 


Philemon  wrote  that  "no  one  was  ever 
born  a  slave  by  nature ;  it  was  ill-furtuue 
which  enslaved  his  body."  ' 

The  able  work  of  M.  Wallon  describes 
the  extension  of  slavery  among  the 
Romans,  even  under  the  Republic,  and 
delineates  the  fatal  moral  corruption 
which  it  produced.  The  domestic  side 
of  Roman  Ufe  is  unveiled  for  us  in  the 
plays  of  Plautus  and  Terence;  we  thus 
see  how  slavery  influenced  society  and 
vitiated  character.  The  sternly  practical 
turn  of  the  Roman  mind,  imderstanding 
that  slavery  was  at  all  times  dangerous 
(the  war  of  Spartacus  was  sufficient  to 
prove  that),  carried  out  with  horrible 
consistency  the  doctrine  that  the  slave, 
as  against  his  master,  has  no  riL'hts,  and 
that  revolt  is  an  unpardonable  crime. 
"\\Tien  Pedanius  Secundus,  prasfect  of  the 
city  tmder  Xero,  had  been  murdered  by 
one  of  his  slaves,  the  Senate,  on  the 
ground  that  among  the  other  slaves  there 
must  have  been  some  guilty  knowledge  of 
the  murderers  intention,  decreed  that  the 
whole  household,  numbering  four  hundred 
— old  and  young,  men,  women,  and 
chDdren — should  be  indiscriminately  put 
to  death ;  and  this  was  done.'^  The  gladi- 
ators, who  were  bred  to  the  use  of  ai-ms 
that  their  deadly  duels  might  furnish 
sport  for  the  Romans,  were  of  course 
slaves. 

Slavery  was  everywhere  one  of  the 
conditions  of  human  existence  when 
Christianity  appeared  in  the  world.  The 
method*  of  the  Gospel  are  not  revolution- 
ary ;  they  do  not  deal  in  those  sweeping 
general  assertions  which  fuller  experience 
always  shows  to  be  but  half  truths; 
rather  they  introduce  new  moral  principles 
into  the  hearts  of  men,  leaving  them 
there  as  germs,  to  bring  forth  fruit  in  due 
season.  So  it  was  in  the  ©ise  of  slavery. 
"The  Gospel  never  directly  attacks 
slavery  as  an  institution '' ;  ^  nor  was  the 
liberation  of  their  slaves  prescribed  by 
the  Apostles  to  their  converts  as  an 
absolute  duty.  Christianity  lifted  men 
to  a  moral  height  at  which  the  distinc- 
tions between  .slave  and  free,  Jew  and 
Greek,  seemed  of  triHing  importance. 
"There  is  neither  Greek  n'>r.Tew;  there  is 
neither  bond  nor  free :  there  is  neither 
male  nor  female.  For  you  are  all  one  in 
Christ  Jesus. ''^    "  Where  the  spirit  of  the 

1  tvcr€i  yap  ovSels  SovKos  iyiwifiT)  itote, 
'H  5'  aZ  TVKri  rh  awixa  KwrfiovX-Jiaaro. 

Frapin.  Meiiieke  ((jiio'ed  liy  Wallon). 

2  Tac.  .Ana.  xiv.  43  (quoted  bv  Lijihtfoot). 
s  Lightfoot,  p.  389.  *  Gal.  iu.  28. 


848  SLAVERY 


SLA^-ERY 


Lord  is,  there  is  liberty  " ;  *  the  liberty  of ' 
the  mind,  even  though  the  body  be  in 
bondage.  "  He  that  is  called  in  the 
Lord,  being  a  bondman,  is  the  freeman  of 
the  Lord  ";  -  but  if  a  slave  could  be  made 
free,  he  was  to  prefer  freedom  (v.  21).* 
A  slave  was  taugrht  to  obey  his  master  as 
though  lie  were  (^hrist  TTiiusolf,  not  with 
eye  service,  but  heartily  and  strenuously, 
'•  as  to  the  Lord  and  not  to  men." 
Similarly,  masters  were  taught  to  deal 
huraaiieiy  witli  tlieir  slaves,  as  recognising 
that  they  had  a  common  master  in 
heiiven,  with  whom  there  was  no  respect 
of  persons.'' 

"With  such  principles  introduced  into 
human  life,  slavery,  as  being  in  ordinary 
ca^^es  unjiisr,  was  at  once  undermined, 
and  gradually  fell.  Besides  manumission* 
in  life,  it  became  a  common  practice  for 
Christian  owners  of  slaves  to  emancipate 
them  by  their  last  will.  Long  before  the 
end  of  the  iifteenth  centmy  slavery  had 
disHppeared  from  Christendom,  and  even 
serfdom  bad  be?n  reduced  within  a 
narrow  compass.  The  influence  of  the 
clergy,  pressing  with  gentle  force  in  the 
same  direction  during  many  centuries, 
was  the  chie!'  agent  in  this  beneficent 
change.  After  the  dii=covery  of  the  New 
World,  tlie  adventurers  and  planters 
whom  Spain  sent  out  enslaved  the  wealc 
Carili  pojnilation  of  the  "West  Indies,  and 
forced  llieni  to  work  in  the  mines.  To 
save  the  O.irilis,  the  Dominican  LasCasas 
was  instrumental  in  bringing  over  negroes 
from  Africa,  whose  hardy  frames  were 
capable  of  bearing  great  labour  under  a 
tropical  sun.  Other  nations,  Protestant 
as  well  as  Catholic,  rushed  eagerly  into 
the  new  field  of  commerce  and  settlement, 
and  all  alihe  enslaved  the  negro.  The 
unscrupulous  cuiii'lity  of  the  planters  of 
all  nations  was  pretty  much  on  a  par; 
but  in  countries  oceujiied  by  Catholics 
the  Church  ■u  as  a  real  power,  and  re- 
strained to  a  great  extent  the  greed  and 
cruelty  (.f  the  laity.  In  the  Spanish  and 
Portuniiese  colonies,  the  slave  was  not 
entirely  a  slave:  a  code  of  laws  regulated 
the  relations  between  him  and  his  master  ; 
he  could  buy  his  freedom  for  a  fixed 
pricp  ;  and  the  slave  mother,  by  paying  a 
small  sum,  could  emancipate  her  cliild  at 

1  2  Cor.  iii.  17. 
»  t  Cor.  vii.  22. 

'  The  pass.ise  will  bear  the  opposite  inter- 
pretation, but  the  opinion  of  the  best  mndern 
commentators  appears  to  incline  to  that  here 
adopteil ;  conip.  v.  23. 

*  Phil.  vi.  5-9. 


the  font.  These  mitigations  did  not 
exist  in  the  English  and  Butch  colonies, 
where  the  ministers  of  the  various  Pro- 
testant sects,  divided  by  deep  sectional 
disagreements,  took  no  common  action, 
but  obeyed  the  public  opinion  of  those 
among  whom  they  lived.  Before  the 
late  war  in  the  Uni'ted  States,  the  ^letho- 
dist  ministers  at  the  North  denounced 
slavery  as  a  sin:  the  Methodist  ministers 
at  the  Soutii  defended  it  as  an  institution 
sanctioned  in  Scripture,  and  eminently 
pleasing  to  the  Almighty. 

In  England,  after  the  American  War 
of  Independence  in  the  last  century,  a 
movement  against  sla\  ery  in  the  British 
colonies,  and  against  the  slave  trade  which 
ministered  to  it,  was  set  on  foot  by  the 
Quakers.  Other  philanthropists  joined 
them,  and  the  names  of  Clarkson,  Wilber- 
force,  Zachary  Macaulay,  Steplien,  and 
Buxton  are  deservedly  revered.  The 
slave  trade  was  abolished,  so  far  as  the 
British  Empire  was  concerned,  in  1807, 
and  slavery  iiself  suppressed  in  1833,  the 
planters  in  tlie  West  Indies  being  com- 
pensated with  a  sum  of  twenty  millions 
sterling  voted  them  by  Parliament.  The 
French,  proclaiming  in  their  frantic  re- 
volutionary way  that  in  Hayti  and  their 
other  colonies  slavery  was  at  an  end, 
threw  t!ie  entire  system  of  their  colonial 
society  info  a  confusion  from  which  it  has 
not  recovered  to  this  day.  Spain,  proceed- 
ing gradn.'dly  and  prudently,  has  reduced 
slavery  in  its  magnificent  colony  of  Cuba 
witliin  very  narrow  limits,  and  in  Porto 
Rico  has  abolished  it  altogether.  In 
Brazil,  and  in  .Mexico,  and  all  the  otlier 
republics  carved  out  of  the  colonial  empire 
of  Spain,  slavery  no  longer  exists.  In  the 
Lnited  States,  the  Federal  Government 
(l!*r)o),as  a  war  measure,  declared  that 
all  the  slaves  in  the  seceded  States  were 
free,  and  as  the  war  ended  favourably  for 
the  Nc)rth,  the  declaration  has  become  a. 
fact.  Thus  Christianity,  aided,  no  doubt, 
by  mere  humanitarian  views  and  political 
considerations,  has  a  second  time  over- 
mastered those  selfish  instincts  in  man 
which  favour  the  establi.'shment  of  slaverj-. 
In  Mahomedan  and  Pa^ran  countries,  nO' 
such  influence  being  in  operation,  slavery, 
it  is  to  be  feared,  will  for  a  long  time  hold 
its  ground. 

Since  the  above  article  was  written, 
the  question  of  slavery  has  come  into 
special  prominence,  partly  on  account  of 
the  efforts  of  the  present  Pope  (Leo  XIII.), 
partly  on  account  of  the  intere.«t  aroused 
by  tlie  English  occupation  of  Egypt  and 


SLAVERY 


SODALITY  SiO 


the  opening  up  of  the  interior  of  Africa 
b_T  travellers  and  colonists  of  various 
European  nations.  In  a  letter  addressed 
to  the  bishops  ot  Brazil  (May  5,  1888) 
his  Holiness  treats,  with  his  usual  erudi- 
tion, of  the  ori.'in  and  history  of  slavery, 
dwelling  especially  on  the  labours  of  his 
predecessors  in  securing  its  suppression, 
tit.  Gregory  the  Great  granted  freedom 
to  all  slaves  who  wished  to  embrace  a 
monastic  life  :  Hadrian  I.  allowed  them 
to  marry  even  against  their  masters'  will ; 
Innocent  III.  confirmed  and  encouraired 
the  Trinitarian  Order  for  the  Redemption 
of  Captives  [see  Teiniiabiax]  ;  a  similar 
order,  under  the  protection  of  Our  Lady 
of  Ransom,  was  approved  by  Honorius 
in. ;  Gregory  IX.  forbade  the"  sale  of  the 
Church's  serfs,  and  warmly  exhorted  the 
faithful  to  free  their  slaves,  as  satisfaction 
to  God  for  their  own  sins.  When  the 
great  discoveries  were  being  made  in  the 
tifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  the 
Popes  raised  their  voices  against  the 
oppression  of  the  natives.  Pius  U., 
Leo  X.,  Paul  IH.,  and  Urban  Vlll. 
used  their  influence  with  the  Kings  of 
Spain  and  Portugal  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  slavery,  and  imposed  censures  on  those 
who  took  part  in  it.  In  more  recent 
times,  Benedict  XIV.,  Pius  VII.,  and 
Gregoiy  XVI.  have  been  the  slaves' 
friends.  Leo  XIII.  has  espoused  their 
cause  with  characteristic  energy  and 
wisdom.  He  appointed  the  mtrepid 
Cardinal  Lavigerie,  Archbishop  of  Al- 
giers, to  preach  a  crusade  against  the 
infamous  traffic  in  human  beings,  and 
supplied  him  with  the  munificent  sum  of 
;jOO,C)00  francs  to  help  to  carry  on  the 
work.  The  African  Primate's"  visit  to 
England  will  long  be  remembered.  His 
address  to  the  Anti-Slavery  Society 
excited  an  amoiujt  of  enthusiasm  which 
proved  how  deep  and  widespread  is  the 
sympathy  for  the  poor  negroes.  His  plan 
is  to  strike  the  evil  at  the  root ;  to  des*^roy 
the  markets  of  the  interior,  or  to  render 
them  useless  by  estabUshing — as  Gordon 
wished  to  do  for  the  ba.<in  uf  the  Nile — 
barriers  a^rainst  slavery,  composed  of 
natives  led  and  instructed  by  Europeans. 
Large  numbers  of  young  men  have  en- 
rolled themselves  in  the  new  military 
order  which  he  has  instituted  for  the 
purpose.  As  we  write  (1>91)  they  have 
already  begun  operations  in  Africa.  An 
encyclical  letter,  addressed  to  all  the 
bishops  of  the  world,  has  lately  (Novem- 
ber 20,  1890")  been  issued  by  the  Pope, 
in  which  he  highly  praises  the  Cardinal'.s 


labours,  and  comniands  that  a  collection 
be  made  every  year  on  the  Epiphany 
for  the  benefit  of  the  cause. 

(H.  Wallon,  "Hist,  de  I'Esclavage 
dans  I'Antiquit^,"  1847;  Dr.  Lightfoot, 
"  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Colossiai.s  and 
to  Philemon,"  1875;  Barth's  "'Travels 
in  Central  Africa  "' ;  "  Dublin  Review," 
Januarv  IS.^-O.  **The  New  Crusade,"  bv 
Miss  E".  M.  Clerke.) 

SOCXET7  or   THE  FAZTHFtTX. 

coMPAzrzoirs  of  jesxts.  This 
congregation,  founded  at  Amiens  by 
Madame  de  Bonnault  d'Houet  in  1820, 
imder  the  direction  of  the  Pere  Varin,  of 
the  Company  of  Jesus,  to  labour  for  the 
sanctification  of  soiils  and  the  reform  of 
female  education,  sent  out  branches  even 
in  the  lifetime  of  the  foundress  into  Italy, 
Switzerland,  England,  and  Ireland. 
Madame  d'Houet  usually  began  by 
opening  a  poor-school,  in  which  the 
education  was  gratuitous,  adding,  as  cir- 
cumstances ptrrmitted,  a  middle  school  in 
which  moderate  fees  were  charged,  and  a 
j}ensio>inat  for  the  children  of  the  rich. 
She  died  in  1858 ;  her  life  has  been  well 
written  by  the  Abb^  F.  Martin.  The  in- 
stitute is  now  in  %  flourishing  condition  ; 
it  possesses  fourteen  houses  in  Endand, 
the  principal  one  being  at  Islew.irth,  near 
London,  and  two  or  three  in  Ireland,  of 
which  the  most  important  ia  at  Latirel 
Hill,  near  Limerick. 

SOOAXiZTT.  A  religious  congrega- 
tion or  associarion  consisting  of  lay 
persons,  male  or  female,  or  both  male  and 
female,  meeting  together  at  stated  times, 
under  ecclesiastical  direction,  for  the 
performance  of  pious  exercises,  and 
recommending  to  each  of  its  members 
conformity  in  life  and  conversation  to  a 
body  of  rules,  framed  in  order  to  promote 
the  honour  of  God,  devotion  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  the  spread  of  good  works, 
and  the  spiritual  advancement  of  those 
who  faithfully  observe  them. 

Under  this  general  definition  will 
fall,  besides  other  confraternities  and 
pious  societies,  the  Little  Oratory  of 
St.  Philip  Neri,  established  in  every 
place  where  there  is  a  congregation  of 
priests  of  the  Oratory. 

There  are  Sodalities  both  in  England 
and  Ireland  for  promoting  temperance ; 
there  are  also  Sodalities  foundf'd  in 
honour  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus. 
The  greatest  and  most  ancient  Sodality 
in  the  world  appears  to  be  that  known  as 
the  Pt-tma  Prima  Ha.  ''See  Child  of 
Mart.] 

3  I 


«50  SOMASCHA 


SOUL 


SOMASCHA,  THE  ItZ:GVZ.AR 
CX.ERKS  or.  The  founder  of  this 
order  was  St.  Jerom  Eniiliani,  a  noble 
Venetian,  boni  in  1481.  In  his  youth  he 
adopted  the  profession  of  amis,  and 
fought  with  distinction  in  the  war, 
disastrous  for  the  republic,  which  arose 
out  of  the  League  of  Cambray  (1509). 
After  valiantly  defending  the  town  of 
Castelnuovo,  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
^^nemy  ;  but,  being  delivered,  some  say 
miraculously,  from  his  imprisonment,  he 
resolved  to  give  his  future  hfe  to  God. 
For  some  years  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
care  of  some  orphan  nephews,  and  to  the 
management  of  their  property.  Circum- 
stances gradually  led  him  to  the  esta- 
blishment of  an  orphanage  at  Venice, 
about  1  r):28  ;  this  was  followed  up  by 
similar  fimudations  at  Brescia  and  Ber- 
gamo. His  first  associates  were  laymen, 
in  concert  with  whom  he  fixed  the  centre 
of  their  operations  at  Somascha,  a  village 
between  Milan  and  Bergamo.  Some 
fervent  priests  joined  him,  and  they  all 
lived  a  life  of  great  regularity  and  aus- 
terity sanctified  by  continual  prayer,  at 
Somascha.  The  holy  founder  died  in 
1637,  before  his  institute  had  been  ap- 
proved by  the  Holy  See ;  he  was  beatified 
by  Benedict  XIV.  and  canonised  by 
Clement  XTII.  The  Papal  confirmation 
-came  in  L^O.-^ ;  it  erected  the  congregation 
into  a  religious  order,  under  the  rule  of 
St.  Austin,  and  gave  it  the  name  of 
Regular  Clerks  of  St.  Mayeul,  or  of 
Somascha.  The  order  was  in  course  of 
time  greatly  extended  in  Italy,  and  was 
introduced  in  France  ;  besides  orphanages 
and  Magdalen  asylums,  it  had  the  direc- 
tion of  several  colleges.  Its  principal 
house  is  now  at  Rome.'  (H61yot.) 

SORBOIO'M'E.  This  famous  college 
took  its  name  from  the  founder,  Robert 
de  Sorbon,  who  in  1^52  founded  within 
the  University  of  Paris  a  college  for 
the  maintenance  of  sixteen  theological 
students,  four  from  each  of  the  French, 
Norman,  Picard,  and  English  "nations." 
Burses  were  soon  afterwards  added  for 
Flemish  and  German  students.  The 
discipline  was  in  the  hands  of  a  provisor 
or  curator,  appointed  by  a  board,  presided 
over  by  the  Archdeacon  of  Paris.  The 
formal  a])j)rot)ation  of  the  Holy  See  was 
given  in  12f).~^.  The  credit  and  influence 
of  the  college  continually  increased;  the 
majority  of  the  Paris  doctors  in  theology 
were  there  trained  ;  in  its  halls  were 
ordinarily  held  the  meetings  of  that 
»  Wetzer  and  Welte. 


faculty ;  and  in  process  of  time  "  the 
Sorbonne"  and  the  theological  faculty 
became  identified.  This  was  certainly 
the  case  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  From  that  time,  since 
the  theologians  of  the  university  were 
then  and  long  afterwards  its  chief  cele- 
brities, the  history  of  the  Sorbonne  can 
hardly  be  distinguished,  down  to  the 
Revolution,  from  that  of  the  university 
itself.  On  the  important,  and  not  very 
consistent  part  which  the  Sorbonne  played 
in  the  great  Jansenist  controversy,  see 
the  article  Jansenism. 

In  1629  were  opened  the  existing 
stately  buildings  of  the  Sorbonne  in  the 
Quartier  Latin,  including  the  church  in 
which  lie  the  ashes  of  Richelieu,  an  am- 
phitheatre capable  of  seating  more  than 
1,500  auditors,  and  residences  for  thirty- 
six  "  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne."  The  old 
L^niversity  of  Paris  was  destroyed  by  the 
Revolution ;  when  it  was  reorganised  bj 
Napoleon  in  1808,  a  faculty  of  Cathohc 
theology,  with  seven  chairs,  was  esta- 
blished at  the  Sorbonne.  But  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Government  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  professors  caused  the  bishops 
to  regard  their  teaching  with  some  mis- 
trust ;  the  Seminarist  routine  is  so  firmly 
established  that  even  those  who  admit 
its  shortcomings  find  it  scarcely  possible 
to  abstain  from  taking  advantage  of  it : 
and  from  these  and  other  causes,  the 
present  faculty  of  Catholic  theology  is 
little  more  than  a  nomtm's  vmhra.  The 
faculties  of  the  Sciences  and  of  Literature 
in  the  University  of  France  also  hold 
their  high  days  for  the  conferring  of 
degrees  and  prizes  in  the  buildings  of  the 
Sorbonne.  Lectures  are  also  given  within 
its  walls  by  professors  belonging  to  these 
faculties. 

SOTJXt.  The  Scholastics,  following 
Aristotle,  mean  by  soul  the  primary 
principle  of  life,  and  by  living  things  all 
such  as  have  the  capacity  of  motion  from 
within.  Thus,  a  stone  has  no  life,  and 
therefore  no  soul,  because  it  does  not  move 
but  is  moved  by  forces  external  to  itself ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  vegetables, 
beasts,  and  men  all  have  souls.  A  plant, 
for  example,  unlike  inorganic  substances, 
has  the  power,  so  long  as  it  lives,  of 
alisorbing  moisture  and  of  assimilating 
it  by  the  activity  of  its  organs.  Brutes 
have  the  same  power,  and  add  to  it  that 
of  sense  ;  while  the  soul  of  man  is  at 
once  vegetative,  sensitive,  and  rational. 
We  have  to  deal  here  only  with  the 
human  or  rational  soul,  and  the  object  of 


SOUL 


SOUL 


Sol 


this  article  is  to  note  the  principal  heads  i  had  decided  the  matter  ("an  vero  ea  duo, 
ot*  Catholic  doctrine  on  the  subject,  not  to  |  ac.  pars  rationalis  animae  et  pars  ejusdem 
enter  on  philosophical  discussion  foreign  sensitiva,  re  ipsa,  an  vero,  quod  magis 
to  the  plan  of  this  work.  recepta  est,  sola  ratione  distinguantur, 

1.  The  Soul  is  Immaterial. — Li  respect  '  philosophi  disputant ").  Li  our  own  time 
to  his  Tegetative  and  animal  functions  \  a  celebrated  German  Catholic,  Giinther 
man  does  not  differ  essentially  from  the  (d.  1S6S),  defended  the  theory  tLit  there 
lower  animals ;  but  whereas  the  soul  of  were  in  human  nature  two  distinct  priu- 
brutes  is  a  principle  which  can  only  exist  j  ciples — one  the  animal  soul,  the  principle 
in  matter  and  only  operates  in  union  with  i  of  Tegetatire  and  animal  life ;  the  other 
it,  the  human  soul,  though  it  also  exists  j  a  spiritual  principle. 

in  and  operates  through  matter,  "  has,  -i.  Union  of  Soul  and  Body.  —  The 
nevertheless,  an  existence  apart  from  I  Schoolmen  speak  of  the  one  soul  as  the 
matter  and  an  operation  in  which  the  substantial  form  of  the  body.  By  the 
body  takes  no  part  '  (Kleutgen).  The  substantial  form  they  understand  that 
Schoolmen  find  the  proof  of  such  imma-  [  principle  by  which  a  thing  is  constituted 
teriality  in  the  power  which  the  mind  in  its  proper  species,  that  which  makes  it 
has  of  forming  abstract  and  immaterial  what  it  essentially  is.  They  appeal  to 
ideas.  And  although  this  immaterial  or  the  unity  of  nature  testified  by  conscious- 
spiritual  character  of  the  soul  and  the  ness  and  acknowledged  in  the  common 
freedom  of  the  will  are  taught  by  faith,  language  of  mankind.  We  express  our 
they  may  also  be  certainly  proved  by  consciousness  of  our  own  unity  when  we 
reason,  and  so  the  Congregation  of  the  say,  "  I  feel,"  "  I  reason,"  "  I  wiU."  It  is 
Lidex  declared  June  11,  ISoo.  not,  as  Aristotle  remarks,  so  correct  to  say 

2.  The  Unity  of  the  Soul. — The  three  "My  eye  sees"  as  "I  see  through  the 
classes  into  which  the  tunctions  of  the  eye.  '  Further,  we  are  conscious  that  we 
soul  naturally  fall  led  some  to  assert  the  who  consider  and  resolve  carry  out  our 
existence  of  three  distinct  souls— vegeta-  resolution  through  the  bodily  limbs.  Our 
tive,  animal,  and  rational.  In  the  middle  faculties,  indeed,  are  different,  but  all 
of  the  ninth  century  the  question  assumed  proceed  from  one  common  principle  of  life 
theological  importance,  and  Photius  ex-  which  makes  each  of  us  a  single  being, 
cited  great  opposition  by  his  doctrine  that  The  denial  that  the  "substance  of  the 
man  had  two  souls — one  rational,  one  rational  or  intellectual  soul  is  truly  and 
irrational — and  that  the  latter  only  siimed  in  itself  the  form  of  the  human  body  " 
(Hefele,  "  Concil."  iv.  p.  3.34).  The  im-  |  was  condemned  at  the  General  CouncQ 
moral  consequences  which  flow  from  such  of  Vienne  as  erroneous  and  out  of  har- 
a  denial  of  the  unity  of  human  nature  mony  with  iinimicnm)  the  truth  of  the 
ai-e  obvious,  and  in  869  the  Fourth  ,  Catholic  faith.  The  condemnation  was 
General  Council  of  Constantinople  (can.  directed  against  the  teaching  of  John  of 
11),  after  stating  that  both  Old  and  New  Oliva  (1247-1207),  a  Provencal  Fran- 
Testaments  attributed  "  one  rational  and  ciscan,  who  joined  the  heretical  party  of 
intelligent  soul "  to  man  {unnm  the  "  Spiritual "  Friars.  The  condemna- 
rationabilem  et  intellectualem,  fiiav  ylrvxv"  tion  was  repeated  by  Pius  IX.  in  lS-57, 
Xoyucrjv  Tf  xai  votpdv),  anathematised  the  ,  in  his  brief  to  the  Archbishop  of  ColoLTue 
doctrine  of  "  two  souls '"  as  a  heresy.  In  '  on  the  errors  of  Giinther.  It  is,  however, 
the  middle  ages,  however,  trichotomy,  or  well  to  remember  that  the  doctrine  of 
the  doctrine  of  "  three  souls,"  was  upheld  ;  Scotus  is  diffe  rent  here  from  that  of  the 
by  Ockham.  who  alleged  that  the  doctrine  Thomists.  He  admitted  that  the  single 
of  "  two  souls  ■' — one  good,  one  bad — not  principle  of  life  is  the  substantial  form, 
that  of  separate  souls  in  itself  and  as  a    but  held  that  the  body  had  a  form  of  its 

hilosophical  thesis,  had  been  condemned  j  own,  this  form  of  corporeity,  as  he  called 
y  the  Eighth  General  Council  (Ockham,  I  it,  being  distinct  from  that  of  inorganic 
"  Quodlib."  n.  qu.  10  and  11,  quoted  by  |  bodies. 

Kleutgen).  It  deserves  notice  that  al-  |  4.  Immortality  of  the  Soul. — Here 
though  St.  Thomas  (on  1  Thess.  v.  23)  there  is  a  marked  divergence  of  opinion 
speaks  of  the  doctrine  of  "two  souls"  as  j  among  Catholic  philosophers.  St.  Thomas 
"  reprobated  in  the  decisions  of  the  and  many  who  follow  him  believe  that  it 
Church,"  the  vaiy  learned  Estius,  in  his  can  be  proved  by  reason.  Scotus,  on  the 
commentary  on  the  same  passage,  regards  contrary,  r^^^ards  it  as  a  truth  cognisable 
the  dispute  as  merely  philosophical,  and  by  faith"  alone.  The  Roman  Congregations 
evidentlv  did  not  admit  that  the  Church   have  carefullv  avoided  even  the  appear* 

3l2 


852 


SOUL 


SPIRITUALISM 


ance  of  condemiiing-  the  Scotist  position. 
In  the  decree  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Index,  already  cited,  it  is  the  spiritual 
nature,  not  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
which  is  said  to  be  demonstrable  by  reason. 

5.  The  Origin  of  the  Suul. — Origen 
held  with  Plato  that  souls  existed  before 
they  were  united  with  the  body,  and  this 
theory  forms  the  subject  of  the  first  of  the 
fifteen  anathemas  issued  by  o-vfoSos  cVSij- 
fioiiaa  of  Constantinople  in  543  (see  Hefele, 
"  Concil."  II.  p.  790  seg.).  Putting  this 
aside,  we  find  that  at  least  three  distinct 
theories  on  the  origin  of  the  soul  have 
been  held  in  the  Church. 

(n)  A  few  held  that  the  soul  of  men 
was  produced,  like  that  of  the  brutes,  by 
natural  generation,  no  special  power  being 
attributed  to  the  souls  of  the  parents,  ex- 
cept so  far  as  the  soul  is  the  animating 
principle  of  the  body.  This  theory  is  stated 
with  characteristic  coarseness  by  Ter- 
tullian  ("  De  Anima,"  27 ) ;  was  stated  as  a 
possible  theory  by  Rufiuus  (see  Hieron. 
"  Adv.  Rufiu."  ii.  8) ;  and  perhaps  adopted 
by  Macarius  (Hom.  xxx.  1).' 

(/3)  It  was  a  common  belief  in  the 
early  Church  (Clem.  Al.  "  Strom."  iv.  6, 
p.  638;  ed.  Potter,  vi.  16,  p.  808;  Hieron. 
"In  Ecclesiast."  tom.  iii.  ed.  Vallarsi, 
p.  492-3)  that  the  soul  was  immediately 
created  by  God  and  infused  by  Him  into 
the  embryo  when  sufficiently  organised. 
Jerome,  however  (Ep.  126  ad  Marcellin. 
et  Anapsych.),  adniits  that  most  Westerns 
held  the  soul  to  be  "ex  traduce." 

(y)  Augustine  found  it  hard  to 
defend  himself  against  the  Pelagians  on 
the  theory  that  the  soul  was  immediately 
created  by  God.  If  the  soul  came  straight 
from  God,  how  could  it  come  stained  with 
original  sin  ?  The  difficulty  led  Augustine 
to  investigate  the  assumption  from  which 
it  arose.  He  could  find  no  proof  in  Scrip- 
ture that  the  soul  is  directly  created  by 
God,  and,  while  he  repudiated  Tertullian's 
theory,  he  thought  it  very  po.><sible  (Ep. 
"  Ad  Optat."  190,  al.  157)'  that  an  imma- 
terial element  (" incorporeum  semen") 
was  communicated  by  the  father  to  the 
mother.  The  philosophical  reasons  seemed 
to  him  fairly  balanced  on  either  side, 
though  he  inclined  on  theological  grounds 
to  the  doctrine  that  the  soul  came  by 
generation  ("  De  Gen.  ad  Lit."  x.  23). 
St.  Augustine's  influence  led  Fulgentius 
("  De  Verit.  Prjfidest."  iii.  18),  Gregory 

1  "Earthlj*  fathers  from  their  own  nature, 
from  their  bodj'  and  soul,  beget  children."  The 
words  are  scarcely  definite  enough  to  show 
which  theory  Macarins  held. 


the  Great  (Ep.  ix.  52,  "  Ad  Secundin."), 
and  Isidore  (•'  De  Ordine  Great."  cap.  15) 
to  decide,  or  rather  to  abstain  from  de- 
ciding, the  matter,  just  as  St.  Augustine 
himself  had  done.  On  the  other  hand, 
St.  Bernard  (Serm.  U.  "De  Nativ."  sm6 
Jin.)  and  the  Schoolmen  generally  (see, 
e.ff.,  St.  Thomas,  I.  qu.  xc.)  reverted  to  the 
older  view — viz.  creationism — and  aban- 
doned that  of  Augustine — viz.  genera- 
tionism.  Benedict  XII.  required  the 
Armenian  bishops  to  accept  creationism. 
The  controversy  was  revived  in  1854  by 
Frohschammer,  priest  and  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Munich.  His  errors  on  the 
relations  of  faith  and  reason  were  pro- 
scribed by  Pius  IX.  in  a  brief  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Munich  (1862),  but  nothing 
was  said  of  his  teaching  on  the  origin  of 
the  soul. 

SPZRiTUAXiXSM.  A  term  for- 
merly employed  for  philosophical  belief 
in  the  immateriality  of  the  soul,  has  been 
used  for  the  last  half-century  for  a 
supposed  communication  with  the  dead, 
and  for  the  doctrines  connected  with 
such  communication.  The  evocation  of 
persons  deceased  has  been  part  of  every 
system  of  magic :  its  present  form  dates 
from  1848,  •when  two  girls  of  nine  and 
twelve  in  the  village  of  Hydesville,  in 
the  State  of  New  York,  began  to  com- 
municate with  the  spirits  by  means  of 
"  raps "  on  the  walk  or  on  articles  of 
furniture.  The  practice  spread  rapidly 
in  the  United  States,  and  was  intro- 
duced into  this  country  by  a  Mrs.  Haydon, 
in  1854,  and  further  extended,  here  and 
on  the  continent  of  Em-ope,  by  the  well- 
known  D.  D.  Home.  From  that  time 
spiritualism  has  been  kept  before  the 
public  by  a  series  of  persons  laying  claim 
to  exceptional  powers,  as  well  as  by 
numerous  ordinary  mediums,  and  by  a 
few  scientific  men  who  have  accepted  its 
teachings.  Some  idea  of  its  present 
extent  may  be  gained  from  the  account 
of  the  International  Congress  of  Spiritual- 
ists, which  was  held  in  September,  1889, 
in  the  rooms  of  the  Grand  Orient  Masonic 
Lodge  of  Paris.  It  was  then  stated  that 
more  than  ninety  journals  and  periodicals 
are  published  in  diflerent  countries  in  the 
interests  of  Spiritualism. 

The  manifestations  of  the  so-called 
spirits  were  at  first  obtained  by  rapping 
answers  to  questions  according  to  a  pre- 
arranged code.  This  process  was  found 
to  be  tedious,  and  has  been  generally 
superseded  by  writing,  either  in  the 
ordinary  manner — but,  as  is  alleged,  with- 


SPIRITUALISM 


SPONSORS 


853 


out  any  conscious  act  of  the  medium — 
or  by  the  use  of  "  planchette."  Other 
phenomena  appear  to  be  designed  as 
proofs  of  the  power  of  the  spirits,  such  as 
raising  mediums  in  the  air,  elongating 
the  body,  "spirit-photographs,"  playing 
musical  instruments,  untying  complicated 
knots,  besides  other  acts  too  numerous  to 
mention. 

These  supposed  revelations  from  the 
unseen  world  have  given  rise  to  doctrines 
which  vary  in  different^  schools  of 
spiritualists,  but  are  found  most  fully 
developed  in  the  works  of  Allan  Kardec, 
in  whose  obscure  and  verbose  system  the 
influence  of  the  kindred  views  of  Sweden- 
borg  may  be  traced.  All  space,  he 
teaches,  is  peopled  by  the  spirits  of 
persons  who  once  inhabited  this  or  other 
■worlds.  Even  when  disembodied  they 
retain  an  ethereal  human  form;  they  are 
of  every  degree  of  excellence  and  happi- 
ness, according  to  their  life  in  the  flesh, 
but  all  are  subject  to  the  law  of  progress 
and  capable  of  arriving  at  perfection.  All 
are  able  to  conununicate  with  mankind 
through  "mediums."' 

The  largest  part  of  the  supposed 
manifestations  of  Spiritualism  may  no 
doubt  be  set  down  to  conscious  imposture. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  most  strik- 
ing phenomena,  which  have  all  in  turn 
seemed  preternatural,  and  all  been  re- 
peated by  professed  conjurors.  The 
mysterious  character  of  many  of  the 
communications,  and  their  differences 
from  the  apparent  capacity  of  the 
mediums,  have  been  traced  in  some 
instances  at  least  to  unconscious  mental 
action  ("  Cerebration  "),  which  mani- 
fests itself  during  hypnotism  or  some  of 
the  allied  states.  In  like  manner  an- 
other series  of  phenomena  connected  with 
Spiritualism — table-turning  and  thought- 
reading — have  been  shown  to  be  due 
to  unconscious  muscular  movements. 
"Whether  beyond  all  this  there  is  rmy 
residue  produced  by  direct  spiritual 
agency  is  a  point  which  must  be  left  in 
dcftibt.  If  there  be  such  agency  it  is 
enough  to  say  that  the  Church  is"  amply 
justified  in  treating  it  as  dialwlical,  and 
in  condemning  alf  such  practices.  See 
particularly  the  Decree  of  the  H.  Ofiice. 
June  23,  I806,  which  permits  the  use  of 
hypnotism  (animal  uiagnetism)as  a  merely 
natural  process,  but  forbids  all  divination, 
sorcery,  or  invocation  of  devils  explicit  or 
implicit — every  case,  in  short,  where  "or- 
dinantur  media  physica  ad  eft'ectus  non 
naturales." 


I  The  diabolical  character  of  Spiritualism 
I  is  most  clearly  shown  by  its  being  a 
ghastly  parody  on  those  relations  to  the 
dead  wluch  religion  has  consecrated,  and 
by  the  heartless  deceptions  and  frauds 
which  have  sprung  from  it. 

Further   details  on  the  theological 
aspect  of  the  question  will  be  found  in 
Perrone,  "  De  Virtute  Religionis  deque 
Vitiis  Oppositis,"  and  in  Ballerini's  edition 
of  Gury   (I.  p.  238,  ed.  S'V  Yung, 
I  "  Hypnotisme  et  Spiritisme,'  Geneve, 
j  1890,  is  a  good  general  account  of  the 
subiect,  while   Gilles  de   la  Tourette, 
I  "  L  Hypnotisme  et  les  ^tats  analogues  au 
point  de  vue  m^dico-l^gal,"  supplies  full 
details  of  the  present  degraded  state  of 
Spiritualism  in  France. 

spoifSORS.  "Sponsoree,"  "Fide- 
I  jussore^,"  "  Susceptore8,"or  "  Offerentes," 
mentioned  by  Tertullian, "  Lib.  de  Bapt.,*" 
St.  Basil,  Epist.  cxxviii.,  and  by  St.  Augus- 
tine, are  the  persons  who,  according  to  the 
1  practice  of  the  Church,  assist  at  the  solemn 
administration  of  baptism,  to  make  profes- 
sion of  Christian  faith  in  the  name  of  the 
j  baptized.  In  later  times  they  were  called 
'"Patrini" — in  English  "Godfathers" 
and  "  Godmothers."  "  Gossips  "  was  the 
old  Saxon  name  by  which  they  were 
known.  They  assist  at  the  baptism  of 
adults,  but  the  latter  are  required  to 
answer  the  questions  put  to  them  by  the 
priest.  According  to  the  decree  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  two  sponsors  at  most 
are  permitted — a  male  and  a  female 
(Sess.  xxiv. "  De  Reform.").  The  sponsors 
in  baptism  contract  a  spiritual  relation- 
ship to  the  person  baptized;  hence,  not  to 
,  widen  the  circle  of  this  spiritual  relation- 
;  ship,  the  number  of  sponsors  is  kept  at 
two.  According  to  St.  Alphonsus,  if  a 
greater  number  be  named  the  priest  may 
permit  them  to  be  present,  and  even  to 
touch  the  child,  provided  he  designates 
from  their  number  two  who  are  the  real 
sponsors.  Theologians  generally  are  satis- 
tied  that  the  person  acting  as  sponsor 
should  have  been  baptized  and  have  at- 
tained the  use  of  reason,  being  at  least 
seven  years  old.  A  procurator  may  be 
deputed  to  act  as  sponsor  for  another; 
the  sponsor  or  his  deputy  must  physi- 
cally hold  or  touch  the  child  while  it  is 
receiving  the  sacrament,  or  take  it,  after 
j  baptism,  from  the  hands  of  the  priest. 
The  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent 


quotes  St.  Augustine  on  the  duties  of 
sponsors  towards  their  charges :  "  They 
[the  sponsors]  ought  to  admonish  them 
to  observe  chastity,  love  justice,  cherish 


854 


SPONSORS 


STATES  OF  THE  CHURCH 


charity ;  and,  above  all.  they  should  teach  | 
them  the  Creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the 
Ten  Commandments,  and  the  tii-st  rudi- 
ments oi  the  Christian  relicion"'  ("Serm. 
163.  De    Temp.")  "  Theologians,  how- 
ever, commonly  teach,''  says  O'Kane,  in  I 
"  Notes  on  the  Rubrics," ''  with  St.  Tho-  ' 
mas,  that  sponsors  are  bound  to  fulfil  these 
duties  only  when  there  is  reason  to  think  , 
that  they  are  neglected  by  the  parents  or 
others  on  whom  they  naturally  devolve  in  [ 
the  tirst  instance  ;  and  hence,  generally 
speakinpr,  sponsors  need  have  no  anxiety  , 
about   the    discharge   of   these   duties  ' 
towards  the  children  of  Christian  pa- 
rents."   A  Protestant  sponsor  alone  can- 
not be  admitted  to  act :  but  if  one  spon-  i 
8or  is  a  Catholic,  the  other  might  be  per- 
mitted to  act  as  a  witness,  or  "the  priest, 
provided  a  heretic  is  presented  as  spon- 
sor, may  omit  having  a  sponsor.  Mem- 
bers of  the  secular  clergy,  except  when 
they  are  excluded  by  diocesan  or  pro- 
vincial  synods,  may   act   as  sponsors. 
Sponsors  contract  a  spiritual  relationship 
with  the  child  baptized  and  its  parents, 
which   is  an  impediment  to  marriage 
between  the  godfather  and   the   child  | 
or   its  mother,  and  between  the  god- 
mother  and   the   child   or  its  father. 
Such  a  marriage  would  be  no  marriage  at 
all.  unless  a  dispensation  had  lieen  ob- 
tained; but  no  spiritual  relationship  is  , 
contracted  between  the  sponsors,   and  I 
consequently  no  impediment  exists  (Car-  | 
riere,  *'De  Matrimonio "').    Sponsors,  if  i 
admitted  in  private  baptism,  contract  no 
impediment;  but  a  baptism  in  a  private 
house  with  all  the  ceremonies  is  not  a  i 
private  Daptism,  according  to  high  authori- 
ties. I 

In  the  sacrament  of  Confirmation 
there  must  also  be  at  least  one  god- 
parent, who  becomes  spiritually  related 
to  the  recipient  and  its  parents.  [See 
Baptism  :  Coxfirjiatiox."  I 

STATES     OF     THE     CHURCH.  | 
Under  the  Pagan  emperors  Christianity 
was  a  religto  iUirita,  and   the  Roman 
Pontiffs  were  exposed  by  their  position  to 
the  full  severity  of  the  laws  ;  a  lar2-e 
proportion  of  them  suffered  martyrdom,  j 
The   edicts   of  Constantine    in  favour 
of  the  religion  which  he  had  embraced 
have  been  "noticed  in  a  previous  article 
Thfech  Peopektt,  p.   200].    In  the  i 
middle  ages  it  was  lomr  believed  that  the  , 
tirst  Christian  Emperor  had  made  a  solemn  ' 
"Edict  of  Donation,"  conferring  on  the 
Pope,  Sylvester  I.,  the  City  of  Rome,  the  I 
imperial  palace  there,  and  the  "provinces,  | 


places,  and  cities  of  all  Italy,  and  the- 
western  regions."'  This  donation  was 
long  ago  recognised  as  a  forgery  ;  Mura- 
tori  assigns  its  invention  to  the  eighth 
century. 

At  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  the 
Roman  See  was  in  possession  of  large 
landed  estates,  chietdy  in  Italy  and 
Sicily.  After  the  death  of  Gregory  the 
Great  the  power  of  the  Eastern  Empire 
in  Italy  dwindled  more  and  more,  and  the 
Lombards,  pressing  down  from  the  North, 
threatened  to  seize  upon  Rome.  Natu- 
rally, in  the  absence  of  other  authority^ 
the  Romans  and  the  people  of  the  sur- 
rounding districts  came  to  look  on  the 
Popes  as  their  protectors  and  rulers.  To 
drive  back  the  Lombards,  Pope  Stephen  11. 
appealed  for  aid  to  the  young  Prankish 
monarchy;  Pepin  (754)  crossed  the  Alps, 
defeated  Astolt'o,  the  Lombard  king,  and 
endowed  the  Papacy  with  the  Exarchate 
of  Ravenna.  This  was  the  real  beginning 
of  the  Ecclesiastical  State.  Charlemagne 
confirmed  his  father's  grant,  but  with  the 
understanding  that  the  supreme  civil  au- 
thority remained  in  his  hands  as  "Patri- 
cian" of  Rome.  The  nest  great  acquisi- 
tion of  territorv  came  through  the  bequest 
of  the  Countess  Matilda  (till 5),  the 
fi-iend  of  Gregory  VII. ;  it  consisted  of 
Southern  Tuscany  and  other  districts. 
But  just  as  other  portions  of  the  Papal 
territory  had  been  seized  by  various  counts 
and  princes,  so  now  the  rich  lauds  of  the 
Countess  were  appropriated  by  the 
German  emperors,  and  for  a  hundred 
years  the  Popes  had  little  benetit  from  the 
gift.  At  length,  imder  the  vigorous  rule 
of  Innocent  III.  (+1216),  the  right  of  the 
Roman  See  was  admitted,  and  a  compact 
Ecclesiastical  State,  in  which  the  Popes 
governed  without  a  superior — except  so 
i'ar  as  a  vague  suzerainty  was  allowed  to 
the  emperors — now  arose  for  the  first 
time. 

The  emperors  of  the  House  of  Hohen- 
staufen,  ever  seeking  to  extend  their  power 
in  Italy,  left  the  Popes  no  rest.  After 
the  extinction  of  that  family  in  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  a  new  state  of 
things  arose.  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,  the 
new  emperor,  guaranteed  to  the  Pope 
(Gregory  X.)  in  1274  the  tranquil  posses- 
sion of"  the  Pontifical  territory.  The 
Popes  had  for  a  long  time  nothing  to  fear 
on  the  side  of  Germany ;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  establishment  of  the  House  of 
Anjou  at  Naples,  and  the  calamitous  issue 

1  Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  i.65. 


STATEa  OF  THE  CHUBCH 


STATES  OF  THE  CHUBCH  5» 


of  the  ttrno^  between  Bonifaee  THL 
and  Fbilip  k  gsre  to  the  FiuocL 
Bonardbj,  in  die  kmtteeoA  eeatarj,  an 
unhappy  iirilnHBfte  over  die  teaqixal 
fd&ej  at  the  TBfaej.  Tbe  Hi^See  wne 
Rmored  to  Avignaa,'  and  fixed  tlise 
more  tliaa  aerentj  jean  (13(&-lS7e>. 
VtOTthne  it«  Italian  tenilones  veie  fall 
of  eonfBaoB ;  froni  vhidi,  indeed,  the 
genins  of  Cat£aal  Albonoi  (l^;5a-ld68) 
RKoed  them  Sar  a  time;  hot  after  the 
MhiaB  had  hnJm  out  (1378)  tfce  I 
fal  and  zegnlar  toventmemt  m  tke 
States  heome  urn  loag  time  i 
The  vice  of  nPfioriiMi  -mm  jned^'t 
aUe  aganut  aerenl  at  tihe  Popes  in 


nof  dmnr 


Boc;^  orer  all  the  j 
pe-rr  pcineee  OeBtial  and  Northern  j 
I-u^T-  Pope  JoJks  n.  (ldOS-1513)  eom- t 

and  -vkh  great  ahility  and  tigDnT  took 
measnrea  against  all  who  had  eaaoncfaed  ' 

nprm  the  ptfjmilflT  of  Cfaodk.     Tfa  t 

hnmMedmeVenettana-ieeoTcrpd"Bolngna 


R~:':«er  a£  the  States.   In  1596 

FefT&za,  and  in  1(S1  Uihino^  eame  Vf 
escheat  to  the  Boman  See.  The  atates 
ci  the  Chareh  irmaiiM  i1  with  their  fion- 
tieis  practically  nndianged  down  to  dje 
FreiiCA  Berowion,  rnwititiiiiug  a  tem- 
tOTj  at  izregokr  Aafe  in  the  eentie  at 
Italy,  from  Femra  on  the  north  to 
Tezradna  on  Ae  fionth,  having 
iat  its  eistem  and  Giriti  TeecUa  far  its 
western  se^ort.  Bf  the  treaty  of  Ttden- 
tino(1797)  XapofetmeompeDed  the  Pope 
to  eede  the  Legadona,  Boheaa,  Femra, 
and  Bomagna,  and  admit  a  Freaeb  gUD- 
aon  into  Aneona;  Avignon  had  heen 
alrendr  seized  and  annprwl  to  Fmnee. 
Snheeqnentlj  the  whole  of  tike  Flqpal 
tenitosy  waa  aiipiOftialed  hy  the  Fieneh, 
and  whm  the  Pope  (Fins  "VTL)  hunched 
against  Sapoleon  on  this  arrjoiint  the  sen- 
tenee  of  einMiMBnication,he  was  aueeted 
I  dose  priaaner,  fiist  at  Sanma 
FoBtameUeaa.  After 
the  &n  of  XapokoD,  die  Fbpe  was  idn- 
stated  hi  the  goretnment  of  an  andi- 
BuniAedtenitoiy.  Fine  IX,heing  elected 
Po^  in  184B,  proclaimed  an  aamesty  to 
pohtieal  ofienden,  and  aiamdy  endea- 
Tonred  ao  thoroaghly  to  nfiam  dm  ad- 


Hie  hat^  crime  of  the 
nunder  (tf  his  miniiitfT  P«Jlfy™*»  Boss 
was  the  answa  of  the  Boman 
democmu  to  the  fiuherfy  o^ettawa  of 
the  Pontifil  The  Pope  was  cnmprfWi  to 
take  r»^ige  on  Neapoiitan  tenituij,  and 
a  repitBc  waa  set  ap  at  Home  by  \f arrnH 
and  GaiibkldL  Loins  Xnoleon,  harii^ 
bsen  elected  Pteaidet  of  ttc  new  FieyS 
BepoUie,  aent  tiiMfp  to 
Ges^  Oodinot,  who^ 
tnwbk,  iirrre  awar  the 
and  bp>caLt  tka  Pope  back.  AH  dii» 
took  place  in  le49. 
was  \e£t  at 

that  it  did  not  enter  into  the  designs  cf 
lioais  Xap^leon  to  defend  the  entiRPim- 
I  termonr ;  in  ordet^  thereiarc^  to 
it  intact' he  lueed  a  samll  armr, 
fay  lie  FnaA  Geasal  La- 
md  eompoeed  to  a  laree 
extent  of  fixeiga  Catholics.  the 
war  between  Aastria  and  Fnnee,  im 
which  the  power  of  the  former  was  beaten 
dcnrn  at  Soifeimo  (I%0),PiedaMm^n]ed 
by  the  astate  Cavonr  aiid  asHsted  hy  Oe 
TEvcdntiaBazy  i 


K  AFrenA  guiiaon 
;  but  the  Pope  knew 


rngpoeeeeson 
Modeoa,Pkni 


the 


dqaived  in  1870  by  the 
;of 


at  Castrifidaido  (1660). 
now  left  with  only  am 
"  Paiiiiiionvflf  St.  Pbter,*  extending  i 
titt  v  milea  akmg  the  coast  to  tfe  north  of 
BiBne.    Of  dus  also^  and  of  his  capital, 
Kns  IX.  w*    "         '  ' 
PkdmontEsei 

the  tererses  Eo&red  by  Fn 
war  with  Germany  to  set  at 

treatr  of  lc6^  br  «^  Im  „ 

that  Florence  dwald  he  Oe  capital  of  ^ 
Italian  Idngdoaa.  ft  was  now  said  that 
Bome  was  &e  inJ»sn«^ '  ihh  f«f«t«l  of 
that  Idi^dom,  hot  dut  the  Pope's  ia- 
dependenee  shoold  he  R^wcted.  The 
P^^  palace  of  the  Qaizinal  and  all  the 
public  boildings  of  Bome  were  a^ro- 
priatedby  theiavadsR;  but  the  Vatican 
was  1^  nnasmiled,  ai^  a  "  Law  of 
Goamntees,"  passed  by  the  Italian  Bv- 
liiMrt  (and  capable  of  being  repealed 
by  the  same  aadiosity),  while  ai>igBiiig 
to  Ae  Pope  an  ammal  dotadon  of  two 
■mTIwii  lire,  ^aaiiiiiml  to  him  noieieign 
lights  within  the  limitE  of  the  Vatican. 
It  is  ecarceh-  neeeaeaiy  to  say  that 
dotation  has'noc  been  accepted,  while  the 
fragment  of  aowmiguty  gnazuteed  haa 
aheady  been  encroaded  wpau  inTadoaa 
wi^and  is  held  OB  a  tennre  (tf  the  BHMfc 


STATES  OF  THE  CHFECH 


STATES  OF  THE  CHITICH 


precarious  description.  For  the  present, 
Rome  and  the  Papal  States  are  lost  to 
the  Papacy.  "What  the  pious  and  the  be- 
lieving gave,  men  of  a  ditlereut  temper 
have  taken  away :  and  there  is  no  present 
sign  of  redress. 

"  The  Popes  have  not  ceased  to  declare, 
on  all  fitting  occasions,  that  the  preserva- 
tion of  their  temporal  independence  is 
necessary,  as  human  aflairs  are  consti- 
tuted, to  the  free  and  fiill  exercise  of 
their  spiritual  authority.  It  has  been 
argued  that  the  ration  <r efre  of  the  tem- 
fOT&\  power  has  ceased  in  modem  times, 
because  the  lay  power  in  states  has  ceased 
to  be,  as  it  often  was  in  the  middle  ages, 
arbitrary,  corrupt,  violent,  and  ill-in- 
formed,'bnt  on  the  contrary  is  admiuis- 
tered  on  fixed  and  equitable  principles 
■which  ensure  equal  justice  for  all.  It  is 
further  maintained  that  the  danger  of  un- 
<lue  influence,  which  might  reasonably  be 
ilreaded  -while  the  European  Governments 
were  seriously  Christian  in  one  direction 
<^r  another,  and  which  made  intolerable 
to  previous  generations  the  notion  of  the 
Pope  as  a  French,  or  Spanish,  or  Austrian 
subject,  cannot  pleaded  Ln  an  age  when 
government  has  ceased  to  take  theolog}' 
into  account,  and  is  administered  on  a 
purely  utilitarian  basis.  What  risk  of 
interference  with  the  Papal  government 
of  the  Church  could  there  be  while 
Cavours  and  Eattazzis  held  the  reins  of 
power  ?  The  Pope,  on  this  view,  though 
ft  subject  of  the  Italian  kingdom,  might 
both  be  and  be  known  to  l>e  absolutely 
iintrammelled  in  the  government  of  the 
Church.  It  is  quite  true  that  the  objec- 
tions to  the  inclusion  of  the  seat  ot  the 
Papacy  in  any  modem  state  are  no  longer 
precisely  what  they  were.  They  have 
changed  their  character  ;  but  they  are  not 
less  cogent  now  than  in  former  times. 
The  very  fact  that  European  Governments 
have  ceased  to  be  Christian  makes  it  im- 
possible for  the  Papacy,  of  which  Christ 
and  His  gospel  are  the  life,  to  live  at  peace 
with  them.  Formerly,  even  if  the  influ- 
ence of  a  Catholic  king  or  emperor  at 
Rome  appeared  to  be  esce-sive,  stiU  it 
professed,  like  the  Papacy  itself,  to  be 
directed  to  Christian  ends,  and  it  made 
use  of  similar  meth.jds.  The  possession 
of  Rome  by  a  Charles  V.  or  a  Louis  XIV. 
did  not  involve  the  deluging  of  the  city 
with  immoral  and  infidel  publications,  or 
the  permission  of  the  public  exhibition  of 
every  form  of  heresy  and  absurdity.  It 
did  not  mean  that  "'Little  Bethels'"  and 
sectarian  chapels  and  churches  were  to 


spring  up  unchecked,  or  that  the  streets 
were  to  be  given  over  to  the  grotesque 
proceedings  of  a  Salvation  Army."  But 
all  this  is  implied,  and  cannot  but  be  im- 
plied, in  the  possession  of  Rome  by  such  a 
state  as  Italy,  which  has  ceased  to  be 
Christian.  Truth  and  error,  good  and 
evil,  the  beautiful  and  the  unseemly,  are 
matters  of  indifference  to  such  a  govern- 
ment ;  it  will  countenance  the  preachers 
of  heresy  as  willingly  as  the  preachers  of 
truth.  'With  such  "a  state  the  Roman 
See  cannot  possibly  live  on  terms  of 
amity.  It  is  not  a  question  about  reason- 

'  able  toleration  or  respect  for  the  rights  of 
conscience.  As  the  Popes  have  not  in  the 
past  interfered,  so  they  would  not  in  the 

'  future  interfere  with  any  Protestants  re- 
siding in  Rome  who  miglit  wish  to  practise 

I  their  religious  rites  in  a  quiet  and  unobtru- 

j  sive  manner.  The  question  is  whether  a 
Government  ought  to  treat  all  religions 

I  alike — that  is,  whether  it  otight  to  have 

I  no  religion,  and  ignore  the  subject  al- 

;  together. 

Protestants  themselves,  or  the  more 
reasonable  and  enlightened  among  them, 
view  with  grief  and  scom  the  process  by 
which  Rome  is  being  reduced  to  the  level 
of  an  English  or  American  town.  They 
would  prefer  that  at  least  one  place  should 
be  left  on  earth  where  Catholic  principles 
of  crovemment  and  maxims  of  life  might  be 
applied  without  disturbance.  They  would 
wish  to  see  the  Sacred  Congregations 
ag.^in  discharging  their  critical  and  j  udi- 
cial  functions.  It  might  be  said  that  the 
discipline  so  set  up  must  be  ineffectual;  a 
Roman  could  obtain  the  works  of  Reuan 
or  Paul  de  Kock  at  Floience  if  the  sale 
were  forbidden  at  Rome :  he  could  turn 
^Methodist  and  rant  in  public  at  Naples  if 
this  luxury  were  denied  to  him  at  home. 
But  what  then?  Is  it  nothing  that  an 
example  of  right  practice  should  be  given, 

!  towards  which  European  society,  dislo- 
cated as  it  now  is,  might  gradually  tend  ? 
So  far  from  the  changed  circumstances 

I  of  Europe  making  it  a  matter  of  little 
moment  that  the  Pope  should  be  inde- 
pendent, there  has  never  been  a  time 

j  since  the  conversion  of  Constantine  when 

I  his  independence  has  been  more  vitally 
necessary,  because  in  no  previous  age  has 
the  civil  authority  so  openly  declared 
itself  unchristian.  The  Pope  m'ugt  oppose, 
mmt  be  out  of  sympathy  with  the  civil 
power,  when  he  sees  it  establishing 
schools  without  religion,  encouraging  the 
erection  of  heretical  temples,  vexing  and 
banishing  religious  orders,  and  throwing 


8TATI0XS 


STATIOXS  OF  THE  CRO^  857 


©Vstacles  in  the  -way  of  those  who  desire 
to  embrace  the  rellsiooa  life.  To  nwke 
the  Pope  a  subject  of  any  power  that 
governs  in  this  fashion — and  nearly  all 
civilised  states  do  so — can  onlv  end  in  one 
of  two  ways:  either  he  will  be  forced  Vj 
acquiesce  in  what  he  knows  to  be  a  false 
and  mischievons  system,  or  he  will  find 
himself  in  a  state  of  continual  collision 
with  the  ci-vil  power.  The  first  alterna- 
tive is,  of  coarse,  impossible  ;  the  second 
implies  a  state  of  thmgs  more  or  less  re- 
sembling that  which  now  eiists.  bat  still 
worse  in  this  respect,  that  even  the 
shadow  of  independence  which  the  PLed- 
monte~e  left  to  the  Pope  in  1870,  through 
f  jrbearing  to  seize  on  the  Vatican  palace, 
would  be  swept  away  if  he  were  openly 
declared  a  subject  of  the  King  of  Italy. 
Against  such  a  consummation  all  Catho- 
lics worthy  of  the  name  will  be  ready  at 
any  time  to  protest,  and,  if  necessary,  in  a 
manner  more  effectual  than  by  words. 
The  pr<;sent  position,  painful  and  dis- 
Lcn-'irinx  as  it  is  to  the  Holy  Father, 
dhs~3.'yi:^  to  the  Italian.?,  and  afSicting 
to  all  faithful  Catholics,  evidently  does 
not  p-ts^ess  th-;  character  of  darabiiity. 

STATZOVS.    <Y)  A  name  giv^  to  | 
the  fast  kept  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays. 
In  the  R-'TTtan  Church  the  fast  was  one 
of  devotion,  not  of  precept,  and  it  ended 
at  none — i.e.  three  o'clock  (TertuIL  "  De 
Jejon."  2).    TertuIIian  ("De  Orat.'  19) 
explains  the  word  from  the  military 
usage  :  the  Static,  ns  were  days  on  which 
the  Christian  s-oldi-rs  stood  on  guard  and 
"  watched  in  prayer."    It  was  eharact»-  ; 
istic  of  the  Montiris-s  to  prolong  the  fast  ' 
of  the  Stations  till  the  evening  T"  De  \ 
Jejrtn."  10).    Prudentius  ("  Peristeph." 
tL  52  *e^.  )  relates  of  the  martyr  Fruc- 
tuosus  that  he  refosedthecop  offered  him 
because  it  was  a  Station  and  the  ninth 
hour  had  not  come.    In  the  East,  oa  the  j 
other  hand,  the  fast  of  the  Stations  was  ! 
oblLritory    ("  Ap?st.   Const."^   v.   20 ; 
*'  Canon.  Apost."'  69 : '  Epiphan.  Haer." 
75.  n.  3).  In  the  West,  the  fast  on  Wed- 
nesday, never  obligatory,  died  out  alfctK 
gether,  while   that   of  Friday  became 
obligatory  ab^ut  the  end  of  the  ninth 
century.  The  Greeks,  on  the  other  hand,  ! 
still  maintain  the  &st  of  Wednesdays 

1  We  f.  n^^T  ThonuMn  in  his  icterpretalioa 
of  the  f-'orth  ranoa.    The  pa5;5is?  in  ihe  Coo- 

■TfKHrraa-a-Oftar  ciur  JTTtrrewetr)  :s.  as  it  >e«ais  to 
as  ■iecidT'e  against  di<:  view  :'Z  H^deia  (CtmdL 
ToL  L  p.  SlVaad  odieza.  Tersas  oAoi  aeaiM 
•tlie  fbottk  d^." 


and  Fridays.  (Thomassln,  "Trait*?  des 
Jeunes,"  P.  iL  du  15 :  see  .^TITB3-CH 

and  Fi5T.) 

c2 1  The  word,  in  another  sense,  still 
holds  its  place  in  the  Roman  iliseaL  Slany 
of  our  readers  must  have  tujticed  the 
words  "  Statio  ad  S.  Petrum,  ad  5. 
lyfariann  majorem,"  &e~,  before  the  Introit 
of  certain  Masses.  ilabUlon  ("  iluseam 
Italicum,"  torn.  ii.  p.  xzzi)  eiplaics  the 
term  as  meaning  eithCT  s  fiut  or  "  a 
concourse  of  the 'people  to  an  appointed 
place — i.e.  &  church  in  which  the  proces- 
sion of  the  clerry  halts  on  stated  day?  to 
say  stated  prayers.  It  is  an  ancient  cus- 
tom in  Rome  that  the  Boman  dergy 
should  on  particular  days  meet  for  prayer 
in  some  one  church  where  >fw  and  other 
divine  services  are  performed.  The  pro- 
cession of  the  Bo  map  clergy  to  these 
Starlons  is  ehher  solemn  or  prirate ;  the 
latter  when  individuals  betake  thenaelves 
privately  to  the  appointed  place,  the  for- 
mer when  the  Pope  and  the  rest  sokmnly 
proceed,  thither  singing  litanies  and  other 
prayers."  The  gathering  of  clergy  and 
people  before  this  procession,  Mabillon 
continues,  was  called  cr.Jecta.  and  the 
name  was  then  riven  to  the  prayer  said 
over  the  petple  before  the  prDces.sion 
started  from  :ne  church  to  the  other  in 
order  to  make  the  Station.  "It  was 
St.  Grestry  who  reetiia^ed  the  Stations 
at  Rctne — i.£.  the  churciies  where  the 
office  wa^  to  be  performed  daibr  in  Lent, 
on  the  Ember  days,  and  on  the  solemn 
feasts.  For  the  fea5ts  of  the  saints  were 
celebrated  in  the  churches  which  con- 
tained their  relics.  St.  Gregory  then 
marked  tiiese  Stations  in  his  Sacram.en- 
tarv,  as  they  are  now  in  the  R.  -man 
IMissal.  and  attache-!  them  chiedy  to  the 
patriarchal  and  trtular  churches :  but 
although  the  Stations  were  fixed,  the 
Archdeacon  did  not  fiuL  after  the  P'Tpe  5 
Communion,  to  announce  the  next  Station 
to  the  people'  (Tleury.  "H.  E."  livr. 
xxrvi.  3  17).  In  the  Easter  of  ai, 
Charlemagne  asasted  at  the  Station  of 
Easter  Sundav  at  St.  Varv  Major,  of 
Ea^t-r  Mon.iiy at  St.  Peters' Tu-rsday  at 
St.  Paul's — ^he  same  Stations  still  noted 
in  our  MLssal  CEirlniard.  apud  Fleorv, 
iliv.  5 .1.       '  ' 

STATIOSrS  OF  TBS  CXOSS  Fm 

Crucii.  I  !d  '  r'jrjTt.  A  series  :  f  --r^ages 
or  pictures  repr«enti:^'  the  diferent 
events  in  the  Pa*si  :n  of  Christ.  Sta- 
tion etirrwf.onding  to  a  particular  event. 
TTsually.  they  are  nrge-i  r-jund  the  oh-ircL, 
the  first  station  bemg  pLiced  cm  one  s:  ie 


858   STATIONS  OF  THE  CROSS 


STIGMATA 


of  the  high  altar,  the  last  on  the  other. 
The  Stations  are  among  the  most  popular 
of  Catholic  devotions,  and  are  to  be  found 
in  almost  every  church.  Sometimes  the}- 
are  erected  in  the  open  air,  especially  on 
roads  which  lead  to  some  church  or  shrine 
standing  on  a  hill. 

The  devotion  began  in  the  Franciscan 
order.  The  Franciscans  are  the  guardians 
of  the  holy  places  in  Jerusalem,  and  these 
Stations  are  intended  as  a  help  to  making 
in  spirit  a  pilgrimage  to  the  scene  of 
Christ's  sufferings  and  death.  Innocent 
XII.,  in  1694,  authentically  interpreting 
a  brief  of  his  predecessor  Innocent  XL 
in  1686,  declared  that  the  indulgences 
granted  for  devoutly  visiting  certain  holy 
places  in  Palestine  could  be  gained  by  all 
Franciscans  and  by  all  affiliated  to  the 
order  if  they  made  the  way  of  the  cross 
devoutly — i.e.  passed  or  turned  from  sta- 
tion to  station  meditating  devoutly  on  the 
stages  of  the  histoiy. 

Benedict  XIII.,  in  1726,  extended 
these  indulgences  to  all  the  faithful; 
Clement  XII.,  in  1731,  permitted  persons 
to  gain  the  indulgences  at  Stations  erected 
in  churches  which  were  not  Franciscan, 
provided  they  were  erected  by  a  Francis- 
can with  the  sanction  of  the  ordinary. 
At  present  the  connection  of  the  Stations 
with  the  Franciscan  order  is  almost  for- 
gotten, at  least  in  England,  except  as  a 
matter  of  history.  Our  bishops  can,  by 
Apostolic  faculties,  erect  the  Stations  with 
the  indulgences  attached  to  them,  and 
they  constantly  delegate  this  faculty  to 
priests.  The  English  bishops  received 
faculties  to  this  efi"ect,  provided  there  were 
no  religious  in  the  neighbourhood  to  whom 
the  privilege  belonged,  in  1857.  In  1802 
these  faculties  were  renewed  without  this 
limitation.  The  faculties  are  quinquen- 
nial. (Cone.  Prov.  Westmonast.  II.  Ap- 
pend. I.    Concil.  IV.  Append.  H.) 

There  are  fourteen  Stations — viz.  (1) 
the  sentence  passed  on  our  Lord  by 
Pilate ;  (2)  the  receiving  of  the  cross ; 
(3)  our  Lord's  first  fall ;  (4)  His  meeting 
with  His  mother ;  (5)  the  bearing  of  the 
cross  by  Simon  of  Cyrene ;  (6)  the  wiping 
of  Christ's  face  by  Veronica  with  a  hand- 
Icerchief;  (7)His  second  fall;  (8)His  words 
to  the  women  of  Jerusalem,  "  Weep  not 
for  Me,"  &c. ;  (9)  His  third  fall ;  (10)  His 
being  stripped  of  His  garments;  (11)  His 
crucifixion  ;  (12)  His  death  ;  (13)  the 
taking  down  of  His  body  from  the  cross  ; 
(14)  His  burial.  In  the  diocese  of  Vienna 
the  number  of  the  Stations  at  the  end  of 
last  century  was  reduced  to  eleven.  On 


the  other  hand,  a  fifteenth  Station  ha» 
been  sometimes  added — viz.  the  finding 
of  the  cross  by  Helena.  These  changes 
are  unauthorised. 

STIGMATA.  The  word  occurs  in 
Gal.  vi.  15,  "  I  bear  the  marks  of  Jesus 
in  my  body."  Such  brands  or  marks 
(trrty/iara)  were  set  on  slaves  who  had 
run  away,  on  slaves  consecrated  to  the 
service  of  a  heathen  god,  rarely  on  cap- 
tives, and  sometimes  soldiers  branded  the 
name  of  their  general  on  some  part  of 
their  body.  Probably  St.  Paul's  metaphor 
is  taken  from  the  second  of  these  customs. 
(See  Lightfoot,  ad  loc).  He  regarded 
the  marks  of  suff'ering  m  Christ's  cause 
as  consecrating  him  the  more  to  his 
Master's  service.  The  Latin  versions  re- 
tain the  word  "  stigmata,"  but  no  Catholic 
commentator  of  repute,  so  far  as  we  know, 
ever  dreamt  that  St.  Paul  received  mira- 
culous marks  of  Christ's  Passion.  Neither 
St.  Thomas  nor  Estius  allude  to  such  an 
interpretation,  and  "^'indischmann  only 
mentions  it  to  dismiss  it. 

Still,  the  idea  that  miraculous  wounds 
on  the  hands,  feet,  and  side,  like  those 
borne  by  our  Lord,  were  a  mark  of  divine 
favour,  certainly  existed  in  the  mediteval 
Church  independently  of  St.  Francis,  for 
in  1222  at  a  council  in  Oxford  an  im- 
postor who  claimed  to  have  stigmata  of 
this  kind  confessed  his  guilt  and  was 
punished  accordingly  ("  Fleury,  "  H.  E." 
Ixxviii.  §  56).  Only  two  years  later — i.e. 
1224— St.  Francis  of  Assisi  (d.  1226) 
was  on  Mount  Alvernus  to  keep  his 
annual  fast  of  forty  days  in  honour  of 
St.  Michael.  One  morning,  says  St. 
Buonaventure,  about  the  14th  of  Sep- 
tember, the  feast  of  the  Exaltation  of  the 
Cross,  Francis  saw  a  seraph  flying  to- 
wards him.  There  was  a  figure  of  a  man 
attached  to  a  cross  between  the  wings. 
After  the  vision  disappeared,  the  hands 
and  feet  of  the  saint  were  found  to  be 
marked  with  nails,  and  there  was  a 
wound  in  his  side.  The  wounds  were 
seen  by  some  of  the  friars  and  by  Alex- 
ander IV.  during  the  lifetime  of  the  saint, 
and  after  his  death  by  fifty  friars,  St. 
Clare,  and  a  multitude  of  seculars.  St. 
Buonaventure  assures  us  that  he  had  the 
testimony  of  Alexander  IV.  from  the 
Pope's  own  lips.  The  Church  keeps  a 
feast  of  the  Stigmata  of  St.  Francis,  in- 
stituted by  Benedict  XII. 

The  Dominicans  claimed  a  similar 
distinction  for  one  of  their  own  order, 
St.  Catharine  of  Siena  (1347-1380). 
They  appealed  to  a  letter  from  the  saint 


STIPEND 


STOLE 


859 


to  her  confessor,  Raymond  of  Capua,  in 
which  she  states  that  our  Lord  had  im- 
pressed the  stigmata  upon  her,  but  had 
at  her  own  request  made  them  invisible 
to  others.  They  also  quoted  the  testi- 
mony of  St.  Antoninus  and  the  hymn 
which  alludes  to  the  stignnatsi,  inserted 
in  the  Ollice  of  St.  Catharine  with  the 
approval  of  Pius  II.  The  Franciscans, 
who  maintained  that  the  privilege  was 
peculiar  to  their  own  founder,  earned  the 
matter  before  Sixtus  IV.  in  1483.  The 
Pope  (himself  a  Franciscan)  forbade 
under  severe  penalties  anyone  to  paint 
images  of  St.  Catharine  with  the  stigmata. 
(See  Fleury,"H.E."lxxix.  §  5,cxv.  §  103.) 
Still  the  fact  of  her  stigmatisation  is 
recorded  in  the  Breviary  office,  and  a 
special  feast  in  commemoration  of  it  was 
granted  to  the  Dominicans  by  Benedict 
XIII.  In  a  work  on  the  subject  Dr. 
Imbert-Gourbeyre  enumerates  145  per- 
sons, twenty  men,  the  rest  women,  who 
are  stated  to  have  received  the  stigmata. 
Of  these,  eighty  lived  before  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Some  are  canonised, 
others  beatified,  others  simply  persons  of 
reputed  holiness.  More  than  one  is  still 
living.  The  work  just  referred  to  ("  Les 
Stigmatisees ")  was  published  by  Palm6 
in  1873. 

STZPESTD.    [See  Mass,  application 

STOZiE.  A  narrow  vestment  made 
of  the  same  stuff  as  the  chasuble,  and 
worn  round  the  neck.  The  Pope  always 
wears  the  stole.  Bishops  and  priests 
wear  it  at  Mass — the  priest  crossed  over 
his  breast ;  the  bishop,  who  has  already 
the  pectoral  cross  on  his  breast,  pendant 
on  each  side.  They  also  wear  it  when- 
ever they  exercise  their  orders  by  ad- 
ministering sacraments  or  by  blessing 
persons  or  things.  In  some  places  it  is, 
in  others  it  is  not,  worn  in  preaching, 
and  the  custom  of  the  place  is  to  be 
followed  (S.  C.  R.  Vl  Nov.  1837,  23 
Maii  1840).  Deacons  wear  it  at  Mass, 
or  at  Benediction,  kc,  when  they  have 
to  move  the  Bles.^ed  Sacrament,  over 
the  left  shoulder  and  joined  on  the  right 
side. 

Stole — i.e.  o-toXij  in  classical  Greek — 
in  the  LXX  and  New  Testament  means 
a  robe  of  any  kind,  sometimes  {e.g.  in 
Mark  xii.  38,  Luke  xx.  46)  a  costly  or 
imposing  garment.  In  Latin  stola  was 
the  upper  garment  worn  by  women  of 
position.  The  conjecture  of  Meratus  (on 
Gavant.  torn.  i.  P.  ii.  tit.  i.)  that  our 
stole  is  the  Roman  stola  of  which  only 


the  ornamental  stripe  has  been  left,  is 
very  unlikely,  considering  that  the  stola 
was,  almost  exclusively,  a  piece  of  female 
attire.  The  stole  is  never  mentioned  by 
that  name  before  the  ninth  century. 
Theodoret  ("  H.  E."  ii.  27)  speaks  of  "a 
holy  stole  "  (lepa  crroXij)  given  to  Maca- 
rius  bj-  Constantine,  but  he  only  means  a 
"  saci-ed  vestment "'  in  general,  and  Ger- 
manus  of  ( "oastantinople  at  the  Ijrgiiiiiing 
of  the  eighth  century  identifie.s  tlie  oroX/; 
with  the  (f)e\d)viov  or  chasuble,  and  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  the  apdpiov  or  stole 
according  to  our  modern  usage  (Galland. 
"  Bibliotliec."  tom.  xiii.  p.  226). 

This  word  orarium  belongs  to  the 
later  Latin,  and  means  a  cloth  for  the 
face,  a  handkerchief.  It  was  also  used 
"  in  favorem,"  tn  applaud  at  theatres, 
&c.,  and  sometimes  worn  as  a  scarf.  The 
first  mention  of  it  as  an  ecclesiastical 
vestment  occurs  about  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  century,  when  the  Council  of 
Laodicea  (can.  22  and  23)  forbade  clerics 
in  minor  orders  to  use  it.  A  sermon 
attributed  to  Chrysostom,  and  probably 
not  much  later  than  his  time,  compares 
the  deacons  to  angels,  and  the  "  stripes 
of  thin  linen  on  their  left  shoulders  " 
(raly  XcTrraly  odovaa  ratt  fVi  raiv  dpUTTepSyv 
v)  to  wings  ("  Homily  on  the  Prodi- 
gal Son,"  Migiie,  vol.  viii.  520).  In  the 
West,  for  a  long  time  after,  orarinm  was 
used  for  a  common  handkerchief  or 
napkin  (Ambros.  "De  Excess.  Sat.'"  lib.  i. 
43;  August.  "  De  Civit.  Dei,'"  xxii.  8; 
Hieron.  P>p.  lii.  9 ;  Prudent.  "  Peri- 
steph."  i.  86 ;  Greg.  Turon,  "  De  Gloria 
Mart."  i.  93  ;  Greg.  Magn.  Ep.  vii.  30. 
So  the  Council  of  Orleans  in  511).  It  is 
in  the  Spanish  church  that  we  find  the 
earliest  traces  of  the  orarium  or  stole  as 
a  sacred  vestment  among  the  Latins. 
The  Council  of  Braga  in  563  (can.  9) 
speaks  of  the  orarium  as  worn  by  deacons; 
a  council  of  Toledo  in  633  recognises  it 
as  a  vestment  of  bi:~hops,  priests,  and 
deacons  (can.  28  and  40).  Another 
.synod  of  Braga  in  675  mentions  the 
present  custom  according  tn  whicli  ])riests 
wear  the  orarium  crossed  over  th(>  breast 
(can.  4)  ;  while  the  SvikkI  of  .Mayeuce  in 
813  (can.  28)  requires  priests  to  wear  it 
not  only  at  Mass  but  habitually,  as  the 
Pope  does  now,  to  mark  their  sacerdotal 
dignity.  Several  of  the  Ordines  Homani 
(tlie  third,  fifth,  eighth,  ninth,  and 
thirteenth)  also  mention  the  orarium. 
Hence  we  may  conclude  that  from  about 
the  time  of  Charlemagne  the  orarium  or 
stole  was  generally  adopted  throughout 


860 


STOLE 


SUBBEACONS 


the  West  as  a  vestment  of  bishops,  priests, 
and  deacons.  The  Greeks  have  always 
regarded  the  oranum  as  a  vestment 
peculiar  to  deacons.  The  tVirpaxijXioi'  or 
nepiTpaxri'Stov  of  priests  differs  both  in 
form  and  in  the  manner  in  which  it  is  worn 
from  the  orarium  of  deacons.  The  Syrian 
Chi-istians  have  adopted  the  same  word 
orro,  ororo,  but  with  them  the  orro  is 
worn  by  clerics  of  all  the  orders.  Readers 
among  the  Maronites  wear  the  orro  hang- 
ing from  the  right  shoulder,  subdeacous 
in  all  the  Syrian  rites  round  the  neck, 
deacons  on  the  left  shoulder,  priests 
round  the  neck  and  in  front  of  the  breast. 
The  Syrians  also  use  the  same  word  for 
the  difiocfiopiov  or  pallium  of  bishops.  (See 
Payne  Smith,  "  Thesaurus  Syriacus,"  col. 

101,  102,  sub  voc.  If^^l.)  Hefelesays  it 

appears  from  ancient  pictures  that  down 
to  the  twelfth  century  the  deacon's  stole 
hung  over  the  left  shoulder,  and  was  not, 
as  now,  fastened  together  on  the  right 
side  below  the  breast.  Till  a  late  period 
the  stole  was  worn  outside  the  dalmatic 
as  now  by  the  Greek  deacons  over  the 
sticharion.  Ilefele  finds  the  earliest 
notice  of  a  deacon's  btole  worn  under  the 
dalmatic  in  a  Salzburg  Pontifical  of  the 
twelfth  century,  and  in  the  fourteenth 
Roman  Ordo,  compiled  about  1300. 
Bishops,  however,  wore  the  stole  over 
the  alb  and  under  the  tunicella  and 
dalmatic  as  early  at  least  as  Rabanus 
Maurus  ("  De  Cleric.  Instit."  i.  19,  20)— 
i.e.  about  816. 

The  same  author  (loc.  cit.)  speaks  of 
the  orarium  which  "  some  call  stole." 
This  is  the  first  certain  instance  of  the 
use  of  the  latter  word,  for  its  place  in 
the  Gregorian  Sacramentary  may  be  one 
of  the  many  interpolations  to  which 
liturgical  books  are  peculiarly  subject. 
In  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries 
stole  became  the  common  word  (so,  e.g., 
the  Synod  of  Ooyaca,  in  the  diocese  of 
Oviedo,  anno  1050,  can.  3).  The  oraria 
on  ancient  pictures  are  exactly  like  our 
stoles,  resembling  the  pattern  known  as 
Gothic.  They  were  often  adorned  with 
jewels,  bells  hung  from  them,  and  letters 
or  words  were  worked  in.  Hefele  ac- 
knowledges his  failure  after  much  search 
to  find  the  reason  why  the  word  "  stole  " 
came  to  be  used  for  orarium.  The  vest- 
ment has  been  taken  as  a  symbol  of  the 
yoke  of  Christ  (Pseudo-Alcuin),  of  Christ's 
obedience  (Innocent  III.)  The  prayer  in 
our  present  Missal  evidently  refers  to  the 
original  meaning  of  the  Greek  oroXij. 


"  Give  me  back,  0  Lord,  the  stole  or  robe 
of  immortality,"  &c. 

STOXiE-FEES.  The  fees,  varying 
in  difi'erent  countries,  which  it  is  custom- 
ary among  the  laity  to  pay  to  a  priest  at 
the  time  of  his  discharging  any  sacred 
function  for  their  benefit — e.g.  in  mar- 
riages, christenings,  and  funerals. 

SVBDEACOM'S.  Ministers  of  the 
Church  who  rank  next  to  deacons.  In 
the  Latin  Church  they  prepare  the  sacred 
vessels  and  the  bread  and  wine  for  Mass ; 
pour  the  water  into  the  chalice  at  the 
Ofi'ertory  and  sing  the  Epistle.  Among 
the  Greeks  they  guard  the  gates  of  the 
sanctuary  during  Mass,  and  prepare  the 
sacred  vessels  at  the  Prothesis.  They 
are  therefore  allowed  to  touch  the  paten 
and  chalice  unless  they  contain  the  Holy 
Eucharist.  The  21st  Canon  of  Laodicea 
forbids  them  in  general  terms  to  touch 
the  holy  vessels  ;  but  Morinus  and  Van 
Espen  interpret  this  canon  as  referring 
simply  to  the  "  Great  Entrance  "  in  the 
Greek  liturgy,  when  the  prepared  elements 
are  carried  in  procession  at  the  beginning 
of  the  MissaFidelium  from  the  Prothesis 
to  the  altar. 

Among  the  Greeks  and  Orientals  the 
Eubdiaconate  is  a  minor,  among  the 
Latins  a  greater  or  sacred  order.  But  it 
was  only  about  1200  that  even  the  Latins 
reckoned  the  subdiaconate  among  the 
greater  orders.  Martene  indeed  certifies 
tliat  in  Sacramentaries  as  early  as  800 
or  thereabouts  he  found  tlie  ordination  of 
subdeacous  placed  along  with  that  of  the 
superior,  and  separated  from  that  of  the 
inferior  ministers.  In  1097,  the  Council 
of  Benevento,  over  which  Urban  II. 
presided,  says  expressly,  ""We  give  the 
name  of  sacred  orders  to  the  presbyterate 
and  diaconate.'"  Fifty  years  later  Hugo 
of  St.  Victor  speaks  of  the  subdiaconate 
as  a  minor  order.  But  Peter  Cantor,  who 
died  in  1197,  says  that  in  his  time  "the 
subdiaconate  had  been  recently  made  a 
sacred  order."  Innocent  III.  really  closed 
the  question  by  ruling  that  subdeacous, 
like  deacons  and  priests,  might  be  chosen 
bishops. 

Usually,  subdeacons  are  ordained  by 
bishops.  But  the  Synod  of  Meaux  in 
845  permits  (can.  44)  chorepiscopi,  who 
certainly  were  not  bishops,'  to  confer 
the  subdiaconate  with  the  sanction  of 
the  ordinary,  and  the  same  permission 
is  said  to  have  been  given  by  the  Pope  to 

'  I.e.  in  the  West  and  at  that  time ;  see 
Hefele  on  the  Antiochene  Synod  i»  encmniit, 
c«n.  10. 


SUB-DELEGATES 


SUNDAY 


861 


Cistercian  abbots.    The  matter  of  ordina-  ' 
tiou  in  the  Liitin  Chiu-ch  has  always  been 
the  tradition  of  the  instruments.    In  the 
very  ancient  colU'ction  known  as  the 
Canons  of  the  Fourth  Council  of  Carthage,  j 
can.  5  lays  down  the  rule  that  a  sub- 
deacon  is  to  be  ordained  by  receiving-  the  | 
empty  chalice  and  paten  from  the  bishop,  j 
while  the  archdeacon  gives  him  the  cruet  i 
and  towel.    This  form  is  preserved  with  ' 
a  very  slight  alteration  m  the  present  j 
"Roman  Pontifical.    The  Pontifical  also  j 
prescribes  the  tradition  of  the  book  of  I 
the  Epistles,  but  this  rite  was  unknown  | 
till  the  twelfth  century  at  least ;  neither 
Hugo  of  St.  Victor  nor  the  Master  of  the 
Sentences,  nor  even  St.  Thomas,  mentions 
it.    The  form  among  the  Latins  consists 
in   the   words   which    accompany  the 
tradition:  "See  what  kind  of  ministry 
is  given  to  you,"  &c. ;  "  Receive  the  book 
of  the  Epistles,"  &c.    Even  the  form 
accompanying  the  tradition  of  the  paten 
and  the  chalice  is  much  more  modern 
than  the  tradition  itself,  for  the  Gregorian 
Sacramentary  has  a  prayer  ("  Benedictio 
subdiaconi")  as  the  form  of  ordination. 
Among  the  Greeks  the  matter  is  the 
laying  on  of  hands,  and  the  form  the 
prayer  during  this  action.    Such  has  been 
their  use  from  the  fifth  century  at  least, 
as  appears   from   the   false  Dionysius. 
They  have  no  tradition  of  the  instru- 
ments except  after  ordination,  when  the 
newly  ordained  are,  as  it  were,  put  in 
possession,  and  this  custom  is  of  modern 
date. 

In  the  time  of  Cornelius  (elected 
254)  there  were  seven  subdeacons  at 
Rome.  Their  functions  in  the  ancient 
Church  were  very  iuijtoi  tant.  They  were 
the  secretaries  of  bishops,  and  were  often 
sent  on  distant  and  important  missions. 
They  had  a  great  part  in  managing  the 
alms  and  temporal  goods  of  the  Church. 
The  letters  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great 
show  that  in  his  time  the  Roman  sub- 
deacons  administered  the  afiairs  of  St. 
Peter's  patrimony  throughout  the  pro- 
vinces, made  reports  to  the  Pope  on  the 
conduct  of  bishops,  and  by  the  Pope's 
orders  admonished  prelates,  reformed 
abuses,  and  assembled  councils. 

(Chardon,  "Hist,  des  Sacr."  tom.  v.; 
Juvnin,  "  Commentarius  Historicus  et 
Dogmaticiis  de  Sacraraentis,"  diss.  ix.  qu. 
vii.  For  the  obligations  of  the  office, 
see  r.HEViAHY  and  Celibacy.) 

svB-Dz:x.z:cATE.  One  to  whom  a 
judge-delegate  transfers  his  jurisdiction 
in  a  particular  case.    [See  Delegation.] 


This  privilege  is  restricted  to  delegates 
appointed  by  the  supreme  authority  in  a 
state,  e.xci'pt  in  the  case  of  a  delegate  ad 
nnii'i  rsitatcm  causarum — that  is,  one  who 
is  empowered  by  his  principal  to  try  all 
causes  that  fall  within  his  jurisdiction, 
for  such  a  delegate  is  really  a  "judex 
quasi  ordinarius. '  A  subdelegate  cannot 
be  named  (unless  by  the  consent  of  both 
parties)  to  try  cases  of  great  importance, 
for  with  respect  to  these,  the  special 
qualifications  of  the  delegate  must  be 
presumed  to  have  been  what  moved  his 
principal  to  appoint  him;  and  the  inten- 
tion might  be  frustrated  if  he  could 
commit  the  most  weighty  portions  of  his 
charge  to  another.  A  delegate  whose 
commission  only  extends  to  the  bare 
performance  of  certain  acts  cannot  do 
them  through  a  subdelegate. 

SVFFRACAM-.  [See  BiSHOP  SCTP- 
FRAGAX.' 

STTXCZDE.  Those  who  voluntarily, 
and  while  in  the  full  possession  of  their 
faculties  {sui  compotis)  put  an  end  to 
themselves,  are  deprived  of  ecclesiastical 
burial.  But  in  such  cases  the  canon  law, 
like  the  common  law  of  England,  in- 
clines to  a  lenient  judgment;  and  if  a 
person  be  found,  for  instance,  drowned  or 
poisoned,  and  it  be  lu it "  proved  that  he 
had  expressed  the  deliberate  intention  of 
taking  his  own  life,  the  law  prefers  to 
presume  some  other  cause  of  death,  such 
as  the  act  of  a  malefactor,  or  accident,  or 
temporary  aberration  of  mind. 

In  many  countries  the  civil  law  now 
requires  that  persons  who  have  committed 
suicide,  even  though  the  wilfulness  of  the 
act  and  their  sauitj-   at   the   time  be 
established,  shall  be  buried  in  the  church- 
yards.   In  such  a  case  the  ministers  of 
I  the  Church  take  no  part  in  the  funeral 
j  obsequies.  (Ferraris, //owjCirfeM?«;  Wetzer 
I  and  Welte.) 

i  suXiPlcZAirs.  A  society  of  priests 
I  who  devote  themselves  to  the  care  of 
!  theological  seminaries.  They  derive 
I  tlieir  name  from  the  seminary  of  S. 
I  Sul])ice  in  Paris,  where  they  were  esta- 
I  blished  by  their  founder,  M.  Olier,  ia 
164-'.    [See  Semixaeies.] 

SVBrDAV.  The  Jewish  Sabbath  was 
the  weekly  day  of  rest  with  which  the 
week  ended.  On  that  day  the  Hebrews 
were  forbidden  to  gather  manna  (E.xod.  xv. 
23-29).  Thus  the  observance  of  the  Sab- 
bath was  made  a  general  law;  they  were 
I  to  do  no  work  upon  it;  the  Hebrew  family, 
j  the  stranger  in  the  gates,  the  slaves,  even 
the  cattle,  were  to  rest;  and  this  because 


862  SUNDAY 


SUNDAY 


God  Himself  finished  the  work  of  creation 
and  rested  on  that  day,  blessing  it  and 
sanctifying  it  (Exod.  xx.  8-11).  In  Deut. 
T.  12-16  it  is  the  kindly  and  beneficent 
character  of  the  institution  which  is 
emphasised,  rather  than  its  sacredness. 
No  reference  is  made  to  creation,  but  the 
Hebrew  is  to  keep  the  Sabbath,  "that  thy 
man  slave  and  thy  -n  oman  slave  may  rest 
even  as  thou.  And  thou  shalt  remember 
that  thou  wast  a  slave  in  the  land  of 
Egypt,  and  Jehovah  thy  God  brought 
thee  out  thence,"  &c.  The  importance 
attached  to  the  Sabbath  in  the  Deutero- 
nomical  and  Levitical  codes  is  shown  by 
the  very  fact  that  Sabbath-keeping  is  the 
subject  of  a  precept  in  the  Decalogue. 
Further,  the  Sabbath  is  the  basis  of  a 
whole  series  of  enactments.  The  seventh 
month  is  the  holy  month  of  the  year. 
It  is  ushered  in  by  the  Feast  of  Trumpets, 
its  tenth  day  is  the  Day  of  Atonement,  its 
fifteenth  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  or  in- 
gathering, the  "joy  of  the  law."  The 
seventh  is  the  sabbatical  year;  during 
which  the  whole  land  is  to  rest  ^  (Lev. 
XXV.  1-7) ;  there  is  to  be  no  sowing,  or 
vintage,  or  reaping,  and  thus  the  Sabbath 
extends  its  dominion  over  nature.  After 
"  seven  Sal)baths  of  years "  {i.e.  7x7 
=  49  years)  comes  the  year  of  Jubilee, 
when  Hebrew  slaves  are  to  go  free,  laud 
to  revert  to  its  original  owner,  &c. 

Something  must  be  said  on  three 
points  connected  with  the  Jewish  Sabbath 
which  are  of  theological  importance. 

(1)  There  is  no  trace  of  its  being 
observed  among  the  Hebrews  before  the 
time  of  Moses.  No  doubt,  in  Genesis  ii. 
8, we  read  that  "God  blessed  the  seventh 
day  and  hallowed  it,"  but  it  is  never  said 
that  He  told  men  in  the  pre-Mosaic  period 
to  do  so  likewise,  and  evidently  the  sacred 
■writers  knew  nothing  of  a  Sabbath  kept 
by  the  Patriarchs.  It  is  implied  that  the 
division  of  days  into  weeks,  unknown 
among  the  Romans  till  the  Empire,  was 
very  ancient  among  some  of  the  Semitic 

1  Accordintf  to  the  "  Book  of  tlie  Covi'iiant  " 
(Exod.  xxi.2-G),  lU'brew  slaves  niT  to  ,u"  iree 
not  on  tho,  l.iit  ..n  (■v<Ty,  -cvciiili  \r;ii-,  ititiiig 
from  the  beginning  of  tlicir  ^la\  i  r\  :  .itnl  cvitn 
seventh  year  tlic  linrvi^t  i-  in  1m'  left  for  tlie 
poor  (xxiii.  10,  11).  The  lornier  i.rnvision  is 
repeated  in  Deul.  xv.  12-1)^,  and  the  m-coihI  h.i.s 
its  analogy  iu  (he  law  that  on  a  .sevfiil  li  vi  ar 
proclaimed  and  fixed,  debts  are  to  be  romiltcd 
(Deut.  XV.  1-r,).  Tin'  ilev.  loprd  Sa  bl ,  ,  t  ie:,l 
year — i.e.  the  tixiiiu  ••f  on,-  \v:\r  U<r  iIh' 
countrv.  in  wliii-li  the  i.iinl  lu  ivm  rnu,|ili  >rh- 
from  beins  sown  no  le>s  iban  Irom  lu  irii:  reaprd 
— is  peculiar  to  Leviticus.  Sii  al.-o  is  the  crown 
of  the  whole  system— viz.  the  year  of  Jubilee. 


people,  for  Laban  (Gen.  xxix.  27)  speaks  of 
the  "  week  of  this  woman  " — i.e.  the  week 
of  marriage  festivities.  We  now  know 
that  among  the  Assyrians  the  first  twenty- 
eight  days  of  every  month  were  divided 
into  four  weeks  of  seven  days  each,  the 
seventh,  fourteenth,  twenty-first,  and 
twenty-eighth  days  being  Sabbaths  ;  and 
there  was  a  general  prohibition  of  work  on 
these  days  (G.  Smith,  "Assyrian  Eponym 
Canon,"  p.  19,  seq.)  The'  date  of  this 
usage  among  the  Assyrians  is  still  un- 
certain (Dillman  on  Exod.  p.  214).  But 
we  may  conjecture  that  the  division  was 
based,  not  on  the  seven  planets,  but  on 
the  phases  of  the  moon,  and  was  familiar 
within  and  without  Israel  before  Closes. 
But  from  this  it  does  not  follow  that 
there  was  any  divine  command  to  keep 
the  Sabbath,  or  even  that  the  Israelites 
rested  on  it.  Indeed,  the  day  of  rest 
implies  a  settled  and  agricultural  life  ;  to 
a  people  of  shepherds  a  Sabbath  is  not 
necessary  or  even  possible.  (So  "Well- 
hausen,  "Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel," 
ch.  iii.) 

(2)  The  Jewish  was  at  all  times  dis- 
tinct Irom  the  Puritan  idea  of  the  Sabliath. 
It  is  the  privilege  of  rest  for  the  slave  and 
even  for  the  beasts  on  which  the  Book  of 
Deuteronomy  dwells  with  characteristic 
kindliness.  In  IV.  Reg.  iv.  22,  23,  it  is 
mentioned  with  the  new  moons,  as  a  day 
on  which  people  went  to  hear  the  prophets. 
One  of  the  earliest  prophets,  Osee  (ii.  1-3) 
alludes  to  it  (again  in  conjunction  with 
the  new  moons)  as  a  day  of  joy ;  Amos 
(viii.  5),  as  a  day  on  which  no  business 
was  done.  The  prophets  of  the  Exile  insist 
on  strict  rest ;  Jeremias,  e.g.,  forbids  carry- 
ing of  burdens  (xvii.  19  -^eq.).  They  en- 
large on  the  sin  of  breaking  the  Sabbath, 
and  the  blessings  which  attend  its  observ- 
ance (Ezech.  XX.  16;  xxii.  26;  and  so  with 
reference  to  the  Exile,  Book  of  Isa.  Ivi. 
2;  Iviii.  1.3);  and  the  Levitical  Code 
(Exod.  xxvi. ;  xxxv.  3 ;  Num.  xv.)  enforces 
the  obligation  of  rest  in  minute  detail, 
but  not  a  word  is  said  against  recreation 
o\\  the  Sabbath.'  Even  the  Pharisees, 
though  they  miiltipli(>d  rules  against  ser- 
vile worlc — forbade.  e.(;.,  journevs  more 
than  2,000  paces  liryoud  the  city':  climb- 
ing a  tree,  lest  a  tive  ,^hould  break  ;  wnrks 
of  mercy,  &c.,  kc.  —  never  prohibited 
jileasure  as  such.   Even  a  Chief  Pharisee 

'  Is.  Iviii.  K!  is  often  quoted  in  the  '•  Au- 
tlinii.-.ed  Ver.-,ion."  '-It  thou  turn  away  thy 
f 'Ot  .  .  .  from  doini;-  thy  pli'.asure  on  nn  holy 
day."  But  "fj^fpn  "leans  '■  afilairs,"  "  business," 
as  elsewhere  ii>  later  Hebrew. 


SU^T)AY 


SUNDAY  863 


did  noi  bcniple  to  entertain  on  Sabbath 
(Luke  xiv.  1).  The  Rabbinical  law  on 
dancing  illustrates  exactly  the  difference 
between  the  Pliarisiiical  and  Puritan 
view.  The  Kabbins  forbid  it,  not  because 
it  is  a  worldly  pleasure,  but  because  it 
would  lead  to  tuning  the  musical  instru- 
ments, which  is  reckoned  work  (Buxtorf, 
"  Lex.  Rabbin."  nUL"). 

(3)  Our  Lord  did  not  during  His 
earthly  life  abrogate  the  Sabbath.  To  do 
so  would  have  been  inconsistent  with  His 
position  as  one  "  made  under  the  law,"' 
and  with  His  own  express  teaching  (see, 
especially.  Matt,  xxiii.  1-3).  But  He  did 
expose  the  inconsistency  and  hypocrisy  of 
men  who  loosed  an  ox  or  ass  on  the 
Sabbath  and  were  shocked  when  Christ 
■on  the  same  day  "  loosed  a  daughter  of 
Abraham  wbom  Satan  had  bound '"(Luke 
xiii.  10-16).  He,  moreover,  enunciated 
two  great  principles.  The  one  was  then, 
perhaps,  part  of  the  better  Rabbinical 
teaching:  "The  Sabbath  is  made  for  man, 
not  man  for  the  Sabbath."  (The  words 
"  The  Sabbath  is  given  into  your  hands, 
not  you  into  the  hands  of  the  Sabbath," 
are  to  be  foimd  in  the  "  Mechilta."  a 
Midrash  or  Commentary  on  parts  of  Exo- 
dus, belonging  to  the  early  part  of  the 
third  century  a.D.)  Man  is  made  to  fulfil 
the  law  of  love.  Not  so  with  regard  to 
the  Sabbath,  which  is  simply  enforced  for 
man's  own  good.  Next,  the  "Son  of 
Man  is  Lord  also  of  the  Sabbath."  Just 
as  tlie  Sabbath  law  must  give  way  before 
the  natural  needs  of  man,  so,  and  much 
more,  before  the  ro4uirement  of  Him  who 
is  the  head  and  representative  of  mankind 
(Mark  ii.  23-28'..  If,  again,  the  ministers 
of  the  temple  Ijroke  the  Sabbath  law  in 
its  service  and  were  blameless,  much  more 
might  the  disciples  do  so  in  the  service  of 
One  gi'eater  than  the  temple  (Matt.  xii. 
5-8). 

(4)  The  precept  of  observing  thg 
Sabbath  was  completely  abrogated  in 
the  Christian  Church.  "Let  no  man 
judge  you,'"  says  St.  Paul  (Coloss.  ii. 
16),  "  in  eating  and  drinking  or  in  the 
matter  of  a  feast  or  a  new  moon  or  of  a 
Sabbath-day  [<T(i33d7  <of ,  from  the  Chaldee 
Nngjy,  not'"  Sabbath  days;"  cf.  "Hodie 
tricesima  Sabbata,"  Hor.  "  Sat."  i.  9,  69], 
which  things  are  a  shadow  of  things  to 
come,  but  the  body  is  Christ's"  (cf.  Gal. 
iv. ;  Rom.  xiv.  5,  9).  Christians  are  not 
to  be  taken  to  task  on  such  things ;  they 
do  not  furnish  the  materials  of  a  judg- 
ment, good  or  bad,  since  the  shadows  are 


]  characteristic  of  the  Jewish  law,  the 
substance  of  Christ's  gospel.  Once  only 
does  the  N.  T.  refer  to  a  Christian  Sab- 
bath. "There  is  left  therefore  a  Sabbath- 
keeping  {(Ta^^aTicTnoi)  for  the  people  of 
I  God  "  (Heb.  iv.  9).  The  reference,  how- 
ever, is  to  no  earthly  Sabbath,  but  to  that 
eternal  rest  of  which  the  Sabbath  was  a 
type.  The  word  "  Sabbath "  is  kept  in 
the  Greek  and  the  Latin  of  the  Church 
to  denote  Saturday — a  day  which  is  not 
sacred  among  Christians. 

(5)  In  commemoration  of  Christ's  re- 
surrection the  Church  observes  Sunday. 
The  observance  does  not  rest  on  the 
natural  law,  which  does  indeed  require 
us  to  give  certain  time  to  the  worship  of 
God,  but  not  a  whole  day  rather  than 
parts  of  several  days,  much  less  any  par- 
ticular day  ;  nor,  again,  on  any  positive 
divine  law,  of  which  there  is  no  trace. 
Sunday  is  merely  of  ecclesiastical  insti- 
tution, dating,  however,  from  the  time  of 
the  Apostles.  Such  is  the  opinion  of  St. 
Thomas  (2^  2«,  cxxii.  4,  ad  2)  and  of  the 
greatest  Catholic  theologians  (so  Billuart, 
"  De  Relig."  diss.  vi.  a.  1 ;  and  Turre- 
crem.,  Thom.  Wald.,  Cajetan,  Sylvius, 
and  others  whom  Billuart  cites).  The 
present  rule  obliges  the  faithful  to  hear 
Mass  on  that  day  and  to  rest  from  servile 
1  work — i.e.  work  done  with  the  hands 
[  rather  thaTi  with  the  head.  But  custom 
[  permits  cert;iin  serv  ile  work  even  when 
not  required  by  necessity  or  mercy — such, 
e.g.,  as  cooking  food — and  ecclesiastical 
authority  may  dispense  from  the  law. 
'^^'e  proceed  to  trace  the  history  of  the 
;  observance. 

Li  a  single  passage  of  the  N.  T. — viz. 
I  Apoc.  i.  10 — we  find  a  special  name  for 
the  first  day  of  the  week,  "  the  Lord's 
day  "  (f  1^  rf;  KvpiaKT)  rnxipq — very  different 
from  17  Tov  Kvplov  Tjfiipa).    In  Acts  xx.  7 
we  are  told  that  St.  Paul  abode  seven 
days  at  Troas,  and  that  on  the  first  day 
of  the  week  the  disciples  came  together 
"to  break  bread."    The  same  Apostle 
writes  to  the  Corinthians  (1  Cor.  xvi.  1 
seq.),  "  Every  first  day  of  the  week  («nra 
'  plav  (TaS^aTov)  let  eiich  of  you  lay  up  at 
I  home  and  collect  whatever  ])rofit  he  has 
1  had,"  words  which  do  not,  indeed,  directly 
j  imply  that  there  was  public  service  on 
Sunday,  for  nap'  favrw  (  =  c/iez  liii)  cannot 
refer  to  a  collection  in  the  Christian 
assembly.    But  they  do  seem  to  indicate 
that  Sunday  was  already  a  sacred  day, 
on  which  deeds  of  love  were  specially 
suitable.    Heb.  x.  2o  shows  this  much, 
that  the  Christians,  when  the  epistle 


834  SUNDAY 


SUNDAY 


was  written,  had  regular  days  of  assem- 
bly. 

(6)  The  Scriptural  references  given 
above  show  that  the  observance  of  Sun- 
day had  begun  in  the  Apostolic  age ;  but 
even  were  Scripture  silent,  tradition 
would  put  this  point  beyond  all  douht. 
While,  however,  Sunday  was  observed 
from  the  first,  it  is  possible  to  trace  seve- 
ral stages  in  the  observance. 

(a)  The  earliest  Fathers  speak  of  the 
assembly  for  worship,  and  especially  for 
the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist.  As 
this  is  well  known,  the  following  refer- 
ences will  suffice :  Ep.  Bamab.  15  ; 
Ignat.  ad  Magnes.  9  :  Justin  Mart.  i. 
Apol  59;  Dionys.  Corinth,  (apud  Euseb. 
"  H.  E."  iv.  23)  ;  Tertull.  Apol.  16  ; 
"De  Coron."3.  These  authors  speak  of 
Sunday,  which  they  call  the  "  Lord's 
Day,"  the  "Day  of  the  Lord's  Resur- 
rection," and  sometimes,  but  only  in  ad- 
dressing heathen,  the  "  Day  of  the  Sun  " 
(see  Probst,  "  Kirchliche  Disciplin  in  den 
ersten  drei  Jahrhund."  p.  247),  as  a  day 
of  sacred  joy  and  prayer.  But  we  know 
of  only  one  passage  in  any  Ante-Nicene 
Father  which  alludes  to  the  Sunday  rest. 
Tertullian,  after  mention  of  the  ritual 
usage  according  to  which  Christians  on 
Sunday  prayed  standing,  not  kneeling, 
adds  that  on  that  day  business  was  put 
aside,  that  the  soul  miglit  be  left  free  for 
God's  service  ("differentes  etiam  negotia 
ne  quern  diabolo  locum  demus,"  "  De 
Orat."  23).  Here  was  the  contrast 
hetween  Sabbath  and  Sunday.  The 
former  was  primarily  a  day  of  rest  from 
work,  and,  although  the  morning  and 
evening  sacrifices  were  doubled  on  the 
Sabbath,  no  law  of  Sabbatical  worship 
was  imposed  on  the  L«raelite.  Attendance 
on  the  prophets,  and  afterwards  on  the 
synagogue,  arose  naturally  out  of  the  en- 
forced cessation  of  ordinary  work.  The 
Sunday,  on  the  other  hand,  was  primarily 
a  day  of  prayer,  and  the  words  in  the 
Apocalypse  strike  the  keynote  of  Sunday 
observance :  "  I  was  in  tlie  Spirit  on  the 
Lord's  day."  The  law  of  rest  arose  as  a 
protection  to  the  law  of  worsliip.  It 
may  be  objected  tl*.^  after  all,  the 
Church's  law  only  requires  a  small  por- 
tion of  Sunday  to  be  spent  in  prayer. 
But  this  objection  rests  on  an  anachro- 
nism, for  we  shall  see  presently  that  the 
ancient  Church  required  the  greater  part 
of  the  day  to  be  spent  in  devotion. 

{^)  When  Cln-istianity  became,  or 
was  on  the  way  to  become,  the  religion  of 
the  state,  it  was  necessary  to  pass  some 


law  of  rest;  otherwise  a  Christian  who- 
kept  Sunday  might  obviously  sufl'er  in- 
convenience from  being  summoned  to 
court,  to  military  exercise  &c.,  or  even 
from  the  competition  of  his  heathen  rivals 
in  trade.  Hence  Constantine,  as  Eusebius 
reports,  required  his  subjects  to  rest  on 
the  feasts  of  our  Lord  (also  on  Fridays, 
if  Valesius  is  right  in  correcting  ray  rov 
o-ciiSiSdrov  into  Tiis  npo  rov  cra/3/3(irov),  and 
on  Sundays  the  Christian  soldiers  were 
exempted  from  work  that  they  might 
have  leisure  to  pray.  (Euseb.  "  Vit. 
Constant."  iv.  18).  A  long  series  of  im- 
perial enactments  on  the  matter  is  to  be 
found  in  the  Rouian  codes.  An  edict  of 
Constantine  prohibited  law  business  and 
mechanical  arts  in  towns,  though  the 
country  people  were  allowed  to  till  the 
ground  on  that  day.  Later  emperors  not 
only  closed  the  law  courts,  but  also  the 
theatre  and  circus  on  Sundays. 

The  decrees  of  councils  also  became 
more  and  more  stringent.  The  Synod  of 
Laodicea  (between  843  and  381)  threatens 
with  excommunication  those  who  Judaise 
by  resting  on  the  Sabbath,  but  exhorts 
Christians  to  rest  on  Sunday  "  if  they 
can  "  (c.  20).  About  the  same  time 
Clnysostom  speaks  (Hom.  xliii.  in  1  Cor. 
xvi.  1)  of  the  Lord's  Day  as  bringing 
"  rest  and  immunity  from  labours."  The 
Second  Council  of  Macon  (c.  1)  (anno 
5S.5)  desires  the  faithful  to  spend  the 
whole  day  in  prayer.  Tlieodulf,  bishop 
of  Orleans,  in  his  Capitulary  (cap.  24), 
will  suffer  no  relaxation  of  prayer  ex- 
cept to  take  food.  The  Third  Council 
of  Tours  in  813  (c.  40)  is  still  more 
explicit :  the  prayer  and  praise  is  to  con- 
tinue "till  the  evening,"  Sunday  being 
reckoned  from  evening  to  evening.  The 
Second  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in 
836  (cap.  21)  tried  to  restore  the  old 
custom  of  communicating  every  Sunday. 
Nor  was  this  wide  notion  of  Sunday 
oliservance  peculiar  to  France  and  Ger- 
many. The  Council  of  Friuli  in  791 
(can.  13)  insists  on  the  same  devotion  of 
tlie  whole  day  to  prayer,  and  the  Spanish 
Council  of  Coyaca  in  1050  (can.  6)  pre- 
scribes not  only  attendance  at  matins, 
Mass,  and  the  "hours,"  but  also  abstinence 
from  travelling  except  in  casesof  necessity. 
Theodore  of  Tarsus  (apud  Thomassin, 
"Trait(5  des  Festes,"  p.  527),  who  became 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  669,  assures 
us  that  his  fellow-Greeks  would  neither 
sail  nor  ride  (except  to  church),  or  bake, 
or  bathe,  or  write  any  unnecessary  letters 
on  Sunday.   In  all  these  authorities  and  in 


SUNDAY  863 


the  Fathers  generally  there  is  no  confusion 
between  Sunday  and  Sabhath.  References 
to  the  Decalogue  as  in  any  sense  the  war- 
rant for  Sunday  are  extremely  rare,  though 
Chrysostom  ("In  Gen."  Horn.  x.  7)  deduces 
this'  much  from  God's  blessing  and 
hallowing  the  seventh  day,  viz.  that  one 
day  in  the  week  should  be  given  to  God's 
service.'  This  principle  is  accepted  by 
modern  theologians,  so  far  at  least  that 
they  distinguish  between  the  ceremonial 
part  of  the  Third  Commandment,  which 
enjoins  rest  on  the  seventh  day,  and  its 
moral  part,  which  urges  us  to  consecrate 
part  of  our  time  to  heavenly  thoughts. 
But  usually  the  Fathers,  and  even 
medifEval  writers,  appeal  simply  to  the 
resurrection  of  our  Lord  and  the  descent 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  happened  on 
Sunday,  to  "the  custom  of  the  Church  and 
to  Apostolic  tradition. 

(7)  Sunday  used  to  be  reckoned  from 
evening  to  evening — i.e.  the  sanctification 
of  the  day  began  on  Saturday  and  ended  on 
Sunday  evenmg.  "Itwas,"saysThomassin, 
"  about  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century 
that  after  the  abolition  of  public  vigils  in 
the  Churcli,  people  began  the  celebration 
of  Sundays  and  feasts  on  the  morning  of 
the  same  day."  He  quotes  Gratian  ("  De 
Consec."d.  3,c.  1),  Gregory  IX.  ("Extra, 
de  Feriis,"  c.  1,  2),  who  recognises  the  old 

'  A  sermon  once  attributed  to  Augustine 
(Appendix  280)  says  that  the  •'plory  of  Jewish 
S.abbiith-lcoeping"  was  transfcrri'd  to  Sunday, 
but  tho  change  is  attributed  tii  the  "  doctors  df 
the  Church,"  and,  tiesides,  the  Benedictine  edi- 
tors have  proved  that  the  sermon  is  at  least  later 
than  Alcuin.  The  universal  teaching  of  the 
Fathers  is  that  the  Sabbath  is  abrot;ated  in  the 
letter,  and  that  it  is  kept  spiritually  by  rest 
from  sin,  or  will  be  kept  bv  cternnl  rest  u  ith 
Christ,  this  is  the  teaehini;  of  .Justin  (Di.il. 
12);  Iren.  (Aflr.  Hcer.  iv.  16);  Clem.  Al. 
(Strom,  iv.  3)  ;  Origen  (Horn.  viii.  §  2,  In  Jos.  \ 
Contr.  Cels.  ii.  7);  Victorinus  (Routh,  Re/t. 
Sacr.  ii.  pp.  4,  5,  8);  -iugustine  (C.  Faust. 
xviii.  5)  ;  Jerome  (In  Isai.  liii.  ad  Jin.,  Ivi.  2, 
Iviii.  13);  Epiphanii's  (Har.  viii.  6,  xxix.  7, 
XXX.  32 ;  Kxposit.  tU.  82) ;  Gregory  the 
Great  (Mora/,  xviii.  43);  Aiethes  (In  Apoc. 
xi.  2).  The  Puritau  idea  of  a  Christian  Sab- 
bath was  unknown  to  the  first  Reformers. 
Bat  in  Scotland  we  find  the  Book  of  Discipline 
drawn  up  by  John  Knox  and  five  other  minis- 
ters enforcing  Sabbath  observance ;  and  in 
1.562  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbvterian 
Ch\uch  of  Scotland  petitioned  the  Queen  to 
punish  Sabb'ith-breakers.  In  England  the 
Puritanical  or  Judaisiiig  doctrine  was  developed 
and  Bystematised  by  a  learned  Puritan  cleriry- 
man.  Dr.  Nicolas  Bownd,  of  Norton  in  Suftblk. 
The  Westminster  Cimfession  of  1617  (ch.  xxi.) 
was  the  first  Creed  which  embodied  this  view. 
(For  the  history  of  Protestant  opinion,  see 
Scbaff,  Creeds  of  Christendom,  vol.  i.p.  775  seq.) 


custom ;  Alexander  III.  {ih),  who  speaks 
of  both  customs  as  existing  in  his  time; 
and  Haytho,  bishop  of  Basle  in  his  Capi- 
tular}-(cap.  8),  who  says  simply  thut  Sun- 
day lasts  "a  mane  usque  ad  vesperam." 

(S)  Down  to  the  middle  of  the  four- 
teenth century  it  was  admitted  on  all 
hands  that  the  faithful  must  hear  Mass 
on  Sundays  and  liolidays  of  obligation  in 
thfir  pari-li  church.  But  about  this  time 
the  ^iciidicant  Friars  pleaded  that  this 
law  had  been  changed  by  Papal  privilege 
in  their  favour.  This  led  to  keen  disputes 
between  seculars  and  regulars  under 
Innocent  "VI.;  and  Sixtus  IV.,  more  than 
a  century  afterwards,  in  his  Constitution 
"Vices  illius,"  declared  that  the  law 
obliged  parishioners  to  hear  Mass  in  their 
own  church  unless  when  they  absented 
themselves  "for  a  good  reason"  ("e.^ 
honesta  causa").  There  has  been  much 
controversy  on  the  sense  of  this  last  clause. 
(See  Juenin,  "  Comment,  de  Sacram." 
diss.  V.  §  11.)  But  in  any  case  the 
Council  of  Trent  simply  recommends  (sess. 
xxii.)  att(>ndance  at  the  parish  church, 
and  it  is  certain  from  a  Constitution  of 
Pius  V.  ("Etsi  Mendicantium,"  anno 
1567),  that  it  is  enough,  so  far  as  strict 
obligation  goes,  to  hear  Mass  in  any 
public  church. 

(f)  Modern  discipline  has  introduced 
another  and  a  much  more  important 
change.  Mass  used  to  last  for  two  hours 
and  more;  it  can  now  Ije  heard  in  half  au 
hour.  Further,  the  ]ml)lic  recital  inn  of 
Matins  on  Sunday  before  Ma-<  wa>  usual 
even  in  secular  chun/lu  s  till  llie  i_'n,l  of 
the  middle  ages,  and  it  was  well  under- 
stfHid  lhat  tlie  faithful  must  assist  at  the 
( (fliee  as  well  as  at  ^lass  This  has  been 
shown  above  from  the  decrees  of  councils. 
Mr.  Maskell  ("Monument.  Bit."  vol.  iii. 
p.  xxxii.)  proves  that  the  obligation  of 
hearing  Matins,  Mass,  and  Evensong  on 
Sundays  and  holidays  was  recognised  in 
England  till  the  change  of  religion.  Even 
in  the  last  century  Billuart  and  many 
other  theologians  admit  an  obligation 
(though  not  a  grave  one)  of  hearing 
Vespers  as  well  as  Mass  on  Sundaj-s.  At 
present,  a  man  who  simply  hears  Low 
Mass  satisfies  the  letter  of  the  Church 
law.  But  if  he  absents  himself  from 
sermons,  if,  above  all,  he  does  not  use  the 
opportunity  the  day  of  rest  affords  for 
increased  prayer,  for  reading  good  books, 
for  instructing  his  family  and  the  like,  he 
will  in  many  cases  sin  against  his  own 
soul.  He  can  hardly  fail  to  do  so  unless 
he  be  like  the  perfect  Christian  of  whom 


«66  SUPERSTITION 


SUTREMACY,  ROYAL 


Origen  speaks  ("C.  Gels."  yiii.  22,  23), 
with  whom  every  day  is  a  spiritual  feast. 
A  mau  is  in  a  bad  way  if  lie  makes  a 
practice  of  heariug  a  Low  Mass,  and 
spending  the  rest  of  the  Sunday  in  frivo- 
lous recreation. 

svPERSTiTzosr.  [See  Religion.] 

SUPREIMCACV,  SOYAIi.  By  this 
is  meant  the  doctrine  that  the  king  or 
chief  authority  in  the  state  has  the 
power  to  ordain  and  judge  in  the  last 
resort  without  appeal  "  in  all  causes  and 
over  all  persons,  ecclesiastical  as  well  as 
civil,"'  within  his  dominions.  Christi- 
anity is  thus  inferentially  denied,  inas- 
much as  the  charge  given  by  our  Lord  to 
St.  Peter,  not  to  feed  only,  but  to  govern 
(noifiaiveiv)  his  whole  flock  in  the  things 
concerning  everlasting  life  is  ignored,  and 
the  judgment  of  the  civil  ruler  substituted 
for  that  of  the  Apostolic  See.  Nor  is  this 
claim  to  supremacy  less  obstinately  main- 
tained in  democratic  communities  which 
pretend  to  tolerate  all  religions,  than  by 
old  Protestant  monarchies.  The  modern 
Continental  Liberal  has  no  sense  for  the 
lofty  yet  humbling  thoughts,  the  pure 
penetrating  emotions,  which  are  present 
in  the  souls  of  believers,  and  dispose  the 
best  of  them  to  the  practice  of  the  evan- 
gelical, counsels — chastity,  voluntary 
poverty,  and  obedience.  He  considers 
that  it  is  the  duty  of  every  man  or  woman 
to  contribute  to  the  advance  of  civilisation, 
understood  as  he  understauds  it ;  and  all 
mental  or  bodily  exercise  which  does  not 
so  contribute  he  looks  upon  as  so  much 
wasted  force.  This  waste,  if  he  has  power 
to  prevent  it,  he  will  not  permit ;  he  will 
therefore  disperse  religious  comnuuiities, 
forbid  the  taking  of  vows,  and,  generally, 
assume  control  in  the  last  resort  over 
religious  society.  Tlie  Radical  Govern- 
ment of  Switzerland,  with  nothing  but 
toleration  and  enlightenment  on  its  lips, 
is  as  vigilant  in  repressing  the  free  de- 
velopment of  Catholic  life  within  the 
republic  as  the  Czars  are  iu  Russia  or 
Queen  Islizabeth  was  in  England. 

The  doctrine  that  the  civil  power  has 
the  right  to  control  the  ecclesiastical,  even 
in  purely  religious  matters,  is  generally 
attributed  to  Erastus,  a  German  divine  of 
the  sixteenth  century;  traces  of  it,  how- 
ever, may  be  found  in  the  writinrrs  of 
Marsilius  of  Padua  and  other  mediaeval 

•  Anglican  bidding  prayer. 

2  His  real  name  was  Lieber;  he  was  a 
aative  of  Baden,  and  died  in  1 .588.  Soon  after- 
wards appeared  liia  celebrated  treatise,  Ue 
Excommunieatione  Ecdesiaslica. 


writers.  Cranmer,  and  afterwarda 
Hooker,  espoused  it;  it  is  indeed  the 
fundamental  tenet  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land as  such;  Grotius  and  Hobbes argued 
on  the  same  side.'  On  the  other  hand, 
all  Catholic  theologians  maintain  the  in- 
dependence and  supremacy  of  the  Church 
within  her  own  sphere.  This  inde- 
pendence is  of  course  imjjlied  in  the  very 
fact  of  canon  law;  for  precepts  which 
may  be  lawfully  set  aside  at  the  bidding 
of  some  power  claiming  to  be  superior  to 
the  authority  which  framed  them  are 
not  laws  at  all,  but  only  regulations  or 
monitions.    [See  Canon  Law;  Jueis- 

BICTION;  FORTJJI  ECCLESIASTICUM.] 

The  doctrine  of  the  royal  supremacy 
was  carried  out  more  consistently  iu 
England  than  in  any  other  Protestant 
country.  It  was  one  of  the  main  causes 
of  the  civil  war  in  the  seventeenth  century , 
the  King,  as  head  of  the  Cliurch,  insisting 
on  ecclesiastical  arrangements  whicli  the 
conscience  of  the  more  advanced  Pro- 
testants condemned.  The  Puritan  re- 
public, since  it  maintained  the  penal  laws 
against  Catholics,  practically  claimed  the 
right  of  excluding  Catholicism  from  the 

,  country,  but  it  conceded  to  all  Protestant 
sects  the  free  management  of  their  eccle- 
siastical concerns  without  state  inter- 
ference.   At  the  Restoration  the  old  state 

'  of  things  reappeared  ;  but  the  Revolution 

'  of  1688  enforced  the  toleration  of  the 
sects,  and  withdrew,  so  far  as  they  were 
concerned,  the  ecclesiastical  supremacy  of 
the  Crown.  The  liberty  thus  given  has 
been  taken  advantage  of  moi-e  and  more 
in  the  two  centuries  which  have  since 
intervened,  and  at  the  present  day  the 
supremacy  is  admitted  only  by  one-half 
of  English  Protestantism.  In  Scoiland 
the  Erastian  doctrine  was  reji  i  t.Ml  from 
the  first.  The  Presbyterian  ,-;mr,,|,tiou  of 
the  Church  has  no  solid  basis  in  Scripture, 
history,  or  general  reason;  but  of  this 
Church  the  Scotch  always  stoutly  uphi4d 

I  the  independence  as  against  the  State ; 

I  and  the  record  of  their  struggles  and 
sacrifices  in  this  cause,  from  the  date  of 
the  First  General  Assembly  in  1560  to  the 
disruption  of  184.3,  forms  the  most 
attractive  feature  in  the  history  of  Pres- 
byterianism. 

In  Sweden  and  Denmark  the  sover- 
eigns appoint  the  bishops  ;  Lutheranism 
is  the  national  religion,  and  till  within 
the  last  few  years  no  other  has  been 
tolerated.  The  Calvinism  of  Holland  is 
more  accommodating  ;  the  battle  of  toler- 

j  1  Hallam,  Lit.  Hist.  ii.  436. 


SUPPRESSION 


SUPPRESSION  mr 


ation  was  fought  out  there  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  practically  won.  The 
established  religion  is  professed  only  by 
about  one  half  of  the  people,  andCatholics 
form  nearly  40  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
population.  In  Russia  the  Czar  appoints 
the  bishops,  and  is  practically  supreme  in 
religious  matters.  The  sutlerings  which 
the  exercise  of  this  supremacy  has  entailed 
on  the  Catholics  of  Poland,  Podolia,  and 
Lithuania  are  matter  of  recent  expe- 
rience. In  France  the  present  aspect  of 
things  is  that  of  a  country  whose  religi- 
ous affairs  are  regulated  by  a  concordat 
or  solemn  treaty  concluded  (1801)  be- 
tween the  civil  power  and  the  Catholic 
Church.  Many  other  countries  [Concor- 
dat] have  followed  this  example.  Of 
course  all  Powers  having  concordats  with 
Rome  implicitly  admit  her  spiritual  inde- 
pendence. The  British  State  does  not 
make  concordats  zcith,  but  laws  for,  the 
Church  of  England,  justly  regarding  it  as 
its  own  creature  and  subject. 

SUPPBESSZOM-  OF  VtOflA.S- 
TEBZES.  In  every  country  of  Europe 
there  have  been  hostile  suppressions  of 
monastic  societies ;  there  have  been  also, 
from  time  to  time,  friendly,  or  ecclesi- 
astical, suppressions,  carried  out  with  the 
approbation  of  the  Holy  See.  The  first 
and  most  memorable  instance  of  the 
former  class  is  the  closing  of  the  religious 
houses  in  England  (1535-lo40)  ;  the  par- 
ticulars are  exhibited  in  the  following 
table : — 

Monasteries  with  yearly  revenue 
under  200/.     .'     .       .  .374 

Monasteries  with  yearly  revenue 
above  that  sum "...  186 

Small  Monasteries      .      .  ,52 

Friaries — AuKUstinians  .  32 

„  Cirmelites  ,  .  52 
„  Dominicans.  .  .58 
„       Franciscans  >      .      .  65 

Total      .  .  il9 

In  Italy  a  great  suppression  of  reli- 
gious houses  and  ecclesiastical  founda- 
tions, commenced  by  the  Sardinian 
Government  in  1865,  and  scarcely  yet 
terminated,  has  seriously  changed  the 
moral  aspect  of  the  countrj'.  Between 
1855  and  1873  there  were  suppressed 
3,037  houses  for  men  and  1,027  for 
women,  and  small  pensions  were  granted 
to  a  large  proportion  of  their  inmates, 
amounting  to  nearly  54,000  persons.  Up 
to  the  end  of  1877,  Church  and  monastic 
lands  representing  a  capital  value  of 

•  There  were  also  forty-eight  suppressed 
houses  of  the  Knights  Hospitallers. 


nearly  34,000,000/.  had  been  confiscated 
by  the  state,  which,  to  disarm  local 
opposition  grants  to  the  communes  in 
which  any  such  property  was  situated  a 
certain  proportion  or  the  proceeds  of  its- 
sale.  The  establishments  spared  for  the 
present  are  compelled  to  submit  to  the 
forced  sale  of  all  their  immovable  pro- 
perty, the  purchase  money  being  entered 
by  the  Government  to  their  credit  in  the 
Italian  renter.  ("  Encyc.  Brit." J«<y,  1881 .) 

The  Culturkampf  in  Germany,  com- 
menced very  soon  after  the  Franco- 
German  war  (1870-1),  employed  the 
suppression  of  religious  societies  as  one 
of  its  most  effectual  weapons.  Th" 
Jesuits,  and  many  other  orders  and  col- 
gregations,  were  at  that  time  expellea 
from  all  the  territories  of  Prussia. 

In  France,  a  law  passed  during  the 
Revolution  (February  1790)  enacted  the 
suppression  of  all  orders  and  regular  con- 
gregations in  which  solemn  vows  were 
taken,  and  prohibited  their  re-establish- 
ment. This  law  had  been  long  in  abey- 
ance, and  a  system  of  authorisation  had 
been  followed,  under  which  religious 
societies  which  laid  their  rules,  statutes, 
and  financial  affairs  open  to  the  in- 
spection of  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior, 
were  permitted  to  exist.  Besides  these 
authorised  congregations,  a  large  number 
of  non-authorised  societies,  which  for 
various  reasons  preferred  a  hazardous 
independence  to  the  irksomeness  of 
governmental  supervision,  had  come  into 
being;  in  1877  there  were  five  hundred 
such  societies,  comprising  nearly  22,000 
religious  of  both  sexes.  But  the  majority 
of  the  congregations  of  women  were 
authorised.  On  March  20,  1880,  the 
Government  of  M.  Freycinet,  a  Protes- 
tant, issued  two  decrees,  of  which  one 
ordered  the  absolute  and  irrevocable 
suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in 
eveiy  part  of  France  ;  the  other  required 
that  all  other  non-authorised  corpora- 
tions should  within  three  months  apply 
for  authorisation  to  the  Government, 
supplying  at  the  same  time  full  and 
minute  information  as  to  all  their  con- 
cerns, internal  and  external.  It  was  well 
understood  that  in  the  case  of  many 
societies  the  authorisation,  had  it  been 
applied  for,  would  have  been  refused. 
In  fact,  it  was  in  very  few  instances  ap- 
plied for,  and  when  the  prescribed  period 
had  passed  by,  the  Government  resorted 
to  the  various  executive  means  at  its  dis- 
posal for  suspending  the  common  life  of 
the    non-authorised    societies,  causing 


8G3  SUPPRESSION 


SUSPENSION 


closed  doors  to  be  broken  open,  seizing  I 
on  property,  and  forcibly  dispersing  the 
religious.  Thus  not  only  the  Jesuits, 
but  the  Dominicans  also  (except  those 
engaged  in  teaching),  the  Capuchins,  the 
Carmelites,  and  many  other  orders  and 
congregations,  the  membei-s  of  which  had 
supposed  the  revolutionary  /wrore  which 
dictated  the  law  of  1790  to  be  extinct, 
were  suppressed  in  France  before  the  end 
of  1882. 

Ecclesiastical  suppressions  have  been 
made  for  various  reasons:  either  for  the 
promotion  of  learning  and  education,  or 
in  the  interest  of  discipline,  or  for  the 
removal  of  presumed  abuses  and  evils. 
Thus  a  monastery  was  suppressed  by 
Bishop  Alcock  (1407)  in  order  that  he 
might  transfer  its  revenues  to  his  new 
foundation  of  Jesus  College  at  Cambridge, 
and  two  others  were  closed  at  the  request 
of  the  Countess  Margaret,  mother  of 
Henry  VII.,  and  her  executors  (150-5- 
1508),  to  aid  in  the  foundation  of  Christ's 
and  St.  John's  Colleges  at  the  same  uni- 
versity. Another  suppression  was  allowed 
in  favour  of  Bishop  Smith  (1515),  when 
he  was  founding  Brasenose  College,  Ox- 
ford. A  measure  of  the  same  kind,  but 
on  a  much  larger  scale,  was  permitted  by 
the  Holy  See  to  Cardinal  Wolsey,  who 
(1524)  suppressed  twenty-five  small 
priories,  and  applied  their  revenues  to 
Christ  Church  at  Oxford  and  the  college 
at  Ipswich  which  he  was  then  founding. 
In  1528,  experience  having  shown  that 
when  the  number  of  monies  in  any  house 
was  very  small,  the  rule  was  seldom  pro- 
perly observed,  Clement  VII.  granted  a 
bull  to  the  Cardinals  Wolsey  and  Cam- 
peggio,  authorising  them  to  suppress 
houses  having  less  than  twelve  monks, 
and  transfer  their  revenues  to  the  larger 
monasteries. 

A  suppression  far  more  comprehensive 
was  effected  in  France  a  few  years  before 
the  Revolution  through  the  agency  of 
the  "  Commission  on  the  Regulars,"  a 
board  composed  of  bishops  and  high 
officials,  appointed  by  the  Crown  in  1766 
to  inquire  into  the  state  of  the  religious 
orders.  The  result  of  their  operations, 
which  do  not  appear  to  have  had  at  any 
time  the  sanction  of  the  Pope,  was,  that 
all  houses  containing  fewer  than  fifteen 
religious  were  closed,  that  monks  were 
forbidden  to  take  vows  before  the  age  of 
21,  and  nuns  before  that  of  18,  and  that 
nearly  1 ,500  monasteries  were  suppressed. 

(Tanner,  "  Notitia  Monastica " ; 
H61yot  [ed.  Migne],  vol.  iv.    See  especi- 


ally, "Henrv  VIII.  and  the  English 
Monasteries,'  by  Father  Qasquet.) 

ST7RPIiZCG.  A  garment  of  white 
linen  worn  over  the  cassock  in  choir  and 
in  the  administration  of  the  sacraments. 
It  is  among  the  most  familiar,  and  at  the 
same  time  is  one  of  the  most  modern  of 
Church  vestments. 

The  word  snperjyeUicium  means  a 
dress  worn  over  a  garment  of  skins. 
Such  dresses  of  fur  {pellicia)  came  into 
use  among  monks  early  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, probably  to  protect  them  from  the 
cold  and  damp  during  the  long  offices 
in  church.  The  great  Synod  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  817  (can.  22)  ordered  each 
monk  to  have  two  dresses  of  fur  {pellidre). 
Over  these  pellicice  a  linen  garment,  the 
superpelUcium  or  surplice,  was  worn  in 
choir.  It  is  uncertain  when  this  last 
custom  began.  The  surplice  is  mentioned 
in  1050  by  the  Council  of  Coyaca,  and 
Durandus  in  1286  .speaks  of  its  use  as 
already  ancient,  but  by  no  means  universal. 
The  Spanish  synod  just  mentioned  (can. 
3)  requires  it  to  be  worn  under  the 
amice,  alb,  and  the  rest  of  the  Mass 
vest  ments,  and  thisusage  is  still  recognised 
in  the  rubrics  of  the  Roman  Missal 
("  Ritus  Servand."  i.  2).  In  the  twelfth 
century  it  reached  to  the  ankles,  and  so 
the  Council  of  Basle  in  the  fifteenth 
century  requires  canons  in  choir  to  wear 
sui-plices  "  ultra  medias  tibias."'  Cardinal 
Bona,  more  than  200  years  ago,  speaks  of 
surplices  being  already  shorter  than  the 
rule  of  Basle  required,  but  the  pictures  in 
Roman  Pontificals  of  the  last  century 
show  that  the  present  form  of  the 
Italian  surplice  or  cotta  is  very  recent. 
To  this  day  the  length  varies  much  in 
our  Engli.sh  churches,  but  it  never  reaches 
below  the  knees,  while  in  the  new  Italian 
fashion  adopted  by  many  of  the  English 
clergy  the  surplice  does  not  reach  nearly 
so  far.  It  was  not  till  the  seventeenth 
century  that  surplices  were  commonly 
adorned  with  lace.  .(Hefele,  "  Beitriige," 
vol.  ii.  p.  174,  seq.  see  also  Rochet  and 
Cotta.) 

SU'SPEsrszoir.  A  censure  by  which 
a  cleric  is  foi-bidden  to  exercise  his  orders 
or  his  clerical  office,  or  to  administer  and 
enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  benefice.  It  does 
not,  Uke  deposition,  deprive  a  cleric  of 
his  benefice,  or  make  him  incapable  of 
lawfully  exercising  his  office  without 
formal  rehabilitation ;  much  less  does  it, 
like  degradation,  deprive  him  of  his 
status  as  a  clergyman.  Partial  suspen- 
sion inhibits  a  man  from  the  use  of  his 


SUSPENSION 


SUSPENSION 


869 


•orders,  of  his  office — i.e.  fiom  exercise  of 
orders  and  jurisdiction,  or,  again,  from 
the  enjoyment  and  administration  of  his 
benefice.'  It  may  prohibit  from  all  exer- 
cise of  orders  or  jurisdiction,  or  only 
from  certain  acts  of  order  and  jurisdic- 
tion— e.ff.  a  bi*h<ip  may  be  suspended  from 
ordaining,  singing  Mass  poutitically,  &c., 
and  yet  be  perfectly  free  to  say  Mass, 
govern  his  diocese,  Sec.  Entire  suspen- 
sion prohibits  all  use  of  order,  jurisdic- 
tion, or  benefice.  Suspension  may  be 
perpetual — i.e.  without  any  fixed  limit, 
or  for  a  definite  time.  If  inflicted  for  a 
time,  it  ceases  of  itself  when  the  time  is 
over.  Pei-petual  suspension  for  a  fault 
altogether  past  is  removed  by  the  dispen- 
sation of  the  prelate  who  inflicted  it,  his 
superior,  successor,  or  delegate.  If  in- 
flicted as  a  censure '  it  may  be  removed 
by  absolution  given  solemnly  according 
to  a  form  prescribed  in  the  Rituale,  if 
the  suspension  is  public  ;  or  privately  by 
absolution  in  a  general  form,  if  the  sus- 
pension is  secret.  The  power  of  absolution 
IS  sometimes  held  by  every  priest  em- 
powered to  hear  confessions,  sometimes 
reserved  to  the  bishop,  sometimes  to  tlie 
Pope.  According  to  the  new  reform  of 
the  canon  law  in  the  Bull  "  Apostolicre 
Sedis,"  October  12,  186!»,  the  following 
suspensions  only  are  incurred  ipso  facto, 
absolution  being  reserved  to  the  Poj  e. 
They  all  depend  on  the  giving,  receiving, 
or  exercising  orders  or  jurisdiction  : — (1) 
Suspension  from  the  fruits  of  their  bene- 
fices is  incurred  by  the  chapter  of  a  vacant 
see  if  they  admit  a  bishop  before  he  has 
produced  the  Apostolic  letters  for  his  pro- 
motion ;  *  (2)  bishops  are  suspended  for 
three  years  from  all  right  to  ordain,  if 
they  give  orders  to  one  who  has  neither 
patrimony  nor  benefice,  on  the  condition 
that  he  renounces  all  claim  to  support 
from  the  bishop  ;  (3)  for  one  year  if  they 
ordain  without  dimissorials  a  person  who 
does  not  belong  to  the  diocese  or  hold  a 
benefice  in  it,  or  a  person  belonging  to 
but  long  absent  from  the  diocese,  unless 
he  has  a  certificate  of  good  character  from 
the  bishop  under  whom  he  has  been 
living;  or  (4)  if,  apart  from  privilege, 
they  confer  a  holy  order  on  one  who  has 


'  I.e.  not  merely  a.s  punishment,  but  for  the 
amenlment  of  the  offender.  The  comninn  de- 
finition, to  which  we  have  adhered,  tre.its  sus- 
pension 88  a  species  of  censure,  but  this  is  not 
always  the  case. 

'  In  this  case  the  penalties  h.nvp  been 
extended  and  increased  by  the  bull  liuiiiunuii 
Pontiftx,  Aug.  28,  1873. 


neither  patrimony,  benefice,  or  the  titulm 
2)aupertatis,  acquired  bv  solemn  vows, 
already  made.  (5)  Religious  expelled 
from  their  order  are  susi>euded  from  all 
exercise  of  orders.  (6)  So  are  persons 
linowingly  ordained  by  a  bishop  under  ex- 
commimication,  suspension,  or  interdict, 
or  notoriously  heretical  or  schismatical 
(if  they  were  in  good  faith  they  must 
wait  for  a  dispensation).  Then  follow 
some  suspensions  which  afl'ect  persons 
living  in  Rome,  incurred  (a)  by  persons 
living  more  than  four  months  in  Rome 
and  ordained  by  a  bishop  not  their  own, 
without  leave  from  the  cardinal-vicar,  or 

1  ordained  without  being  examined  before 
the  cardinal-vicar,  or  ordained  by  their 
own  bishop  after  failing  in  the  examina- 
tion before  the  cardinal  -  vicar ;  (JS)  by 
persons  in  the  six  suburbicarian  dioceses 
if  they  are  ordained  out  of  their  own 
dioceses,  unless  with  dimissorials  directed 
to  the  cardinal-vicar  himself,  or  if  they 

1  receive  a  holy  order  without  ten  days' 
retreat  at  the  house  of  the  Fathers  of  the 
Mission;  bishops  who  ordain  in  tliese  cases 
are  suspended  "ab  usu  pu  tificalium  "  for 
a  year.  Further,  the  following  suspen- 
sions imposed  by  the  Council  of  Trent 
remain  in  force : — (1)  "  Ab  exercitio 
ordinum  "  on  bishops  who  act  ]iontifically 
without  leave  in  other  dioceses,  and  on 
jiersons  ordained  by  them  there  (Concil. 
Trid.  sess.  vi.  De  Reform,  c.  5).   (2)  "Ab 

i  executione  ordinum  ad  ber.eplacitum 
prtelati  futuri  "  on  all  who  ren  ive  a  holy 
order  in  virtue  of  dimissorials  from  a 
chapter  within  a  year  of  the  vacancy  of 
the  see  (sess.  vii.  De  Reform,  c.  10).  (3) 

I  For  a  year  "  ab  exercitio  pontirtcalium  " 
on  titular  bishops  who  ordain  without 
dimissorials,  and  "  ab  executione  ordi- 
num ■'  on  the  persons  so  ordaint-d,  as  long 
as  their  ordinary  pleases  (sess.  xiv.  De 
Ref.  c.  2).  (4)  "  A.  collaiioiie  ordinum" 
for  a  year  on  bishops  who  ordain  without 
testimonials  of  character  from  the  proper 
ordinary,  and  "  ab  executione  ordinum  " 
on  those  so  ordained  as  long  as  their 
ordinary  sees  fit  (sess.  xxiii.  De  Ref 
c.  8).  (5)  "  Ab  officio  et  beneficio  "  for 
a  year  on  those  who  furnish  dimi.ssorials 
contrary  to  the  Tridentine  de 'rees  (sess. 
vu.  De  Ref.  c.  10;  xxiii.  De  Ref.  c.  10). 
(6)  Absolute  susjiension  at  the  will  of  the 
ordinary  of  the  priest  whose  rights  have 
been  infringed,  on  parish  priests  who 
knowingly  marry  persons  from  another 
parish  without  leave  from  their  priests 
(sess.  x.xiv.  De  Ref  c.  1) ;  (7)  on  "  e])iscopi 
concubiuarii,  a  provinciali  synodo  ad- 


870 


SYLL.\BUS 


SYLLABUS 


moniti."  Of  course,  provincial  and  dio- 
cesan statutes  may  indict  suspension  to 
be  incurred  ipso  facto,  and  prelates  are 
empowered  to  visit  the  offences  of  clerics 
subject  to  them  with  suspension  (xxv.  De 
Lef.  e.  14). 

In  the  earliest  times  clerics  were  often 
punished,  not  by  simple  suspension,  but 
by  temporary  deprivation  of  communion. 
(Canon  Apost.  45,  Illiber.  21,  Epaon.  3). 
But  as  early  as  314  (Concil.  Neociesaren. 
c.  1)  we  have  an  instance  of  suspension 
perpetual  and  from  all  functions  (oXtuj 
XeiTovpyeiv),  and  SO  frequently  in  the 
following  centuries  (Agde,  c.  43,  in 
Truilo,  c.  26).  In  the  so-called  Fourth 
Council  of  Carthage  (c.  68),  where  a 
bishop  who  breaks  the  law  is  forbidden 
to  ordain,  we  have  an  instance  of  partial 
suspension,  and  in  another  early  council 
an  instance  of  suspension  from  Mass 
(3  Aurel.  c.  7).  Often  clerics  suspended 
from  order  and  office  retained  their 
stipend  (3  Concil.  Aurel.  A.D.  538,  c.  19), 
while  in  other  cases  they  were  suspended 
from  their  stipend  (Concil.  Narbonn.  a.d. 
589,  c.  11  and  13.) 

SYX.X.A.BUS.  On  Dec.  8,  1864,  two 
important  documents  were  issued  at 
Rome — the  one,  an  encyclical  letter  of 
Pius  IX.,  beginning  with  the  words 
Quanta  cura,  the  other  a  "  Syllabus  con- 
taining the  chief  errors  of  our  times  which 
are  censured  in  the  consistorial  allocu- 
tions, in  the  encyclicals,  and  in  other 
Apostolical  letters  of  our  most  holy  Lord, 
Pius  IX."  In  forwarding  these  documents 
to  the  bishops  of  the  world,  Cardinal 
Autonelli,  the  papal  secretary  of  state, 
wrote  as  follows: — "Our  Holy  Father, 
Pius  IX.,  being  deeply  anxious  for  the 
salvation  of  souls  and  for  sound  doctrine, 
has  never  ceased,  from  the  beginning  of 
his  ]iontificate,  to  proscribe  and  condemn 
the  chief  errors  and  false  doctrines,  especi- 
ally of  this  most  unhappy  age,  by  published 
encyclicals  and  consistorial  allocutions  and 
other  Apostolical  letters.  But  as  it  may 
come  to  pass  that  all  the  pontifical  acts  do 
not  reach  each  one  of  the  Ordinaries,  there- 
fore the  same  sovereign  Pontiff  has  willed 
that  a  Syllabus  of  the  said  errors  should 
be  compiled  to  be  sent  to  all  the  bishops 
of  the  Catholic  world,  in  order  that  those 
bishops  may  have  before  their  eyes  all 
the  errors  and  pernicious  doctrines  which 
have  been  reprobated  and  condemned  by 
him.  He  has  accordingly  charged  me  to 
take  care  that  this  Syllabus  when  printed 
should  be  sent  to  your  [Eminence]  on  this 
occasion  and  at  this  time  when  the  same 


Pontiff,  from  his  great  solicitude  for  tho 
security  and  welfare  of  the  Catholic 
Church  and  the  whole  flock  divinely 
entrusted  to  him,  has  thought  fit  to  write 
another  encyclical  to  all  the  Catholic 
bishops.  Performing,  therefore,  as  is  my 
duty,  with  all  suitable  zeal  and  submission, 
the  commands  of  the  said  Pontiff,  I  send 
your  [Eminence]  the  said  Syllabus  annexed 
to  this  letter." 

The  Syllabus,  then,  is  a  digest  or  table 
of  the  errors  condemned  on  various 
occasions  by  Pius  IX.,  drawn  up  and  cir- 
culated by  his  orders.  It  contains  eighty 
propositions  arranged  under  ten  beads. 
After  each  proposition  there  is  a  reference 
to  the  allocution  or  letter  in  which  false 
doctrine  is  condemned.  Thus  proposition 
14,  "  Philosophy  should  be  treated  with- 
out any  regard  for  supernatural  Revela- 
tion," is  followed  by  a  reference  to  the 
letter  addressed  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Munich  on  the  occasion  of  the  congress 
held  in  that  city.  If  the  Syllabus  is 
compared  with  these  documents  it  will  be 
found  that,  as  a  rule,  the  latter  speak  in 
the  concrete  and  the  former  in  the 
abstract ;  or,  to  speak  logically,  where 
the  Pope  enunciates  a  particular  athrma- 
tive,  the  Syllabus  condemns  the  contra- 
dictory, viz.  the  universal  negntive.  Again, 
it  will  be  found  that  some  of  the  proposi- 
tions, e.y.  the  24th,  are  taken  from  certain 
books.  Hence,  according  to  the  rules  of 
interpretation,  sucli  propositions  must  be 
understood  in  the  sense  of  their  authors. 
These  con.siderations  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  otherwise  the  propositions  will 
seem  to  have  a  wider  extent  than  was 
intended  in  their  condemnation. 

While  all  Catholics  are  at  one  concern- 
ing the  doctrinal  authority  of  the  docu- 
ments from  which  the  Syllabus  is  drawn, 
there  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  the 
authority  of  the  Syllabus  itself.  The  late 
Dr.  Ward  held  that  it  was  "quite  certainly 
issued  ex  cathedra,"  by  reason  of  the 
"  solidarity  of  Encyclical  and  Syllabus." 
He  quotes  the  authority  of  the  eminent 
Jesuit  theologian  Schrader.  On  the  other 
hand.  Bishop  Fessler,  secretary  general  of 
the  Vatican  Council,  writing  in  1871 
("True  and  False  Infallibility  "),  says  that 
many  theologians  think  it  may  be  assumed 
as  doubtful  whether  the  Syllabus  was 
issued  e.v  cathedra,  and  accordingly 
whether  any  additional  obligation  of 
assent  to  its  teaching  was  imposed  by  the 
Vatican  CouncU — until  some  fresh  declara- 
tion is  made  by  the  Holy  See.  This  work 
was  warmly  approved  of  by  Pius  IX. 


SYNAXIS 


SYRIAN  CATHOLICS  871 


Cardinal  Newman  accepted  this  view  in 
his  letter  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  &c., 
since  re-published  in  "Difficulties  of 
Anglicans  "  (vol.  ii.,  1885).  Some  writers, 
while  adniittin<r  that  the  ex  cathedra  cha- 
racterof  the  Syllabus  was  originally  doubt- 
ful, hold  that  these  doubts  have  been  set  at 
rest  by  subse^juent  declarations  of  Pius  IX. 
and  Leo  XIII.  (See  "  Acta  SS.D.N.  Pii 
PP.  IX.  ex  quibus  excerptus  est  Syllabus 
editus  die  viii.  DecembrisMDCCCLXIV," 
Ilomse,  1865  ;  Mgr.  Dupanloup,  "  La  Con- 
vention du  15  Septembre  et  I'Encyclique 
du  8  Decembre  " — for  which  the  author 
was  thanked  by  Pius  IX. ;  Ward, "  Essays 
on  the  Church's  Doctrinal  Authority," 
p.  472  geq.) 

STirAXXS.  [See  LinrEsrES.] 
SVirCEXil.lTS  (a  hybrid  word,  crvv, 
cella :  one  occupying  the  same  cell).  The 
thing  signified  by  the  term — namely,  that 
a  priest  or  deacon  should  live  continually 
with  a  bishop,  "propter  testimonium 
ecclesiasticum  —was  of  very  early  insti- 
tution ;  the  "  Liber  Pontificals  "  traces  it 
to  Pope  Lucius,  in  the  second  century. 
The  word  (see  Ducange)  appears  not  to 
be  traceable  beyond  the  eighth  century. 
Leo  III.,  writing  to  Cenwulf  of  Mercia, 
speaks  of  Augustine  as  having  been  the 
syncellus  of  Gregory  the  Great.  Concellus 
or  coticellifa  would  have  been  the  natural 
Latin  expression ;  and  the  latter  term  is 
actually  used  by  Sidonius  Apollinaris 
with  reference  to  a  monk  of  Lerins.  The 
word  symellus  must  have  been  coined  in 
the  East ;  whence,  probably  not  before 
the  eighth  century,  it  found  its  way  into 
the  Western  Church.  In  the  Eastern 
Church  the  syncelli  were  the  chaplains 
and  confidential  ministers  of  metropoli- 
tans and  patriarchs.  At  Constantinople 
they  formed  a  corporation ;  and  their 
chief,  the  protosynceUus.  became  in  pro- 
cess of  time  a  personage  of  so  much  im- 
portance as  to  take  rank  on  public 
occasions  next  after  the  patriarch. 
Cedrenus  (about  1050)  says  that  before 
his  time  the protosi/ncellus  had  commonly 
succeeded  to  the  patriarchal  throne  on 
its  becoming  vacant.  (Morone,"Dizion. 
Eccl.";  Smith  and  Cheetham,  art.  by 
Tenables.) 

SWDXC  (Gr.  o-Cv8iKos).  In  classical 
Greek  the  word  was  used  in  three  senses : 
(1)  an  advocate,  especially  for  the  defen- 
dant ;  (2)  a  public  orator ;  (3)  a  judge.' 
The  term  came  into  regular  use  in  Italy 
during  the  middle  ages;  the  municipal 
magistrates  of  cities  were  called  svncdcs 
>  Liddell  and  Scott,  Greek  Lexicon. 


{sindaci).  Louis  of  Bavaria  was  crowned 
at  Rome  (1328)  by  the  four  syndics  of' 
the  city ;  again,  in  1.347,  an  official  so  en- 
titled, chosen  by  the  people  for  the  pur- 
pose, knighted  and  crowned  Rienzi  the 
Tribune.  At  the  present  day  it  means 
an  agent  of  a  particular  kind — "  one 
chosen  to  take  charge  of  the  affairs  of  a 
community,  of  which  he  himself  is  a 
member."  A  proctor  {procurator)  may 
be  agent  either  for  a  community  or  an  in- 
dividual ;  the  term  "  syndic  "  is  confined 
to  agents  representing  communities 
(Morone). 

STN-os.    [See  CoTJifcrL.] 

STig-oD,  BOXiT.  [See  Geeek 
Chuech  and  Russian  Church."! 

S-TNODAX.      EXAnXXXTEBS.  A 

committee  of  learned  ecclesiastics,  ap- 
pointed in  the  diocesan  synod,'  niunber- 
ing  not  less  than  six,  and  (as  a  rule)  not 
more  than  twenty  members,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  ascertain  and  test  the  qualifica- 
tions of  candidates  for  benefices  or  other 
Church  preferment.  They  hold  office 
only  from  one  diocesan  synod  to  another. 
If  the  committee  be  reduced  below  six 
in  the  interval  between  two  synods,  the 
bishop  makes  provisional  appointments  so 
as  to  complete  the  prescribed  number.  In 
countries  where  diocesan  synods  cannot 
be  held,  as  in  North  Germany,  the  Holy 
See  authorises  the  bishops  to  appoint 
synodal  examiners  with  the  consent  of 
the  chapters. 

STxroDAXiS.  A  small  payment  in 
the  nature  of  a  "  cathedraticum  "  (q.  v.), 
due  from  the  incumbents  of  benefices  to 
the  bishop.  The  word  occurs  in  the  pre- 
face to  the  Anglican  prayer-book.  The 
name  seems  to  have  originated  in  the 
practice  of  making  this  payment  on  the 
occasions  when  the  clergy  met  the 
bishop  in  synod.  (Hook's  "  Church 
Dictionary.") 

STIVTAGMA  CAXTON-UM.  Besides 
the  collection  called  the  "Nomocanon" 
(see  that  article),  Photius,  the  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  made,  in  833,  a  second 
collection  of  canons,  which  he  designated 
as  above.  It  contains  the  canons  of  the 
first  seven  General  Councils,  and  of  two 
councils  held  at  Constantinople  by  Photius 
himself ;  also  a  series  of  extracts  from  the 
Fathers,  and  a  few  civil  laws. 

STBXAir  CATHOX.XCS.  The  name 
"  Syrian  Catholic  "  would  naturally  apply 
to  all  those  who  use  a  Svriac  liturgy,  and 
to  whom  SATiac,  therefore,  is  the  sacred 
language.  Such  are  the  Chaldeans,  or  con- 

»  Cone.  Trid.  aeaa.  xxiv.  c.  18,  De  Ref. 


872      SYRIAN  CATHOLICS 


SYRIAN  CATHOLICS 


verts  from  Nestovianism ;  the  Maronites, 
originally  Moiiotbelites  ;  and,  finally,  the 
converts  from  the  Jncobite  or  Monophy- 
site  Church  in  Syria.  But  in  the  recog- 
nised language  of  the  Church  the  name 
of  Syrian  Catholics  is  given  to  the  last 
body,  and  to  no  other.  These  Syrian 
Christians  are  subject  to  the  Pope,  and  of 
course  hold  the  Catholic  faith,  but  they 
keep  the  ancient  Syriac  rites,  which  are 
common  to  the  Jacobites  and  themselves. 
[See  Liturgies.] 

A  congTegation  of  Jacobite  Christians 
Lad  been  reconciled  to  the  Church  in 
1546,'  and  in  1781,  on  the  death  of 
(George  III.,  the  Jacobite  Patriarch, 
Ignatius-  Michael  Giarve,  Bishop  of  the 
Syrian  Catholics  at  Aleppo,  went,  with 
the  approval  of  Propaganda,  to  Mardir, 
the  seat  of  the  Jacobite  Patriarch,  and 
persuaded  the  Jacobite  clergy  of  inferior 
rank,  many  laymen,  four  bishops,  and  the 
Archbishop  of  Jerusalem,  to  seek  union 
with  the  Catholic  Church.  Ignatius  was 
himself  chosen  Patriarch  by  the  bishops, 
and,  after  being  enthroned,  he  and  his 
electors  begged  the  ])allium  from  the 
Pope.  He  nominated  the  Latiu  Bishop  of 
Babylon  his  Procurator  at  Rome.  INIean- 
time,  the  rest  of  the  Jacobites  had  chosen 
another  Patriarch.  Ignatius,  whose  elec- 
tion had  been  confirmed  by  the  Pope  in 
1783,  was  driven  from  Mardin  and  took 
refuge  at  Kesrevan,  in  the  Lebanon,  where 
he  founded  the  monastei-y  of  Sajideh  el 
Sharfeh  (Sta  Maria  Liberatrix),  which 
Pius  VI.  took  under  his  protection  in 
1787.  He  died  in  1800,  was  succeeded 
by  Ignatius  Michael  Daher  (resigned 
1810);  by  Simon  (re^igned  L-^ls);  by 
Ignatius  Peter  Giarve,  elected  1820,  but 
not  confirmed,  on  account  of  the  strife 
which  had  broken  out,  till  182S.  Pro- 
gi-ess  was  made  owing  to  the  conversion 
of  the  Jacobite  Archbishop  of  Jerusalem, 
Gregory  Ilyza,  and  his  vicar-general, 
Ignatius  Antony  Samhiri,  in  1827.  In 
1830  a  firman  of  the  Turkish  Government 
recognisedthe  Catholic  Patriarch,  Ignatius 

•  So  Silbernagl,  p.  309.  Herf^eniother  (p. 
6)  says  the  Capuchins  converted  Acbigian, 
Jacobite  bishop  of  Aleppo,  in  1650. 

'  So  Sibernagl.  Hergenrother  (loc.  cit.) 
calls  him  "  Dionysius  Michael  Giarve. ' 


Peter  Giarve,  as  independent  of  the 
Jacobites.  In  1854  Pius  IX.  preconised 
Ignatius  Antony  Sanctiri '  as  patriarch 
of  the  Syrians,  and  ruled  that  he  should 
reside  at  Mardin.  In  1840  the  number 
of  Catholics  belonging  to  the  Syrian  rite 
was  reckoned  at  30,000,  but  it  is  said  to 
have  increased  cousiderablj'  since  then, 
many  conversions  having  been  made  by 
the  Capuchin  Castells  (I860,  Apostolic 
delegate  in  Mesopotamia,  Lesser  Armenia, 
and  Persia ;  1866,  Archbishop  of  Mar- 
cianopolis;  d.  1873).  The  Syrian  Pa- 
triarch Ignatius  Philip  Harcus  (d.  1874) 
was  present  at  the  Vatican  Council.  The 
Patriarch  is  chosen  by  the  bishops.  He 
is  enthroned  during  Mass,  receives  the 
pastoral  staff',  takes  the  oath  of  obedience 
to  the  Pope,  and  makes  the  profession  of 
faith  prescribed  for  the  Orientals  by  Urban 
VIII.  in  1642.  He  sends  these  formulae, 
subscribed  and  sealed,  to  Rome,  and  de- 
putes a  priest  or  monk  to  beg  the  pallium, 
lie  has  jurisdiction  over  all  Catholics  of  his 
rite  in  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Egypt. 
He  is  himself  immediately  subject  to 
Propaganda,  and  to  the  Vicar-Apostolic 
of  Aleppo,  as  Apostolic  Delegate.  He  is 
entitled  Patriarch  of  Antioch. 

The  diocese  of  Aleppo  is  governed 
immediately  by  the  Patriarch,  who  is  also 
administrator  of  the  diocese  of  Jerusalem. 
Tliere  are,  besides,  the  dioceses  of  Beyrout, 
Damascus,  Diarbekir,  Emesa  or  Horns, 
Mardin,  Mosul,  Keriatiu,  Tripolis.^  The 
Syrians  have  two  monasteries  on  the 
Lebanon,  that  of  El-Sharfeb,  already  men- 
tioned, that  of  St.  Ephveni,  and  a"  third, 
that  of  Mar-Behnam,  north-east  of  Nim- 
rud.  They  are  not,  however,  monasteries 
in  the  strict  sense,  but  only  houses  for 
communities  of  unmarried  secular  priests. 
The  first  two  serve  as  clerical  seminaries. 

(From  Silbernagl,  "Verfassuug  und 
gegenwartiger  Bestaud  sammtlicher 
Kirchen  des  Orients,"  1865,  with  a  few 
additions  from  Hergenrother,  "Kirchen- 
geschichte,"  1880,  vol.  ii.  p.  639  seq., 
1010  seg.) 

'  So  Silbernagl.  HergenrBther  (p.  1010) 
writes  the  name  "  Samhiri." 

»  The  list  in  the  Directory  for  1883  adds 
Babylon,  Alexandria,  and  Gezir. 


TABERNACLE 


TEMPERANCE  873 


TABE&irAC&E.  [See  Resebva- 
noN  OF  THE  Holt  Euchaeist.1 

TA.BOKXTES.  [See  Bohemian 
Brethkits-.^ 

TANTTTiw  EBCO.  [See  Pnnge 
Lingua,  under  Htmss.] 

TE  nsvM.  A  hymn  in  the  fonn  of 
a  psalm,  recited  at  the  end  of  Matins  on 
all  feasts  except  Innocents'  Day,  and  on 
all  Sundays  except  during  penitential 
seasons. 

1 .  Itit  Author  and  Date. — According  to 
the  leeend,  given  in  the  so-called  Chro- 
nicle of  Dacius,  it  was  sung  in  alternate 
TfTses  by  Ambrose  and  Augu>tine  after 
the  baptism  of  the  latter.  Daciu*,  bishop 
of  Milan,  died  about  555,  but  the  Chro- 
nicle which  bears  his  name  is  now  known 
to  be  a  late  and  worthless  forgery,  which, 
in  important  particulars,  contrailicts  the 
(•onre>sinns  of  St.  Augustine  himself. 
As  late  as  1605  the  story  was  defended 
hy  ail  Augustinian  hermit,  Eustachius  a 
8.  I'baldo.  but  everi-nne,  say  the  Bene- 
dictine editors  of  St.  Ambrose  (vol.  ii.  p. 
1410.  in  Migne's  reprint),  "not  utterly 
ismorant (now  plane  rudis),  treats  it  as  a 
fable. 

The  rule  of  St.  Benedict  (cap.  14) 
orders  it  to  be  sung  after  the  fourth 
responsory;  this  and  t^ie  rule  of  Tiridius, 
a  disciple  of  CTsarius  of  .\rles,  being, 
according  to  Menard  ("  Annot.  in  S. 
Gregor.  Sacram."  p.  586),  the  earliest 
documents  which  mention  it.  Gavantus 
("Thesaur."  torn.  ii.  §  v.  xix.)  found  it 
attributed,  in  an  ancient  MS.  Breviary,  to 
St.  Abundius  ;  Usher  (see  Bingham, 
"  Antiq."  xiv.  ii.  §  9),  to  Nicetius,  bishop 
of  Treves  (d.  i-irc.  5.35).  Abbo,  an  author 
of  the  sixth  century,  attributed  it  to  St 
Hilary  of  Poitiers.  The  fact  is,  the  author 
is  absolutely  unknown,  but  the  fonn 
"  suscepturus  hominem,"  or,  rather,  "  sus- 
€.-]>isti  hominem,"  as  the  older  texts  have 
it.  p  lints  to  an  early  date,  for  this  expres- 
sion fell  out  of  use  after  the  rise  of 
Xestorianism.  Daniel,  in  his  dissertation 
on  the  "Te  Deum"  (in  vol.  ii.  of  his 
"TliHsaur.  Hymnolog.")  seems  to  have 
( >tiil.lished  the  fact  that  the  psalm  is 
has.  d  on  a  Greek  hymn,  the  text  of  which 
he  gives  from  an  .\lexaudrian  MS.  The 
Latin  is  an  expansion  of  the  GJreek,  and 
the  verv  different  forms  in  which  the 


"  Te  Deum  "  occurs  show  that  the  hymn 
gradually  assumed  its  present  fixed  form. 

2.  Use  as  a  Hymn  of  Thanksgiving. — 
The  "  Gloria  in  Excelsis  "  used  to  be  sung, 
just  as  the  "Te  Deum  "  is  now  (Chrysost. 
"  In  Cap.  i.  Coloss."  Horn.  iii. ;  Greg. 
Turon.  "  De  Gloria  Mart."  i.  63 ;  Anastas. 
"In  Vita  Leon.  III."  vol.  ii.  p.  1216,  in 
Migne's  reprint).  It  was  the  "  Te  Deum," 
however,  which  wa=  sung  at  the  corona- 
tion of  Charles  the  Bald,  and  even  earlier, 
under  Pepin,  at  the  translation  of  the 
body  of  Sr.  Germanus,  bishop  of  Paris,  if 
we  may  believe  the  author  of  the  narrative 
in  Surius  (see  Menard,  Joe.  cit.  p.  585). 

a.  Use  in  the  O^re.— This,  in  the 
Roman  Church,  came  later  than  its  use 
on  festal  occasions.  "VMien  Amalarius 
went  to  Rome  in  831  he  found  it  was  not 
sung  there  except  "in  nataliciis  Pontifi- 
cum  "  (Amalar.  "  De  Ord.  Antiphon."  ad. 
init.  p.  1246,  in  Migne).  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Benedictines,  in  the  eleventh 
century,  were  reproached  with  singing  it 
even  in  Lent  and  Advent. 

TEMPERAsrcE.  The  1a.st  of  the 
cardinal  virtues  (.see  that  art.).  In  a  wide 
sense  it  is  equivalent  to  restraint  or 
moderation  ;  but  it  is  commonly  used  for 
moderation  in  certain  strong  appetites 
which  are  concerned  with  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  individual  or  of  the  race,  such 
as  eating,  drinking,  and  generation.  These 
desires  are  lawful  in  themselves,  but  on 
account  of  their  vehemence  they  lead 
to  excess,  and  so  become  sinful  unless 
they  are  kept  within  bounds.  Modesty, 
chastity,  sobriety,  and  similar  virtues  come 
under  the  head  of  temperance.  (See  St. 
Thomas  2*  2'^,  qq.  cxli.-clxx.) 

Among  us,  the  word  temperance  is 
still  further  restricted  to  mean  moderation 
in  the  u.^e  of  intoxicants,  and  sometimes, 
but  incorrectly,  it  is  taken  to  mean  total 
aljstinence  from  these.  The  Catholic 
Church  teaches  that  the  use  of  wine  is, 
in  itself,  perfectly  lawful  (see  Ecclus. 
xxxi.  32  seq. ;  John  ii.  1  seq. ;  1  Tim. 
v.  23).  The  opposite  opinion  was  part 
of  the  Manicha?an  heresy  (see  Epiph. 
"Hjeres.'"  45  et  47.  S^e" Abstixexce). 
At  the  same  time,  the  Church  holds  that 
drunkenness  is  a  mortal  sin.  Hence,  all 
her  children  are  bound  at  least  to  be 
temperate.    Total  abstinence  is  necessary 


S74 


TEMPLARS 


to  some,  but  only  of  counsel  to  others. 
Those  who  cannot  be  moderate  or  who 
know  that  drink,  even  in  moderation, 
is  a  dangerous  occasion  of  sin  to  them, 
are  bound  to  abstain  altogether.  Gene- 
rally speaking,  we  should  insist  more 
upon  the  advantages  of  abstinence  than 
upon  the  obligation  of  it.  Thus  we 
may  abstain  either  to  mortify  ours -Ives, 
or  to  satisfy  God  for  our  sins,  or  for  the 
benefit  of  our  health,  or  for  the  sake  of 
example,  or  to  save  money  for  one's 
family  or  for  charitable  uses.  The 
labours  of  Father  Mathew  and  Cardinal 
Manning  in  the  cause  of  total  abstinence 
are  weU  known.  The  present  Pope,  Leo 
XIII.,  writing  to  Bishop  teland  (March 
'27,  1SS7\  has  said:  "  We  esteem  worthy 
of  commendarion  the  noble  resolve  of  our 
pious  associations,  by  which  they  pledge 
themselves  to  abstain  altogether  from 
every  kind  of  intoxicating  drinks.  Nor 
can  'it  at  all  be  doubted  that  this  deter- 
mination is  a  fitting  and  truly  efficacious 
remedy  for  this  very  great  evil  [intem- 
perance] ;  and  that  so  much  the  more 
strongly  will  all  be  induced  to  put  this 
bridle  iipon  appetite,  by  how  much  the 
greater  are  the  dignity  and  influence  of 
those  who  give  the  example.  But  greatest 
of  all  in  this  matter  should  be  the  zeal  of 
priests,  who,  as  they  are  called  to  instruct 
the  people  in  the  word  of  life,  and  to 
mould  them  to  Christian  morality,  should 
also,  and  above  all.  walk  before  them  in 
the  practice  of  virtue.  Let  pastors,  there- 
fore, do  their  best  to  drive  the  plague  of 
intemperance  from  the  fold  of  Christ  by 
assiduous  preaching  and  exhortation,  and 
to  shine  before  all  as  models  of  abstinence, 
and  so  the  many  calamities  with  which 
this  vice  threatens  both  Church  and  State 
may,  by  their  strenuous  endeavours,  be 
ave'ned'"  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  Church 
has  not  legislated  on  the  subject.  For  a 
long  time,  however,  total  abstinence  pre- 
vailed in  the  monasteries  of  Ireland.  St. 
Gilbert  of  Sempringham,  the  only  founder 
of  a  religious  order  in  England  [see  Sesi- 
PRnrGHAM,  Obdeb  of],  forbade  the  use,  or 
the  making,  of  strong  drink  in  his  houses. 
[See  LEAGrx  of  tss  Cboss.]  (St.Thom. 
2*2",qq.cxlix.,cl.;  " Discipline  of  Drink," 
by  Father  Bridgett.) 

TEKPX.ARS.  This  military  order 
•was  founded  early  in  the  twelfth  century. 
Boon  after  the  establishment  of  the  Chris- 
tian kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  by  nine  French 
knights,  among  whom  the  leading  spirit 
seems  to  have  been  Hugo  de  Payens. 
High  self-denying  fervour  and  undoubting 


TEMPLARS 

faith  dictated  the  enterprise,  of  which 
the  object  was  to  levy  a  permanent  militia, 
sworn  to  do  battle 'for  the  defence  and 
extension  of  that  small  area  of  Christian 

j  light  and  truth  pent  in  on  all  sides  by 

I  dark  deserts  of  Mahommedan  misbelief. 
On  the  whole,  the  Temple — at  any  rate 

I  till  within  a  short  time  before  its  dissolu- 

I  tion — remained  true  to  the  purpose  of  its 
institution.  Aspirant*  for  knighthood 
joined  it  in  great  numbers ;  solemn  forms 
of  initiation  were  devised  ;  like  a  religious 

'  order,  it  was  organised  into  provinces, 
each  containing  so  many  precept'jries  and 
commajjdtTiei.  The  knights  took  the 
three  vows  of  religion ;  wealth  poured  in 
upon  them,  was  even  thrust  upon  them, 
but  it  aggrandised  the  order,  not  the  in- 
dividual. In  little  more  than  a  century 
the  nine  knights  had  grown  into  a  trained 
army  of  fifteen  thousand  warriors.  That 
fervour  declined,  that  contact  with  Orien- 
tal manners  sometimes  corrupted,  that 
the  respect  in  which  they  were  held  en- 
gendered pride,  and  overflowing  wealth 
sometimes  brought  luxury  along  with  it — 
all  this  is  true ;  but  to  admit  it  is  but  to 
say  that  the  Templars,  like  other  men, 
felt  the  pressure  of  circumstances  and 
were  subject  to  human  fraUty ;  it  is  no 
proof  that  their  institute  was  either  a 
mistake  or  a  mischief.  While  the  Chris- 
tian kingdom  endured,  the  Templars 
fought  strenuously  for  its  preservation; 

i  but  the  unfortunate  rivalry  between  them 
and  the  Knights  of^St.  John  "Hospital- 

'  LERs]  robbed  the  military  efforts  of  both 
orders  of  much  of  their  efficacy.  After 
the  loss  of  Jerusalem  (11S7)  the  vassal 
Christian  principalities  carried  on  the 
struggle,  with  ever  dwindling  fortune,  for 
a  century  longer;  and  in  thb  struggle 
the  swords  of  the  Templars,  though 
with  far  too  little  amenability  to 
any  higher  control  or  general  plan  of 
operations,  were  ever  wielded  with  dis- 
tinguished bravery.  At  the  closing 
scene  of  Christian  power  in  Palestine — 
the  faU  of  Acre  in  1291 — the  forces  of 
the  besieged  were  commanded  by  the 
Master  of  the  Temple,  who  was  killed 
while  fighting  valiantly.  The  order  then 
established  itself  in  Cyprus,  where  the 
descendants  of  Guy  de  Lusignan  srill 
reigned,  in  the  hope  that  time  would 
bring  some  opening  whereby  they  might 
regain  their  footing  in  the  Holy  Land. 
But  years  wore  on  and  nothing  was  done. 
The  Hospitallers,  who  had  been  driven 
out  of  Palestine  at  the  same  time  as  th-^ 
Templars,  still  had  work  cut  out  for  them ; 


I 


TEMPL-\ES 


TERTI  ARIES  875 


■wherever  they  were  they  could  tend  the 
eiclt ;  and  their  -well-considered  project  of 
attacking  Rhodes  (in  which  the  Templars 
refused  to  share)  proved  to  Christendom 
that  the  Knights  of  St.  John  had  no  inten- 
tion of  abandoning  the  conflict  with  Islam 
which  they  had  been  waging  for  two 
hundred  years.  The  Templars,  on  the 
other  hand,  took  up  no  definite  enterprise ; 
they  were  so  rich  that  they  could  afford 
to  wait,  and  so  powerful  that  they  dreaded 
no  attack.  At  once  the  question  arose, 
What  was  the  use  of  the  Templars? 
WTiy  should  not  the  order  dissolve  itself, 
now  that  the  cause  of  which  they  were 
champions  had  tailed,  and  that  which 
they  had  undertaken  to  defend  was  lost 
beyond  recovery  ?  In  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal only  did  the  order  continue  to  be 
popular,  because  the  knights  flung  them- 
selves earnestly  into  the  national  contest 
against  the  Moors.  Philip  the  Fair,  irri- 
tated at  the  state  and  splendour  which 
the  Templars  observed,  and  coveting  their 
wealth,  laid  a  deep  plot  for  their  destruc- 
tion. An  apostate  Italian  Templar  and  a 
French  heretic,  his  accomplice,  informed  ; 
the  king  that  they  could  make  fearful  , 
revelations.  Charges  were  formulated 
(1307),  at  the  head  of  which  was  that  of 
formally  denying  Christ  and  spitting  on 
the  cross  at  the  time  of  initiation  into  the 
order.  They  were  also  accused  of  sorcery, 
of  idolatry,  of  foul  and  unnatural  lusts, 
of  causing  parts  of  the  Canon  of  the 
Mass  to  be  omitted  in  their  churches,  of 
betraying  the  Christian  cause  in  the  East, 
&c.  The  King  caused  all  the  Templars 
throughout  France  to  be  suddenlyarrested 
on  the  same  day  and  thrown  into  prison. 
Upon  their  answers  to  the  charges  made  \ 
against  them — their  denials,  admissions,  ' 
re-denials,  and  prevarications — volumes 
have  been  written,  but  no  solid  result  has 
been  obtained.  Xor  can  it  ever  be,  since 
whatever  confessions  individual  Templars 
made  were  extorted  by  torture,  which  , 
was  applied  all  through  this  trial  with 
horrible  frequency  and  severity,  and  were  , 
invariably  retracted  when  the  victims  I 
f  mnd  themselves  out  of  the  King's  power. 
The  Pnpe,  Clement  V.,  interfered  so  far 
as  he  dared,  but  too  weakly  and  irreso- 
lutely to  save  them.  Great  numbers  of 
the  French  knights  died  under  the  torture 
or  from  the  eflects  of  long  imprisonment; 
about  a  hundred  were  burnt  at  the  stake, 
on  the  ground  that  having  retracted  their 
confessions  they  should  be  dealt  with  as 
relapsed  heretics.  The  Grand  Master, 
Du  Molay,  after  being  long  kept  in  prison 


and  driven  by  torture  to  admit  the  truth 
of  some  of  the  charges,  finally  (in  March 
1313)  retracted  those  admissions  and  was 
burnt  at  the  stake.  The  order  wa.s  dis- 
solved in  France,  and  all  its  wealth 
seized  by  the  King.  In  England  (l:JlO) 
Edward  II.,  at  the  request  of  the  Pope, 
had  caused  all  the  Templars  in  the  king- 
dom to  be  imprisoned,  but  their  trial  was 
conducted  with  less  inhumanity,  aU'l 
though  condemned,  it  was  upon  evidence 
so  flimsy  that  in  the  present  day  a  man 
could  not  be  convicted  on  it  of  the  m<><i 
trifling  offence.  In  Spain  and  Portugal 
the  knights  were  put  on  their  trial  on  the 
same  charges,  but  honourably  and  enthu- 
siastically acquitted.  In  Germany  also 
they  were  acquitted.  The  Council  of 
Vienne  (1311)  decreed  the  entire  dissol' 
tion  of  the  order. 

(The  chief  works  on  the  history  of 
the  Templars  are  by  G.  Dupuy,  Jos.  von 
Hammer,  Havemann,  Michelet  i'in  his 
"  Hist,  of  France "'],  Raynouard,  and 
Wilke.^ 

TEMPOKAXi  powzs.  [See 
States  of  the  Chttrch.] 

TE»iPT.a,TXOir.     [See  Coycupi- 

8C£yCE." 

TEMPX7S  cliAirsirnx.   [See  Low 

TEiTEBRf.    [See  Holt  Week.] 
TESESZ.ajrs. '  Discalced  Carmelites 
of  bi  ith  sexes,  living  under  the  reformation 
of  Sr.  Teresa.    [See  CiEiiXLiTES.T 

TERTZAKZES.  The  Status  of  a 
tertiary,  that  is  '•  a  member  of  the  third 
order,"  was  originated  by  St.  Francis 
of  Assisi,  who,  after  he  had  founded  his 
own  order,  and  after  the  order  of  Minorite 
nuns  [Poos  Clares],  living  under  a  rule 
prescribed  by  him,  had  been  founded  by 
St.  Clare,  instituted  (1221)  a  third  order, 
as  a  sort  of  middle  term  between  the 
world  and  the  cloister,  the  members  of 
which,  men  and  women,  should  be  bound 
by  rule  to  dress  more  soberly,  fast  more 
strictly,  pray  more  regularly,  hear  Mass 
more  frequently,  ami  practise  works  of 
mercy  more  systematically  than  ordinary 
persons  liviuir  in  the  world.  He  called 
them  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Penance. 
They  had  to  undergo  a  year's  novitiate, 
and  to  take  a  simple  vow  to  observe  the 
rule.  They  were  also  to  abstain  from 
dances  and  theatrical  entertainments,  to 
eschew  all  quarrelling  and  contention,  not 
to  take  up  arms  except  in  defence  of  the 
Church  or  their  native  land,  and  to  take 
no  unnecessary  oaths.  An  immense  num- 
ber of  persons,  anxious  to  sanctify  their 


876  TESTAMENT 


THEATIXES 


life  in  the  world,  joined  the  order;  among 
these  in  the  thirteenth  century  were  St. 
Louis  of  France  and  St.  Elizabeth  of 
Hungary.  Many  tertiaries  in  course  of 
time,  as  circumstances  permitted,  desired 
to  take  solemn  vows  and  live  in  com- 
munity, while  still  conformmg  to  the  rule 
of  the  Third  Order.  Thus  arose  various 
congreg-ations  of  tertiary  monks  and  nuns 
— in  Lombardy,  Sicily,  Dalmatia,  France, 
Spain,  and  Portugal.  One  of  these  con- 
gregations alone,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Eliza- 
beth, reckoned  in  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century  135  convents  and  nearly 
4,000  members.  The  regular  tertiaries 
were  in  some  cases  invested  by  the  Holy 
See  with  independent  jurisdiction  ;  more 
commonly  they  were  under  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Observant  or  Conventual 
Franciscans.  The  double  aspect  of  the 
Third  Order  wasnotict  d  byBem  dictXTII. 
in  the  bull  "Patema  sedis,"  where  he 
speaks  of  it  as  "  a  true  and  proper  order, 
uniting  in  one  seculars  scattered  all  over 
the  world  and  regulars  living  in  com- 
munity " ;  adding  that  it  is  to  be  distin- 
guished from  all  confraternities  as  having 
its  own  rule,  approved  by  the  Holy  See, 
novitiate,  profession,  and  a  habit  of  deter- 
minate form  and  material.  St.  Elzear 
and  his  wife,  St.  Delphina,  St.  Roch,  St. 
Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  St.  Biidgit  of 
Sweden,  St.  Rose  of  Viterbo,  and  Anne 
of  .\ustria,  were  all  members  of  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis.  In  a  rescript  of 
the  year  188;)  his  H'^liness  the  reigning 
Pontiff  recommended  this  order  to  the 
careful  attention  of  the  faithful  in  every 
p-irt  of  Christendom,  as  one  most  suit- 
able to  be  embraced  by  seculars  who  sin- 
cerely desire  to  livenenrer  to  God. 

The  Dominicans  also  had  their  Third 
Order,  founded  by  St.  Dominic  himself,  in 
what  year  is  uncertain.  These  Penitents 
bound  themselves  to  labour  for  the  re- 
covery and  preservation  of  Church  pro- 
perty. The  glorious  St.  Catherine  of 
Sienna  was  for  the  greater  part  of  her 
life  a  member  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Dominic  :  St.  Rose  of  Lima  also  belonged 
to  it.  The  Augustinian  Hermits  esta- 
blished a  Third  Order  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  example 
was  followed  by  the  Minims  (1501),  the 
Servites,  the  Carmelites,  and  the  Trap- 
pis  ts. 

There  are  in  England  at  the  present 
time  fifteen  convents  of  Dominican  and 
five  of  Franciscan,  Sisters  of  the  Third 
Order. 

TSSTAMEirT.   [See  Will.] 


TEtTTONIC  XTrXGBTS.  [See 
Mis-ioxs,  Thirfrenth  Century.'] 

THEANDBZC  ACTXOSrS.  [Se9 
MOXOTHELIXES." 

THEATIXTES.  This  congregation  ot 
"  Regular  Clerks,"'  the  first  that  had  been 
so  designated,  derived  its  name  from 
Theate,  or  Chieti,  of  which  John  Peter 
Caralfa,  one  of  its  founders,  was  bishop. 
The  idea  of  its  institution  arose  in  the 
mind  of  St.  Cajetan,  a  native  of  Vicenza, 
who,  having  made  his  legal  studies  with 
great  distinction  at  Padua,  was  appointed 
protonotary  apostolic  in  the  Roman  Curia. 
He  became  a  fervent  member  of  the  con- 
fraternity of  the  Divine  Love :  and, 
thirsting  more  and  more  for  the  salvation 
of  souls,  he  resigned  his  office  and  took 
holy  orders.  Family  aifairs  caused  him 
to  return  to  Vicenza,  whence  he  proceeded 
to  Venice,  and  laboured  there  for  a  con- 
siderable time.  On  the  advice  of  his  con- 
fessor he  again  fixed  his  abode  at  Rome. 
The  reform  of  the  lives  of  Christians,  and 
especially  of  the  irregularities  too  common 
at  that  time  among  the  clergy,  presented 
itself  to  him  as  the  object  to  which  God 
willed  him  to  devote  his  life.  Meeting 
with  Bishop  Caratra,  wlin  at  the  time  wa.s 
thinking  of  renouncing  his  preferments 
and  joining  the  order  of  Camaldoli,  St. 
Cajetan  persuaded  him  to  take  part  in 
the  holy  enterprise  which  he  had  matured. 
Two  other  men  of  piety  and  experience, 
Paul  Consiglieri  and  Boniface  de  Colic, 
joined  them  ;  and  these  four,  renoimcing 
whatever  benefices  they  had,  founded  the 
Theatine  Congregation  in  1524.  It  was 
approved  by  Clement  Yll.  the  same  year, 
in  a  brief  which  permitted  them  to  take 
the  three  ordinary  vows,  elect  a  superior, 
receive  new  members,  and  frame  statutes, 
imparting  to  them  at  the  same  time  the 
privileges  of  the  canons  of  St.  Jolm 
Lateran.  They  embraced  a  more  than 
Franciscan  poverty,  for  they  bound  them- 
selves not  only  to  have  no  property  or 
rents,  but  to  abstain  from  asking  for  alms, 
being  persuaded  that  the  providence  of 
God  and  the  unsolicited  charity  of  the 
faithful  would  sufficiently  supply  their 
wants.  Carafta  was  elected  the  first 
superior  ;  at  the  end  of  three  years  he  was 
succeeded  by  St.  Cajetan.  By  degrees 
the  value  of  their  services  was  recognised 
and  their  numbers  increased.  St.  Cajetan 
died  in  1547;  Caraff'a,  having  been  ele- 
vated to  the  cardinalate  in  1536,  was 
elected  Pope  in  1555,  and  took  the  title 
of  Paul  IV.  The  congregation  received 
many  favours  and  made  signal  progress 


THEODORE  OF  MOPSUESTIA       ST.  THOMAiS,  CHRISTIA^■S  OF  877 


during  his  pontificate.  Btsidea  nunit-rou.-) 
houses  in  Italy,  they  established  them- 
selves in  Spain,  Poland,  and  Bavaria; 
with  the  aid  of  Cardinal  .Mazarin  they 
opened  a  house  at  Paris.  The  learned 
Cardinal  Thomassi  and  Father  Ventura 
belonged  to  this  congrregation,  which  at 
the  present  day  appears  not  to  be  found 
out  of  Italy.  The  Theatine  nuns  were 
founded  by  the  B.  Ursula  Benincasa,  who, 
having  been  suspected  of  being  a  visionary 
and  a  deluded  extatica,  was  declared  by 
St.  Philip  Xeri  to  be  a  soul  truly  en- 
lightened by  God ;  she  died  in  1618. 
(.Helvf^t.) 

THEOSOSS  OF  MOPSTTSSTrO.. 

[SeeNEbioiLLOfisil;  EpHESus  ;and  Three 
Chapters.] 

TBEOBOSET.  [See  EpHBsrs ; 
Chalcedox  ;  and  Three'Chapxebs^ 

TBEOX.OCZCAI;  VZSTTTES.  Faith, 
Hope,  and  Charity  are  called  the  theolo- 
logical  virtues,  because  they  relate 
immediately  to  God.  The  moral  or 
cardinal  virtues  (see  that  art.)  are  con- 
cerned with  our  duties,  and  so  relate  to 
Him  indirectly;  but  the  theological 
virtues  have  Him  for  their  immetliate 
object — it  is  God  in  whom  we  believe 
and  hope  and  whom  we  love.  These 
virtues  arr;  supernatural  because  they  are 
beyond  the  reach  of  man's  natural  powers, 
and  because  they  enable  him  to  attain  a 
supernatural  end.  (See  Faith,  Hope, 
Charitt  ;  St.  Thomas,  !•  2»,  q.  Ixii.  for 
the  throl'-iini^al  virtues  ^r-nerally.") 

TBEOX,OGirS,TBEOX.OC.a.Xi.  [See 
Cisox  The.ilogiax.[ 

TBEOZiOCT.  "  [See  Dogmatic, 
MoRvL.  Mt-tical  Theology.] 

TBEOF.a.scBrrE.  [See  Tkisa&ios- 
and  Mo.\-or}£TsirE.[ 

TBOMAS.ST.'.CBSZSTZAirS  OF. 
A  name  given  to  Cbristianjon  the  Malabar 
Coast  who  were  once  all  Nestorians,  then 
all,  nominally  at  least,  Catholics,  at  pre- 
sent partly  Catholic,  partly  Jacobite  or 
Monophysite.  The  name  is  supposed  to 
come  from  St.  Thomas  the  Apostle,  who, 
according  to  their  legendary  account,  led 
them  to  Christian  belief ;  others  explain  it 
as  referring  to  a  Thomas  of  Cananes,'  who 
is  said  to  have  come  to  the  Malabar  Coast 
with  authority  from  Eustathius  of  An- 
ti'ich.  Assemani,  however  Bibliothec. 
Orient,"  tom.  iii.  p.  2,  p.  443),  puts  this 
latter  Thomas  four  and  a  half  centuries 
after  Eustathius.  Be  their  origin  as  it 
may,  the  Christians  of  Malabar  ^MaXe, 
tvBa  TO  TTfTTfpi  yii-eTai\  are  mentioned  by 

'  So  Howard.   Assemani  calls  him  Cana. 


Cosmas  Indicopleustes  ("Topograph. 
Christ."  iii.  p.  ItJ'J ;  xi.  p.  445,  ed.  .Migne) 
and  at  that  time — viz.  a.d.  0-2-2 — they 
were  in  communion  with  the  Xestorian 
patriarch,  for  Cosmas  says  they  had  a 
bishop  ordained  in  Persia.  Our  Allred 
is  believed  to  have  sent  the  Bishop 
Swithelm  of  Sherborne  on  an  embassy  to 
the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas  in  India  (Tur- 
ner's "  Anglo-Saxons,"  voL  ii.  p.  145  ^e^.). 
Marco  Polo  in  the  thirteenth  century 
speaks  of  them,  and  Vasoo  di  Gama  in 
1 4!>6,  or  at  all  events  on  his  second  arrival 
in  VjO-2,  found  them  numbering  200,000 
souls  i^IIoward).  They  were  Nestorians, 
using  the  Syriac  language  and  the  three 
Xestorian  liturgies,  with  a  fourth,  that 
of  Diodorus  (Howard).  The  Portuguese 
endeavoured  by  very  cruel  means  to  unite 
them  to  the  Church,  and  did  produce  an 
external  submission.  In  loi^O  Menezes, 
archbishop  of  Goa,  summoned  them  to  a 
synod  at  Diamper,  a  few  miles  S.E.  of 
Cochin.  They  were  allowed  to  retain 
their  chief  Syriac  liturgy,  that  of  SS. 
Adeus  and  Maris,  but  striking  alterations 
were  made  after  the  Roman  pattern — e.y. 
the  elevation  of  the  host  was  introduced, 
and  the  invocation  common  to  all  Eastern 
liturgies  was  placed  before  the  words  of 
institution.  At  this  council  Papal  supre- 
macy was  solemnly  accepted,  all  allegiance 
to  the  Xestorian  patriarch  renounced,  and 
Xestorius  anathematised. 

The  episcopal  see  was  moved  from 
Angalamale  to  Cranganore  on  the  coast, 
80  as  to  make  it  more  accessible  to  the 
Portuguese.   Menezes  ordered  their  books 
to  be  burnt  or  in  cert.iin  cases  expurgated, 
and  he  did  his  work  so  thoroughly  that 
j  no  one  has  succeeded  in  finding  a  copy  of 
I  their  liturgy  as  it  was  before  the  Roman 
I  alterations.    Four  Portuguese  or  Spanish 
,  bishops  in  succession  were  set  over  them, 
I  the  tirst  of  them  being  Francis  Roz,  a 
Jesuit. 

These  poor  people  cared  very  little 
I  about  Xestorius,  whom  they  had  not  seen, 
'  but  they  hated  the  Portugutse.  whom 
they  had.    No  sooner  did  the  Portuguese 
settlements  pass  into  the  hands  of  the 
Dutch,  who  expelled  the  Jesuits,  than 
I  about  half  the  Malabar  churches  ceased  to 
'  be  Catholic.    At  this  time,  in  I600,  after 
fruitless  endeavours  to  get  a  bishop  from 
Cairo,  they  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  visit 
from  the  Jacobite '  Gregory  of  Jerusalem, 

I  Mr.  Howant  is  nt  a  los«  to  know  the 
authority  tor  the  -tatrmenr  that  a  J.-iiobite 
bishop  w.  nt  to  India  in  6y6.  The  auth.iricy 
13    Renaudoc,  Hut.  Patriank.  Alex.  The 


878 


THOMISM 


THREE  CHAPTERS 


who  consecrated  a  native  metropolitan. 
They  adopted  the  Sj-riac  liturgy  of  St. 
James  from  the  Monophysites.  To  judge 
from  a  very  interesting  tract  hy  Philipos, 
a  schismatic  chorepiscopus  of  Malabar, 
translated  and  published  in  1869  by  his 
friend  the  Rev.  G.  B.  Howard,  they  have 
adopted  the  Monophysite  tenets,  the  oppo- 
site extreme  from  their  old  error,  in  good 
earnest.  In  many  ways,  however,  the 
tract  of  this  chorepiscopus  witnesses  to 
Catholic  doctrine.  Its  statements  on  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  the  real  presence, 
obligatory  confession,  extre'me  unction, 
prayer  to  the  saints  and  for  the  dead,  are 
entirely  Catholic.  The  Schismatics  re- 
fused in  1806  to  enter  into  communion 
with  the  Church  of  England  on  account 
of  the  uncertainty  of  Anglican  ordinations 
(Howard,  p.  157).  The  metropolitan  has 
civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  authority. 
He  elects  and  consecrates  his  coadjutor 
and  successor.  The  clergy  are  married ; 
they  say  Matins  and  Vespers  daily  in  the 
church,  but  are  free  to  follow  secular 
trades.  Silberuagl  gives  (a.  D.  1865)  their 
number  as  70,000. 

Soon  after  the  Indian  hierarchy  was 
established  by  Leo  XIII. ,  two  vicariates 
(Kottayam  and  Trichur)  were  founded 
for  the  Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  each  of 
which  was  made  subject  to  a  bishop  of 
the  Latin  rite  whose  vicar-general,  how- 
ever, should  belong  to  the  Syro-Malabar 
rite  (1887).  The  number  of  the  united 
Christians  is  at  present  about  200,000 
with  395  priests  and  340  churches  and 
chapels.^  They  use  the  Syriac  liturgy, 
which  they  inherited  from  the  Nestorians, 
and  hence  are  reckoned  as  belonging  to  the 
Chaldean  rite.  (Assemani,  "  Bibliothec. 
Orient."  iv.  P.  2;  Silbernagl,  "  Kirchen 
des  Orients  " ;  the  Rev.  G.  B.  Howard  (an 
Anglican  clergyman),  "  The  Christians  of 
St.  Thomas  and  their  Liturgies,"  1864 ; 
"  The  Syrian  Christians  of  Malabar,"  by 
Edavalikel  Philipos,  chorepiscopus,  &c., 
at  Travancore,  edited  by  G.  B.  Howard, 
1869.) 

THOMISM.  [See  Dogmatic  Theo- 
logy ;  also  SCOTISTS.] 

THREE  CHAPTERS.  The  Con- 
demnation of  the  three  chapters  ^  means 

whole  matter  is  discussed  by  Assemani,  Bibli- 
othec. iv.  P.  2,  p.  4.51  seq.,  who  argues  that 
Ethiopia,  not  India  in  our  sense,  is  meant. 

1  Werner,  Orhis  Terrarum  Cntholicus,  1890. 

2  Properly  speaking,  the  KecpdXaia  inv  the 
propositions  contair.ini;  tlie  cojiilenuiiitioii,  not 
the  condemned  matter,  lint  in  later  imperial 
edicts,  the  Acts  of  the  Fifth  Omn.-il.  and  Pniml 


the  condemnation  of  (1)  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia,  his  porson,  and  his  writings, 
(2)  of  Theodoret's  writings  against  Cyril 
and  the  Ephesine  Council,  (3)  of  a  letter 
from  Ibas  to  Maris  the  Persian,  also 
against  Cyril  and  the  Council.  Theodore 
anticipated  the  heresy  of  Nestorius  Ibas 
and  Theodoret  were  indeed  restored  at 
Chalcedon,  but  only  after  they  had  given 
orthodox  explanations  and  shown  that  they 
were  free  from  Nestoriauism.  Hence,  it 
was  quite  possible  to  condemn  the  Nes- 
torian  or  semi-Nestorian  error  of  the  "  three 
chapters  "  without  falling  into  the  oppo- 
site error  of  Eutychianism  and  rejecting 
the  definitions  of  Chalcedon.  The  Emperor 
Justinian  was  led,  chiefly  by  Theodore 
Ascidas,  archbishop  of  Ceesarea,  and  by 
Theodora  his  empress,  to  believe  that  the 
condemnation  of  the  three  chapters  would 
serve  to  reconcile  the  Monophysites  in 
Egypt,  and  strengthen  the  unity  of  tlie 
Eastern  Empire.  In  fact,  the  Severian 
Monophysites  had  raised  objections  to  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  on  the  ground  that 
there  Ibas  and  Theodoret  had  been 
declared  orthodox.  (Mansi,  viii.  829.) 
Accordingly,  in  544  an  edict  of  Justinian 
condemned  the  three  chapters,  and  at  the 
same  time  maintained  with  Pope  Leo  the 
orthodox  doctrine  that  there  are  two 
natures  in  Christ.  This  edict  was  ac- 
cepted by  the  four  Eastern  Patriarchs, 
but  opposed  in  Africa,  where  Facundus  cf 
Hermiane  led  the  opposition,  in  Illyria, 
Dalmatia,  and  by  Pope  Vigihus,  who 
was  summoned  that  same  year  to  Con- 
stantinople. 

There  the  Pope  changed  his  mind, 
and  in  his  "Judicatum"  of  548  anathe- 
matised the  three  chapters  (Mansi,  ix. 
181).'  This  "Judicatum"  excited  great 
opposition  in  the  West,  particularly  in 
Africa,  where  Pope  Vigilius  was  excom- 
municated in  a  Council  of  Carthage,  a.d. 
550  (Hefele,  ii.  p.  831).  Besides  Facun- 
dus, the  Africans  Fulgentius,  Ferrandus, 
and  the  deacon  Liberatus  ("Breviar. 
causae  Nestor,  et  Eutych.")  wrote  in 
defence  of  the  three  chapters.  That  same 
year  Vigilius  withdrew  his  "Judicatum  " 
(Mansi,  ix.  153),  and  agreed  to  let  the 
matter  rest  till  a  council  could  meet. 
But,  probably  in  551,  Justinian,  without 
waiting  for  the  council,  published  another 
edict  against  the  chapters  (ofxoXnyla  Kara 

letters,  the  term  always  has  the  meaning  given 
in  the  tex'.    Hefele,  Concil.  ii.  p.  >-00. 

I  Only  fragments  of  this  document  remain 
in  their  authenticity.  See  Hefele,  Concil.  ii. 
p.  82  i,  note. 


THREE  CHAPTERS 


TIARA 


879 


rZv  rpiSiv  Kt<f>n\alcDv,  Mansi,  ix.  537-582), 
and  the  Pope,  who  would  not  approve  it, 
was  subjected  to  cruel  outrage,  and  at 
last  fled  to  the  Churcli  of  St.  Euphemia  at 
Chalcedon.  In  the  n(>gottations  between 
Pope  and  Emperor,  the  former  gave  and 
then  withdrew  his  consent  to  the  meeting 
of  a  council  from  which  the  Africans  were 
to  be  excluded.  The  council  (see  Cox- 
ST.VNTINOPLE)  met  in  553,  and  to  it,  on 
May  14,  553,  Vigilius  sent  his  "  Consti- 
tutum,"  in  which  he  censured  sixty 
propositions  of  Theodore,  but  strictly  for- 
bade any  personal  condemnation  of  him, 
or  any  censure  of  the  writin<rs  of  Ibas 
and  Theodoret  (Mansi,  ix.  61-106).  The 
council  did  precisely  what  the  Pope  had 
forbidden,  and  on  December  8,  553,  the 
latter  declared  in  a  letter  to  Eutychius  of 
Constantinople  that  "  Christ  had  removed 
the  darkness  from  his  mind,"  that  "it 
was  no  shame  to  admit  and  retract  error" 
after  the  example  of  St.  Augustine,  and 
accordingly  he  condemned  the  three 
chapters,  just  as  the  council  had  done 
(Mansi,  ix.  413-20).  He  repeated  the 
same  decision  in  his  second  "Consti- 
tutum  "  of  February  23,  554,  which  ends 
with  an  anathema  of  the  three  chapters 
and  those  who  defend  them  (Mansi,  457- 
488).  Vigilius  died  on  his  way  home  at 
Syracuse  in  554  or  January  555.  His 
successor,  Pelagius  I.,  also  approved  the 
acts  of  the  Fifth  Council,  which,  how- 
ever, was  bitterly  opposed  in  Asia,  North 
Italy,  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain.  The 
Africans,  except  a  few  who  were  exiled 
or  imprisoned,  gave  way  in  559.  Milan 
was  in  formal  schism  till  the  publication 
of  the  "Ilenoticon"  by  Justin  IT.  in 
571.  It  was  in  Istria  that  the  schism 
was  most  obstinate.  In  007  the  Bishop 
of  Aquileia-Grado  and  those  of  his 
suflragans  who  were  in  the  imperial 
territory  were  reunited  to  the  Cliurch. 
On  the  other  hand,  those  suffragan  bishops 
who  were  subject  to  the  Lombard  king  or 
to  the  Duke  of  Friuli  set  up  a  schismati- 
cal  patriarchate  at  Old  Aquileia.  Soon 
after  the  Popes  granted  the  title  of 
Patriarch  to  the  Bishop  of  Aquileia- 
Grado.  The  schism  continued  till  the 
Council  of  Aquileia  in  700.  After  the 
union  the  two  Bi.shops  of  Aquileia 
and  Aquileia-Grado  were  both  allowed  to 
retain  the  title  of  Patriai-ch.  The  Patri- 
archate of  Grado  was  transferred  to 
Venice  in  1451,  and  still  continues.  The 
Patriarchs  of  Old  Aquil^^ia,  after  its  de- 
struction, transferred  tlieir  see  to  Udine, 
.and  the  title  was  abolished  by  Benedict 


XIV.  in  1751  at  the  request  of  Austria 
(Ilefele,  ii.  p.  923). 

(Chiefly  from  Hefele,  "Concil."  vol.  ii. 
Balleriui,  "  De  Priraat."  cap.  xv.  §  x.  38, 
argues  that  Vigilius  did  not  issue  contra- 
dictory definitions  on  the  faith,  but  simply 
changed  his  mind  on  a  matter  of  expedi- 
ency, and  this  of  course  is  the  only  theory 
consistent  with  the  definitions  of  the 
Vatican  Council.  Bossuet  ["Def.  Cler. 
Gall."  P.  iii.  lib.  vii.  cap.  xx.J,  though  he 
urges  the  history  of  Vigilius  as  an  argu- 
ment against  Papal  infallibility,  still 
allows  that  the  Pope  and  his  opponents 
"de  summa  fidei  facile  consentiebant ; " 
adding,  however,  "omnino  ad  fidei  causam 
quiE.stio  pertinebat."  The  attempt  of  Vin- 
cenzi  ["  Vigil.  Orig.  Justin.  Triumph,  in 
Syn.  V."  Romae,  18C5]  to  deny  the  most 
patent  facts  and  treat  some  of  the  chici 
documents  as  forgeries,  is  unworthy  of 
serious  notice.) 

THURIBXiES  (dvniarripinv,  thimiama- 
teriuni,  thuribulum)  must  be  as  old  as  the 
use  of  incense  in  the  Church  [see  that 
article],  and  Anastatius  in  his  Life  of 
Sylvester  (n.  .'iG),  says  Constantine  pre- 
sented two  thuribles  of  pure  gold,  weigh- 
ing thirty  pounds,  to  the  Lateran  Church, 
besides  one  of  gold  set  with  gems  for  the 
baptistery.  Evn>;nus  ("  H.  E."  vi.  21) 
mentions  a  thurible  sent  by  Ohosroes  to 
the  shrine  of  St.  Sergius.  But  thuribles 
in  their  present  form — -i.e.  with  chains 
attached — do  not  occur,  according  to 
Martigny  ("Diet,  des  Antiq.  ChrLH."  art. 
Encensoir),  before  the  twelfth  century. 

Our  word  "  boat "  for  tlu'  vessel  in 
which  the  incense  is  carried  ausweis  to 
the  Low  Latin  vavlrvl,,,  wlm  li  hi.d  tl,e 
same  mi>aniiig  (Ducanue,  --uh  rcc),  and 
to  the  French  mwctte;  Ital.  navicella. 

TZARA.  A  cylindrical  head-dress 
pointed  at  the  top  and  surrounded  with 
three  crowns,  which  the  Pope  wears  as  a 
symbol  of  sovereignty.  The  word  (napn) 
occurs  in  the  classics  to  denote  the  Per.sian 
head-dress,  particularly  that  of  the  "  great 
king."  In  the  Vulgate  it  is  a  synonym 
of  cidaris  and  mitra,  and  is  used  for  the 
turban  of  the  high  priest  (nSJVO))  Exod. 
xxviii.  4),  or  of  the  common  priest  (nyaap, 
ih.  40).  Till  late  in  the  middle  ares  tiara 
was  a  synonym  of  mitra,  a  bishop  s  mitre, 
regnum  being  the  word  for  crown  (Du- 
cange,  suh  voc). 

The  whole  hi.story  of  the  Papal  Tiara 
is  uncertain.  Nicolas  I.  (858-867)  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  to  unite  the 
princely  crown  with  the  mitre,  though  the 


880 


TIERCE 


TITHES 


BoUandists  think  this  was  done  before 
his  time  (BoUandists,  "  Thesaur."  vol.  ii. 
p.  323,  quoted  by  Hefele).  The  common 
statement  that  Boniface  VIII.  (about  1 300) 
added  the  second  crown  is  false,  for  Hefele 
shows  that  Innocent  III.  is  represented 
wearing  the  second  crown  in  a  painting 
older  than  the  time  of  Boniface.  Urban 
V.  (1362-70)  is  supi)Osed  to  have  added 
the  third  ciown.  The  tiara  is  ]daced  on 
the  Pope's  head  at  his  coronation  by  the 
second  cardinal  deacon  in  the  loggia  of 
St.  Peter's,  with  the  words,  "  Receive  the 
tiara  adorned  Avith  three  crowns,  and 
know  tliat  thou  art  Father  uf  princes  and 
kings,  Ruler  of  the  world,  Vicar  of  our 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ."' '  At  ceremonies 
of  a  purely  spiritual  character  the  Pope 
wears  the  mitre,  not  the  tiara.  (Hefele, 
"  Beitriioe,''  vol.  ii.  p.  236  seq.). 
TZESCS.     rSee  BUEVIARX.] 

TITHES.  Tit  lies  are  commonly  de- 
fined as  "  the  tenth  part  of  all  fruits  and 
profits  justly  acquired,  owed  to  God  in 
recognition  of  His  supreme  dominion  over 
man,  and  to  be  paid  to  the  ministers  of 
the  Church."  They  were  paid  by  Abrani 
(Gen.  xiv.),  vowed  by  Jacob  (Gen.  xxviii.), 
and  regulated  by  the  Mosaic  law  (Exod. 
xxii. ;  Lev.  xxvii. ;  Num.  xviii.).  In  the 
early  Christian  ages  the  free-will  offerings 
of  the  faithful  supplied  what  was  neces- 
sary both  for  the  Divine  worship  and  the 
support  of  the  clergy  ;  but  as  the  conver- 
sion of  the  ^^'estern  nations  proceeded  a 
mure  permanent  provision  was  seen  to  be 
necessary.  In  a  canon  of  the  Second 
Council  of  Macon  (oSo)  occurs  the  first 
exjiress  mention  of  the  Cliristian  obliga- 
tion of  paying  tithes.'^  They  began  to  be 
generally  rendered  in  the  eighth  centiu'y, 
not  earlier.  In  8o5,  Ethelwulf,  king  of 
Wessex,  father  of  Alfred,  "assigned  the 
tenth  part  of  his  land  all  over  his  king- 
dom for  the  love  of  God  and  his  own 
everlasting  weal."'  The  tithe  of  the 
produce,  not  the  tenth  part  of  the  land 
itself,  is  certainly  here  intended.  Many 
authors,  both  Catholic  and  Protestant, 
have  imagined  that  the  proportion  itself 
of  1  in  10  was  fixed  by  a  Divine  pre- 
cept for  ever  as  that  part  of  our  sub- 
stance which  God  requires  to  be  devoted 
to  Him;  and  mystical  reasons  have  been 

I  This  formula  is  not  found  in  the  old  Roman 
Ordo,  nor  in  the  copv  of  the  Ceerimoniale  Roma- 
nuiii  (cf.  Catalani,  Comment,  in  Caerem.  Rom.  i. 
119).  So  Thalhofer  in  the  new  edition  of 
Wetzer  and  W'elte,  Kroenung. 
Fleurj-,  Hist.  Eecl.  xxxiv. 

*  Sax.  Cbron. 


invented  to  account  for  this.  This  belief 
is  now  less  commonly  held.  Cardinal 
Soglia  speaks  of  the  tithe  as  "  a  certain 
part,  not  the  tenth  part ;  for  it  is  some- 
times greater,  sometimes  smaller,  accord- 
ing to  the  custom  of  ditferent  places."  ' 

Tithes  are  of  two  kinds,  prijedial  and 
personal.  Pnedial  are  those  receivable  in 
respect  of  the  annual  crups,  corn,  wine, 
oil,  fruit,  &c.,  and  of  the  increase  of  cattle, 
including  milk  and  cheese.  These  last  are 
called  by  some  "mixed"  tithes,  but  the 
distinction  appears  to  be  unnecessary. 
Great  tithes  are  of  corn,  wine,  and  oil; 
small  tithes,  of  vegetables  and  fruits. 
Personal  tithes  are  receivable  in  respect 
of  the  profits  of  trade  and  industry. 
Property  acquired  on  the  title  of  gift,  be- 
quest, or  iniieritance  is  not  itself  tithe- 
able  ;  but  its  annual  increase,  so  far  as  it 
is  produced  by  nature  or  human  industry. 

Tithes  were  originally  paid  to  the 

bishops,  but  with  the  erection  of  separate 
liriielices  the  right  to  them  passed  to  the 
piirish  priests,  in  whom  it  is  now  vested 
by  the  common  law  of  the  Church.  Prae- 
dial  tithes  are  due  to  the  parish  in  which 
the  farm  lies,  or  in  which  the  animals  are 
(udinarily  fed  ;  personal,  to  that  in  which 
the  tithe-payer  is  bound  to  receive  sacra- 
ments. 

Exemption  from  tithe  may  be  obtained 
by  Papal  privilege,  by  prescription,  by 
custom,  or  by  convention.  The  Popes  in 
former  times  often  granted  the  tithes  of 
certain  places  or  districts  to  princes  or 
nobles  who  had  rendered  eminent  services 
to  the  Church,  and  allowed  them  to  trans- 
mit the  same  to  their  successors.  Bisliops 
used  to  grant  tithes  to  laymen  for  similar 
reasons ;  but  this  was  restrained  by  the 
Third  Council  of  Lateran  (1179),  which 
ordered  that  no  alienation  of  tithe  be  made 
by  a  bishop  without  the  consent  of  the 
Pope.  Prescription  can  only  confer  ex- 
emption, as  against  a  parish  church,  if  it 
1  be  proved  to  have  existed  forty  years, 
and  to  rest  on  some  title,  or  if — with- 
j  out  a  title — it  can  be  shown  to  be 
-  immemorial.  Against  other  churches 
(monasteries,  chapters,  &c.)  a  shorter 
prescription  is  sufficient.  [Presckiption.] 
Custom  differs  from  prescription  in  that 
it  affects  places  or  countries,  while  pre- 
scription aftects  individuals.  By  custom, 
"  personal  and  mixed  tithes  have  almost 
everywhere  become  obsolete,  and  praedial 
also,  in  many  places,  especially  where 

1  Inst.  Can.  vol.  iL  8. 


TITLE  TO  OllDERS 


TONSURE 


881 


competent  revenues  of  a  difierent  kind  I 
have  been  a&sifrned  to  the  parish  ! 
churches."  On  the  other  hand,  "  the 
law  of  tithes  can  never  be  abioifated  by 
prescription  or  custom,  if  the  minister  of  • 
the  church  have  no  suitable  and  sufficient  ' 
provision  from  other  sources;  because 
then  the  natural  and  Divine  law,'  which 
can  neither  be  abroirated  nor  antiquated, 
commands  that  the  tithe  be  paid."'- 
(Spelman,  "Of  Tythes,"  Eng.  Works, 
1723  ;  Ferraris,  Ducima- :  Soglia,  "  Inst. 
Can.") 

TZTXE  TO  ORDEBS.  According  to 
the  ancient  law, no  secular  cleric  could  be 
admitted  to  holy  orders  except  titulo  bene- 
ficii:  that  is,  he  was  required  to  show 
that  he  had  been  nominated  to  a  benefice 
(of  which  he  would  have  undisputed  pos- 
session) sufficient  for  his  decent  main- 
tenance (Cone.  Tr.  xxi.  De  Ref.  c.  2). 
The  same  decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
which  lays  down  this  general  principle 
names  two  other  titles  to  ordination  as 
exceptionally  admissible — that  which  con- 
sists in  the  possession  of  sufficient  private 
property  {tittUus  patrimonii),  and  that 
which  depends  on  a  guarantee  to  the  or- 
dinand  by  some  solvent  person  or  persons 
of  an  annual  sum  sufficient  to  maintain 
him,  in  the  event  of  the  failure  or  with- 
drawal of  ecclesiastical  resources  (titulus 
pensionis).  A  fourth  title  to  orders  {titu- 
lus paupertatis)  was.  and  is,  the  poverty 
professed  by  those  who  have  taken  solemn 
vows  iu  any  religious  order  ;  since  this 
poverty  (as  was  shown  in  the  article 
Profession,  Religious),  while  it  debars 
the  professed  from  possessing  any  private 
income,  guarantees  to  him  a  maintenance 
for  life  on  the  part  of  the  religious  house  or 
order  of  which  he  is  a  member.  Benefices 
having  now  ceased  to  exist  over  a  large 
part  of  Europe,  one  of  the  other  titles 
noticed  by  the  Council  is  now,  under  the 
name  of  "  titulus  mensse,"  generally  re- 
quired in  German  countries.  The  titulus 
inensee  is  "the  legal  undertaking  of  a 
third  person  to  provide  for  the  sufficient 
maintenance  of  a  clerk  in  major  orders, 
in  case  of,  and  during,  his  incapacity  to 
discharge  his  functions."  (Wetzer  and 
Welte.) 

Again,  the  pupils  of  certain  seminaries 
— as  of  the  College  of  Propaganda  at 
Rome — and  candidates  for  holy  orders 
in  countries  where  the  Catholic  Church 
is  circumstanced  as  in  Great  Britain  and 

1  Xamelv.  that   "they   who  preach  the 
gospel  should  live  of  the  frospel." 
Soglia,  vol.  ii.  12. 


Ireland,  may  be  ordained  titulo  seminani, 
or  missiotiis.  The  acceptance  of  tliis  last- 
named  title  imposes  on  the  bishop  the 
responsibility  of  providing  for  the  support 
of  the  ordinand  if  he  shall  become  in- 
capable of  discharging  his  functions, 
whether  it  be  without  fault  {emeritus)  or 
through  his  own  fault  (demeritus).  (Fer- 
raris, Titulus,  §  31  ;  "Wetzer  and  Welte.) 
TZTVX.AR  BZSHOP.  [See  Bishop 

IX  PaKIIBTS  IXKIDELII  M. 

TZTVX.ii.K  OP  CHirKCH.  [Set 
Patkox  axd  Titular.] 

TiTlTXiX.  A  name  given  to  the 
parish  churches  of  Rome,  as  distinct  on 
the  cue  hand  from  the  patriarchal 
chuiches,  such  as  St.  John  Laterau,  St. 
Peter's,  St.  Mary  Major,  St.  Laurence  in 
Agro  Verano,  St.  I'aul's,  which  belonged 
especially  to  the  Pope,  and  on  the  other 
from  the  Diaconia  and  Oratories.  Each 
titular  church  was  under  a  cardinal  pres- 
byter, had  a  district  attached  to  it,  and 
a  font  for  baptism  in  case  of  necessity. 
A  Roman  synod  under  Pi>pe  Symmachus, 
in  409,  enumerates  thirty  tituU  served  by 
.<Lxtv-six  priests.  (MabiUon,  "  Comm.  in 
Ord.  Rom."  c.  3.) 

Baronius  (An.  112,  n.  5)  supposes  the 
name  to  be  derived  from  the  sign  of  the 
cross,  which  "title"  marked  them  as  be- 
longing to  Christ.  Bingham  ("  Antiq.'" 
vii.  1,  10),  with  far  greater  probability, 
explains  the  name  from  the  fact  that 
these  churches  gave  a  "title  of  cure  or 
denomiuation ''  to  the  presbyters  who 
were  S'  t  over  them. 

TOnrsiTKE.  The  shaving  of  the 
crown  in  a  circle,  which  is  a  distinguish- 
ing mark  of  clerics.  Among  some  of  the 
monastic  orders  and  friars  the  tonsure 
leaves  only  a  circle  of  hair  round  the 
head  ;  the  tonsvu'e  of  secular  clerks,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  small.  The  first  ton- 
sure is  made  by  the  bishop,  in  a  form 
prescribed  by  the  Pontifical,  and  the  per- 
son receiving  it  is  thereby  admitted  to 
the  state  and  privileges  of  a  cleric.  (See 
Clerical  State.)  The  bishop  may  confer 
it  at  any  place  or  time.  Mitred  abbots 
may  give  it  to  their  own  subjects ;  car- 
dinal priests  to  the  clergy  of  their  titles, 
and  it  may  also  be  conferred  by  other 
priests  with  special  privileges. 

The  clerical  tonsure,  it  is  scarcely  ne- 
cessary to  say,  was  unknown  in  the  first 
ages  of  the  Church.  Christians  were 
simply  expected  to  avoid  vanity  in  dress- 
ing their  hair  (Tertull.  "  De  Cult.  Fern." 
ii.  1),  or  at  most  to  keep  it  short  ("Const. 
Apost."  i.  3).  Ascetics  and  clersrvmen 
Si. 


882 


TONSURE 


TRADITION 


were  thus  naturally  led  to  make  a  point 
of  cutting  their  hair  close.  Jerome  ("  In 
Ezech."  xliv.)  deprecates  eccentricity  in 
this  respect,  and  expresses  his  dislike 
both  of  long  hair  and  shaven  heads.  The 
so-called  Fourth  Council  of  Carthage 
(c.  44)  simply  f.  irbids  clerics  to  wear  long 
hair  :  "nec  comam  nutriat,  nec  barbam." 

"We  have,  however,  clear  proof  that 
the  clerical  tonsure  was  familiar  at  least 
in  Gaul  during  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth 
and  in  the  sixth  century.  For  Sidonius 
Apollinaris  (lib.  iv.  Ep.  13)  says  the 
bishop  Germanicus  had  his  hair  cut  "  in 
the  shape  of  a  wheel "  ("  in  rotae  spe- 
ciem  "),  and  St.  Gregory  of  Tours  ("  Vit. 
Patr."  17)  relates  that  Nicetius  was  mira- 
culously designated  from  birth  for  the 
clerical  state,  being  born  with  a  fringe  of 
hair  like  a  "  corona  clerici." 

The  Fourth  Council  of  Toledo  (a.d. 
633,  c.  41)  requires  all  clerics  to  shave 
their  heads,  leaving  only  a  rim  of  hair 
behind,  and  reprobates  the  fashion  of 
making  only  a  small  tonsure,  prevalent 
among  heretics. 

Writers  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries  distinguish  three  kinds  of  ton- 
sure. (1)  The  Roman  tonsure,  known  as 
St.  Peter's,  which  consisted  in  shaving 
the  whole  head,  leaving  only  a  circle  of 
hair.  It  prevailed  in  France  and  Spain 
(vide  supra)  and  in  Rome  (Joann.  Diac. 
"  Vit.  Greg.  Magn."  iv.  83).  It  was  only 
late  in  the  middle  ages  that  this  tonsure 
was  lessened,  and  the  present  distinction 
between  the  tonsure  of  clerics  and  of 
monks  or  friars  arose.  Chardon  shows 
that  the  large  clerical  tonsure  continued, 
at  least  in  some  places,  down  even  to  the 
fifteenth  century.  But  as  early  as  1240 
a  synod  of  "Worcester  ( Wilkins,  "  Concil." 
torn.  i.  p.  670)  refers  to  a  difference  of 
size  in  tonsures,  the  tonsure  being  in- 
creased in  size  with  each  step  in  the 
sacred  ministry.  (2)  The  tonsure  of  St. 
Paul,  usual  among  the  Easterns,  was  en- 
tire. When  the  Greek  Theodore  came  to 
the  see  of  Canterbury  in  668,  he  had  to 
wait  four  months  and  let  his  hair  grow 
that  he  might  receive  the  Roman  tonsure. 
(3)  The  Celtic  tonsure,  called  St.  John's, 
and  by  its  Anglo-Saxon  enemies  that  of 
Simon  Mngus,  consisted  in  shaving  the 
head  in  front  of  a  line  drawn  from  ear  to 
ear.  It  was  adopted  by  the  British  and 
Irish  churches  and  the  disciples  of  St. 
Columbanus  on  the  Continent.  No  ques- 
tion on  the  comparative  merits  of  the 
Roman  and  Celtic  tonsures  was  raised 
by  St.  Augustine  either  at  the  Oak  or  at 


Bangor ;  but  the  matter  became  the  sub- 
ject of  violent  controversy  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  centuries— e.^.  at  the  Council 
of  Whitby,  A.D.  663.  (Bede,  «  H.  Angl." 
iii.  25,  26.) 

Even  after  the  tonsure  was  intro- 
duced it  was  never  given  separately,  but 
always  with  the  order  of  reader.  Nobody 
could  belong  to  the  clerical  state  without 
at  least  a  minor  order,  and  children  dedi- 
cated to  God  were  not  simply  tonsured, 
but  made  readers,  since  nothing  short  of 
ordination  to  some  grade  of  the  eccle- 
siastical ministry  placed  a  persOii  in  the 
clerical  state.  (Isidore,  "  Ecclesiast.  Off." 
ii.  1.)  Then  from  the  seventh  centur}-, 
according  to  Chardon,  children  were  ton- 
sured without  ordination;  and  in  an 
ancient  Ordo  Romanus  there  is  an  office 
"ad  puerum  tonsurandum  " ;  and  lastly, 
very  much  later,  adults  anxious  to  be 
free  from  the  secular  courts,  &c.,  were 
tonsured  without  any  ordination.  This 
last  custom  was  of  course  an  abuse. 

It  was  only  gradually  that  the  right 
to  tonsure  was  limited  to  bishops,  abbots, 
&c.  Till  the  tenth  century  it  was  given 
by  simple  priests,  or  even  by  laymen  to 
each  other.  (Mabillon,  "Annal.  Benedict." 
Prsef.  ad  Sacc.  iii.,  quoted  by  Chardon.) 
(Chiefly  from  Chardon,  "Hist,  des  Sacr." 
torn.  V.  p.  4o  seq.) 

TRACT.  '\''erses  of  Scripture  said 
after  the  Gradual  (not  "a  form  which  the 
Gradual  assumes,''  as  Hammond  supposes, 
"  Ancient  Liturgies,"  p.  385),  instead  of 
the  Alleluia  in  all  Masses  from  Sepiua- 
gesima  till  Holy  Saturday.  Le  Bruu 
("  Explic.  de  la  Messe,"  torn.  i.  p.  205) 
says  the  name  meant  something  sung 
"  tractim " — i.e.  without  break  or  inter- 
ruption of  other  voices,  as  in  responsories 
and  autiphons — by  the  cantor  alone,  and 
that  the  theory  of  Duraudus — viz.  that 
the  tract  is  something  sung  tractim,  i.e. 
in  a  slow  or  sad  voice — arose  by  mistake 
in  the  tenth  century. 

TRADZTZOW  {napdhoa-Li)  means 
properly  the  act  of  handing  down,  and 
thus  the  doctrine  so  handed  down.  In 
its  widest  sense  it  includes  all  truths  or 
supposed  truths  handed  down  from  one 
generation  to  another  ;  and  in  all  societies 
which  have  no  literature  ti-aditiou  is, 
with  all  its  manifold  imperfections,  the 
great  bond  between  the  present  and  the 
past,  and  one  of  the  great  distinguishing 
marlfs  between  man  and  the  brutes, 
which  latter  have  no  tradition,  and  there- 
ibre  no  history.  Among  the  Hebrews,  as 
among  all  other  nations,  tradition  was  the 


TRADITION 


TRADITION  88a 


onlj  history  till  an  historical  literature 
arose,  but  among  the  later  Jews  the  word 
assumed  another  and  a  much  more  re- 
S'tricted  sense.  The  early  Hebrew  tra- 
dition arose  naturally  before  there  was 
jiny  written  law  or  "history  ;  the  latter 
Jewish  tradition  interpreted  the  written 
law  and  added  to  it.'  To  a  certain 
extent  such  a  tradition  arose  of  necessity, 
for  the  Pentateuch  is  a  "  Corpus  Juris," 
and  no  system  of  law  can  remain  abso- 
lutely unchanpred.  Additions  and  altera- 
tions are  inevitable,  aa  the  conditions  of 
society  cliange  in  the  course  of  ages,  and 
the  Rabbinical  traditions  were  as  defen- 
sible as  the  "fictions"  of  the  Roman 
lawyers.  The  danger,  however,  lay  in 
this,  that  the  law  of  Moses  determined 
the  relation  of  man  to  God,  the  relation 
of  love  and  kindness  between  man  and 
man,  and  in  such  a  sphere  the  legal  spirit 
is  sure  to  be  dangerous,  and  even  perni- 
cious. Hence  the  charge  which  Christ 
makes  against  the  Pharisees,  "  Ye  have 
made  void  the  law  of  God  by  your  tradi- 
tion." They  used  the  same  "  fictions " 
which  lawyers  employ  to  preserve  the 
letter  of  a  law  which  can  no  longer  be 
really  observed,  in  treating  of  God's 
eternal  law.  Again,  just  as  a  human 
legislator  rightly  and  necessarily  contents 
himself  with  regulating  the  external  ac- 
tions of  man,  so  the  Jewish  Scribes  were 
apt  to  make  much  of  outward  things, 
little  comparatively  of  justice  and  mercy 
and  truth.  But  we  do  not  mean  to  dis- 
cuss the  merits  and  demerits  or  the  unhis- 
torical '-  character  of  Jewish  tradition 
here.  We  will  only  add  that  Josephus 
uses  the  same  word,  Trapddotris,  which 
was  adopted  in  the  N.  T.  and  in  eccle- 
siastical writers.  The  Pharisees,  he  says 
("  Antiq."  xiii.  10,  6),  imposed  many 
"  enactments  "  (fo/iifxa)  on  the  people,  not 
to  be  found  in  the  written  law;  the 
Sadducees,  on  the  other  hand,  rejected 
the  "tradition  of  the  Fathers"  (ra  ix 
TrapaSoafojs  irarfpav).    Jewish  tradition 

•  The  Halakah  is  legal  (from  "l^|-]>  to  go) ! 
the  Haggadah  (from  TJn>  to  relate)  legen- 
dary ;  the  Kabbala  (from  ^3p,  to  receive)  mys- 
tical ;  the  Massora  (from  to  deliver)'  is 

textual  tradition.  The  last  of  these  has  a 
very  real  value. 

The  common  account  is  given  in  Pirhe 
Avoth,  ad  hiit.  "Moses  received  the  law  [i.e. 
the  secret  and  oral  law,  the  nB"^U3J5'  mm- 
See  Buxtorf,  Lex.  tub  voc.  iqp],  from  Sinai, 
and  delivered  it  to  Joshua,  and  Joshua  to  the 
elders,  and  the  elders  to  the  prophets,  and  the 
prophets  to  the  men  of  the  great  synagogue." 


j  in   the  strict  sense  never  invaded  the 
I  Church.     In    the    Judaising  homilies 
:  which  go  under  the  name  of  Clement  a 
I  false  tradition  is  exalted  at  the  expense 
of  the  Scriptural  text,  which  is  said  to 
I  have  been  corrupted  by  irreligious  iuter- 
I  pretations.   (Clem.  Hom.  ii.  38-39.)  But 
this,  of  course,  is  quite  opposed  to  the 
Rabbinical  idea  of  tradition.     In  the 
j  Clementine  Recognitions,  on  the  other 
hand,  tradition  is  only  put  forward  as 
determining    the    sense    of  Scripture 
("Recog."  \,  21,  cf  ii.  45),  a  notion 
!  which  is  neither  Rabbinical  nor  heretical, 
but  Catholic. 

This  brings  us  naturally  to  speak  of 
tradition  in  the  Church.  So  far  from 
setting  tradition,  as  such,  aside,  Christ 
left  His  Church  with  no  written  books, 
and  with  nothing  but  tradition  to  guide 
it.  St.  Paul  insists  on  the  necessity  of 
holding  to  the  Christian  tradition.  (1 
j  Cor.  xi.  2  ;  2  Thess.  ii.  15.)  Even  when 
the  Scriptures  of  the  Js.  T.  were  written 
tradition  did  not  fall  out  of  sight,  for  the 
early  Christians  were  well  aware  that  it 
}  was  tradition  which  settled  the  canon  of 
Scripture,  and  they  were  not  unreasonable 
enough  to  reject  tradition  for  Scripture, 
since  the  authority  of  Scriptnre  itself 
was  based  on  tradition.  They  knew 
very  well  that  many  barbarous  nations 
furnished  converts  to  the  faith  although 
they  had  no  trauslatiijns  of  the  Bible  as 
yet  in  their  own  lan^ruages,  and  could 
not  therefore  learn  the  truth  from  it. 
They  were  convinced,  moreover,  that 
though  human  tradition  is  in  its  own 
nature  shifting  and  uncertain,  the  Holy 
Spirit  preserved  the  tradition  of  truth 
in  the  Church.  Add  to  aU  this  the 
obscurity  of  Scripture,  the  fact  that  it  is 
a  collection  of  books  which  never  pro- 
fesses to  contain  the  sum  of  Christian 
truth,  and  the  appeal  of  the  Fathers 
to  tradition  becomes  quite  intelligible. 
Hence  Heresippus  (apud  Euseb.  "  H.  E." 
iii.  32)  appeals  to  the  "  wholesome  canon 
of  saving  preaching  ;  Irenaeus  and  Cle- 
ment of  Alexandria  to  the  "  canon  of  the 
truth  "  ("  Adv.  Hffir."  i.  9,  4,  ii.  27,  1 ; 
Clem.  Al.  "  Strom."  iv.  1,  n.  564,  ed. 
Potter),  and  the  "  Canon  of  the  Church  " 
{ib.  i.  19,  p.  375').  The  latter  wUl  have 
doubtful  questions  decided  by  an  appeal 
to  the  Apostolic  churches,  and  considers 
that  tradition  would  have  been  a  suffi- 

'  Clement  has  also  the  idea  of  a  secret  and 
esoteric  tradition,  which  is  a  verv  difTerent  thing, 
and  has  its  true  analogon  in  Judaism.  Strom. 
vi.  7,  p.  771.    See  also  Euseb.  H.  E.  ii.l. 

3  l2 


884  TRADITION 


TRADITION 


cient  guide,  even  if  the  Church  had  heen 
left  without  any  Scriptures  at  aU  (iii.  4, 
1).  Just  in  the  same  way  Tertullian 
invokes  the  decision  of  the  Apostolic 
churches  ("  Prsescr."  17  et  passim),  and 
"  De  Corona,"  3)  asserts  the  decisive 
authority  of  unwritten  tradition,  in 
favour,  it  is  true,  of  matters  of  custom 
and  ritual,  but  of  custom  and  ritual  which 
involved  questions  of  doctrine,  such,  e.(/., 
as  "  oblations  for  the  dead.''  Tertullian 
spealis  for  Africa  and  Rome,  Trenaus  for 
Asia  Minor  and  Gaul.  Origeu,  the  great 
representative  of  the  early  Alexandrian 
church,  holds  the  same  language.  Since, 
he  says  ("De  Princip."  §  2),  there  are 
diflerences  among  Christians,  "let  the 
ecclesiastical  teaching  handed  down  by 
order  of  succession  from  the  Apostles, 
and  abiding  till  now  in  the  churches. 


the  Church  had  added  new  truths,  not 
clearly  taught  even  by  the  Apostles.  The 
N.  T.,  he  thinks  (Orat.  xxxi.  §  26), 
onlv  hinted  at  (un-e'Sfi^f)  the  divinity  of 
the'Holy  Ghost :  "  Now  the  Holy  Ghost 
dwells  with  us  (e/ji"oXiT€verai),  making 
the  manifestation  of  Himself  more  plain." 
If  we  turn  to  the  later  Fathers  of  the 
Latin  Church,  we  meet  with  the  same 
appreciation  of  tradition.  St.  Augustine, 
treating  of  the  dispute  about  the  validity 
of  heretical  baptism  ("Contr.  Bapt. 
Donat."  ii.  7),  writes:  "I  believe  it  [i.e. 
the  Roman  rule  of  accepting  such  bap- 
tism as  valid]  comes  from  tradition  of 
the  Apostles,  like  many  things  which  are 
not  found  in  their  letters,  nor  in  earlier 
councils,  and  yet  because  observed  by  the 
whole  Church  are  believed  to  have  been 
handed   down   and   commended  by  no 


ed  :  that  only  is  to  be  believed  the  |  others  than  by  them  "  (the  Apostles ;  see 


truth  which  no  way  differs  from  eccle' 
siastical  and  Apostolic  tradition." 

The  following  are  some  of  the  testi- 
monies of  later  Fathers  :  "  It  is  enough," 
•says  Gregory  Nyssen  ("  Contr.  Eunom." 
iv. ;  "0pp."  vol.  ii.  col.  653  in  Migne's 
reprint),  "for  the  demonstration  of  our 
position  to  have  the  ti-adition  which 
comes  to  us  from  the  Fathers  transmitted 
as  an  inheritance  by  succession  from  the 
Apostles  through  the  saints  that  followed 
them."  St.  Basil  ("  De  Spir.  S."  §  66) : 
"  Of  the  doctrines  and  decrees  {Krjpvy- 
^<irui'  =  canons  and  decrees  on  discipline, 
&e.),  we  have  some  from  written  teach- 
ing ;  others  we  have  received,  apportioned 
to  us  from  the  tradition  of  the  Apostles 
in  a  mysterious  manner,  both  of  which 
(i.e.  Scripture  and  tradition)  have  the 
same  force."  St.  Chrysostom  ("In  2 
Thess."  Horn.  iv.  §  14),  after  saying  that 
the  Apostles  did  not  hand  down  all  by 
epistles,  but  much  also  without  writing 
(vroXXa  Kill  dyjjiKfxos),  adds  :  "  The  one  and 
the  other  are  worthy  of  belief,  so  that  we 
consider  the  tradition  of  the  Church  also 
worthy  of  belief.  It  is  a  tradition :  ask  no 
more."  St.  Epiphanius  ("  Haer."  Ixi.  6)  : 
"  We  must  also  use  tradition,  since  all 
cannot  be  got  from  the  divine  Scripture, 


also  ib.  iv.  24,  v.  23).  Vincent,  in  his  first 
"  Commonitorium  "  (cap.  2),  the  classical 
vvork  on  the  subject,  argues  for  the 
necessity  of  tradition  fi'om  the  fact  that 
the  Bible  may  be  understood  in  many 
different  ways,  although  the  canon  of 
Scripture  is  perfect,  and  "  in  itself  suffi- 
cient, and  more  than  sufficient,  for  all." 
Here  the  reader  may  observe  a  difference. 
Other  Fathers,  and  especially  Basil,  Gre- 
gory Nazianzen,  Epiphanius,  Chrysostom, 
look  on  Scripture  and  tradition  as  two 
co-ordinate  authorities,  each  divine.  To 
Vincent  the  authority  is  single,  tradition 
not  completing  but  merely  determining 
the  sense  of  Scripture.  Cardinal  New- 
man ("  Via  Media,"  i.  p.  327)  pohits  out 
that  even  modern  "Catholic  contro- 
versialists, while  insisting  that  they  need 
not  prove  their  doctrine  from  Scripture, 
always  do  so  prove  it."  In  other  words, 
they  would  have  no  objection  to  admit  that 
all  Catholic  doctrine  is  in  some  implicit 
way  contained  in  Scripture,  and  to  grant 
with  Vincent  the  sufficiency  of  Scripture 
illustrated  by  tradition.  There  is,  on  the 
contrary,  a  radical  difference  between  the 
Catholic  belief  on  the  necessity  of  tra- 
dition and  the  opinion  of  Protestants  pure 
and  simple  that  no  doctrine  can  be  an 


therefore   the  divine  Apostles  handed  I  article  of  faith  unless  it  can  be  clearly 


down  some  things  in  writings,  others  in 
tradition."  So,  much  later,  St.  John  of 
Damascus  ("De  Fid.  Orthodox."  iv.  16) 
supports  the  received  doctrine  on  images 
by  a  reference  to  "unwritten  tradition." 
"We  have  passed  over  one  Greek  Father, 
St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  because  he  attri- 
butes an  exaggerated  importance  to  tra-  I  dition.  Therefore  the  Council  of  Trent 
dition,  and  speaks  as  if  the  tradition  of  |  (sess.  iv.  De  Canon  Script.),  when  it 


deduced  without  the  aid  of  tradition  from 
the  sacred  text.  Of  such  a  theory  there  is 
no  trace  in  antiquity,  except  perhaps  that 
Stephen  Gobaras  the  Tritheist  ("Phot. 
Bibliothec."  Cod.  132),  laboured  to  set 
Father  against  Father,  apparently  with 


TRADITIONALISM 


TRADITIONATJSM  S85 


teaches  that  the  truth  of  Christ  is  con- 
tained partly  in  the  Bible,  partly  in 
unwritten  tradition  received  by  the  Apos- 
tles from  Christ  or  from  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  entrusted  by  them  to  the  Church, 
that  Scripture  and  tradition  (the  latter  of 
course  only  -when  proved  Apostohc)  are 
to  be  reverenced  alike,  follows  the  express 
teaching  of  many  of  the  earhest  and 
greatest  Fathers,  the  spirit  of  all.  The 
advocate  of  private  judgment,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  committed  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  Church  was  left  for  a  gene- 
ration without  any  true  and  complete 
rule  of  faith,  that' when  this  rule  was 
given  nobody,  not  even  the  holiest  and 
wisest,  understood  its  purpose  or  use,  and 
that  when  after  fifteen  centuries  this  use 
was  understood,  the  rule  intended  to 
secure  unity  in  faith  became  the  most 
fertile  source  of  strife  and  division. 

In  conclusion,  the  difficulties  which 
arise  from  the  statements  of  some  Fathers 
who  seem  to  make  Scripture  the  sole 
guide  are  only  apparent.    St.  Augustine 
<"  De  Doctr.  Christ."  ii.  9)  no  doubt 
allows  that  the  things  "  openly  stated  in 
Scripture "  contain  the  whole  sum  of 
faith  and  morals.    We  have  seen  already 
what  St.  Augustine  thought  of  tradition, 
and  in  this  place  he  adds,  "  namely,  faith  ! 
and  hope,"  meaning  that  a  Christian  may  ' 
■find  in  the  Bible  all  that  he  needs  to 
know  explicitly  in  order  to  be  saved,  a 
fact    which    is    undeniable.  Optatus 
{"Schism.  Donat."  v.  3)  is  contrasting 
Scripture,  not  with  Apostolic,  but  with  , 
human  tradition.    St.  Cyril  of  Alexan- 
dria ("  Cat."  iv.  17)  tells  liis  catechumens  j 
that  he  will  have  them  believe  nothing 
he  tells  them  except  he  can  prove  it  out  I 
of  Scripture.    But  (1)  he  refers  to  the  j 
articles  of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  which  | 
can  certainly  be  proved  from  the  Bible ;  j 
{2)  he  is  contrasting  Scripture,  not  with  j 
tradition,  but  with  "  probabilities,"  "  in- 
genious arguments"  (Xd-yo)!'  Karaa-Kcvais), 
"  inventions  "  of  his  own  {(Vfxa-ihoyiait). 

TRASZTZOiO'AX.zsm.  A  system 
of  piiilosophy  ill  which  intellectual  cogni- 
tion, so  far  as  the  human  mind  is  con- 
cerned, is  reduced  to  belief  in  truth 
communicated  by  revelation  from  God, 
and  received  by  traditional  instruction 
through  the  medium  of  language,  which 
was  originally  itself  a  supernatural  gift. 
This  system  is  also  called  Fidptsm,  and  is 
a  reaction  from  the  extreme  of  rational- 
ism into  an  opposite  e.\treme  of  anti- 
rationalism.  De  Bonald  (t  1840)  is 
regarded  as  its  author.    In  its  strictest 


!  form  this  system  reduces  the  intellect  to 
a  merely  receptive  faculty,  capable  of 
acquiring  knowledge  by  instruction, 
which  comes  originally  from  God  by  a 
primitive  revelation  given  to  the  first 
progenitors  of  the  human  race.  In  its 
modified  and  milder  form  it  restricts  the 
absolute  necessity  of  a  traditional  instruc- 
tion derived  from  revelation  to  meta- 
physical, religious,  and  moral  trutli, 
admitting  the  capacity  of  the  human 
mind  to  discover  other  intellectual  truths 
by  its  innate  power.  M.  Bonnetty  was 
the  most  conspicuous  advocate  of  this 
modified  traditionalism,  which  for  a 
time  obtained  numerous  adherents  among 
Catholics,  especially  in  France  and  Bel- 
gium. It  has  been  partially  adopted  by 
some  advocates  of  ontologism  and  com- 
bined with  that  philosophical  theory. 
There  are,  besides,  other  tliinkers  and 
writers  whose  tendency  is  to  minimise 
the  rational,  and  elevate  towards  the 
ma.Hmum  the  traditional  element  in  the 
highest  departments  of  human  knowledge, 
but  who  cannot  be  classed  as  advocates 
of  traditionalism  properly  so  called.  The 
best  Catholic  theologians  and  philoso- 
phers have  always  recognised  the  7nornl 
and  practical  need  of  revelation  and  tra- 
ditional instruction,  for  the  easy  acquisi- 
tion of  complete  and  certain  knowledge 
of  the  highest  truths  within  the  scope  of 
the  natural  intelligence  and  rational 
faculty  of  man,  by  men  in  general.  The 
reason  of  this  need  i-  nccidcntal.  extrinsic, 
and  to  be  ascribed  to  the  act  iial  condition 
and  environment  of  mankind  in  its  pre- 
sent state.  The  specific  difference  which 
places  the  system  of  traditionalism  in 
opposition  to  this  common  doctrine  con- 
sists in  this:  to  wit,  that  it  makes  this 
need  to  be  a  physical  iiecemti/  arising 
from  the  intrinsic  essence  and  nature  of 
the  human  intellect.  The  former  doc- 
trine has  been  explicitly  formulated  and 
promulgated  by  the  Council  of  the  Vati- 
can in  the  Constitution  "  Dei  Filius,"with 
an  exclusion  of  the  latter  opinion.  This 
is  a  condemnation  of  traditionalism 
proper.  It  had  been  already  condemned 
by  a  decree  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Index  bearing  the  date  of  .lune  11,  18oo, 
and  approved  by  his  Holiness  Pius  IX., 
which  set  forth  four  theses  to  be  sub- 
scribed by  M.  Bonnetty.  These  theses 
are  the  contradictories  of  several  pro- 
positions e.iLtracted  from  his  writings.  It 
may  suffice  to  cite  the  second  and  third  : 
"  II.  Ratiocination  can  prove  with  cer- 
titude the  existence  of  God,  the  spiritu  • 


8S6  TEADITION  OF  INSTRUMENTS 


TRAPPISTS 


ality  of  the  soul,  the  liberty  of  man. 
Faith  is  posterior  to  Revelation,  aud  can- 
not therefore  suitably  be  alleged  for 
proving  the  existence  of  God  against  an 
atheist,  or  for  proving  the  spirituality 
and  liberty  of  the  rational  soul  against 
a  follower  of  naturalism  and  fatalism. 

"  III.  The  use  of  reason  precedes  Faith 
and  conducts  man  to  it,  by  the  aid  of 
Revelation  and  of  Grace." 

The  judgments  of  the  supreme  autho- 
rity in  the  Church  have  been  submitted 
to  with  docility  by  those  Catholics  who 
had  adopted  the  theory  of  traditionalism, 
and  the  controversy  respecting  this  mat- 
ter has  come  to  an  end.  For  a  very  full 
historical  and  doctrinal  exposition  of  the 
main  points  in  this  controversy  see  the 
works  of  Cardinal  Dechamps,  vol.  vii. 
"  Opuscules." 

TRA.BXTZON-        OF  ZlffSTItV- 

MSiTTS.    [See  Oeder,  Holt.] 

TBADZTORES.  A  name  given  to 
Christians  who  in  the  persecution  of  Dio- 
cletian gave  up  to  the  officers  of  the  law 
"  the  Holy  Scriptures  or  the  vessels  of 
the  Lord,  or  the  names  of  their  brethren  " 
(Concil.  I  Arel.  a.d.  314,  c.  13).  The 
first  edict  of  Diocletian,  a.d.  303,  ordered 
the  churches  and  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Christians  to  be  burnt.  Hence  the  sur- 
render of  sacred  books  (to  be  burnt),  and 
of  vessels  {ad  Jiscum).  The  edict  also 
deprived  Christians  of  honours  and  civil 
rights,  and  made  them,  if  slaves,  incap- 
able of  freedom.  Hence  perhaps  bishops, 
&c.,  were  asked  for  the  list  of  their  flocks, 
though  others  think  that  the  tradit.io 
iwyninum  was  a  consequence  of  Diocle- 
tian's second  edict,  condemning  all  eccle- 
siastics to  prison,  and  requiring  them  to 
sacrifice.  The  canon  already  quoted 
orders  the  deposition  of  all  clerical  tra- 
ditores,  but  allowed  persons  ordained  by 
traditores  to  remain  in  office.  [See  Dona- 

TISTS.] 

TRASxrcxAN-zsnx.  [See  Soul.] 
TRANSEPT.  In  architecture  the 
part  of  the  church  which  forms  the  short 
arms  of  the  cross  on  which  the  plan  is 
laid.  It  extends  on  the  north  and  south 
side  of  the  area  between  the  nave  and 
the  choir. 

TRAWSrZGVBATZOSr,  FEAST 
or  (ij  ayia  fieTafi6p(f)co(ns  Tov  K.  I.  X.). 
With  the  Greeks,  who,  like  the  Latins, 
keep  it  on  August  6,  it  is  one  of  the 
twelve  greater  feasts  which  come  next 
after  Easter  in  dignity  (Daniel,  "  Cod. 
Lit."  iv.  p.  239).  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
Constitution  of  Manuel  Comnenus,  and, 


of  course,  in  the  Menologies  (Thomassin, 
"Traite  des  Festes,"  p.  406). 

In  the  West  its  institution  is  com- 
monly attributed  to  Calixtus  III.  (1455- 
58).  But  Thomassin  {loc.  cit.)  shows 
that  the  feast  is  mentioned  in  the  Mar- 
tyrology  of  Yandelbert  (said  to  havfr 
lived  about  850) ;  by  Ildefonsus  in  845, 
who  says  it  was  kept  the  sixth  day  be- 
fore the  Calends  of  August,  and  waa 
among  the  chief  solemnities ;  and  by 
Peter  the  Venerable  in  the  Statutes  of 
Clugny.  Gregory  IX.  (see  Bened.  XIV. 
"  De  Fest.")  speaks  of  it  as  celebrated  on 
the  present  day — viz.  August  6.  Cahxtus, 
however,  promoted  the  observance,  in 
order  to  obtain  the  help  of  God  against 
the  Turks,  by  granting  indulgences.  He 
also  instituted  an  Office  for  the  day, 
which  was  afterwards  altered,  in  the 
hymns  and  lessons  of  the  two  first  noc- 
turns,  by  Pius  V.  (Gavant.  "De  Fest. 
Aug."  §  7, 10,  6.) 

TRANSXATZOXr  OF  FEASTS. 
An  important  change  has  been  made  by 
the  present  Pope  in  the  Apostolic  Letters, 
"  NuUo  unquam  tempore,"  July  28, 1882. 
By  the  new  rule,  mere  doubles  ("  festa 
duplicia  minora"),  unle.ss  feasts  of  the 
doctors  of  the  Church,  and  semi-doubles, 
if  the  celebration  on  the  proper  days  is 
impeded  by  the  concurrence  of  a  greater 
feast,  or  of  a  Sunday,  are  not  transferred. 
Instead,  they  are  commemorated  on 
the  day  itself  at  Lauds  and  Vespers,  and 
the  ninth  lesson  at  Matins  is  composed 
of  the  two  or  three  lessons  which  give 
the  history  of  the  saint.  If  the  solem- 
nity of  the  day  does  not  admit  such  a 
mode  of  commemorating  the  excluded 
feast,  then  all  notice  of  the  latter  is 
omitted  during  that  year,  according  to 
the  rule  already  provided  for  simple  feasts 
"  In  Rubric,  lit.  ix.  n.  x.,  lit.  x.  n.  viii." 

TRAN-SVBSTAirTZATZOia'.  [See 
EULHAEIST.] 

TRAPPISTS.  A  branch  of  the 
Cistercian  order ;  see  that  article.  The 
founder,  Armand  Jean  le  BouthiUier  de 
Ranc6,  born  in  1626,  was  of  a  noble 
family.  According  to  an  abuse  common 
in  that  age,  the  child,  being  destined  to 
be  a  priest,  was  loaded  by  his  father  with 
preferment  from  his  early  years.  Though 
only  ten  or  eleven,  he  was  commendatory 
abbot  of  La  Trappe  and  two  other  abbeys, 
prior  of  two  priories,  and  canon  of  Notre 
Dame  at  Paris ;  his  ecclesiastical  income 
was  from  15,000  to  20,000  livres.  He 
was  ordained  priest  in  1651  by  his  uncle, 
the  Archbishop  of  Tours,  whose  coadjutor 


TRAPPISTS 


TRAPPISTS  887 


he  hoped  one  day  to  become.  His  j-outhful 
worldliness  was  gradually  shaken  by  a 
series  of  striking  incidents  ;  the  death  of 
a  cousin,  a  remarkable  escape  from  death, 
a  disappointment  to  his  ambition  in  the 
assembly  of  the  clergy,  were  among  the 
occasions  of  his  entering  into  himself, 
and  recognising  the  nothingness  of  all  for 
■which  he  had  hitherto  lived.  In  1600  he 
resigned  all  his  benefices  except  the  abbacy 
of  La  Trappe  ;  disposed  of  his  patrimony 
for  300,000  livres ;  and  gave  the  greater 
part  of  the  money  to  the  Hotel  Dieu,  or 
great  hospital  at  Paris.  He  then  repaired 
to  La  Trappe,  and  told  the  moidvs  that 
they  would  thenceforth  have  to  live  by 
the  rule  of  what  was  called  the  "  Strict 
Observance  "  of  the  Cistercian  order.  La 
Trappe  was  an  ancient  monastery  Iving 
in  the  heart  of  La  Perche,  not  far  from 
S^ez,  foimded  as  a  Cistercian  house  in 
1140  by  Rotrou,  count  of  Perche.  Tt 
eufl'ered  much  during  the  long  wars  with 
England,  but  its  discipline  was  still  more 
fatally  injured  in  later  times  by  the  system 
of  commendation,  which  gave  the  name 
and  emoluments  of  abbot  to  some  non- 
resident layman  or  ecclesiastic.  When  de 
Ranc6  came  there  in  1662,  the  state  of 
things  was  deplorable ;  the  monks  had 
ceased  to  live  in  community,  and  if  they 
met  at  all  it  was  for  pleasure  parties; 
the  buildings  were  going  to  ruin,  and 
persons  from  without  were  suffered  to 
live  in  them.  "With  much  difticulty  de 
Ranc6  succeeded  in  bringing  from  a 
neighbouring  monasterj-  some  monks  of 
the  Strict  Observance,  and  in  restoring 
regularity  at  La  Trappe.  Still  he  was  not 
satisfied ;  an  ideal  had  been  for  some  time 
floating  before  his  eyes  in  which  were 
blended  the  union  with  God  through 
contemplation  and  prayer,  bodily  morti- 
fication, and  severance  from  causes  of 
distraction.  The  final  result  was  the 
discipline  of  La  Trappe,  of  which  we 
take  an  abridged  account  from  H61yot. 
"  In  summer  the  religious  go  to  rest  at 
eight,  in  winter  at  seven.  They  get  up  at 
two  o'clock  in  the  night  to  go  to  Matins, 
which  usually  last  till  half-past  four,  be- 
cause they  add  the  Office  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  to  the  regular  Office,  and  between 
the  two  make  half  an  hour's  meditation. 
.  .  .  After  Matins,  in  summer  time,  they 
may  go  and  rest  in  their  cells  till  Prime  ; 
in  winter  they  go  into  a  common  room 
near  the  stove,  where  each  reads  to  him-  j 
self.  .  .  .  At  half- past  five  they  say  Prime, 
and  then  go  to  chapter,"  wliich  usually 
takes  up  half  an  hour.    "  At  seven  they  j 


go  to  work ;  the  cowl  is  put  off,  and  the 
under  garment  tucked  up ;  some  dig, 
others  riddle,  others  carry  stones — each 
according  to  the  task  assigned  to  liim,  for 
tliey  are  not  free  to  choose  the  kind  of 
work  which  they  like  best.  The  abbot 
himself  works,  and  often  takes  up  the 
most  abject  sort  of  employment."  Their 
indoor  employments,  when  the  weather 
does  not  allow  of  outdoor  labour,  include 
carpentry,  joinery,  copying,  binding, 
sweeping,  and  many  other  useful  toils. 
"  When  they  have  worked  an  hour  and  a 
half  they  go  to  office  ;  Tierce  is  said,  fol- 
lowed by  Mass ;  then  Sext ;  after  which 
an  interval  of  reading  in  their  own  cells 
is  allowed."  Xone  is  said  at  half-past 
eleven ;  on  fast  days  a  little  later.  Then 
they  go  to  the  refectorv,  a  very  large 
room  with  a  long  row  of  tables  on  each 
side.  The  abbot's  table  is  laid  for  six  ; 
guests  are  entertained  at  it  if  they  offer 
themselves,  but  this  does  not  often  happen. 
There  are  no  table-cloths,  but  the  tables 
are  kept  very  clean.  Each  monk  has  his 
napkin,  his  mug,  his  knife,  his  wooden 
fork  and  spoon,  which  remain  always  in 
the  same  place.  The  repast  consists  of 
coarse  brown  bread,  some  vegetable  soup 
made  without  butter  or  oil,  a  mess  of  car- 
rots, or  lentils,  two  apples  or  pears,  and 
a  little  cider.  "  At  or  about  one  o'clock 
they  return  to  work.  .  .  .  This  second 
period  of  work  lasts  from  an  hour  and 
a  half  to  two  hours.  The  recall  being 
sounded,  every  monk  takes  off  his 
'sabots,'  puts  away  his  tools,  puts  on 
his  cowl,  and  goes  into  his  cell,  where  he 
reads  and  meditates  till  Vespers,  at  four 
o'clock."  At  five  a  collation,  consisting 
of  dry  bread  and  some  fruit,  with  a  little 
cider,  is  taken  in  the  refectory.  After 
collation  there  is  a  short  interval  in  the 
cells  ;  then  the  monks  go  to  chapter  and 
listen  to  spiritual  reading  till  six,  when 
Compline  is  said.  At  seven  a  bell  rings 
and  they  go  to  their  dormitories ;  they 
sleep  on  straw  palliasses,  and  in  their 
ordinarj'  dress.  Probably  the  most  try- 
ing part  of  all  the  discipline  is  the  silence, 
no  monk  being  allowed  to  speak  to  his 
brother  on  any  occasion.  The  abbot  and 
the  guest-master  are  the  only  persons  in 
the  convent  who  are  permittea  to  speak 
to  strangers. 

The  monks  of  La  Trappe  for  the  most 
part  resisted  the  sophistries  of  Jansenism. 
The  local  authorities  in  1700  petitioned 
that  so  useful  a  body  of  men  might  be 
exempted  from  the  general  suppression  ; 
and  when  questioned  individually  as  to. 


888   TREASURE  OF  MERITS 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 


tlieir  desire  to  change  tlieir  mode  of  life, 
out  of  fit't y-tbree  monks  forty-two  declared 
that  they  wished  to  live  and  die  in  the 
monasters",  in  the  ol)servance  of  their 
rule.  After  the  suppression,  an  energetic 
monk  named  Dom  Augustin  succeeded 
in  finding  a  retreat  for  himself  and  a  score 
of  his  brethren  in  the  canton  Fribourg, 
where  they  occupied  the  deserted  monas- 
tery of  Val  Sainte.  From  this  centre 
Trappist  filiations  spread  the  austere  rule 
of  the  order  into  Spain,  Belgium,  Pied- 
mont, England,  and  Ireland.  Mount  St. 
Bernard  in  Leicestershire  and  the  Trap- 
pistine  '  convent  of  Stapehill  in  Dorset 
are  their  houses  in  this  country ;  in  Ire- 
land they  biive  flouishing  monasteries  at 
Mount  Melleray  and  Roscrea.  (H(5lyot.) 
TREASURE  OF  AXBRXTS.  [See 

Indtjlgexces.] 

TREXTT,    covircxx.    OF.  The 

general  councils  of  the  fifteenth  century 
succeeded  on  the  whole  in  one  of  the 
principal  objects  for  which  they  were 
convened,  that  of  restoring  or  maintain- 
ing the  unity  of  Christendom.  At  Con- 
stance the  great  schism  was  closed ;  at 
Basle  the  difliculty  with  the  Hussites  was 
arranged  ;  at  Ferrara-Florence  East  and 
AVest  were  momentarily  reunited.  [See 
Constance,  Basle,  Councils  of.]  Hence 
it  was  natural,  that  when  religious  dis- 
sension and  disturbance  broke  out  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  a  general  council 
sliould  be  confidently  looked  to  as  the 
remedy.  And  yet,  as  Pallavicini  remarlcs,- 
the  remembi'ance  that  the  Nicene  Council 
did  not  put  down  Arianisni,  nor  that  of 
Chalcedon  Eutycliianism,  with  other  like 
instances,  niiglit  have  served  to  moderate 
exjjectation  and  check  disappointment,  if 
it  should  prove  that  the  great  Q-^cumenical 
Council  of  the  sixteenth  century,  though 
inferior  in  no  respect  to  any,  even  the 
very  greatest  of  its  predecessors,  never- 
theless, far  from  suppressing  Protestant- 
ism, ushered  in  a  long  period  of  strife 
between  Catholics  and  the  various  hete- 
rodox bodies  in  every  land — a  strife  of 
which  the  end  appears  to  be  still  distant. 

AVhen  Leo  X.  by  the  l)u!l  "  E:xsurge 
Doniine  "  (l-'i'O)  condemned  the  doctrine 
of  Luther,  the  latter  appealed  from  the 
judgment  of  the  Pope  to  that  of  a  general 
council.  The  Diet  of  Spires  (1529)  in- 
sisted on  the  convocation  of  a  council, 
and  the  Recess  of  Augsburg  (1530),  while 
forbidding  religious  innovation,  promised 

1  The  Trappistine  nuns  were  instituted  by 
Dom  Augustin  (t  1827). 
"  Historia,  Apparatus. 


that  the  case  of  the  reforming  party 
ehould  be  laid  before  the  council,  which 
the  P'raperor  would  induce  the  Pope  to 
convene.  With  most  of  the  Protestant 
leaders  this  appeal  was  merely  a  device 
of  controversy.  Luther  wrote  to  Me- 
lanchthon  :  "  We  must  admit  the  council 
in  this  sense,  that  our  doctrine  is  true 
j  apart  from  the  council,  that  the  angels  in 
heaven  can  change  no  part  of  it,  and  that 
the  angel  who  should  attempt  to  do  so 
ouglit  to  be  put  under  anathema  and 
excommunicated  ;  much  more,  then,  is  it 
inadmissible  that  the  Emperor,  the 
bishops,  or  the  Pope  should  judge  of  it."' 
During  the  troubled  pontificate  of 
Clement  VII.  (1523-1534)  it  was  im- 
possible to  hold  the  council ;  but  Paul 
III.  (Farnese)  from  the  time  that  he  was 
elected  Pope  bent  all  his  energies  to  this 
end.  He  issued  letters  to  the  bishops 
and  the  sovereigns  in  1537,  proposing 
Mantua  as  the  place  of  meeting.  Various 
difiiculties  arose,  especially  on  the  part  of 
the  Protestants  ;  and  after  long  negotia- 
tion it  was  agreed  between  Charles  V. 
and  the  Pope  that  the  place  of  meeting 
should  be  Trent,  the  ancient  Tridentum, 
an  imperial  and  episcopal  city  on  the 
Adige,  where  Italy  borders  upon  Ger- 
many, so  that  the  Protestants  could  not 
say  that  the  council,  being  held  in  an 
Italian  city,  would  of  necessity  be  unduly 
infiuenced"  by  the  Pope.  The  Papal 
legates  were  at  Ti-ent  in  1542,  but  the 
war  which  had  just  broken  out  between 
France  and  the  Empire  rendered  any 
large  gatherino-  of  bishops  impossible. 
The  Treaty  of  Crespy  (1544)  restored 
peace  to  Eiii-ope,  ami  the  Pope  imme- 
diately announced  his  intention  of  hold- 
ing the  Council.  The  Emperor  gave  his 
consent,  and  his  brother  Ferdinand, 
meeting  the  German  Protestant  Princes 
at  the  Diet  of  Worms  (May  1545),  en- 
deavoured to  induce  them  to  accede  to 
the  general  desire  of  Christendom.  But 
they  pleaded  that  the  Pope,  by  whom 
the  Council  was  convened,  and  who 
would  preside  in  it  through  his  legates, 
had  already  pronounced  against  them,  so 
tliat  th(>y  would  only  go  to  Trent  to  hear 
their  own  condemnation  pronounced. 
Yet  how  could  they  expect  that  the 
Pope  and  the  Catholics  would  leave  the 
authority  of  the  see  of  Peter  an  open 
question?  To  do  so  would  have  been 
tantamount  to  admitting  that  the  Pro- 
testants had  been  justified  in  separating 

'  Art.  "Trent,"  by  Udinck,  in  Wetzer  and 
Welte. 


TRENT,  COUXCIL  OF 


TRENT.  COUNCIL  OF  8?0 


themselves  from  the  unity  of  the  Church. 
It  was  therefore  clear  from  the  first  tha.t 
no  considerable  body  of  Protestants 
■would  submit  to  the  council ;  still  the 
Pope  hoped,  and  with  good  reason,  that 
the  firmer  definition  of  Catholic  doctrine, 
and  the  reform  of  discipline,  which  might 
be  expected  from  the  deliberations  of  the 
synod,  would  strengthen  the  position  of 
all  the  Catholic  rulers  of  states,  and  help 
them  to  arrest  or  undo  imiovation  wher- 
ever the  mischief  had  not  grown  to  an 
incurable  height. 

The  first  session  was  held  on  December 
13,  1545.  The  Pope  was  represented  by 
three  legates,  the  Cardinals  Del  Monte 
(afterwards  Julius  III.),  Cervino,  and 
Reginald  Pole.  There  were  present  four 
archbishops,  twenty-two  bisliops,  five 
generals  of  order?,  and  envoys  from  the 
Emperor  and  the  King  of  the  Romans. 
The  Prince-Bishop  of  Trent  named  Count 
Sigismund  von  Arco  guardian  of  the 
council ;  its  secretaiy  was  the  able 
Angelo  Massarelli.  Cardinal  del  Monte, 
addressing  the  assembly,  said :  "  Is  it 
your  will,  for  the  praise  and  glory  of  j 
the  undivided  Trinity,  Father,  8on,  and 
Holy  Ghost,  for  the  increase  and  exalta-  I 
tion  of  tlie  faith  and  religion  of  Christ,  I 
for  the  extirpation  of  heresies,  the  peace  i 
and  union  of  the  Cliurch,  the  reformation  [ 
of  the  Christian  clergy  and  people,  and 
the  putting  down  and  extinction  of  the 
enemies  of  the  Christian  name,  to  decree 
and  declare,  that  the  sacred  General 
Council  of  Trent  begins  and  lias  Ijegun  ?  " 
The  Fathers  auswered,"P/«(:-e^"  The  next 
session  was  fixed  for  .January  7,  1546. 

Three  points  of  great  importance  were 
settled  soon  after  the  opening  of  tlie 
Council.  First,  that  the  bishops  should 
vote,  as  in  the  ancient  synods,  individu- 
ally, and  not,  as  had  been  done  at  Con- 
stance, by  nations.  Secondly,  that  the 
work  of  the  definition  of  doctrine,  and 
that  of  the  reformation  of  discipline, 
should  be  carried  on  simultaneously. 
Thirdly,  that  the  style  of  the  couciliar 
decrees  should  bear  the  impress  of  the 
Papal  authority  and  presidency  from  the 
outset.  Several  bishops  desired  that,  as 
at  Constance,  the  Council  should  describe 
itself  as  "representing  the  universal 
Church."  To  this  tlie  legates  would  not 
consent,  and  it  was  determined  that  the 
style  should  run  thus.  "  The  sacrosanct 
Synod  of  Trent,  legitimately  gathered 
togetlier  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  three 
legates  of  the  Apostolic  See  therein  pre- 
-siding  .  .  .  decrees,"  &c. 


In  the  second  session  the  Council 
regulated  various  matters  of  procedure. 
In  the  third  (Feb.  4,  1-546),  the  Fathers 
present  expressed  their  adhesion  to  the 
Creed  of  Nicaea  and  Constantinople,  and 
caused  it  to  be  recited  before  them.  New 
arrivals  gradually  added  to  their  numbers, 
and  at  the  fourth  session  (April  8,  1516). 
the  important  decree  on  Scripture  and 
tradition,  rendered  signally  opportune  by 
the  irrational  or  fanatical  opinions  on 
the  subject  which  the  Protestant  press 
had  been  pouring  forth  for  many  years, 
was  brought  forward  and  adopted.  It 
declared  that  the  truth  and  teaching  of 
Christ  were  contained  "in  the  written 
word  and  in  unwritten  traditions "  (?'« 
libris  scriptis  et  sine  scripto  traditionibus), 
defined  the  canon  of  Scripture  as  embrac- 
ing all  those  books,  and  those  only,  which 
we  find  in  the  Latin  Vulgate  and  the 
Douay  Piible,  and  ordained  "that  the  Vul- 
gate translation  sliould  be  accepted  every- 
where as  "  authentic."  In  the  fifth  ses- 
sion (June  17.  1546),  at  which  nine  arch- 
bishops and  fifty  bishops  were  present, 
the  doctrine  of  Original  Sin  was  defined, 
an  important  part  having  been  taken  in 
the  previous  discussions  by  the  Jesuits 
Layuez  and  Salmeron,  who  had  come  to 
the  Council  as  papal  theologians.  The 
usual  method  of  procedure  was  this  :  the 
projects  of  decrees  on  doctrine  or  disci- 
pline, proposed  by  the  legates,  were  dis- 
cussed point  by  point  in  private  con- 
ferences of  theologians  and  canonists, 
and  moulded  into  shape ;  they  were  then 
laid  before  general  congregations,  in 
which  each  bishop  had  the  right  of  speak- 
ing to  them  in  his  turn,  and  their  form 
wa.s  finally  settled ;  lastly,  tliey  were 
adopted  and  promulgated  in  public  ses- 
sion. After  a  long  interval,  in  the  course 
of  which  the  disturbed  state  of  Germany 
nearly  led  to  a  prorogation  of  the  Coun- 
cil, the  celebrated  decree  on  Justification, 
prepared  in  numberless  conferences  and  a 
long  series  of  general  congregations,  was 
adopted  at  the  sixth  session  (Jan.  1-3, 
1547).  By  this  decree  the  Lutheran 
errors,  that  man  is  justified  by  faith  only, 
and  that  his  justice  consists  in  the  impu- 
tation to  him  of  the  merits  of  Christ, 
were  solidly  confuted  and  demolished. 
It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  recirda 
of  no  former  general  council  contain  a 
theological  statement  which  for  complete- 
ness, depth,  and  solidity  of  view,  for  care- 
ful and  precise  expression,  and  for  general 
impressiveness  and  cogency,  surpasses  this 
Tridentine  decree.    Thirty-three  cauous, 


890      TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 


sanctioned  by  anathemas,  were  appended 
to  it,  in  the  twenty-third  of  which  the 
Council  condemns  the  tenet  that  man  can 
avoid  all,  even  venial,  sins  throufjhout  his 
life,  "  unless  hy  special  Divine  privilege,  as 
the  Church  holds  concerning  the  Blessed 
Virgin,"  thus  paving  the  way  for  the 
definition  of  the  absolute  sinlessness  of 
our  Lady  promulgated  at  Rome  three 
hundred  years  afterwards.  The  decree, 
on  reform  passed  at  this  session  renewed 
the  ancient  canons  requiring  the  re- 
sidence of  bishops,  and  enacted  new  rules 
to  the  same  end.' 

The  doctrine  of  Justification  having 
been  unanimously  defined,  the  means  by 
which  the  soul  receives  grace,  or  recovers 
it  when  forfeited,  presented  themselves 
for  consideration.  Accordingly,  in  the 
seventh  session  (March  3,  1647),  the  pre- 
vailing errors  on  the  doctrine  of  the 
Sacraments  in  general  were  condemned 
in  thirteen  canons;  fourteen  others 
guarded  and  elucidated  the  doctrine  of 
Holy  Baptism,  three  that  of  Confirmation. 
The  necessity  of  intention  on  the  part  of 
the  priest,  at  least  to  do  what  the  Church 
does  in  a  sacrament,  was  asserted  in  the 
eleventh  canon,  "De  Sacramentis  in 
Genere."  [See  Sackaments.]  A  decree 
of  reform  in  fifteen  chapters  was  also 
adopted. 

An  epidemic  now  broke  out  at  Trent ; 
a  bishop  and  the  general  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans died  of  it ;  and  the  alarm  was  so 
great  that  ten  or  twelve  bishops  aban- 
doned the  Council  and  went  home.  The 
legates  deemed  it  expedient  to  transfer 
the  assembly  to  Bologna,  and  this  view 
was  adopted  by  the  majority  of  the 
bishops ;  a  minority,  being  chiefly  those 
who  were  devoted  to  the  Emperor,  voted 
for  remaining  at  Trent.  Charles  V.  was 
strongly  opposed  to  the  removal  of  the 
Council,  and  regarded  the  alleged  epide- 
mic as  a  mere  pretext;  from  that  time 
there  was  no  more  cordiality  between 
him  and  the  Pope.  There  was  much 
danger  of  a  schism,  for  the  imperial 
bishops  would  not  leave  Trent ;  but  the 
danger  was  averted  by  the  prudence  of 
the  Pope,  who,  though  the  labours  in 
conference  and  congregation  went  steadily 
forward  at  Bologna,  would  allow  nothing 
to  be  published  while  the  circumstances 

1  Before  this  session  it  was  long  debated 
whether  the  residence  of  bishops  was  obligatory 
Jure  divino  or  jure  ecclesiastico.  As  the  obliga- 
tiou  was  the  same  in  either  case,  the  Pope  was 
of  opinion  that  the  question  need  not  be  de- 
cided. 


■were  so  critical.  Sessions  viii.  ix.  x.  re- 
late merely  to  this  business  of  the  trans- 
lation. On  September  14,  1547,  in  a 
general  congregation  held  at  Bologna,  the 
next  session,  which  was  to  have  been  on 
the  following  day,  was  postponed  nine 
(lie.  In  the  following  May  the  Emperor 
published  the  Interim  (a  system  of  doc- 
trine substantially  Catholic,  but  contain- 
ing several  important  concessions  to  the 
Protestants),  which  was  to  be  observed 
in  all  the  German  States  until  the  General 
Council  had  completed  its  work. 

Paul  III.  died  in  Nov.  1549.  His 
successor,  Julius  III.,  lost  no  time  in  re- 
calling the  bishops  to  Trent,  and  the 
second  period  of  the  Council  commenced 
with  the  eleventh  session,  held  on  May 

I,  1551,  under  the  presidency  of  the 
legate.  Card.  Crescenzio.  The  Council 
was  formally  resumed,  and  the  next 
session  fixed  for  September  1,  on  which 
day  the  business  was  further  postponed 
to  October  11,  with  an  intimation  that 
the  Sacrament  of  the  Eucharist  would 
then  be  treated  of.    In  session  xiii.  (Oct. 

II,  1551),  a  decree  on  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment of  the  altar  in  eight  chapters,  with 
eleven  canons  appended  to  it,  was  adopted. 
The  orthodox  and  primitive  belief  as  to 
the  nature  of  the  gift  of  His  body  and 
blood  left  by  Jesus  Christ  to  His  Church 
was  re-stated,  and  the  Council  (chap,  iv.) 
adopted  the  term  "  transubstantiation," 
as  fitly  expressing  the  change  which  takes 
place  in  the  elements  upon  consecration. 
The  Protestants,  though  their  various 
sects  propounded  doctrines  of  every  shade 
on  the  Eucharistic  gift,  naturally  all  fell 
short  in  their  definitions  of  the  stupendous 
reality ;  and  this  decree  has  consequently 
furnished  ever  since  a  ready  touchstone 
to  distinguish  truth  and  error.  In  Eng- 
land, down  to  the  date  of  Catholic  eman- 
cipation, no  one  could  sit  in  Parliament 
without  first  signing  a  declaration  against 
transubstantiation. 

The  Council  also  resolved  in  the 
thirteenth  session  to  postpone  the  dis- 
cussion on  four  points  of  Eucharistic  doc- 
trine,' on  which  it  was  understood  the 
German  Protestants  desired  to  be  heard, 
to  January  25,  1552,  and  meantime  to 
publish  a  safe-conduct,  pledging  the 
public  faith  that  all  persons  of  the  Ger- 
man nation,  of  what  status  or  rank  soever, 
should  be  free  to  come  to  the  Council, 
confer  with  the  Fathers  there,  and  leave 

1  Three  of  these  rel.ated  to  receiving  under 
both  species,  and  the  fourth  to  the  communion 
of  infants. 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF  891 


it  again,  witbout  molestation  or  inter-  I 
ference  of  any  kind. 

In  tlie  fourteenth  session  (Nov.  25, 

1551)  ,  the  doctrine  of  the  Sacrament  of 
Penance  and  that  of  Extreme  Unction 
were  defined.  A  decree  of  reform  was 
also  passed  in  thirteen  chapters. 

By  the  middle  of  January,  1552,  a 
considerable  number  of  deputies  from 
Protestant  states  and  cities  had  come  to 
Trent,  and  they  were  received  by  the 
Council  in  a  general  congregation  on  the 
24th  inst.  Their  demands,  presented  in 
writing,  were  found  to  be  of  an  imprac- 
ticable character.  One  was  that  their 
theologians  should  have  an  equal  consul- 
tative and  deliberative  voice  in  the  Coun- 
cil with  the  bishops ;  but  to  grant  this 
would  have  been  to  revolutionise  what 
had  been  the  unbroken  ecclesiastical 
practice  from  the  time  of  the  Apostles. 
A  new  safe-conduct,  expressed  in  more 
ample  terms,  was  read  at  the  fifteenth 
session.  But  there  was  no  other  fruit  of 
all  these  negotiations  with  the  Protes- 
tants, except  tq  prove  the  earnest  desire 
of  the  Pope  and  the  bishops  to  leave 
the  breakers  of  Church  unity  without 
excuse. 

At  the  fifteenth  session  (January  25, 

1552)  the  business  which  had  been  an- 
noimced  was  postponed  to  March  10. 
But  before  that  day  Maurice  of  Saxony 
had  commenced  hismarch  from  Thuringia, 
Germany  was  full  of  confusion  and  alarm, 
and  at  the  sixteenth  session  (April  28, 
1552)  the  Fathers  pre.«ent  adopted  a 
decree  suspending  the  Council  for  two 
years.  In  May  tlie  Emperor  was  nearly 
Burprised  by  Maurice  at  Innspruck ;  not 
long  aftem-ards,  di.sheartened  and  weary 
of  life,  he  abdicated  the  throne,  and 
retired  to  the  monastery  of  San  Yuste. 
Thus  ended  the  second  period  of  the 
Council. 

Paul  IV.  (CarafTa),  who  sat  in  the 
chair  of  Peter  between  1555  and  1550, 
took  no  step  to  reassemble  the  Council ; 
but  on  the  accession  of  Pius  IV.  (.Medici), 
it  was  evident  that  the  Church  had  re- 
ceived a  ruler  whose  energy  in  her  cause 
no  difficulties  could  tire,  no  resistance 
overcome.  He  published  a  bull  on 
November  20,  1560,  convening  "  a  sacred 
general  and  oecumenical  council "  to  meet 
at  Trent  on  Easter  Day,  1561.  It  was 
not  expressly  said  in  the  bull  that  this 
was  a  continuation  of  the  former  Council. 
That  it  should  ultimately  so  be  deemed 
was  the  firm  resolution  of  the  Pope,  and 
in  this  he  was  altogether  supported  by 


I  Spanish  opinion.  But  the  King  of  France 
and  the  Emperor  Ferdinand,  fearing  to 
exasperate  their  Protestant  subjects, 
whose  opinions  had  been  condemned  in 
the  former  session.s,  were  unwilling  to 
consent  to  the  present  Council's  being 
regarded  as  a  continuation  of  the  last ; 
they  wished  it  to  appear  that  all  debated 
questions  were  still  open,  and  might  be 
discussed  de  novo.  Pius  made  two  dis- 
tinct efforts  to  interest  Queen  Elizabeth 
in  the  Council.  Of  the  first  we  have  sj)oken 
in  a  former  article  [English  Church]; 
the  second  was  made  in  1561,  when  the 
Abbot  ^lartinenghi  was  sent  to  Belgium, 
and  application  made  on  his  behalf  for 
leave  to  cross  to  England  and  lay  before 
the  Queen  the  Pope's  entreaty  that  she 
would  ioin  tlie  Council.  The  reply  '  to 
the  application  was  an  absolute  refusal, 
])ased  upon  grounds  some  of  which  were 
ilinisy  enougii,  but  such  on  the  whole  as 
the  logic  of  the  Anglican  position  re- 
quired. The  real  drift  of  the  document 
was,  that  England  had  done  with  the 
Pope,  and  then-fore  it  was  useless,  and 
might,  1,.'  inix  liicvniis.  fi.r  lier  rulers  to 
confer  with  lii>  .  iiii.-.-ario  nii  ;iny  .-uljieet 
whate\i  r.  Mr.  Froutle  thinks 'thi,->  atti- 
tude \ery  grand;  Catholics  may  allow 
that— assiuniiig  for  a  moment  the  Pro- 
testant contriition  as  to  the  Papacy  to 
have  h.'i'H  trii.'-  it  was  consistent  and 
sagaeiniis.  Kut  a\  iiat  if  England,  in  re- 
jecting the  rai)ac\,was  rejecting  an  in- 
tegral j)art  of  Christianity?  In  that 
case  these  proceedings  were  no  matter 
of  gratulation,  and  eventually  could  not 
but  lead  to  evil  results. 

But  in  spite  of  the  hostiUty  of  the 
English  Government,  England  was  not 
entirely  unrepresented  at  the  Council. 
At  some  of  the  earlier  sessions  Cardinal 
Pole  and  Pate,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  had 
been  present;  now,  in  1562,  Thomas 
Goldwell,  bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  proceed- 
ing to  Trent  after  his  deprivation  by 
Elizabeth,  defined  with  tlie  assembled 
Fathers  that  ancient  Catholic  faith  which 
his  countrymen  had  received  more  than 
eight  hundred  years  before.  Ireland  was 
represented  by  three  bishops,  Thomas 
O'Herlaghy  of  Ross,  Eugene  O'Hart  of 
Achonry,  and  Donald  McCongail  of  Ra- 
phoe.  Mary  of  Scotland  wrote  a  Latin 
letter*  in  15G.'},  to  the  "  Sacrosanct  Synod 
of  -  Trent,"  in  which  she  referred  the 
Fathers  to  her  uncle,  the  Cardinal  of 
LoiTaine,  for  an  explanation  of  her  posi- 

'  See  it  in  Dodd  (ed.  Tiemej'),  ii.  cccxxii. 
»  Le  Plat,  vi.  48. 


892      TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF 


tion.  The  Cardinal  spoke  on  the  matter 
ut  considerable  length,'  unfolding  the 
ruinous  state  of  religion  in  Scotland,  and 
showing  that  the  few  Catholic  bishops 
could  not  be  spared  from  their  task  of 
watching  over  the  feeble  relics  of  Catho- 
licity. The  Council  replied  ^  in  terms  of 
feeling  and  lofty  courtesy.  They  accepted 
the  Queen's  excuses,  condoled  with  her 
on  the  state  of  her  kingdom,  admitted  the 
Cardinal  of  Lorraine  as  her  envoy  and  re- 
presentative, and  declared  that  among  the 
princes  and  rulers  who  in  those  evil  times 
had  been  bold  in  the  cause  of  the  Chui-ch 
of  God,  "  assuredly  the  illustrious  name  of 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scotland,  would  be  com- 
mended to  the  undying  remembrance  of 
mankind." 

The  Council  was  re-opened  in  the 
seventeenth  session  (January  18,  1562) 
by  the  Papal  legates.  Cardinal  Gonzaga 
of  Mantua  and  four  others,  and  immedi- 
ately adjourned  to  February  26.  On  that 
day  a  decree  was  adopted  relating  to  the 
censorship  of  books;  a  committee  was 
appointed ;  ultimately  the  matter  was 
referred  to  the  Pope  ;  and  the  result  was 
seen  at  last  in  the  erection  of  the  Sacred 
CongTegation  of  the  Index  [Index,  &c.]. 
A  fresh  safe-conduct,  addressed  not  to 
the  German  nation  only,  but  to  all  those, 
whether  nations  or  individuals,  "who 
have  not  communion  witli  us  in  the 
things  which  are  of  faith,"  guaranteeing 
their  safety,  and  entreating  them  to  come 
to  Trent,  was  soon  afterwards  published. 

Sessions  nineteen  and  twenty  were 
formal  only.  In  the  twenty-first  (July  16, 
1562),  the  four  questions  on  Eucharistic 
doctrine,  postponed  at  the  thirteenth 
session,  were  dealt  with.  In  the  twenty- 
second  (Septemljor  17, 1562),  the  doctrine 
of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  was  defined 
in  nine  chapters ;  things  to  be  obser\'ed  or 
avoided  in  the  celebration  of  the  same 
were  noted  ;  and  the  demand  for  the  con- 
cession of  the  chalice  to  the  laity  (on 
which  Ferdinand,  pressed  by  his  Bohe- 
mian and  Hungarian  subjects,  and  also 
the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  had  much  in- 
sisted) was  referred  to  the  judgment  of 
the  Pope. 

Disciplinary  questions  of  great  diffi- 
cultj'  and  complexity,  the  satisfactory 
settlement  of  which  required  an  active 
and  patient  interchange  of  views  among 
the  bishops  and  theologians  of  various 

'  See  the  abstract  of  his  speech  in  the  diary 
of  Mendozn,  a  Spanish  bishop  (Dollinger, 
Sammlung,  &c.). 

Le  Put,  he.  cU. 


I  countries,  caused  the  next  session  to  be 
deferred  till  July,  156.3.'  In  the  previous 
!  March  the  Carclinal  of  Mantua  died,  and 
was  succeeded  as  legate  by  the  able  Car- 
dinal Morone,  under  whose  prudent  man- 
agement the  remaining  deliberations  of 
the  Council  were  swiftly  and  successfully 
carried  through. 

In  January,  1563,  the  Anglican  bishopa 
had  met  in  convocation  at  London,  and 
'•  adopted  a  code  of  Thirty-nine  Articles  to 
regulate  the  religious  belief  and  practice 
of  tlie  English  people.  It  can  hardly  be 
doubted  that  these  articles  came  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  Fathers  of  Trent,  and 
that  several  statements  contained  in  them 
were  included  among  the  "  errores  nostri 
temporis,"  against  which  the  dogmatic 
decree  of  the  twenty-third  session  (the 
first  held  after  the  publication  of  the 
London  symbol)  was  especially  directed. 
Thus  the  twenty-fifth  article  denies 
"Orders"  to  be  a  "sacrament  of  the 
Gospel,"  and  classes  it  among  "  those  five 
commonly  called  sacraments,"  which 
"have  grown  partly  o^  the  corrupt 
following  of  the  Apostles,  partly  are 
states  of  life  allowed  in  the  Scriptures." 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Council  defines: 
"  If  any  one  shall  say  that  Orders  or 
sacred  ordination  is  not  truly  and  pro- 
perly a  sacrament  instituted  by  Christ 
the  Lord  ....  let  him  be  anathema." 
A  similar  opposition  of  view  will  come 
under  our  notice  in  other  instances. 

The  decree  of  Reformation  in  eighteen 
chapters,  adopted  at  the  twenty-third 
session,  contained  a  number  of  important 
provisions  on  the  residence  of  bishops 
and  priests,  on  ordinations,  on  the  qualifi- 
cations for  the  priesthood,  and  on  the 

*  About  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Car- 
dinal of  Lorraine  and  the  French  prelates  (Nov. 
1.062),  stormy  discussions  took  place  on  the 
jurisdiction  of  bisliops ;  did  it  come  imme- 
diately from  God,  or  from  God  through  the 
PopeV  The  Spanish  bishops  generally  held 
the  former  opiniou.  Mendoza's  sjieech  is  inter- 
esting (Dollinger,  ii.  98).  That  episcopal 
ordtr  was  jure  divino,  all,  he  said,  were  agreed; 
on  the  second  point,  relating  to  jurisdiction, 
"  my  view  is  that  we  receive  it  from  the  Su- 
preme Pontiff."  Next  day  the  Spanish  Bishop 
of  Guadix  spoke  vehemently  on  the  other 
side ;  Cardinal  Simoneta  said  he  wondered  at 
the  speaker's  language ;  there  was  great  ex- 
citement. The  Archbishop  of  Granada  took 
part  with  the  Bishop  of  Guadix,  and  protested 
against  his  being  interrupted.  But  many 
bishops,  with  whom  was  the  Cardinal  of  Lor- 
raine, thought  that  at  a  time  when  the  Protes- 
tants were  denying  the  authority  of  bishops 
altogether,  the  point  in  dispute '  might  stand 
over ;  and  this  view  at  last  prevailed. 


TRE>"T,  COUNCIL  OF 

erection  of  seminaries  for  the  training  of  1 
clergy. 

At  the  twenty-fourth  session  (No- 
vember 11,  1503),  the  doctrine  of  Chris- 
tian marriage  was  defined,  and  anathema 
pronoimced  on  whoever  should  deny  it  to 
be  truly  and  properly  a  sacrament.  Here 
again  the  couciliar  decree  is  in  precise 
contradiction  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Anglican  bishops  in  their  twenty-fifth 
article.  A  decree  in  ten  chapters  on  the 
reformation  of  marriage  was  added. 

In  the  twentv-fifth  and  last  session 
(December  -3  and  4,  1563),  the  Council 
adopted  decrees  on  Purgatory,  on  tlie  In- 
vocation, Veneration,  and  Relics  of  Saints 
and  Holy  Images,  and  on  Indulgences. 
The  .\nglican  twenty-second  article,  by  a 
singular  choice  of  words,  describes  the 
doctrine  of  the  Holy  See  on  these  various, 
and,  in  part,  dissimilar  subjects  as  "a  fond 
thing  vainly  invented."  The  Council 
states  what  is  necessary  to  be  believed 
upon  them  all,  neither  confining  the 
liberty  of  theologians  by  an  over-precise- 
ness  of  definition  nor  leaving  any  essen- 
tial point  obscure.  In  the  section  on 
Holy  Images,  reference  is  naturally  made 
to  the  decrees  of  the  Second  Council  of 
Nicnea  against  the  Iconoclasts.  A  number 
of  important  regulations  affecting  the 
religious  orders  were  embodied  in  the 
decree  "  De  Regularibus  et  Monialibus " 
(on  the  regular  clergy-  and  nuns). 

Since  the  commencement  of  the  third 
period  of  the  Council,  the  opposition  of 
the  Emperor  and  the  King  of  France  to 
the  view  that  it  was  a  continuation  of  the 
former  Council  had  gradually  become 
weaker,  and  now  the  fact  of  continuity 
■was  assumed  without  disguise,  and  agreed 
to  bv  all.  The  Fathers,  arrived  at  the 
termination  of  their  labours,  agreed  to 
request  the  confirmation  of  the  Council  in 
all  its  three  phases  from  the  Supreme 
Pontiff.  This  confirmation  wns  given  on 
January  26,  1564.  It  was  also  deter- 
mined that  all  the  decrees  of  the  Council 
which  affected  ecclesiastical  discipline  and 
modified  positive  law  should  be  consi- 
dered as  coming  into  force  on  May  1, 
1564. 

Besides  the  ambassadors,  the  names  of 
nine  cardinals,  three  patriarchs,  thirty- 
three  archbishops,  two  hundred  and  thirty- 
seven  bishops,  eight  abbots,  eight  gene- 
rals of  orders,  and  a  hundred  and  fifty 
theologians  and  canonists,  were  inscribed 
on  the  attendance-roll  of  the  Council,  as 
having  been  present  at  one  or  more  of  the 
sessions.     As  regards  nationality,  the 


TRENT,  COUNCIL  OF  893 

Italian  prelates,  numbering  187,  consti- 
tuted more  than  half  the  Council. 

Among  the  prelates  at  Trent  distin- 
guished for  their  virtue  and  learning  were 
the  Cardinals  del  Monte,  Cervini,and  Seri- 
])andi,  Bartholomew  de  Martyribus,  arch- 
bisliop  of  Braga,  Paulus  Jovius,  bishop  of 
Nocera,  Diego  Covarruvias,  bishop  of 
I  Segovia,  Yida,  bishop  of  Alba,  and  Lipo- 
i  mani,  bishop  of  Modon.  Among  the 
!  more  eminent  theologians  were  Peter  de 
Soto  and  Melchior  Cano,  Dominicans ; 
Salmeron,  Laynez,  Le  Jay,  and  Turriani, 
Jesuits  ;  Michael  Baius,  Jansenius,  Rami- 
rez, Fernandez,  &c.,  &c.  The  counsel  of 
his  holy  nephew,  St.  Charles  Borromeo, 
was  a  source  of  strength  and  enlighten- 
ment to  Pius  lY.  during  the  whole  third 
period  of  the  Council. 

(The  voluminous  literature  of  the 
Council  is  well  tiiven  in  Cardinal  Ilergen- 
rofher's  "  Ilaudbuch  der  allgeui.  Kirchen- 
gescliic]it","iii.  2;!2  [i  d.P>\  Auiongthemost 
iin]H>rt;int  sources  are,  Sforza  Pallavicini,' 
"  History,  v<:c.''  in  Italian,  1056,  in  Latin, 
Antwerp,  1073;  Le  Plat,  "Monumenta, 
&c.,"  Louvain,  17.^(>;  Theiner,  "Diary  of 
.\ngelo  Massarelli,"  1874;  Mendham, 
[  "Acta  Concilii  Trid."  1812;  Diillinger, 
"  Sammlung  von  L'rkuuden,  Sec."  1876. 
The  hi>tories  of  Raynaldus,  Gieseler, 
Menzel,  Alzog,  and  Rohrbaeher,  and  the 
critical  worlv  of  Brischar,  may  also  be 
consulted.  Paul  Sarpi's '  "History  of 
the  Council  of  Trent,'  first  published  in 
Italian  at  London  in  1610,  under  the 
feigned  name  of  Pietro  Soave  Polano  [an 
anagram  of  "  Paolo  Sarpi  Yeneto "], 
translated  into  French  by  Courayer,  1736, 
is  quite  unworthy  of  trust.) 

The  martyr  Edmund  Campion  (11580) 
wrote   in  the   following  terms  of  the 
Council  of  Trent :  "  The  Synod  of  Trent, 
the  older  it  waxeth,  the  more  it  will 
flourish.    Good  God !   what  variety  of 
nations !  what  choice  of  bishops  of  the 
I  whole  world,  what  splendour  of  kings 
and   commonwealths,  what  marrow  of 
theologues,  what  sanctity,  what  weep- 
j       '  Pallavicini.   a   .Tesiiit,   and  aftcrward.s 
I  cardinal,  wrote  his  history  e.xpressly  to  con- 
'  futc  Sarpi ;  he  had  access  to  all  the  sources 
of  information  contained  in  the  Roman  ar- 
chives. 

-  Sarpi  was  a  Scrvite  friar  and  theolofrian 
to  the  republic  of  Venice;  but  under  the  frocli 
and  outward  demeanour  of  a  religious  .secretly 
intrigued  to  introduce  Protestantism  into  the 
Republic.  Pallavicini  gives  a  list  of  3G1  falsi- 
fications or  misrepresentations  of  fact  in  his 
history,  of  which  Bossuet  wrote  that  it  wa-  the 
work  not  so  much  of  the  historian  as  of  the 
I  open  enemy  of  the  Council. 


694  TRENTAL 


TRDsITARIAIsS 


ings,  what  fasts,  what  academical  flowers, 
what  languages,  what  subtilties,  what 
lahour,  what  infinite  reading,  what  riches 
of  virtues  and  studies,  did  fill  up  that 
majestical  sacred  place  ! "  (Quoted  in 
Brent's  English  version  of  Sarpi's  history, 
Lond.  1(S40.) 

TRENTAXi.  Trentale,  trentuale,  tren- 
tena,  trentenarium,  triccnarium,  trigesi- 
male,  trii/iiitale,  are  dilferent  names  for 
the  same  thing,  viz.  an  office  of  thirty 
Masses  for  the  dead.  (Ducange.) 

TRZCBRXON-  AHH  BXCEKZOTT. 
Candlesticks  with  three  and  two  lights 
signifying  respectively  the  Trinity  and  two 
natures  of  Christ,  used  by  Greek  bishops 
in  blessing  the  people.  [Daniel,  "  Thesaur. 
Liturg."  torn.  iv.  p.  382.] 

TRZM-XTA.BXAXi'S.  This  order  was 
founded  at  Rome  in  1108  by  St.  John  of 
Matha,  a  native  of  Provence,  and  an  aged 
French  hermit,  Felix  of  Valois,  in  order 
to  redeem  Christian  captives  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  infidels.  Affairs  in  the 
East  had  taken  an  unfortunate  turn; 
Jerusalem  had  fallen  into  Saladin's 
hands,  and  great  numbers  of  Christian 
soldiers  were  in  captivity,  which,  with 
Mahommedans,  was  equivalent  to  sla- 
very. The  dangers  of  every  kind  which 
beset  these  unfortunates  were  what 
moved  the  holy  founder  to  make  a  great 
organised  effort  for  their  relief.  The 
order  was  sanctioned  by  Innocent  111.; 
the  rule  was  that  of  St.  Austin  with  par- 
ticular statutes;  the  diet  was  of  great 
au.'^terity  ;  the  habit,  at  least  in  France, 
M-as  a  soutane  and  scapular  of  white  serge, 
with  a  red  and  blue  cross  on  the  right 
breast.  The  first  monastery  was  at 
Cerfroy,  in  France ;  this  continued  to  be 
the  mother  house  till  the  Frencli  Revolu- 
tion. The  work  was  begun  w  ith  ptvut 
energy  ;  John  the  Englishman  and  "Wil- 
liam the  Scot,  two  of  the  earliest  fol- 
lowers of  St.  John,  were  sent  to  Morocco, 
where  they  negotiated  (1200)  the  ran- 
som of  18G  captives,  and  restored  them 
to  their  friends.  It  was  a  fundamental 
rule  of  the  order  that  at  least  one-third 
of  its  revenues  should  be  set  apart  for  the 
work  of  redemption.  At  Tunis,  a  short 
time  after  the  success  in  Morocco,  the 
saint,  having  redeemed  120  captives, 
embarked  with  them  in  a  ship  bound  for 
Ostia.  Some  ^lahommedans  hoarded  the 
vessel,  took  away  the  rudder,  and  tore 
the  sails  to  ribands  ;  but  Sr.  .Tohn  is  said 
to  have  hung  his  cloali  and  those  of  his 
companions  from  the  yard,  and  to  ha\e 
obtained  by  prayer  such  effectual  aid 


from  heaven,  that  the  vessel  was  wafte''? 
after  a  few  days  into  the  harbour  of  Ostia. 

The  Trinitarians  had  at  one  time  as 
many  as  two  hundred  and  fifty  houses. 
It  was  estimated  in  the  seventeenth 
century  that  since  its  foundation  the 
order  had  rescued  30,720  Christian  cap- 
tives. 

St.  John  of  Matha  died  in  1213. 
Five  years  later,  the  military  order  of 
Our  Lady  of  Mercy  for  the  redemption  of 
captives,  commonly  called  the  Order  of 
Slercy,  was  founded  at  Barcelona  by 
James  I.,  king  of  Arragon,  and  St.  Peter 
Nolasco,  with  the  same  general  object  as 
that  pursued  by  the  Trinitarians.  This 
order,  after  a  time,  while  adhering  to  the 
rule  of  St.  Austin  which  it  had  originally 
embraced,  elected  a  priest  for  its  superior 
and  put  off  its  military  character.  The 
religious  belonging  to  it  threw  themselves 
with  great  ardour  into  the  mission  work 
in  America.  One  of  them,  F.  Solorzano, 
was  confessor  to  Columbus  and  almoner 
of  the  fleet  in  the  memorable  voyage  of 
1492;  Henryon  calls  him  "the  first  apostle 
of  the  New  AVorld."  ' 

At  the  dissolution  there  were  eleven 
Trinitarian  houses  in  England,  five  in 
Scotland,-  and  one  (x\dare,  co.  Limerick) 
in  Ireland.  Though  in  fact  regular  ca- 
nons, the>e  religious  were  often  called 
in  EnLz^rtiiil  Red,  or  Maturin  friars,  from 
the  eolour  of  the  cross  on  the  habit, 
and  Ijecause  they  had  a  famous  hou.-e 
at  Paris  built  near  the  chapel  of  St. 
Maturin. 

A  reformation  made  by  Father  Juan 
Baptista  was  approved  by  the  Holy  See 
in  \i)'JV,  and  resulted  in  the  erection  of 
the  congregation  of  "  Discalced  Trinita- 
rians "  in  Spain,  Their  houses,  as  well 
as  those  of  the  unreformed  portion  of  the 
order,  were  suppressed  in  Spain  in  the 
reign  of  the  late  Queen,  Isabella  II. 

From  the  vei-y  beginning  a  number 
of  pious  ladies  were  associated  with  the 
order,  and  in  1236  were  admitted  to  take 
vows.  With  the  approval  of  the  Holy 
See,  a  third  part  of  their  goods  was  de- 
voted  to  the  redemption   of  captives. 


Hist.  Gen.  des  3!issions  Cath, 


c.  82. 


2  Doninpton  (Berks)  Werland  (Devon.) 

Kston  (Wilts)  Worcester 
Ilounslo-\v 

Knnrcsborough  In  Scotland: 

M(HU.n,lf.ii  (Kent)  Aliordeen 

Tlirlcstonl  (  W.arw.)  Dernoch 

Tlm-lirtl  M>xf.)  F.nil 

Tot  I, CSV  (  Little)  Peebles 

W.ilUnoll     (North-  Scotlaud's  Well 
umberlaiid) 


TRINITY,  FEAST  OF 


TRINITY,  HOLY  895 


Their  days  were  spent  in  prayer  for  the 
same  pious  object,  in  the  education  of 
jonng  girls,  and  in  the  care  of  the  sick. 
They  do  not  seem  to  have  bad  any 
houses  in  England  before  the  Reforma- 
tion. A  few  years  ago  (1886)  they  came 
to  this  country  and  !»ettled  at  Bromley, 
Kent.  More  than  thirty  convents  of  the 
order  have  been  established  in  Algiers 
since  the  French  conquest,  where  the 
nuns  are  engaged  in  the  schools  and 
hospitals. 

(Il^lyot;  Henryon;  Latomy,  "Hist, 
de  la  Foudation  de  TOrdre  de  N.  D.  de  la 
Mercy,"  1618 ;  Tanner ;  M.  Walcott, 
"  Scoti-monasticon.") 

This  order  is  sometimes  confounded 
with  that  of  the  CKrxcHED,  ORorcHED, 
or  Crossed  Friaes,  which  "was  insti- 
tuted, or  at  least  reformed,"  says  Tanner, 
"  by  one  Gerrard  prior  of  St.  Mary  of 
Morello  at  Bologna ;  and  confirmed,  a.d. 
1169,  by  pope  Alexander  III.,  who 
brought  them  under  St.  Austin's  rule, 
and  made  some  other  constitutions  for 
their  government."  They  fii-st  appeared 
in  England  at  the  Synod. of  Rochester  in 
1244,  armed  with  a  sweeping  papal  privi- 
lege. "At  first  they  carried  a  cross  fixed 
to  a  staff  in  their  hands;  whence  they 
were  called  fratres  cruciferi ;  afterwards 
they  had  a  cross  of  red  cloth  upon 
their  backs  or  breasts  "  (Tanner).  They 
wore  a  blue  habit.  Their  first  bouse  was 
at  Colchester:  and  in  course  of  time  they 
established  themselves  at  a  few  other 
places — Barham  (Camb.)  (c.  to  Welne- 
tham);  Brackley  (Northants)  ;  London, 
near  Tower  Hill  (their  chief  house) ; 
Welnetham,  Great  (Sufi'.) ;  AVotton-under- 
Edffe  (Glouc.) ;  and  Oxford  (in  Grandpont 
Street).  Matt  Paris,  iv.  303;  v.  194 
(Rolls  ed.). 

TRZITZTV,  FBA.ST  OP.  A  decre- 
tal attributed  to  Alexander  III.  in  the 
"  Corpus  Juris,"  but  really  of  Alexander 
II.,  informs  us  tliat  some  churches  kept 
this  feast  on  the  Sunday  after  Pentecost, 
others  on  the  Sunday-  before  Advent, 
while  the  Roman  Church  did  not  keep  it 
at  all,  since  ever\'  day  the  Trinity  was 
praised  and  worshipped.  Terv'  early  in 
the  tenth  century  the  fea-st  was  kept  at 
Liege,  in  the  twelfth  the  Abbot  Rupert 
speaks  of  it  as  generally  observed,  and  in 
1334  John  XXlI.  ordered  its  observance 
by  the  whole  Church  ou  the  Sunday  next 
after  Pentecost.  (Benedict  XIV.  "De 
•Fest.") 

TRZirzTT,  HO&'T.  The  mystery 
of  the  Trinity  consists  in  this,  that  God, 


being  numerically  and  individually  one, 
exists  in  three  Persons,  or,  in  otlier  words, 
that  the  Divine  essence,  which  is  one  and 
the  same  in  the  strictest  and  most  abso- 
lute sense,  exists  in  three  Persons,  really 
distinct  from  each  other,  and  yet  each 
really  identical  with  the  same  Divine 
essence.  The  Father  is  unbegotten,  the 
Son  liegotten,  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds 
from  the  Father  and  Son.  Each  Person 
is  really  distinct  from  the  other,  each  is 
the  true,  eternal  God,  and  yet  there  is 
only  one  God.  We  can  understand  how 
tliree  individual  men  are  distinct  from 
each  other  and  yet  possess  humanity  in 
common.  The  unity  of  the  three  Divine 
Persons  is  altogether  different.  A\'hen 
we  speak  of  them  as  one  God,  we  mean 
not  only  that  each  is  God,  but  that  each 
is  one  and  the  same  God,  and  herein  is 
the  mystery,  incomprehensible  to  any 
created  intelligence.  The  word  Trinity 
{rpiai)  first  occurs  in  Theophilus  of  An- 
tioch  ("  Ad  Autol."  ii.  15),  who  wrote 
about  180,  but  the  doctrine  which  the 
word  expresses  appears  in  the  New,  and 
has  its  roots  in  the  Old  Testament. 

(A)  The  Doctrine  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment.— (a)  Catholics,  from  the  Fathers 
downwards,  full  of  faith  in  the  Holy 
Trinity,  and  knowing  that  the  author  of 
the  New  Testament  is  also  the  author  of 
the  Old,  have  naturally  been  prepared  to 
find  traces  of  the  doctrine  in  the  ancient 
Scriptures, and  have  often  satisfied  them- 
selves that  such  trace*  exist  in  cases 
where  scholarship  proves  the  possibility 
or  even  the  correctness  of  another  inter- 
pretation. In  what  follows,  we  have  kept 
constantly  in  view  the  least  an  adversaiy 
must  admit,  the  least  which  grammatical 
and  historical  considerations  require  us  to 
see  in  any  particular  text. 

Passages  there  are,  quoted  by  the 
Fathers,  in  which  God  speaks  of  Him- 
self in  the  plural.    Such  are  Gen.  i.  :.'6, 
iii.  22,  xi.  7  ;  Is.  vi.  8.    In  the  first  two 
I  the  Fathers  generally  see  an  allusion  to 
1  the  Trinity,  most  of  them  do  so  in  the 
i  third,  a  few  only  in  the  fourth,  which  is 
generally  understood  as  addresseil  to  the 
seraphim  who  are  mt^ntioned  in  the  con- 
text (references  in  Petavius,  "  De  Trin." 
I  ii.  7).   Let  us  take  the  first  passage  from 
Genesis,  the  strongest,  as  Petiivius  thinks, 
among  them  all.    "And  God  said,  Let 
us  make  man  in  our  image."    Tlie  New 
I  Testament  gives  no  exposition  of  the 
;  words     The  oldest  explanation  is  found 
in  Philo,  and  adopted  in  the  Targum  of 
Pseudo-Jonatlian,  which  paraphrases  the 


896         TRINITY,  HOLY 


TRINITY,  HOLY 


words  thus:  "  Jeliorali  said  to  tlie angels, 
ministering  before  Him,  wlio  wore  created 
on  the  second  day  of  the  creation  of  the 
world,  Let  us  make  man  in  our  image." 
This  view  has  met  with  the  approval  of 
some  modern  scholars,  but  there  is  no 
mention  of  angels  in  the  context,  and  the 
notion  of  angelic  agency  in  creation  is 
Babylonian  and  Persian,  Ijut  not  Bil)lical. 
Another  very  popular  view  in  modern 
times  is  that  God  uses  the  plural,  just  as 
kings  do,  as  a  mark  of  dignity  (the  so- 
called  "  plural  of  majesty  "),  but  it  is  only 
late  in  Jewish  history  that  such  a  form 
of  speech  occurs,  and  then  it  is  used  by 
Persian  and  Greek  rulers  (Esdr.  iv.  18; 
1  Mace.  X.  19).  Nor  can  the  plural  be 
regarded  as  merely  indicating  the  way  in 
wtiich  God  summons  Himself  to  energy, 
for  the  use  of  the  language  is  against  this 
(Gen.  ii.  18;  Is.  xxxiii.  10).  The  most 
recent  explanation  is  that  of  Dillmann 
{ad  loc),  who  thinks  that  God,  in  the 
solemn  moment  of  man's  creation,  ad- 
dressi's  Himself  as  the  complex  of  Divine 
energies  and  powers.  Akin  to  the  argu- 
ments drawn  from  the  above  texts  is  that 
from  the  fact  that  the  Hebrew  word  for 
God  is  plural,  while  it  is  usually  con- 
strued with  a  singular  verb.  The  real 
origin  of  this  plural  form  is  obscure,  but 
anyhow  Petavius  most  rightly  refuses  to 
see  in  it  any  allusion  to  a  plurality  of 
Divine  Persons.  The  word  for  a  human 
master  is  also  often  plural,  and  the  same 
plural  form  of  the  word  God  with  a 
singular  verb  is  used  of  Dagon  (Jud.  xvi. 
'2'-j).  Lastly,  under  this  head  we  may  ! 
mention  the  "Holy,  holy,  holy"  of  Is.  vi.,  j 
the  triple  blessing  in  Num.  vi.  24,  and  j 
the  apparent  distinction  between  God 
and  Goil  in  Gen.  xix.  i'4  :  "  And  Jeliova 
raineil  on  Sodom  andGomorrhah  sulphur 
and  fire  from  .Jeliova  from  the  heavens." 
The  first  two  places  may  only  show  that 
three,  like  seven  and  ten,  was  a  favourite 
(cf.  Jer.  viii.  4)  and  perhaps  a  sacred 
number  among  the  Hebrews ;  in  Gen.  xix. 
24,  the  repetition  of  the  words  "from 
Jehova "  is  perhaps  merely  an  old  and 
emphatic  equivalent  for  from  "  Himself." 
Its  meaning  is  much  the  same  as  that  of 
the  words  which  follow  it — viz.  from 
"  the  heavens,"  just  as  «  A«6y  = 
ovpavov. 

O)  The  so-called  Theopham'es.—Qod, 
whom  no  man  can  see  and  live,  is  repre- 
sented as  appearing  to  the  Patriarchs 
without  indication  of  time  or  mode,  Gen. 
xii.  7.  xxvi.  2,  XXXV.  9,  by  night,  xxvi. 
24:  "  the  word  of  Jehova  "  is  said  to  have 


come  in  a  vision,  xv.  1.  God  spake  to 
Adam  (Gen.  iii.  8,  but  it  is  not  said  that 

He  appeared),  and  an  angel  ('JInSiJ,  "  le- 
gatus,''  but  properly  "  legatio "),  who 
appears  in  God's  name  is  alternately  dis- 
tinguished from  and  identified  with  God 
Himself  (see,  e.ff.,  Gen.  xvi.  7  seq.,  xviii.,, 
xxxi.  11  seq.  :  Jud.  vi.  11  ser/.;  Zacli.  i. 
19).  The  LXX  (see  Keil  on  Genesis,  p. 
128)  regarded  these  cases  as  apparitions 
of  a  created  angel,  and  it  appears  to  us 
that  the  view  is  confirmed  by  various 
passaces  in  the  New  Testament  {e.ff.  Acts 
vii.  30;  cf.  Heb.  ii.  2,  3;  Gal.  iii.  19; 
Acts  vii.  53).  In  the  early  Church,  Scrip- 
ture was  interpreted  in  another  way,  and 
the  Fathers,  down  to  St.  Augustine's  time 
(references  in  Petav.  "De  Trin."  viii.  2), 
believed  that  "  the  angel  of  the  Lord " 
was  the  Word  of  God,  taking  the  form 
of  an  angel,  and  alleged  such  apparitions 
as  a  powerful  argument  against  Jews 
and  heretics  for  a  distinction  of  Persons 
in  God.  The  interpretation,  however, 
was  used  by  Arians  to  prove  a  diflei-ence 
of  nature  between  Father  and  Son,  the 
former  being  invisible,  the  latter  visible. 
St.  Augustine's  view  is  expressed  in  his 
treatise  on  the  Trinity,  and  finally  pre- 
vailed. He  argues  that  God  in  any 
Person  cannot  be  seen  corporeally,  and 
that  a  creature,  such  as  the  angel  who 
appeared  to  Abraham,  &c.,  might  repre- 
sent any  one  of  the  three  Persons. 
(Augustine,  "  De  Trin."  ii.  18  ;  cf. 
Hieron.  "In  Gal."  iii.  19,  who  regards 
ihe  appearances  as  of  created  angels  repre- 
senting the  Mediator.)  This,  as  it  seems 
to  us,  is  tlir  reasonable  view,  or  rather, 
we  sliould  prefer  to  say  that  the  angel 
ivpivseiits  God  quite  independently  of 
His  existence  in  one  or  more  Persons. 
A1  (lie  same  time,  we  may  fairly  look  on 
such  apparitions  as  preparing  the  way 
for  a  belief  in  the  Incarnation,  especially 
when  we  remember  that  the  "angel  of 
Jehova  "  is  a  title  given  to  the  Messias 
(Mai.  iii.  2).  Again,  the  angel  who  led 
the  Israelites  is  called  the  angel  of  God's 
"  face  or  presence  "  (Is.  Ixlii.  9),  which  has 
a  resemblance,  though  a  very  imperfect 
one,  to  the  New  Testament  doctrine  that 
God  is  manifested  in  Christ.  So  under- 
stood, the  Theophanies  would  have  an 
indirect  connection  with  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity. 

( y)  Word,  Wisdom,  Spirit. — The  per- 
sonification of  God's  word  and  wisdom  in 
the  Old  Testament  brings  us  far  closer 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.    Even  in. 


TRINITY,  HOLY 


TRINITY,  nOLY  807 


Gen.  i.  God  is  represented  as  creating  by 
His  spoken  command,  and  in  Ps.  xxxiii.  6 
the  creative  energ\-  of  God  is  summed  up 
in  a  single  term — viz.  bis  word  :  "  By 
tbe  word  of  Jehovah  were  the  heavens 
made (cf.  Ps.  cvii.  20,  cxlvii.  15). 
Elsewhere  we  meet  with  another  form  of 
the  same  idea — viz.  the  wisdom  of  God, 
which  is  personified '  in  Job  xxviii.  12  scy. ; 
Prov.  viii.  ix. ;  Pxclus.  i.  1-10,  xxiv.  8  ; 
Baruch  iii.  27-iv.  4.  In  the  Alexandrian 
Book  of  "Wisdom  we  get  beyond  mere 
personificatiou,  and  a  real  personal  exist- 
ence is  attributed  to  Wisdom  (vii.  7-xi.). 
This  Wisdom  is  "the  effulgence  of  eternal 
light,"  "  the  image  of  God's  goodness," 
the  spirit  in  her  is  "intelligent,  holy, 
only-begotten  "  (vii.  22).  On  the  other 
hand,  though  the  book  speaks  of  God's 
"  Almightj- word''  (xvii.  5)  ''leiipingdown 
from  his  royal  throne  "  to  take  vengeance 
on  the  Egyptians,  tliis  seems  to  be  no 
more  than  a  figure  of  speech,  and  the 
conception  of  the  Word  of  God  falls  into 
the  background  behind  that  of  Wisdom. 
It  is  often  difficidt  to  decide  whether  the 
attributes  ascribed  to  Wisdom  answer 
most  closely  to  those  of  the  Adyoy  in  the 
New  Testament,  or  to  those  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  through 
her  that  all  things  are  made ;  on  the 
other,  she  dwells  in  the  hearts  of  the 
just.  It  can  hardly  be  said  that  the  Old 
Testament  certainly  expresses  the  hypo- 
statical  existence  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
natural  as  it  is  for  a  believer  in  the 
Cathohc  doctrine  to  interpret  various 
passages  of  the  Old  Testament  in  this 
way.  The  Spirit  of  God  works  in  nature; 
it  endows  men  with  skill  of  various  kinds 
(Exod.  xxxi.  3-6);  and  particularly  with 
moral  virtues,  whence  it  is  called  the 
Holy  Spirit  (Ps.  li.  13);  it  is  to  rest 
specially  on  the  Messias  and  the  people 
of  the  ^lessianic  period  (Is.  xi.  2  seq., 
xxxii.  16,  xliv.  .3:  Ezech.  xtxix.  20; 
Joel  iii.  1,  2).  There  is  indeed  one 
passage  in  the  "Vulgate  which  expressly 
attributis  hypostatic  existence  to  the 
Spirit  of  God— viz.  Is.  xlviii.  16:  "The 
Lord  God  and  his  Spirit  have  sent  me  " 
(Is.  xlviii.  16  :  "  Dominus  Deus  misit  me 
et  Spiritus  ejus").  But  in  the  Hebrew 
"Spirit"  may  be,  and  probably  is,  the 
accusative.    "The  Lord  God  hath  sent 

I  It  is,  of  course,  hard  to  draw  a  clear  line 
between  poetical  personification  and  doctrinal 
statement  of  hypostatical  existence.  The 
beautiful  passage'  in  Job,  and  the  reflection 
of  it  in  Baruch,  are  clear  instances  of  the 
former. 


[  me  and  his  Spirit " — i^.  His  Spirit  to 

i  dwell  in  and  guide  me. 

!       (S)  In  a  few  passages  the  Old  Testa- 

\  ment  ascribes  Divine  attributes  to  the 

;  Messias,  and  this,  as  the  Messias  is  sent 

,  by  and  is  distinct  from  God  (the  Father), 
implies  a  duality  of  Persons  in  God. 
Some  places  often  adduced,  although 
their  true  sense  and  reference  to  our 
Lord  are  certain  to  us  from  the  light  of 
the  New  Testament,  are  scarcely  conclu- 
sive in  and  by  themselves.  Thus  in  Ps. 
ii.  7,  "  Thou  art  my  son,  this  day  have  I 
begotten  thee,"  the  sonship  does  not  of 
itself  imply  divinity.    Israel  collectively 

j  was  God's  first-horn  (Exod.  iv.  2.3),  and 
Solomon  as  king  of  Israel  was  the  son  of 
God  (2  Sam.  vii.  14:  "I  shall  be  to  him 
for  a  Father  niid  he  shall  be  to  ine  for  a 
son  "),  and  the  "  day  "  might  well  he  the 
day  of  coronation,  for  the  Hebrew  Bible 
never  speaks  of  a  mere  private  individual 
as  a  child  of  God.  Sonship  belongs  to 
the  people  collectively  or  to  their  repre- 

j  sentative.  In  Ps.  ex.  1,  "  Jehovah  said  to 
my  Lord,  Sit  thou  on  my  right  hand," 
the  word  translated  Lord  (^i'lS-  not  -yiX) 

'\  is  simply  the  common  term  for  any  lord 
or  master  (1  Sam.  xxii.  12);  and  in  1 

j  Chron.  xxix.  23,  we  read,  "  Solomon  sat 
on  the  throne  of  Jehovah,  as  king."'  In 
Ps.  xlv.  7,  8,  "  Thy  throne,  0  God,  is  for 
ever  and  ever,"  the  interpretation  of  the 
Hebrew  words,  on  mere  philological 
grounds,  and  apart  from  New  Testament 
authority,  is  very  doubtful.  "  Thy  divine 
throne,  "  is  a  rendering  to  which  there  is 
no  grammatical  objection,  and  certainly 
the  Psalm  in  its  natural  and  literal  mean- 
ing seems  to  celebrate  a  royal  marriage 
of  the  ordinary  kind.  "  This  is  the  name 
which  they  shall  call  him,  .lehox  ali-[  is]- 
our-justice,"  says  Jen-niiiis  (xxiii.  (j), 
speaking  of  the  Mes.sias.  Such  a  name 
does  not  necessarily  imply  divinity,  and 
we  must  remember  that  the  prophet  says 
the  city  of  Jerusalem  will  be  called  by 
the  very  same  name.  "  And  this  is  the 
name  which  they  shall  call  her  [nS  fem. 
not  masc.  as  in  Vulg.],  Jehovah-[is]-our- 
justice."  In  Mic.  v.  1,  where  the  origin 
of  Messias  from  Bethleliem  is  predicted, 
the  Vulgate  has  "  his  going  forth  is  from 
the  beginning,  from  the  days  of  eternity." 
It  would  be  at  least  equally  fair  to  trans- 
late, "from  of  old,  from  ancient  days," 
for  the  word  which  answers  to  "  initium  * 
in  the  "Vulgate  is  used  by  Micheas  (vii.  20) 
of  the  oath  made  to  the  Patriarchs,  in 
leaias  (xxiii.  7)  of  the  Tvrian  commerce, 
3  Jt 


898         TRINITY,  HOLT 


TRINITY,  HOLY 


and  the  -w  ord  translated  "  eternity "  is 
used  of  the  rained  walls  of  Jerusalem  at 
the  time  of  the  exile  (Is.  Iviii.  12).  There 
is  nothing-  which  compels  us  to  see  more 
in  the  words  thiin  a  statement  that  the 
Messiah  would  spring  from  the  ancient 
house  of  David.  Much  more  weight 
must  be  gixra  to  Is.  ix.  5,  6:  "A  child 
is  born  to  us,  a  son  is  given  to  us,  and 
the  princedom  is  on  his  shoulder,  and 
they  have  called  his  name — Wonderful- 
Counsellor,  God-the-]Mighty,  Father-for- 
ever, Prince-of-Peace."  "  God  the  mighty 
one,"  though  not  an  absolutely  certain, 
is  still  the  most  probable  rendering  (x.  21, 
to  which  Gesenius,  ad  loc,  appeals  for 
his  rendering  "  Strong  hero,"  tells  quite 
the  other  way ;  of.,  however,  Ezech. 
xxxii.  21).  The  force  of  the  phrase  is 
quite  lost  in  the  Septuagint  (where,  how- 
ever, it  was  interpolated — d(6s  Icrxvpos  ; 
see  Field,  "  Grig.  Hexapl."  vol.  ii.  p.  448), 
as  well  as  in  the  other  Greek  v  ersions 
(Aquila,  Symmachu,?,  Theodotion,  Field, 
loc.  ci't.),  and  this  may  account  for  its  not 
being  quoted  in  the  New  Testament.  It 
is  true  that  such  an  expression  does  not 
mean  as  much  in  the  Old  Testament, 
where  the  name  of  God  is  used  far  more 
freely  (see,  e.;/.,  Zach.  xii.  8,  "  the  house 
of  David  will  be  as  God,"  and  Chron. 
loc.  cit.),  as  it  would  in  the  New,  though 
it  is  of  course  very  startling  and  remark- 
able. In  the  Pook  of  Daniel  the  language 
falls  far  short  of  the  strength  and  sub- 
limity which  characterise  Isaias.  But 
the  doctrine  on  the  personality  of  the 
Messias  is,  as  we  should  expect,  more 
definite  and  full.  The  seer  beholds  one 
"  like  the  Son  of  man  "  brought  before 
the  ancient  of  days,  who  gives  him  eternal 
dominion  over  the  earth  (Dan.  vii.  13 
seq.).  Here,  the  pre-existence  and  super- 
human personality  of  the  Messias  are 
clearly  taught. 

To  sum  up.  Here  and  there  the  Old 
Testament  clearly  and  by  itself  indicates 
piirtifiiis  ol' ( lie  iloctrine,  in  more  the  New 
Tr.-t;iiiH'iit  lirlj.s  US  to  discover  certain  or 
prnb.ilil.'  \vw>  (if  it  in  the  Old,  while  it 
IS  grnprully  held  by  Catholic  divines  that 
some  favoured  saints  of  the  old  law  had 
a  knowledge  more  or  less  complete  of  the 
mystery. 

(B)  Ancient,  Jetoish  Tradition. — We 
have  seen  how  the  conception  of  the 
Divine  Wisdom  stands  out  in  the  Old 
Testament,  while  the  "Word  of  God" 
is  scarcely  more  than  a  metaphor,  and 
the  idea  remains  undeveloped.  But  in 
the  largums  or  Chaldee  translations  and 


!  paraphrases  of  the  Old  Testament  ttie 
"  word  of  Jehovah  "  is  very  prominent, 
and  fills  a  definite  position.    The  oldest 

\  of  the  Targums — that  of  Onkelos.  on  the 
Pentateuch — cannot  be  earlier  than  the 
latter  half  of  the  first  century  after 
Christ,  and  that  of  Jonathan,  on  the  Pro- 
phets, belongs  to  about  the  same  time. 
But  it  is  admitted  by  all,  even  by 
scholars  who  put  these  Targums  much 
later,  that  they  preserve  a  very  old  exe- 
getical  and  theological  tradition;  and 
this  is  the  case  to  a  certain  extent  even 
with  those  which,  like  that  of  the  Pseudo- 
Jonathan  on  the  Pentateuch,  were  com- 
piled in  the  seventh  century  of  our  era  or 
even  later.  In  the  Targums  the  Word 
of  Jehovah  or  of  God  *  appears  in  the 
main  for  two  reasons.  First,  anthropo- 
morphical expressions  used  in  the  Hebrew 
of  God  are  applied  in  the  Targums  to  his 
word.  Thus,  for  "  they  heard  the  voice 
of  Jehovah  walking  in  the  garden"  (Gen. 
iii.  8),  the  Targum  of  Onkelos  has  "the 
voice  of  the  word  of  God  ;"  for  "Jehovah 
smelt  a. sweet  savour,  and  said,"  &c.  (Gen. 
viii.  21),  "Jehovah  received  his  offering 
with  favour,  and  said  by  his  Word :  "  for 
"God  came  to  Balaam  by  night,  and 
said,"  &c., "  the  word  from  before  Jehovah 
came  to  Balaam,"  kc. ;  and  where  God  i^ 
said  to  have  "repented,"  the  Targinns 
qualify  the  expression,  "God  repented  in 
his  word  (Onk.  Gen.  vi.  0:  Jon.  1  .Sam. 
XV.  11).  Next,  the  "  Word  "  represent - 
God,  and  is  the  instrument  through  which 
He  acts  in  relation  to  the  world.  "  I  by 
my  word  made  the  earth  "  (Jon.  Is.  xlv. 
1  -2) ;  "  Israel  is  redeemed  by  the  word  of 
Jchdvah ''  (Jon.  Is.  xlvi.  17,  for  "Israel 
is  saved  in  .lehovah  ")  ;  "  I  will  place  my 
word  for  thee  there  "  (Onk.  Exod.  xxv. 

'  22,  instead  of  "  I  will  make  myself  known 
to  thee  there").  We  see  no  proof  that 
person;!  1  existence  was  attributed  to  this 
"Woi-d,"-  and  it  was  certainly  not 
identified  I'ither  with  the  "angel  of  the 
face  ■'  or  with  the  Messias  (Jon.  Is.  ix.  5, 
0  ;  Is.  Ixiii.  8,  9  ;  Onk.  Gen.  xvi.  7).  In 
later  Jewish  theology  the  "  Word  "  falls 

'  "^n  Nnp^P  generally,  Nni3T  the 
Jerusalem  Targum  (Jer.  ii.)  The  Pesliito  has 
adopted  a  third  Semitic  word  to  express  the 

Aiyos  of  St.  John — viz.  It  is  worth 

noticinar  that  this  Syriac  term  can  only  mean 
i  "word."  so  that  the'  authors  of  this  early  ver- 
j  sion  .slioiv  what  seiiso  they  attached  to  {\.6yos. 
2  Weber's  references  to  the  Targum  I'li  the 

Prophew  in  proof  that  the  "  Word  "  was  the 
'  object  of  prayer  are  false 


TRI^^TY,  HOLY 


TRINITY,  HOLY  890 


into  the  background,  and  is  replaced  by 
the  Shechinah"  (nVJB'),  -which  denotes 
the  presence  of  God  among  his  people. 
It  manifested  itsAf  specially  in  the 
Temple,  but  if  ten  persons  pray  together, 
if  even  a  man  and  his  wife  live  piously, 
the  Shechinah  is  in  their  midst  (Talmudi- 
cal  references  in  Levy,  sub  voc).  Pro- 
minent, too,  is  the  "  Mitatron  "  (pnOD'O- 
perhaps  from  ^fra  rvpawov  or (xtTo.  6 povov), 
the  "  angel  of  the  presence,"  whose  name 
is  like  that  of  God.  (TV'ith  reference  to 
Eiod.  xxiii.  21  :  the  numeral  value  of  the 
letters  is  equal,  omitting  the  »,  to  those  in 
the  name  of  God.) 

The  theology  of  the  Word  is  much 
more  complete  in  Philo,  who  was  born 
about  20  B.C.  His  position  differed 
widely  from  that  of  the  Targumists. 
Though  he  knew  some  Hebrew,  he  used 
the  LXX,  not  the  original  te.\t,  and  he 
was  deeply  imbued  with  Greek  philo- 
sophy. The  notions  of  Heraclitus,  Plato, 
and  the  Stoics,  as  well  as  of  Jewish  tra- 
dition, contribute  to  his  conception  of 
the  Word.  This  Word,  or  .Voyor,  is  the 
"  idea  of  ideas  "  ("  De  Migrat.  Abr."  torn, 
i.  p.  452,  ed.  Mangey)  ;  through  him  the 
world  was  made  ("  De  Monarch."'  lib.  ii. 
torn.  ii.  p.  225)  ;  he  is  the  image  of  God 
and  the  brightness  which  reflects  his 
essence  ("De  Somn."  lib.  i.  tom.  1,  p. 
656);  he  is  God,  yet  distinct  from  the 
Supreme  God  (0f6r,  but  not  6  Qeos,  "  De 
Somn."  lib.  i.  tom.  i.  655) ;  he  is  also  the 
"  oldest  "  or  "  supreme  angel  "  (rrpfo-Sv- 
TOTov  ('yytXov,  "  De  Confus.  Ling."  tom.  i. 
p.  427) ;  "the  first-begotten  Son  "  ("  De 
Agricult."  tom.  i.  p.  308) ;  '•'  high-priest  " 
(6  apxifptiit  Xdyoy,  "  De  Gigant.''  tom. 
i.  p.  65:i).  "  The  .Wyor  of  Philo,"  says 
Siegfried  ("  Philo  von  Alexandria,"  p. 
223),  "  is  a  thesaurus  of  all  that  had 
been  thought  out  in  the  0.  T.  and  in 
Palestinian  Judaism  on  the  '  face  of  God,' 
the  '  angel  of  Jehovah,'  '  Wisdom,'  the 
'Word,'  the  'Name,'  on  (ro(f>ia  among 
the  Alexandrian  Jews,  on  the  Aoyos  among 
the  Greeks. ft  has  been  asked  whether 
the  "  Word"  of  Philo  was  personal, 
and  the  question  has  received  opposite 
answers.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that 
Philo  often  and  distinctly  affirms  the  per- 
sonality of  the  Word,  but  that  his  lan- 
guage on  the  point  is  not  consistent  with 
itself.  His  theory  requires  him  to  believe 
in  a  personal  Word,  for  he  postulates  the 
existence  of  the  Logos  on  this  ground — 
that  the  Supreme  God  could  not  come 
into  immediate  contact  with  matter,  and 


I  here,  plainly,  the  conception  of  the  Word 
I  aa  a  mere  attribute  would  not  have 
availed.  This  account  of  the  matter 
seems  to  be  now  generally  accepted  by 
scholars  (see  Soulier,  "  Doctrine  du  Logos 
chtz  Philon,"  where  there  is  a  complete 
resume  of  opinions).  Most  certainly,  near 
as  Philo  comes  to  the  language  of  the 
fourth  Gospel,  he  would  have  utterly 
rejected  the  idea  of  an  incarnate  Word. 
Nothing  could  be  more  opposed  to  his 
whole  view  of  matter,  and  he  does  not 
even  "  place  the  Logos  in  connection  with 
the  Messiah"  (Westcott,  on  St.  John 
p.  xvii). 

(C)  The  Trinity  in  the  Xew  Testa- 
ment.— The  absolute  imity  of  God  was 
and  is  the  great  article  of  Israel's  faith, 
and  it  is  asserted  with  equal  emphasis 
throughout  the  New  Testament  (Rom. 
xvi.  27  ;  1  Tim.  vi.  15  seq. ;  John  xvii.  3). 
If,  then,  the  New  Testament  teaches  the 
real,  distinct,  and  divine  personalitj-  of 
the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  this 
comes  to  teaching  the  Catholic  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity. 

1.  The  Son  or  Word  of  God.— Th& 
first  three  Gospels  and  the  Acts  describe 
Jesus  as  the  "Son  of  God,"  a  title  which 
primarily  implies  his  Messianic  oflice. 
Because  He  is  the  Christ,  death  cannot 
bind  Him  (Acts  ii.  24) ;  He  is  "  the 
prince  of  life"  (iii.  15).  After  His  resur- 
rection. He  "receives  all  power  in  heaven 
and  earth"  (Matt,  xxviii.  18).  Nowherf, 
however,  is  His  pre-existence,  much  less 
His  eternal  generation,  asserted  in  terms, 
but  Christ  in  the  Synoptic  Gospels  cer- 
tainly claims  attributes  which  can  hardly 
be  less  than  divine  (see,  particuhirly. 
Matt.  xi.  27).  In  the  earlier  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul,  Ilis  pre-t'xistence  is  clearly 
affirmed.  Through  Ilim  "are  all  things" 
(1  Cor.  viii.  6) ;  He  is  "  the  image  of 

.  God"  (2  Cor.  iv.  4);  He  is  "the  Lord" 
(1  Cor.  xii.  3 ;  Rom.  x.  0) ;  He  is  abso- 
lutely sinless  (2  Cor.  v.  21);  He  is  "the 

'  Spirit"  (2  Cor.  iii.  \7)—i.e.  the  Holy 
Spirit  is  His  Spirit,  the  living  principle  of 
His  working  and  indwelling.  In  Rom.  ix. 
5,  as  commonly  translated,  we  have  the 
strongest  statement  of  Christ's  divinity 
in  St.  Paul,  and,  indeed,  in  the  N.T.  : 
"  Whose  are  the  Fathers,  and  from  whom 
is  the  Christ  according  to  the  flesh,  who 
is  the  God  over  all  blessed  for  ever. 
Amen."  We  cannot  enter  on  a  discus- 
sion of  the  rendering  here.  In  any  case, 
the  text  cannot  be  conclusively  urged 
against  an  opponent.  There  is  no  reason 
in  grammar  or  in  the  context  which  for- 


900         TRIJsITY,  HOLY 


TRINITY,  HOLT 


bids  us  to  translate,  "  God,  who  is  orer 
all,  be  blessed  for  ever.  Amen '' — a 
doxology  suddenly  introduced,  but  quite 
in  St.  Paul's  manner  (GaL  i.  5 ;  cf.  Rom. 
i.  25;  2  Cor.  xi.  31). 

In  the  Apocaly])se  we  find  the  term 
"  Logos "  peculiar  in  the  N.T.  to  the 
Joauuic  writings  (xix.  13,  "  Word  of 
God  ;  "  not,  however,  6  Xdyof,  as  in  the 
Gospel).  He  is  the  "beginning  of  the 
creation  of  God "  (iii.  14),  though  this 
phrase  seems  to  imply  priority  in  dignity 
rather  than  in  existence.'  He  is  "  Alpha 
and  Omega,  the  beginning  and  the  end  " 
(xxi.  6),  the  same  phrase  which  is  used 
(i.  11)  of  the  "  Almighty."  In  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  the  "  Logos  "  is 
not  used  as  a  personal  name,  but  the 
ideas  prominent  in  the  Book  of  Wisdom 
recur  here,  are  applied  to  Christ,  and 
united  to  the  doctrine  of  his  generation 
as  the  Son  of  God  before  the  world  was 
made.  Thus,  Wisdom  (vii.  26)  is  the 
"  effulgence  (ciTravyaana)  of  eternal  light," 
"  the  unstained  mirror  of  the  working  of 
God,"  and  "  the  image  of  his  goodness  :  " 
and  so  (Heb.  i.)  the  Son  is  the  "  efful- 
gence "  {dnai/yaa-na)  of  God's  glory,  the 
"stamp"  or  expressed  image  of  "his 
substance."  As  Wisdom  is  the  "  arti- 
ficer of  all  things  "  (Sap.  vii.  21),  so 
through  the  Son  all  things  were  made, 
and  He  upholds  all  things  by  the  "  word 
of  his  power"  (pi'jfxaTt,  not  Xoya).  Not 
only  is  the  Son,  because  Son,  raised  above 
the  angels,  but  He  is  addressed  as  God  (v. 
8),  and  the  description  of  God's  majesty 
I  Ps.  cii.  26-28)  is  applied  to  Him.  Some- 
what similar  is  the  aspect  which  the  doc- 
trine assumes  in  the  later  Pauline  Epis- 
tles, particularly  in  that  to  the  Colos.-ians, 
in  which  Christ  is  "the  centre  of  the 
universe,  of  the  spiritual  and  corporeal 
world "  (the  words  are  Hilgenfeld's). 
The  Pastoral  Epistles  occupy  themselves 
chiefly  with  discipline  and  morals,  and 
supply  little  matter  for  our  purpose.  In 
Titus  ii.  13 — "  the  manifestation  of  the 
glory  of  the  great  God  and  [of]  our 
Saviour, Christ  Jesus" — a  Unitarian  could 
not  bp  expected  to  admit  that  Jesus 
Christ  is  called  "the  great  God,"  for  the 
words  will  certainly  bear  the  interpreta- 
tion, "  the  manifestation  of  the  glory  of 
the  great  God  and  the  manifestation  of 
the  glory  of  our  Saviour,"  &c. — viz.  at 
the  second  coming.  In  1  Tim.  iii.  16,  6r, 
not  Gfoy,  is  thi'  true  reading.  (So  Lach- 
mann,  Tischendorf,  Tregelles,  Westcott 

>  See  Job  xl.  19. 


and  Hort.  Even  Scrivener — "Introduc* 
tion  to  the  Criticism  of  the  N.T."  p.  556 
— considers  it  "  highly  probable  "  that 
"Qfos  of  the  more  recent  many  must 
yield  place  to  or  of  the  ancient  few.") 

The  divinity  and  distinct  existence  of 
the  Word  are  most  clearly  taught  in  St. 
John's  Gospel.  The  Word  (absolutely 
only  in  i.  1  and  i.  14)  existed  before 
all  time  ;  "  in  the  beginning,"  before 
things  were  made,  He  was.  This  ex- 
istence was  a  personal  one,  for  the  Word 
is  no  mere  attribute,  like  the  reason 
or  wisdom  of  God,  hut  was  Trpoy  t6v 
Qfov — i.e.  in  active  communication  with 
God.  (For  the  force  of  npos  compare 
Mark  vi.  3,  ix.  19 ;  Matt.  xiii.  56,  xxvi. 
55;  1  Cor.  xvi.  6;  Gal.  i.  18,  iv.  18.) 
As  the  spoken  word  is  distinct  from 
him  who  utters  it,  so  was  the  Word 
distinct  from  God  the  Father  (6  Qfos). 

j  Yet  in  nature  or  essence  He  is  one  with 
the  Father — "  the  Word  was  God  " 
(Geo's)  ;  "  all  things  came  into  being 
through  Him,"  and  this  without  any  ex- 
ception. And  the  continuance  of  things, 
no  less  than  their  origin,  depends  on  Him 
— "  That  which  was  made  was  life  in 
Him."  As  He  is  the  Word  or  perfect 
expression  of  God  the  Father's  being 
before  creation,  so,  after  it.  He  is  the 
source  of  all  spiritual  illumination  (i.  9)  : 
and  lastly,  He  "  became  flesh  and  taber- 
nacled among  us,"  replacing  the  partial 
revelations  of  the  past  by  one  which  was 
full  and  perfect.  He  is  Son  as  well  as 
Word,  but  His  sonship  is  different  from 
that  which  is  common  to  believers.  He 
is  Son  in  the  strict  sense,  -n-ith  the  same 
nature  as  His  Father:  whence  He  is  "the 
only-begotten  from  the  Father,"  "  the 
only-begotten  Sou"  (or,  perhaps,  "the 
only-begotten  God ;  "  so  Westcott  and 
Hort,  i.  14,  iii.  16,  18  ;  see  also  1  John  iv. 
9).  He  and  the  Father  "  are  one  "  (x. 
30) ;  to  have  seen  Him  is  to  have  seen 
the  Father  (xiv.  9).  All  that  had  been 
previously  revealed  in  the  Bible,  all  the 
results  of  extra-biblical  speculation  iu 

i  the  Jewish  Church,  are  here  combined — 
the  "  Word  "  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  and  of 
the  Targums;  the  Xoyoy  or  "  reason  "  of 
Philo,  the  creative  Wisdom  of  Proverbs 
and  the  Deutero-Canonical  books.  And 
the  Bible,  in  one  of  its  latest  books,  is 
the  exposition  of  an  idea  which  can  be 
traced  back  to  the  words  with  which  the 
Bible,  as  we  have  it,  begins :  "  In  the  be- 
ginning God  created  the  heavens  and  the 
earth,  and  God  mid,  Let  there  be  light, 
and  there  was  light." 


TRINITY,  HOLY 


TRINITY,  nOLY  001 


2.  The  Spirit  of  God.— On  the  whole, 
the  New  Testament,  like  the  Old,  speaks 
of  the  Spirit  as  a  divine  energ-y  or  power 
particularly  in  the  heart  of  man.  The 
Spirit  rests  on  Christ,  and  is  a  power 
■within  Him  distinct  from  Himself  (Matt, 
iii.  16,  xii.  28;  Luke  iv.  1-14;  John  i.  32), 
having  first  caused  His  miraculous  con- 
ception (Luke  i.  &c.)  The  Spirit  is  im- 
parted to  Christ's  disciples,  the  citizens 
of  the  Mt^ssiiinic  kingdom,  and  is  their 
guide  (1  Pet.  i.  12  ;  Acts  ii.  4  seq.,  xv.  28  ; 
cf.  V.  2).  This  divine  Spirit  is  clearly 
distinguished  from  the  Spirit  or  con- 
science of  man  (Rom.  viii.  16),  and  the 
authority  of  the  Spirit  is  identified  with 
that  of  God  Himself  (Matt.  xii.  31; 
Acts  V,  3,  9;  1  Cor.  iii.  16;  but  cf.  Exod. 
xvi.  8 ;  1  Thess.  iv.  8).  But  is  a  personal 
existence  clearly  attributed  to  the  Spirit  ? 
No  doubt,  all  through  the  N.  T.  his  action 
is  described  as  personal.  He  speaks  (Marie 
xiii.  1 1 ;  Acts  viii.  2'.i),  bears  witness  (Rom. 
viii.  16 ;  1  John  v.  G),  .searches  (1  Cor.  ii. 
10),  decides  (Acts  xv.  28),  helps  and  inter- 
cedes (Rom.  viii.  26),  apportions  the  gifts 
of  grace  (1  Cor.  xii.  11).  3Iost  of  tliese 
places  furnish  no  cogent  proof  of  person- 
ality. The  Spirit  of  God  and  Christ 
(Gal.  iv.  6)  may  be  said  to  do  what  He 
operates  through  man ;  and  ngain,  we  must 
not  forget  that  the  N.  T.  personifies  mere 
attributes  such  as  love  (1  Cor.  xiii.  4), 
and  sin  (Rom.  vii.  11),  nay,  even 
abstract  and  lifeless  things,  such  as  the 
law  (Rom.  iii.  10),  the  water  and  the 
blood  (1  John  v.  8).  However,  if  we  look 
well  to  the  piissage  above  quoted  from 
St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  xii.  11),  we  find  that 
the  Spirit  is  distinguished  from  the  gifts 
of  the  Spirit,  and  that  personal  action  is 
predicated  of  Him  :  "All  these  things  one 
and  the  same  Spirit  worketh,  dividing 
to  each  separately,  as  He  [the  Spirit] 
■wills."  Poetical  personification  would  be 
quite  out  of  place  here,  and  Mey(  r  rightly 
treats  the  words  as  decisive.  In  the 
fourth  Gospel,  however,  this  personal 
existence  is  stated  more  fully  and  plainly 
{ch.  xiv.)  Even  the  author  of  the  article 
on  the  Trinity  in  Schenkel's  "  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible"  (" Bibel-Lexicon,"  art. 
Dreieitiiijlifit),  though  he  writes  to  show 
that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  not 
Biblical,  admits  that  the  hypostatical 
existence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  taught 
here.  "I  will  ask  the  Father  and  He 
will  give  you  another  advocate,  that  He 
may  be  with  you  for  ever,  the  Spirit 
of  truth  ....  I  will  not  leave  you 
orphans,  I  will  come  to  you"  (v.  16- 


!  18).  "Advocate"  is  the  same  name 
given  in  1  John  to  Christ  Himself,  our 
advocate  with  the  Father,  and  in  each 
case  the  name  is  a  personal  one.  In 
essence  He  is  one  with  Christ,  so  that 
when  He  comes,  Clirist  comes  too.  But 
He  is  not,  as  the  writer  just  quoted  thinks, 
represented  as  one  in  person  with  the 
glorified  Christ;  on  the  contrary,  He  is 
"  another  advocate." 

3.  Trinitarian  formulae  occur  through- 
I  out  the  N.  T.  books.    Baptism  is  to  be 
given  "  into  the  name  of  the  Father,  and 
I  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit " 
(Matt,  xxviii.  19;  cf.  1  Cor.  i.  13-15,  x. 
j  2),  which  indicates  the  prevalent  idea  of 
:  baptism,  as  bringing  the  baptised  into 
relation  with  living  persons.  The  persons 
of  the  Trinity  are  further  mentioned  to- 
gether by  St.  Paul  (2  Cor.  xiii.  13)  and 
by  St.  Peter  (1  Ep.  i.  1-2).  Considering 
the  strict  Monotheism  of  the  N.  T.,  such 
language  implies  the  divinity,  as  well  as 
the  personality,  of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Ghnst.  and  they  are  sufficient  warrant  for 
!  refusing  to  believe  that  N.  T.  writers  did 
not  know  the  doctrine,  because  they  did 
not,  like  St.  .Tohn,  state  it  explicitly. 

(D")  The  Developmmt  of  the  Doctrine 
in  the  Church.— \.  The  Scriptural  doctrine 
of  tlie  Trinity,  as  a  whole,  is  neither 
expanded  nor  reduced  to  system  in  the 
Apostolic  Fathers.    Clement  of  Rome 
I  follows  closely  the  language  of  the  Epistle 
!  to  the  Hebrews.    Christ  is  the  "sceptre 
!  of  God's  majestv"   (1  Ep.  4G),  "the 
effulgence  of  his"  majesty "  (30).  The 
Logos  is  not  used  as  a  personal  name  (see 
:  27,  and  cf.  Heb.  i.  3).    The  spurious  but 
I  early  Epistle  of  Barnabas  speaks  of  Christ 
as  the  Son,  not  of  man,  but  of  God  (12). 
Ignatius,  on  the  other  hand,  is  familiar 
with  tlie  technical  sense  of  Logos.  Christ 
I  is  God's  "word  proceeding  from  silence"  • 
j  (Magnes.  8).   He  is  God  (Ephes.  1  and  7); 
I  He  is,  "  God  having  become  in  tlesh " 
"from  Mary  and  from  God,  first  im- 
passible, then  passible,"  &c.,  so  that  His 
divine  and  human   natures  are  distin- 
guished. Among  the  earliest  writers  gene- 
rally, "Spirit"  is  the  term  for  Christ's 
pre-existent  nature  (Hernias, "  Sim."  ix.  1 ; 
"  2  Ep.  Clem."  9).  and  this  use,  which  may 
be  traced  back  even  to  the  O.  T.  (Is.  xxxi. 
3  :  "  The  Egyptians  are  man  and  not 
God,  and  their  horses   flesh   and  not 
Spirit"),  survived  in  writers  much  later 
than   the   Apostolic   Fathers  (Theoph. 

1  This  is  the  correct  reading,  as  has  been 
shown  by  Bishop  Lijihtfoot,  Contemporary 
Review,  Feb.  187.),  )>.  357  $eq. 


902 


TRINITY,  HOLY 


TKINITY,  HOLY 


"  Ad  Aut"l."  ii.  10  ;  Tertull.  "  Adv. 
^larc."  iii.  16). 

Passing  to  the  middle  of  tlie  second 
century  after  Christ  we  find  mucli  fuller 
statements,  and  an  approach  to  a  definite 
theology  on  the  three  divine  Persons. 
All  the  Fathers  between  the  Sub- Apostolic 
and  Nicene  age  are  permeated  by  the 
teaching  of  the  fourth  Gospel.  Justin 
Martyr  is  the  single  exception,  and  even 
he  is  familiar  with  the  doctrine  of  the 
Logos.  All  these  writers  recognise  the 
divinity  of  the  Word,  and  in  many  we 
meet  with  statements  that  the  Son  is  one 
in  substance  with  the  Father,  that  He  is 
in  the  Father  and  the  Father  in  Him, 
that  there  are  three  divine  Persons,  each 
answering  to  the  idea  of  God.  Thus, 
Christ  is  said  to  be  God  by  Justin 
("Trypho,"  126),  by  Tatian  ("Orat.  ad 
Grsec."  21,  p.  90),  by  Theophilus  ("  Ad 
Autol."  ii.  22,  p.  120).  Justin  speaks  of 
Christ  as  Son,  and  good  in  the  strict  sense 
(1  Apol.  23,  p.  60)  as  begotten  like  fire 
from  fire  ("Trypho,"  128,  p.  432),  and 
Tatian  expresses  himself  in  like  manner 
("  Oi-at.  ad  Graec."  5,  p.  20) ;  Tertullian 
("Adv.  Marc."  iv.  25)  asserts  Christ's 
equality  with  the  Father,  and  his  unity 
with  Hiiu  in  substance  ("  Adv.  Prax."  2). 
Athenagoras  confesses  the  Father,  Son,  j 
and  Holy  Ghost,  to  be  each  God  ("  Leg."  | 
10,  p.  44  seq.),  their  distinct  personal  i 
existence  and  their  union  in  power  ("Leg."  ' 
24,  p.  124).  These  early  Fathers  reconcile 
the  unity  of  God  with  the  Trinity  of 
persons  by  their  doctrine  of  the  monarchia 
or  priority  in  nature  of  God  the  Father.  \ 
Just  as  in  later  theology  the  Father  is  | 
acknowledged  to  be  the  "  fountain  of  God- 
head "  (771777;  6(dTr]Tos),  because  the  one 
divine  essence  is  communicated  from  Him 
to  the  Son  and  the  Spirit,  so  the  Ante-  ; 
Nicene  Fathers  call  the  Father  "the  God"  j 
(6  Q(6s)  or  God  absolutely  ( 
the  Son  only  "  God  "  (0eos  without  the  I 
article).  This  distinction  is  made  expli- 
citlv  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  ("Strom." 
iii.  "12,  p.  548  ;  "Quis  Dives,"  6,  p.  939), 
and  usually  observed  by  Justin,  though  in 
three  ]ilaces  ("Trypho,"  5G,  p.  184;  86, 
p.  .^00;  113,  p.  180),  as  the  text  now 
stands,  lie  calls  Christ  6  Geoy.  Tertullian, 
writing  in  a  language  which  has  no 
article,  makes  an  equivalent  distinc- 
tion. To  him  the  Father  is  "  ipse  Deus," 
the  Son  "  bactenus  Heus,  quatenus  ex 
ipsius  Dei  substantia  "  ("  Adv.  Prax." 
26). 

2.  But  in  two  ways  the  teaching  of 
many  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  was  imperfect 


and  inconsistent  with  itself.  First,  their 
belief  on  the  principatm  and  on  tha 
Theophanies,  the  mediatorial  work  of 
Christ,  &c.,  led  them  to  speak  as  if  the 
nature  of  the  Son  were  inferior  to  that  of 
the  Father.  Justin,  e.y.,  describes  the 
Word  as  a  "  God  under  the  maker  of  the 
uuiverse,"  as  "a  God  diflerent  in  number 
from  the  God  who  made  all"  ("Trypho," 
56,  p.  180,  p.  184).  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria attributes  to  the  Sou  a  "  nature  most 
near  to  the  sole  Almighty Father 
("Strom."  vii.  2,  p.  831).  The  word 
<^i'a-is  cannot  be  pressed,  still  it  is  note- 
worthy that  in  the  passage  quoted  he  is 
exalting  the  Son's  sanctity,  which,  of 
course,  belongs  to  His  nature  in  the  proper 
sense.  Tertullian  ("  Adv.  Prax."  9)  de- 
clares that  the  whole  substance  of  the 
divinity  is  in  the  Father,  a  "portion"  of 
it  only  in  the  Son ;  Origen,  that  the  Son 
is  worthy  of  a  "  secondary  honour 
(rtfiTjs  8evTepevo{i(Tr]s)  after  the  God  of  all 
_("  C.  Cels."  vii.  57),  that  he  is  "  diflerent 
in  essence  "  from  the  Father  (eVfpoy  xar' 
ovalav,  "  De  Orat."  15),  and  in  a  passage, 
which  can  scarcely  refer  to  Christ  as  man, 
that  the  Son  perhajis  foreknows  the  actions 
of  all  creatures. 

Next,  though  in  a  sense  the  Ante- 
Nicene  Fathers  generally  hold  the  eternity 
of  the  Logos,  many  of  them  affirm  that 
His  generation  as  Son  happened  in  time. 
Logos  may  mean  either  reason  or  the 
Word.  Now  God,  of  course,  was  never 
without  Logos  or  intellect,  and  Theophilus 
("  Ad  Autol."  ii.  10,  p.  80  seq.,  ii  22,  p. 
118)  distinguishes  between  the  Aoyoy 
(vduWiTos,  the  immanent  reason  of  God, 
and  the  Adyos  Trpocfjo/HKos,  which  came 
forth  from  God,  as  a  spoken  word  at  the 
creation.  This  temporal  generation  of  the 
Son  is  also  held  by  Justin  (2  "Apol."  ii), 
Tatian  ("Orat.  ad  Grajc."  5,  p.  20  seq.), 
Hippoly t.  ("  Contr.  Noct."  10),  the  author 
of  the  "  Philosophumena "  (x.  32-33), 
Tertullian  ("Adv.  Prax."  5,  "Adv. 
Hermog."  3),  Novatian  ("De  Trin."  30), 
Lactant.  ("Instit."  ii.  9,  iv.  6).  On  the 
other  hand,  the  eternal  generation  of  the 
Son  was  maintained  by  Irenaeus  ("'Adv. 
Hser."  iv.  20, 3),  and,  as  Cardinal  Newman 
thinks,  by  the  Alexandrian  school.  Cer- 
tainly, this  is  true  of  Clem.  Al.  ("  Strom." 
vii.  1,  p.  829),  of  Origen  ("  De  Princip." 
iv.  28,  i.  2,  p.  2  ;  cf.  Athanas.  "  De  Decret. 
Syn.  NiciBu.''  25),  if  the  Latin  translation 
(ifRufinus  and  the  quotation  of  Athauasius 
are  to  lie  trusted.  Moreover,  we  have  a 
clear  statement  of  the  eternity  of  the  Son 
by  Dionysius,  bishop  of  Rome,  in  the 


TKl^•n'Y,  HOLY 


TRINITY,  HOLY 


middle  of  the  third  century  (Koutb,  "Rell.  | 
Sacr."  torn.  iii.  p.  li'o).  Enough  husheen 
said  in  previous  articles  on  the  Arian  and 
Sabellinn  heresies.  Here,  however,  wo 
may  remark  that  the  Catholic  doctrine 
unites  the  positive  elements  in  two  oppo- 
site systems,  each  of  which  errs,  not  by 
assertion,  but  by  denial.  Catholics  agree 
with  Sabellians  in  holding  that  the  Son  is 
consubstantial  with  the  Father,  and  with 
Avians  in  maintaining  that  He  is  a  dis- 
tinct Person. 

3.  The  full  and  perfect  divinity  of  the 
Son  and  His  eternal  existence  were  defined 
once  and  for  all  in  the  Nicene  Creed. 
True,  the  eternity  of  His  Soiiship  was  not 
defined,  and  for  many  years  after  the 
Council  a  few  even  of  the  orthodox  con- 
tinued to  deny  it.  Cardinal  Newman 
("  Tracts  Theological  and  Historical,"  p. 
'2-12  sefj.)  .-ihows  that  this  was  tin'  oasia 
with  St.  Zeno  of  \'erona  (cons,  ( nitnl 
362),  with  his  contemporary  Victoiiuus  j 
and,  for  a  time,  with  St.  Hilary.  But 
shortlyafterthe  Arian  Councils  of  S(>leucia  | 
and  Ariminum  this  inconsistent  opinion 
died  out,  and  it  is  mentioned  indeed  by 
St.  Augustine,  but  only  mentioned  as  a 
heresy.    (See  Newman,  loc.  cit.) 

4.  '  The  Nicene  Creed  in  its  original 
form  ends  with  the  words,  "  and  [I  be- 
lieve] in  the  Holy  Spirit,"  and  the  very 
lact  that  belief  "in  the  Holy  Ghost  is 
placed  on  the  same  level  witli  liciicf  in 
the  Father  and  the  Son  iini)lles  tlie 
divinity  of  all  three.  Indeed,  so  much 
is  involved  in  the  very  confession  of  a 
Trinity,  as  St.  Athanasius  points  out 
("  Ep."  ad  Serap."  n.  2  ').  This  inference, 
however,  was  not  pressed  homo  by  the 
Council.  ,  Some  even  of  those  who  were 
orthodox  on  the  divinity  of  the  Son 
feared  to  call  the  Holy  Gbosi  (ind, 
])artly  because  they  doubted  ^\lll'tlu■l■ 
Scripture  justified  such  use  of  language, 
partly  because  they  feared  seeming  to 
confess  three  Gods  (Greg.  Nazianz. 
"  Orat."  xxxi.  n.  1,  n.  18).  St.  Gregory 
Nazianzen  believed  that  the  divinity  of 
tlie  Holy  Ghost  was  to  be  tauglit  gradu- 
allv,  with  great  caution,  and  not  to  all 
("  brat."  xli.  n.  6),  and  he  defended  St. 
Basil  the  Great  for  his  prudent  reserve 
on  this  point.  Basil  believed  that  the 
Holy  Ghost  was  God,  but  did  not  at  the 
time  say  so  openly  in  set  terms  (Greg. 
Naz.  "  Ep."  Iviii.).  But  it  became  plain 
that  the  matter  could  not  rest  here.  The 
Semi-Arians,  who  thought  it  enough  to 

*  Tloia  oZi>  oi/T7)  6(o\oyia  4k  Srjixioupyov  koI 
Kria/iaros  aufKaiiivrt; 


admit  the  Son's  likeness  to  the  Father, 
but  would  not  allow  tlie  second  Person 
to  be  equal  t<i  or  coiiMilisiantial  with  the 
first,  were  driven  liy  the  force  of  logic  to 
make  the  Holy  (I host  a  creature.  To 
them,  difference  in  order  implied  differ- 
ence in  nature,  and  hence,  if  the  second 
Person,  because  second,  was  oidy  like  tlie 
Father,  the  thinl,  hccause  third,  could 
not  be  even  lilvi',  with  the  same  exclusive 
likeness  whieli  behmged  to  the  Son.  And 
so  Macedoiiius  admitted  that  "the  Sou 
was  God,  both  in  all  things  and  in  essencn 
like  the  Father,  but  he  declared  that  thu 
Holy  Ghost  had  no  part  in  the  same  pre- 
rogatives, calling  Him  servant  and  minis- 
ter" (Sozomen,  "II.  E."  iv.  27).  The 
true  divinity  of  the  third  Person  was 
asserted  at  a  Council  of  Alexandria  iu 
•'SOi',  by  two  sviioils  at  Tiome  under  Pope 
l»;.ni:iMis,  tiniillv  l,y  the  Council  of 
Consdiiii inniilc  of  ill  a  decree  ac- 
cepl-a  Kv  Ihr  Nvliol,'  Clnirch. 

■").  (iii.'ijivat  ijiir-i  1. Ill  st 111  remained — 
viz.  tlir  ii.itiu-''  of  I  he  iMii(\  in  essence 
bet  w, ,  11 1  hr  I -ailier,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost. 
'I'hr  li'  ]-,  ,,y  o!'  Trilheisiu  was  maintained 
bv  AM  ii.-.iin-e>  (Asseinani,  "Bibl.  Or."  il. 
]."  :;l'7),  mil!  hy  riiiloponus  (d.  after  610). 
A-  !i'  I'll  ni  ihi  (I  by])ostasis  or  person  with 
iil;i;il  nature,  he  argued  that,  as  iu 
Clirist  thi  re  is  but  one  Person,  therefore 
also  line  n.itiu'i'  mily,  and  that  as  in  the 
'I'rinily  thni'  are  three  Persons,  therefon; 
also  three  iiulixiilual  natures.  On  this 
view  (he  miliy  of  essence  is  specific,  not 
numerical,  ami  the  thi'ee  Persons  are  God, 
only  so  lar  as  three  individual  human 
beings  are  each  man.  Such  a  theory- 
overthrows  the  unity  of  God,  which  is  a 
primary  truth  of  religion,  and  it  contra- 
il lets  the  7rfpix&)pt;<rif  or  inhesion  of  one 
liivine  Person  iu  another,  which  our 
Lord  teaches  when  He  says  that  tho 
Father  is  in  Him,  and  He  in  the  Father. 
Petavius  discusses  the  history  of  opinion 
on  the  point  with  that  fulness  of  learning, 
acuteness,  and  impartiality  which  are  his 
characteristic  gifts,  and  we  can  only  give 
liis  conclusions  here.  Many  Fathers  in 
their  contest  with  Arians,  who  held  a 
specific  diilerence,  wrote  as  if  they  be- 
lieved merely  in  a  specific  unity  of  the 
Divine  Persons.  Of  thisTritheistic  theory, 
"  certain  seeds,"  says  Petavius,  "  may  seem 
to  have  been  cast  in  the  old  Fathers,  not 
only  in  such  as  lived  before  Arius,  but 
also  in  those  who  lived  in  the  very  midst 
of  the  Arian  controversy"  (Petav.  "De 
Trin."  lib.  iv.  cap.  13 ;  see  also  cap.  0,  and 
14-16).    The  same  Tritheistic  error  was 


904         TRINITY,  HOLY 


TRISAGION 


revived  in  the  We.-t  by  the  Abbot  Joachim 
and  condemned  by  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  (cap.  2,  Def.  contr.  Abb.  Joachim) 
in  1215.  The  Council  defines  the  dis- 
tinction of  the  Persons  from  each  other 
and  the  absolute  identity  of  each  with 
the  one  "individual  essence"  of  God. 
Another  theological  principle  is  involved 
in  the  Lateran  definition.  The  Council 
speaks  of  the  Incarnation  as  effected  "  by 
the  whole  Trinity  in  common."  Of  course, 
the  second  Person  only  was  incarnate, 
but  aU  works  exterior  to  the  Trinity 
itself  are  effected  by  the  three  Persons. 
They  are  distinct  only  in  virtue  of  their 
relations  to  each  other.  The  Father 
alone  generates,  the  Father  and  Son 
alone  breathe  the  Holy  Ghost.  But  all 
three  have  one  single  nature,  and  there- 
fore one  indivisible  operation  with  respect 
to  the  outer  world.  We  do  indeed  ap- 
propriate certain  external  actions  to  one 
of  the  Persons.  We  speak,  e.(/.,  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  as  the  sanctifier  because  that 
work  of  love  is  attributed  with  special 
fitness  to  Him  who  proceeds  from  the 
mutual  love  of  the  Father  and  Son.  In 
reality  the  renewal  of  man's  heart  is  the 
work  of  all  three  Persons  equally.  It 
cannot,  however,  be  said  that  all  three 
Persons  are  sent,  because  mission  consists 
in  the  procession  of  one  Person  from 
another  with  the  production  of  a  temporal 
effect,  visible  or  invi.sible  ("  processio  cum 
habitudine  sen  connatione  temporalis 
eflectus,"  Suarez,  "  De  Trin."  lib.  xii.  De 
Missioiie).  All  three  Persons  enter  a 
soul  which  loves  God,  but  the  second  aud 
third  Persons  alone  are  sent,  because  they 
come  by  an  impulse  which  is  one  with  the 
nature  which  tliey  receive,  the  Son  from 
the  Father,  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the 
leather  and  Son.  Suarez  {loc.  cit.)  limits 
mission  to  cases  where  a  supernatural 
eti'ect  is  produced,  because  in  these  only 
God  is  present  in  a  new  way,  so  present 
that  He,  would  be  there  even  if  not  already 
there  by  His  omni])i-ese)ice. 

(E)  The  Trhiilii  and  Natural  Season. 
— All  Ondmlie  tliPnlnLiiaiis are  agreed  that 
the  exist,  lie.  of  till'  Trinity  cannot  be 
proved  ljy  n  iison,  and  although  they  add 
that  tlie  diH  ti-ine  i.s  above  but  not  con- 
trary to  reason,  still  13illuart  at  least 
("  De  Trin."  Procem.  a.  4)  admits  that  we 
cannot  prove  "positively  and  evidently" 
that  the  doctrine  does  not  involve  a  con- 
tradiction. The  obvious  objection  presents 
itself  that  we  cannot  believe  what  is 
absolutely  unintelligible,  and 'again  it 
may  be  said  that  a  revelation  which  tells 


us  nothing  of  God's  character  brings  ua 
no  closer  to  Him,  in  no  way  affects  our 
own  life,  is  not  a  revelation  at  all. 

We  reply,  that  each  single  proposition 
held  by  Catholics  concerning  the  Trinity 
is  quite  intelligible,  and  may,  therefore, 
be  the  object  of  real  assent,  little  as  we 
can  understand  the  consistency  of  these 
propositions  with  each  other.  Further, 
it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  long  contest  on 
the  Godhead  of  the  Son  and  the  Spirit 
had  a  most  important  meaning.  Given, 
that  the  Son  was  the  object  of  worship, 
then  unless  his  unity  of  essence  with  the 
Father  had  been  established,  Christianity, 
instead  of  perfecting  the  Jewish  revela- 
tion, would  have  been  a  relapse  into 
polytheism.  As  it  was,  the  Trinitarian 
doctrine  was  a  safeguard  to  the  belief  in 
the  one  God ;  it  revealed  an  inner  and 
eternal  life  of  God  which  made  all  Pan- 
theistic confusion  between  the  life  of  God 
and  the  life  of  the  world,  all  representa- 
tions of  God  as  the  soul  of  the  world, 
a  sheer  impossibility.  Moreover,  every 
other  article  of  the  Christian  belief  is 
affected  by  the  faith  in  the  Trinity.  It  is 
one  thing  to  regard  our  Lord  as  the  most 
perfect  of  human  teachers  or  even  of 
creatures,  quite  another  to  adore  Him  as 
the  God-man.  The  daily  life  of  Christians 
assumed  a  new  sanctity  when  they  came 
to  believe  that  every  good  impulse  within 
them  came  from  God  the  Holy  Ghost, 
that  their  very  bodies  are  His  temple. 
Nor  is  it  without  a  special  significance 
that  God  proclaims  Himself  as  the  Father 
of  individual  souls,  that  He  teaches  us  to 
address  Him  as  our  Father  in  heaven, 
just  when  He  reveals  Himself  as  the 
Father  from  all  eternity  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ. 

TKZSAGXON'.  ("  O  holy  God,  holy 
and  strong,  holy  and  immortal,  have 
mercy  on  us  ;  "  ayios  6  6ehi,  ayios  lax^pos, 
ayios  (Wdi'dTos,  eXfrjaov  Tjfias),  a  brief  hymn 
so  named  from  the  triple  ascription  of 
holiness  to  God.  It  is  sung  in  the  liturgy 
of  Constantinople  in  the  Mass  at  the 
"  little  entrance  " — i.e.  when  the  book  of 
the  Gospels  is  solemnly  carried  from  the 
prothesis  to  the  altar.  It  occurs  more  than 
once  in  the  Syriac  liturgy,  and  probably 
is  identical  with  the  "  ajus  '  mentioned  in 
the  "  Expositio  Brevis  attributed  to  St. 
Germanus.  This  "  ajus  "was  sung  in  the 
(lallican  rite  before  the  Old  Testament 
lesion  and  before  and  after  the  Gospel. 
In  our  liturgy  the  Trisagion  is  said  by  the 
celebrant  at  the  "  adoration  "'  of  the  Cross 
by  the  people  on  Good  Friday.  (Ham- 


TROPE,  TEOPAEION 


TRULLO  905 


mond,  "  Ancient  Lit."  p.  381.)  It  is  also 
said  in  the  ferial  prayers  at  Prime  for 
penitential  days. 

The  legendary  account  of  its  origin  is 
given  by  St.  John  of  Damascus  ("  De  Fid. 
Orthodox,"  iii.  10).  He  says  Proclus, 
bishop  of  Constantinople  in  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  century,  was  leading  the  prayers 
■during  a  tempest,  when  a  boy  was  cauglit  up 
into  the  air  {a-vvilBrj  dpnayrjvai)  and  taught 
the  Trisagion  by  the  angels.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century  Peter  the 
Fuller  inserted  the  clause,  "who  wast 
crucified  for  us"  (Ilefele,  "Concil."  ii.  p. 
5G8),  in  the  interest  of  the  Monophysite 
heresy,  though  the  addition  was  capable 
of  a  good  sense  and  was  defended  by 
some  Catholics  (Petav.  "  De  Incarnat." 
V.  4).  (^alendins,  who  replaced  Peter 
the  Fuller  at  Ant  loch,  added  the  other 
words  "  0  King  Christ,"  so  as  to  remove 
the  heretical  taint.  But  the  addition  was 
generally  rejected  in  the  West,  and  in  the 
East  except  among  the  Monophysites,  who 
made  it  a  watchword  and  were  thence 
called  Theopaschites.  It  was  bitterly 
opposed  by  the  monks  called  AccEmetae 
[see  the  article],  who,  however,  fell  into 
the  heresy  at  the  opposite  pole — i.e.  Nesto- 
rianism.  The  addition  was  also  rejected 
by  Acacius  in  a  avvo^os  evBrifiovaa  at 
•Constantinople,  A.D.  478  (Ilefele,  ii.  p. 
603),  and  by  the  Synod  in  TruUo  (c.  81). 
Gregory  VII.  ordered  the  Armenians  who 
were  reunited  to  the  Church  to  abandon 
it  as  an  occasion  of  scandal,  and  the  pro- 
hibition was  repeated  by  Propaganda  in 
1635  (Benedict  XIV.  "  De  Fest."cccxxx). 

TROPE,  TBOPARZON',  &.C.  In 
the  Latiii  Ohiircli  tropes  were  verses  sung 
at  Iligli  Mass,  before  or  after  and  some- 
times in  the  middle  of  the  Introit.  They 
were  introduced  as  early  at  least  as  1000 
by  the  monks,  but  entirely  removed  at 
the  revision  of  the  Missal  under  Pius  V. 
The  Trojierion,  Troparion,  Troper,  &c., 
i.e.  the  book  containing  the  tropes,  is 
often  mentioned  in  Church  inventories, 
though  the  word  seems  to  have  been 
also  used  for  Sequentialis  or  Book  of 
Sequences.  The  Bodleian  contains  a  fine 
MS.  Troperium.  After  Kyries  and  hymns 
written  on  the  first  few  pages  comes  the 
title  "  Incipiunt Tropi  de  adventu  Domini 
Nostri  Jesu  Christi."  Then  follow  the 
other  parts  of  the  liturgy  which  were 
sung.  (Maskell,  "  Mon.  R,it."  I.  p.  xliii. 
teq.) 

In  the  Greek  Church  rpon-aptov  is  the 
generic  name  for  the  short  hymns  with 
■which  the  Offices  of  that  Church  abound. 


(Neale,  "  Introduction  to  History  of  Holy 
Eastern  Church,"  p.  832,  note  b.) 

TRUCE  or  Gon  (Lat.  treuffa  Dei, 
or  treua  Dei,  from  German  Treue,  faith). 
An  institution  of  the  Middle  Ages,  de- 
signed to  mitigate  the  violence  of  private 
war  by  prohibiting  hostilities  from  Thurs- 
day evening  to  Sunday  evening  of  each 
week,  also  during  the  entire  season  of 
Advent  and  Lent,  and  on  certain  festival 
days.  Respect  was  shown  to  Thursday 
as  the  day  of  Christ's  ascension  ;  to  Fri- 
day as  that  of  Ills  Passion;  to  Saturday 
because  on  that  day  He  lay  in  the  grave  ; 
and  to  Sunday  because  it  was  the  day  of 
His  resurrection.  The  truce  was  first 
proposed  in  the  Council  of  Charroux  in 
1)89.  St.  Odo,  or  Odon,  sixth  abbot  of 
Chmi,  and  Blessed  Richard,  abbot  of  St. 
Vannes,  did  much  to  extend  it  among  the 
Neustriaus.  A  synod  at  Roussillon  in 
1027  ordered  that  it  should  be  observed 
from  the  nones  of  Saturday  to  prime  of 
Monday.  After  the  great  famine  of 
1028-;]0  the  bishops  of  Aquitaine  pro- 
claimed a  universal  peace,  but  were  un- 
able  to  enforce  it,  and  then  limited  it  to 
certain  days.  The  light  of  sanctuary 
was  denied  to  violators  of  it.  Soon  the 
regulation  spread  all  over  France.  In 
1041  the  bishops  of  Aquitaine  ordered 
that  no  private  feuds  slmuld  be  prose- 
cuted from  .sunset  on  WeiLu'sdaj'  to  sun- 
rise on  the  fiUowiriL'  .M.  ii'Iay,  and  this 
the  Council  of  Clcini.nit  cvii'nJed  to  the 
time  from  Advent  to  the  Epiphany,  from 
Lent  to  the  octave  of  Pentecost,  and  after- 
wards to  the  feasts  and  vigils  of  the  Ble.s- 
sed  Virgin,  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  of  St,-. 
Peter  and  Paul,  and  All  Saints.  In  1042 
England  and  Italy  adopted  it.  At  the 
Council  of  Rheims  in  1119  Calixtus  II. 
renewed  the  truce  of  God  for  the  above- 
named  seasons,  pronouncing  excommuni- 
cation against  violators,  and  commanding 
that,  unless  they  or  their  children  made 
satisl'actiou,  they  should  he  deprived  of 
Christian  burial.  The  Second  and  Third 
Councils  of  Lateran  (IKSDand  1179)  con- 
firmed the  truce,  and  gradually  the  neces- 
sity for  it  wore  away. 

TRUX.X.O,  COVKCXXi  IN.  The 
word  "  trullus  "  (rpoOXXoy,  rpovWa)  is 
base  Greek  for  66\os,  or  dome,  and  the 
Council  in  TruUo  takes  its  name  from 
the  domical  hall  in  the  imperial  palace 
at  Constantinople  which  was  the  place  of 
meeting.  It  is  also  known  as  neudiKTrj, 
or  "quinisexta,"  because  it  was  regarded 
as  a  supplement  to  the  fifth  and  sixth 
councils,  which  passed  no  disciplinary 


906 


TUNIC 


TYPE 


decrees.  It  was  convoked  Tby  Justinian  II.  | 
in  602,  mid  its  decrees  were  subscribed 
bv  the  Eastern  Patriarchs,  and  by  other 
bishops  and  episcopal  proxies  (211  in  all, 
but  all  Easterns).  Tn  some  of  the  102 
canons  on  di-eijiline  which  the  Council 
pas-eil,  the  emnity  a^'-ainst  Rome  and 
the  ^\  e>t  which  at'last  led  to  the  schism 
clearly  lietrav-  itself.  Thus  (c.  2),  85 
apo>tolic  eaiiiins  are  admitted  as  authen- 
tic, th(nii;h  corrupted  by  heretics,  whereas 
Rome  only  accepted  50 ;  and  in  a  long- 
list  of  canonical  authorities  there  is  no 
reference  to  Papal  decrees  or  to  any 
AVestern  council  except  Sardica,  and  a 
synod  of  Cyprian,  the  latter  being  evi-  1 
dently  mentioned  only  out  of  opposition  | 
to  Rome.  In  canon  13,  priests  and 
deacons  are  allowed  to  continue  in  the 
married  state,  and  the  rule  of  Rome  is 
contrasted  with  that  of  the  Apostolic 
canons.  Canon  55  strictly  forbids  the 
Roman  custom  of  fasting-  on  the  Saturdays  I 
of  Lent;  can.  i-enews  in  defiance  of 
Rome  the  I'Stli  canon  of  Chalcedon  on 
the  patriarchal  rank  of  Constantinople;  ■ 
canon  67  condemns  the  eating  of  blood, 
permitted  long  before  in  the  West,  as 
unscriptural.  Pope  Sergius  I.  naturall}"^ 
refused  to  accept  these  decrees,  and  an 
insurrection  prevented  Justinian  from 
ffu-ciiig  him  to  subscribe  them.  John  VIII. 
accepted  the  Trullan  canons,  so  far  as 
they  are  consistent  with  sound  morals 
and  "  earlier  canons  and  decrees  "  of  the 
Popes.  Hadrian  I.  looked  on  the  Council 
in  Trullo  as  a  continuation  of  the  Sixth 
General  Council,  and  accepted  the  canons  i 
"which  were  promulfrated  lawfully  and  j 
by  Divine  help"  in  the  tir  I  si\  i-ouncils,  i 
including  that  in  Trullo  (M;insi,  MS2). 
Hefele  ("(Joncil."  iii.  p.  .'ils)  inl^es  tlio  1 
clause  asqualifying  thePajial  ai-(  e|,i  :nice. 
To  the  schismatic  Greeks  the  Council  in 
Trullo  is  a  continuation  of  the  si.\th  and 
therefore  oecumenical. 

TUWIC  (tunica  or  tunicella).  A 
vestment  proper  to  subdeacons,  who  are 
clothed  in  it  by  the  bishop  at  ordination, 
and  exactly  like  the  dalmatic,  except 
that,  according  to  Gavantus  ("  Thesaur." 
P.  1,  tit.  xix.),  it  is  rather  smaller.  Even 
this  distinction  is  not,  so  far  as  we  know, 
generally  observed.  It  is  also  worn  by 
bishops  under  the  dalmatic  when  they 
pontificate.  Gregory  the  Great  (Ep.  ix. 
12),  says  one  of  his  predecessors  had 
given  the  subdeacons  linen  tunics,  and 
that  some  other  churches  had  adopted 

•  It  is  to  "  enjoy  the  same  privileges  "  as 
old  Rome. 


this  usage,  but  he  himself  had  restored 

the  old  fasliion,  and  left  his  subdeacons 
without  any  sjir-eial  \  estment.  There  is 
no  notice  of  t  lie  Tiinieella  in  the  Gregorian 
Sacranientaiy.  iiut  the  first  (§  6)  and 
the  Mftli  1)  of  the  Roman  Ordines 
distine-uish  between  a  greater  and  less 
dnlmatic,  and  the  latter  probably  is  our 
tuuicle.  Amalarius  expressly  marks 
("  Eccles.  Ollic."  ii.  21,  22)  the  difi'erence 
between  dalmatic  and  tunicle,  and  tells 
us  that  some  bishops  wore  one,  some 
the  other,  some,  as  now,  both.  He  says 
the  tunic  was  also  called  "  subucula," 
and  was,  when  worn  as  an  episcopal 
vestment,  purple  (hyncinthina).  Hono- 
rius  of  Autun  calls  the  tunicle  ("  Gem- 
ma," i.  229)  "  subtile,"  and  "  tunica 
stricta"  {i.e.  narrow);  Innocent  III.  ("De 
Altar.  Myster."  i.  39  and  55),  "  tunica 
pod  ere  s." 

TWEliFTH  SAY.  Another  name 
forthe  Ei)i]ihany  [q.v.],it  being  the  twelfth 
day  after  Christmas. 

TYPE.  Types,  according  to  St. 
Thomas,  are  persons,  things,  actions,  and 
events  of  the  Old  Testament  ordained  by 
God  to  forei^hadow  the  future.  The 
exi.stence  of  types  is  expressly  set  forth 
in  both  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament. 
The  terra  "type,"  which  originally  means 
model,  form,  or  figure,  is  taken  from  the 
New  Testament.  St .  Paul  says  that  the  first 
Adam  was  "  a  figure  of  Ilim  that  was  to 
come  "  {tvitos  Toil  /jAXoitos),  inasmuch  as 
his  carnal  paternity  is  an  image  of  the 
spiritual  paternity  of  Christ  (Rom.  v.  14). 
The  things  which  happened  to  the 
Israelites  in  the  desert  "  happened  to 
them  in  figure  {tvttoi),  and  were  written 
for  our  correction"  (1  Cor.  x.  11).  The 
c  orrelative  term  anti-type  (avr'i-TVTTOs)  is 
used  1  Pet.  iii.  21,  where  baptism  is 
ealled  the  anti-type  of  the  flood  and  the 
ark.  The  notions  of  type  and  anti-type 
are  sometimes  inverted.  Thus  the  holy 
places  made  with  hands  are  termed  the 
patterns  (avrirvTra)  of  heaven,  the  true 
holy  place  (Heb.  ix.  24).  And  in 
Gai.  iv.  22  the  two  sons  of  Abraham  are 
set  forth  as  an  "  allegory "  of  the  two 
Testaments — allegory  being  here  used  for 
type,  as  St.  John  Chi-ysostom  observes. 
The  tabernacle  and  the  sacrifice  of 
Abraham  are  a  "parable"  (n-apa^joXij)  of 
the  present  time  (Heb.  ix.  9;  xi.  19). 
The  priests  who  served  in  the  tabernacle 
served  "  unto  the  example  and  shadow  of 
heavenly  things "  (vnodfiynari  Kai  a-Kiq, 
Heb.  viii.  5).  Feasts,  "  new  moons,  sal>- 
baths  "  are  a  shadow  of  the  things  to  come, . 


UBIQVITAEIANS 


UNITED  GREEKS  007 


Init  the  body  (  =  the  reality)  is  Christ's 
{to  aufjia  Xpiarov,  Colos.  ii.  16,  17). 
"  For  the  hiw  had  a  shadow  of  the  things 
to  come,  not  the  very  image  {avrriv  rfju 
(Ikovu)  of  the  things ''  (lleb.  x.  1).  The 
typical  character  of  the  Old  Testament  is 
due  to  Divine  ordination :  "  The  end  of  the 
law-  is  Christ  "  (Kom.  x.  4).  This  doctrine 
is  implied  in  all  passages  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  which  occurs  the  formula  "  that 
it  might  be  fulfilled (Matt.  ii.  15,xiii.  35  ; 
John  xix.  3G),  or  "  then  was  fulfilled," 
e.ff.  Matt.  ii.  17 ;  xxvii.  9,  &c.    Types  or 


figures,  then,  are  symbolical  prophecies. 
Their  object,  like  that  of  symbols,  is  to 
impart  supersensible  notions  through  the 
agency  of  things  that  strike  the  senses. 
They  may  refer  to  the  present,  as  e.ff.  the 
wooden  or  iron  yokes  worn  by  Jeremias  ; 
or  to  the  past,  as  e.t/.  the  veiling  of  the 
head  to  the  sin  of  Adam  ;  or  to  the  future, 
as  the  paschal  lamb  to  the  sacrificial  death 
of  Christ.  (From  Kihn's  art.  "Hermeneu- 
tik,''in  the  new  ed.  of  Wetzer  and  Welte. 
TYPus  or  TYPE.   [See  Monothe- 

LIIES.] 


u 


VBZQTTZTARZAirs.  Ubiquity,  or 
omnipresence,  is  a  natural  property  of 
(iod,  and  the  Apollinarists  and  Kuty- 
chians,  who  confused  the  two  natures  in 
Christ,  taught  that  Christ,  as  man,  was 
omnipresent.  Some  taught  that  this 
confusion,  by  which  divine  attributes 
became  proper  to  Christ  as  man,  took 
place  at  the  incarnation,  others  only 
after  His  death  and  resurrection.  This 
theory  is,  of  course,  directly  contrary  to 
the  definition  of  Chalcedon  (Petav.  "  De 
Incarn."  x.  7). 

The  Eutychian  doctrine  on  the  omni- 
presence of  Christ's  body  was  revived  by 
Luther  in  bis  controversy  with  the 
Zwinglians.  The  latter  denied  that  God 
Himself  could  cause  a  body  to  exist  in 
more  than  one  place  at  the  same  time ; 
Xiuther,  in  a  sermon  of  1527  ("  Quod 
Verba  Stent "),  and  in  the  "  Confessio 
Major  "  of  15:^8,  replied  that  Christ's 
body  -was  not  only  in  heaven  and  in  the 
Eucharist,  but  everywhere,  and  this  of 
necessity.  The  humanity,  he  argued,  is 
united  to  the  divinity  ;  the  latter  is 
omnipresent,  therefore  the  former  also. 
Again,  Christ  as  man  is  at  the  right  hand 
ot  God  ;  God's  right  hand  is  everywhere, 
therefore  also  Christ  as  man  (iiossuet, 
"Hist,  des  Variations,"  liv.  ii.  n.  xliii.). 
Not  only  Calviiiists  and  Zwinglians,  but 
.Melanchthon  opposed  this  doctrine.  He 
pointed  out  that  it  led  to  a  confusion  of 
the  two  natures,  and  also  to  a  denial  of 
that  very  mystery  of  the  Real  Presence 
•which  it  was  intended  to  support.  Christ 
■would  not  be  more  truly  pre.-<ent  in  the 
Eucharist  than  in  any  piece  of  wood  or 
stone  (Bossuet,  loc.  cit.  viii.  n.  xxxvii.). 
The  belief  in  the  ubiquity,  however,  be- 


came a  mark  of  the  Lutheran  orthodoxy, 
and  was  insnrted  in  the  famous  For- 
mula of  Coni-ord,''  a.d.  1577.'  although 
the  doctrine  had  been  silently  omitted  in 
the  Augsburg  Confession,  a.d.  1530  (Bos- 
suet, ih.  n.  xlvi.). 

VNAJtXT/lOVS      COSrSSIfT  OP 

FATHERS.    [See  Bible  and  Tradi- 

TI0X.~ 

VM-zGEiuzTus.  ^See  Jansexism.] 
VNITES  CREEKS.  The  name 
includes  all  who  follow  the  Greek  rite 
and,  at  the  same  time,  acknowledge  the 
authority  of  the  Pope — i.e.  the  United 
Melchites  in  the  East ;  the  Ruthenian 
Catholics,  who  use  the  Greek  liturgy  in 
a  Slavonic  version  :  the  Greek  Catiiolics 
of  Italy;  and  the  Ciitholics  of  the  (-Ireco- 
Roumaic  rite  in  Hungary  and  Siben- 
biirgen.  Of  the  Melchites  and  Ruthenians 
an  account  has  been  given  alreadv. 

(1)  T/ie  Greeks  in  Itali/.  —  'Shiny 
Greeks  came  thither  from  Albania  about 

I  14(58,  and  the  Greek  settlements  became 
more  and  more  numerous  after  Solinian 
(lo3H-40)  drove  the  Venetians  from  the 
Archi])elago  :  after  the  conquest  of 
Cyprus  by  Selim  II.  in  1571 ;  and  after 
1718,  when  Venice  lost  the  last  remnant 
of  her  po.*sessions  in  the  Morea.  In  the 
eighteenth  century  there  were  alwut 
100,000  Greeks  in  Italy,  esjiecially  in 
Calabria  and  .Sicily,  and  they  obtained 
various  privileges  from  Leo  X.,  Paul  III., 

I  and  Julius  III.     Pius   IV.  witlidrew 

1  But  this  c«ncorrfi>«/;>r/ne/ was  not  ic  i  ivnl 
anion;:  all  the  Lutherans.  It  wns  dru«  ii  u\>  by 
AuilreS,  chancellor  of  TUbin^'Cii,  ii>.--islecl  by 
Chemnitz.  Striinpe  to  say,  the  srcdUfl  |>art  nf 
this  Concnnli'i,  known  as  solida  declarulin,  pro- 

'  fesses  to  be  a  mere  repetition  and  explanation 

I  of  the  Confession  of  Auj^burg. 


UNIVERSITY 


UNIVERSITY 


these  concessions  in  15G4,  and  placed 
them  under  Latin  bishops,  allowing 
them,  however,  to  retain  their  rites. 
Their  position  was  finally  determined 
by  the  bull  of  Benedict  'XIV.,  "  Etsi 
Pastoralis"  (May  26,  1742).  According 
to  the  rules  there  laid  down,  they  have 
their  own  clergy,  who  may  marry  when 
in  minor  orders  and  continue  in  the 
married  state  after  they  are  priests. 
They  are  forbidden,  however,  under  pain 
of  deposition,  to  contract  a  second  mar- 
riage. They  have  three  seminaries — viz. 
the  Greek  College  of  St.  Athanasius  at 
Rome,  erected  in  1577  by  Gregory  XIII.; 
the  College  at  Palermo,  erected  in  1715 ; 
the  College  of  S.  Benedetto  di  Ullano, 
in  the  Oalabrian  diocese  of  Bisignano, 
erected  by  Clement  XII.  in  1732,  and 
transferred  to  the  Basilian  monastery  of 
St.  Adrian  in  1820.  Eacli  college  has  a 
bishop  of  the  Greek  rite  residing  in  it, 
for  the  ordination  of  candidates  ;  and 
those  at  Palermo  and  in  the  seminary  of 
S.  Benedetto  have  to  visit  the  Greek 
churches  and  see  that  the  rite  is  duly 
observed.  Otherwise,  the  Greeks  in 
Italy  are  entirely  subject  to  the  bishop  of 
the  diocese  in  which  they  live.  This 
bishop,  however,  must  appoint  a  Greek 
as  well  as  a  Latin  vicar-geueral ;  and  the 
Metropolitan  must  appoint  a  Greek  judge, 
if  Greek  cases  come  to  the  Metropolitan 
court  of  appeal.  Silbernagl  estimates 
the  number  of  Greeks  in  Italy  at  30,000, 
of  whom  25,000  are  in  Calabria.  They 
have  06  churches,  144  priests.  There  are 
colonics  at  Ancona,  Leghorn,  Pianino  in 
the  diocese  of  Aquapendente,  Naples, 
Villabadessa  in  the  diocese  of  Atrie 
Penne,  Barletta  in  the  diocese  of  Trani, 
Lecce,  Cargese  in  the  Oorsican  diocese  of 
.iMaccio.  Further,  in  Calabria  the  diocese 
of  Cassano  has  eight  colonies,  Rossano 
five,  Bisignona  two,  Anglona  four. 
Sicily  has  Greek  colonies  at  Palermo, 
where  there  is  also  a  Basilian  monastery 
founded  in  1009,  at  Monreale,  Girgenti, 
Contessa,  and  Messina. 

(2)  Greco-Roumaic  Church. — In  the 
thirteenth  century  many  Roumanians 
belonging  to  the  Greek  schismatic  church 
found  a  refuge  in  Siebeuburgen  and 
Hungary.  In  1690  a  few  conversions 
were  made,  with  the  help  of  the  Jesuits, 
by  the  imperial  commissary  TuUus  Miglio, 
when  two  priors  of  Greek  monasteries 
and  six  parish  priests  abjured  the  schism 
in  the  Jesuit  church  at  Fiinf kirchen. 
Nine  years  later,  the  efforts  of  Cardinal 
Kolonitsch  and  of  the  Jesmts  Hevenes 


I  and  Barany  were  rewarded  with  much 
greater  success.  The  Greek  bishop  of 
Siebenbiirgen,  Theophilus  II.,  became 
Catholic ;  and  on  Feljruary  16,  1 699,  the 
diploma  of  union  from  the  Emperor 
Leopold  I.  was  solemnly  read  at  the 
Landtag.  The  united  Greeks  of  Hungary 
and  Siebenbiirgen  number  about  900,000, 
and  form  an  ecclesiastical  province.  The 
Archbishop  of  Fogaras  (see  erected, 
1721  ;  made  head  of  a  province,  1850) 
is  Metropolitan;  his  suffragans  are  the 
Bishops  (if  (irnszwardein  (erected,  1776), 
Lugos  (erected  in  1850),  and  Szamos- 
Ujvar  (erected  about  1865).  The  secular 
priests  are  married.  There  is  a  clerical 
seminary  and  a  small  Basilian  monastery 
at  Balasfnlva.  [Silbernagl,  "Kirchen 
des  Orients."] 

uwiVERSiTT.  The  Museum  of 
the  Ptolemies  (on  which  see  Cardinal 
Newman's  sketch  in  the  "  Office  and 
Work  of  Universities"),  the  philosophic 
schools  of  Athens,  the  institute  of  Gon- 
disapor  under  the  Abasside  Caliphs,  and 
perhaps  Cordova  under  the  Moors,  were 
all  eminent  examples  of  schools  for  the 
higher  education,  existing  apart  from 
Christianity.  With  regard  to  the  matter 
of  instruction,  the  universities  of  modern 
times,  in  which  "  arts  ''  hold  the  chief 
place,  stand  in  a  direct  line  with  the 
Roman  imperial  schools.  On  the  other 
liaiid,  their  historical  institution,  ma- 
chinery, and  terminology  are  Christian, 
and  are  traceable  to  the  activity  of  the 
Catholic  clergy  in  the  middle  ages. 

A  gi-eat  medical  school  arose  at 
Salerno  in  the  eleventh  centurj-,  but 
Bollinger  seems  to  be  hardlj'  justified  in 
describing  it  as  a  university.'  The  first 
institution  in  Europe  to  deserve  that  name 
was  undoubtedly  the  School  of  Paris, 
which  passed  through  the  stages  of 
"  High  School"  and  "Studium  Generale," 
and,  favoured  by  its  situation  at  the 
capital  and  the  patronage  of  the  bishops 
of  the  see,  became,  towards  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  century,  the  University  of 
Paris.  That  it  was  ecclesiastical  in  its 
origin  is  manifest.  It  grew  up  out  of  a 
concourse  of  able  men,  attracted  to  Paris 
partly  by  the  encouragement  and  protec- 
tion which  they  received  from  tlie  au- 
thorities, partly  by  the  intellectual  sym- 
pathy which  they  were  sure  to  find 
among  an  increasing  body  of  students  of 
mixed  nationalities.'^    These  men  could 

*  P.  1 ;  see  end  of  art. 
2  Ordericus  Vitalis  speaks  of  Normans  being 
sent  for  instruction  to  the  "  schools  of  France 


UNIVERSITY 


UNIVERSITY 


009 


not  lecture  until  licensed  by  the  Chan- 
cellor of  the  diocese,  who  thus  prradually 
came  to  he  considered  the  Chancellor 
of  the  university  also.  By  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century,  instead  of  the  Chancellor 
licensing  any  one  whom  he  chose  at  his 
own  discretion,  we  find  the  teachers  in 
the  schools  recommetidirxj  to  hiui  those  of 
their  jnipils  whom  they  judfre  fit  to  receive 
the  hcence.  By  the  end  of  tht^  thirteenth 
century,  the  prestige  and  privileges  of  the 
university  continually  increasing,  the 
Chancellor's  right  to 'license  has  disap- 
peared ;  that  right  is  now  in  the  hands  of 
the  Faculties,  and  is  given  upon  examina- 
tion. 

Regarded  from  the  intellectual  side, 
the  university,  when  its  organisation  was 
complete,  consisted  of  four  groups  of 
teachers  and  students — viz.  the  Faculties* 
of  Arts,  Theology,  Jurisprudence,  and 
Medicine.  Arts  had  the  pre-eminence; 
the  university  was  always  said  to  "  have 
its  foundation  in  arts;"  for  these  were 
the  branches  of  learning  and  science 
which  were  the  development  and  con- 
tinuation of  the  old  Trivium  and  Quad- 
rivium.  The  Masters  of  Arts,  strictly 
speaking,  were  the  "  Universitas ;  "  the 
teachers  in  the  other  faculties  were  loug 
regarded  as  more  or  les<  outsiders.  At 
the  same  time,  the  theological  school, 
especially  after  it  took  into  itself  the 
study  of  canon  law,  rapidly  attained  to  a 
world-wide  celebrity.  The  professorial 
campaigns  of  the  great  lecturers  of  the 
twelfth  century — Abelard,  St.  Bernard, 
AVilliam  of  Champoaux,  Saint  Amour, 
Roscelin,  &c. — are  the  very  romance  of 
education.  The  Church  encouraged  the 
free  play  of  mind,  which,  as  such,  can 
never  be  otherwise  than  favourable  to 
her ;  at  the  same  time,  she  watched  care- 
fully that  no  heretical  teaching  should 
mar  the  soundness  of  that  foundation  of 
Catholic  faith  without  which  neither 
university  nor  any  other  teaching  is  of 
much  value.  The  Popes  were  lavish  of 
piivileges  to  the  rising  institute;  Gregory 
IX.  gave  to  the  teachers  {magiftri, 
doctores)  ihe  riglit  of  scholastic  legisla- 
tion— i.e.  of  settling  all  that  concerned 
the  manner  and  time  of  lecturing ; 
another  Pope  authorised  Paris  masters  to 
open  a  school  anywhere.  So  great  was 
the  fame  of  the  theological  school  that, 

(Paris  is  probably  meant),  though  he  does  not 
disiinctly  name  the  University. — Eccl.  Hist. 
viii.  17. 

'  "  Faculty "  probably  meant  ability  to 
tc.icb. 


I  according  to  Thomassin,'  several  universi- 
'  ties  were  erected  under  Pai)al  sanction 
without  a  theological  faculty,  on  the 
understanding  that  students  who  wished 
to  proceed  in  that  branch  should  go  to 
Paris.  As  the  Church  of  Rlieims  was 
esteeuK^d  a  model  of  discipline  for  other 
Churches,  so  the  University  of  Paris  was 
regarded  as  the  model  and  rule  for  other 
universities  in  learning.  For  two  cen- 
turies, says  Dollinger,  Germany  sought 
,  learning  at  Paris  or  Bologna.  The  efl'orts 
of  a  rival  school  set  up  in  the  abbey  of 
Ste  Genevieve,  which  was  outside  of  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  see  of  Paris  and 
appointed  its  own  chancellor  to  license 
teachers,  served  eventually  to  enhance 
the  glory  of  the  one  great  university,  in 
which  the  singular  phenomenon  of  tico 
chancellors,  preserved  to  the  end  of  its 
existence,  survived  as  the  only  monument 
of  a  once  formidable  opposition.  The 
degree  of  Bachelor  (the  origin  of  the 
word  is  doubtful)  grew  out  of  the 
scholastic  disputations.  That  of  Master 
originally  depended  on  the  licence  to 
tench  given  by  the  Chancellor.  "When 
this  came  to  be  given  by  the  teachers 
themselves,  it  became  an  honour — a 
dignity — a  degree;  and  many  competed 
for  it  who  had  no  intention  of  opening  a 
school.  A  pileux  or  hat  was  conferred,  as 
the  symbol  of  admission  inter  7naffistros. 
From  the  circumstance  that  a  body  of 
masters  was  thus  gradually  formed  who 
did  not  teach  arose  the  distinction 
between  Regentes  and  non-Regentes. 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  the 
University  of  Paris  from  the  intellectual 
side.  But  the  aggregation  of  large  num- 
bers of  students  presented  an  important 
disciplinary  problem  also,  and  to  this  we 
must  devote  a  few  words.  "  Outside  the 
lecture-room  the  scholars  fell  into  clans, 
based  on  community  of  language  and 
manners,  and  technically  called  'na- 
tions.'"* These  assumed  spontaneously 
an  independent  organisation.  Each  of 
the  four  nations  at  Paris — the  French, 
the  Picards,  the  Normans,  and  the  English 
— elected  a  Proctor  as  its  ruler  and  re])re- 
sentative;  collectively  they  chose  a  Rec- 
tor, who  was  head  of  the  whole  "  Corpus 
Scholarium,"  and  in  time  appears  as  the 
ruler  of  the  teaching  body  as  well  as  of 
the  "  nations."  The  student's  life  outside 
the  lecture-room  was  the  alfair  partly  of 
the  Rector  and  Proctors,  i)artly  of  the 
authorities  of  the  various  colleges — if  he 
happened  to  belong  to  one  of  them — of 
»  II.  i.  101.  »  Huber,  i.  24. 


910 


UNlYEi;SITY 


UESULTNES 


the  Sorbonne  [Sorhoxne],  of  Navarre, 
Des  Dix-Huit,  of  St.  Thomas  of  the 
Louvrf,  Pes  r>orn;u-(lii)s,  of  Chmy.  of 
rroiiunitiv.  of  I'.ay.Mix,  ^'c— wliicli, 
in  course  of  time,  were  founded  wifliin 
the  versify.  ]iut  the  Popes,  "even  in 
tlu'  fidlest  power  of  the  universities,'"' 
chiinied  to  and  did  interfere  if  the  interests 
of  morality  and  order  demanded  it. 

The  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridpfe  -were  founded  in  imitation  of  that 
of  Pari.s,  and  arose  not  hinu-  afterwards. 
The  schools  of  Oxford  liegan'  to  be  largely 
frequented  in  the  reign  of  Stephen. 
About  1134,  Robert  Pullus  or  PuUeyn, 
educated  at  Paris,  i.s  said  to  have  lectured 
on  Scripture.  In  the  conflict  of  jurisdic- 
tion between  Henry  of  P)lois,  liishop  of 
Wmchester,  the  Pa])al  T.e-ai.',  and  Arch- 
bishop Theodore,  diliieult  (jiir.-tions  of 
law  were  involved,  and  a  general  wish 
arose  that  the  learning  of  the  great 
Italian  jurists  shouhl  be  made  availal)le 
in  England.  The  l^onihard  A'acarius  was 
sumnioni'd  over,  and  "  tauoht  law  at 
Oxfird,"  -  about  11411.  The  ])lace  was 
central,  relatively  to  the  tlirn  di-lril)u- 
tion  of  the  population  ;  it  \\:i>  al-n  n^'ii- 
tral  ground— a  long  way  bo(li  li-,iin  ('an- 
terbnry  and  Winchester.  I'he  students 
were  divided  into  two  "  nations,"  the 
Novthei-n  and  the  Southern  fhiglish,  each 
with  its  proctor;  he?ice  tlir  discipline  of 
O.vf  .rd  is  t.,  this  dav  in  tlie  liands  of  two 
proctors.  The  siijirmir  aiilliority  in  the 
uni^■el■<ity  was  tli.'  ( '!i:ineellor,  originally 
np]ioiiil  I'll  b\  ilir  I'.i-lin]!  of  lancoln.  in 
vsdio^i-  dioer-i'  (  txf  ,r.l  \va~  ,>it  iiat  ed  ;  al'ter- 
■wanls  elected  liy  tlie  Ma-Ii  r-  and  con- 
firmed by  the  Bisbo]i.  Tn  Ihr  tliirtoi  nth 
century  both  Oxf  ad  and  (.'andn  idgr  were 
in  high  repute;  Paris  ami  llologna  also 
were  at  the  height  of  tlu  ir  jn-ospei-ity. 
At  Pologna,  in  I'iC.i',  tli.ae  were  20,000 
students;*  at  Oxfoi'd,  in  there  are 

.said  (a  Wood)  to  have  bren  .:JO.()(K). 
Halls  {/io,y)i/ia,  cii///  ).  jinv-ided  over  by 
mast(>rs  of  arts,  pi-ioiilnl  ilie  nore.-sai-y 
accommodation.  Tlie  lii  -i  i  nlli  i.i 1 1 ' 
foundal  ion  within  nNfnnl  C'l  iii  vi  ■i-i  i  \  "  t 
<l,at,.>  Irom  llMl"  :  the  oldrM  .oll,-i;,t,. 
Iniildings  ("  .Merton '•)  from  al)out  ll'TO. 
(iradually  the  great  majontv  of  the 
etndi'nts  were  drawn  witliin  the  colleges, 
in  Avhich  discipline  was  more  easily 
maintained. 

1  Huber,  i.  37. 

2  Gervase  of  Cant.  (Rolls  ed.),  ii.  387; 
Kol)ert  de  Monte,  a.  1149  (Migne,  Patr.  vol. 
IGO). 

3  Diillinger,  p.  2. 


j       Germany  came  into  the  field  in  the 
fourteenth  century.    Charles  lY.,  taking 
Paris  for  his  model,  founded  the  Uni- 
versity of  Prague   in   1348  ;   that  of 
"\'ienna  dates  from  13Go.    Salamanca  in 
Spain  and  Coimbra  in   Portugal  were 
founded  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Tsine 
univei-sities  were  founded  in  Germany  in 
the  coiir-i'  of  the  tifteentli century, besides 
five  aiiiady  rxl>tiiig.     In  this  central 
I  land,  ow  nig  to  thf  jilurality  of  indeper.dent 
'  stales,   the    solicitudes   which    beset  a 
unitied  ambitious    nationality,  such  as 
Erance  or  England,  were  absent:  audit 
fell    to    Teutonic    thinkers,  pondering 
deeply  on  the  philosophy  of  the  matter, 
[  to  develop  the  modern  notion  of  a  uni- 
I  versity,  as  a  place  where  all  sciences  and 
all  liberal  arts  are  prosecnted  and  taught, 
with  the  aid  of  the  lie>t  ai)}>liances,  by 
the  mo-i  coiiijii'lont  jirr-ons  anywhere  to 
be  found;'  tlio  h-arner,-  being'  all  those 
studonts,  and  no  otljers,  who  willingly 
come  to  the  prof'ssors  to  be  taught.  If 
I  to  this  notion  the  conce]ition  of  tlu>  pas- 
'  toral  oversight  of  the  Catholic  Cliundi  be 
added  as  a  postulate,  nothing  will  be 
AN  ant  mv:  to  our  ideal  oC  a  jierlect  Accdeme. 

The  Revolution  ,le,-t roved  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  ;  in  it~  jdace  the  first 
Napoleon  erected  the  huge  examining 
machine  which  he  called  the  "University 
of  Erance." 

(Tlioniassiu  :  Ruber,  the  "English 
j  UniverMties."  ed.  bv  E.  Newman,  1843; 

a  ^^•o,„l,  "  UlM  .  and  Autiq.  of  the  T'niv. 
I  of  fiNiiini,"  eil.  b^  (-Hileli,  17!W;  F.niaMis, 
"  Him.  1  iiiv.  I'ariMensis,"  IGIm  ;  Dcil- 
lingcr,  "  ]  lie  Unix  ersitiiten  sonst  und 
jetzt,"  E.  T.  18i!7.) 

UXrX.EAVCIO'ED  BREAD.  [See 
Al.T.VK  PiKKADS    and  El'CHAETST.] 

VRBANZSTS.  [See  PooE  Cl.\r;:s.] 
VRBZ  ET  OltBZ.    [See  Pkomulga- 

TION.! 

VRSUXiZN-ES.  This  teaching  order 
was  lonnded  by  St.  Angela  Merici,  of 
P>res(ia.  in  lo.'17.  An|T-ela  was  born  at 
!»r.i..i/.:,no,  on  the  hdie  of  Garda.  in  1470. 
ili'i  lilo  was  one  long  endeavour  after 
IMTfirlion  :  -he  ]oin,.d  tlie  third  ordei-  of 
SI.  l-ranei,^,  prai-ti-rd  the  givatoM  aus- 
teritie.-",  made  a  pilgriiiiai:i'  to  .TiM-u>aleni 
and  Rome,  and  on  her  retiiiu  settled  at 
Brescia,  where  she  obtained  a  great  in- 
fluence among  the  pion.sly  disposed  of  her 

1  'Plif  priifes.'iori.'iti'  of  tlio  University  of 
Berlin,  f'laniileil  in  IslO. -vvould  have  consistod 
of  foieiiiiHTM  ill  the  iiioportiei)  of  two  to  one  if 
all  til"  invitations  sent  out  had  been  aocepted 
(Dolliuger,  p.  16). 


URSULIXES 


mSULDTES 


911 


■own  sex,  and  gradually  matured  the  plan  ' 
of  a  new  institute.  She  seems  to  have 
desired  a  freedom  of  action  and  of  move- 
ment for  her?elf  and  her  associates,  which 
would  not  hav-  been  compatible  with 
enclosure  and  solemn  vows.  A  fervent 
company  of  seventy-three  women  met 
together  in  the  kitchen  of  Angela's  house, 
at  Brescia,  in  1537 :  the  objects  of  their 
institution — nursing  the  sick,  teaching 
voung  girU,  and  sanctifying  their  own 
lives — were  knowu  to  them  all :  the  rules 
by  which  Angela  endeavoured  to  conciliate 
a  certain  community  of  work  and  wor- 
ship with  the  routine  of  domestic  life 
in  the  world  were  considered  and  ap- 
proved; and  she  was  elected  superior — 
foundress  she  would  not  be  called — of  the 
"  Company  of  St.  Ursula."  A  young 
girl  might  join  the  company  from  twelve 
years  and  upwards  :  at  entrance  each 
was  to  express  the  firm  resolution  of 
living  chastely  in  the  society,  without 
taking  the  vow  of  chastity  :  they  were  to 
hear  Mass  daily ;  on  the  first  Friday  in 
each  month  they  were  to  meet  in  some 
church  in  the  city  previously  fixed  upon, 
and  all  receive  communion :  on  the  last 
Sunday  of  the  month  they  were  to 
assemble  in  the  oratory  belonging  to  the 
^mpany  to  hear  the  rule  read  ;  their 
dress  was  to  be  always  plain  in  texture, 
and  sober  in  hue  and  make,  but  a  costume 
was  not  at  first  adopted.  St.  Angela 
died  m  1  .>4Ct.  A  buU  of  Paul  IH.  ( 1 544) 
confirmed  her  foundation  imder  the  title 
which  she  had  given  to  it.  The  work  of 
teaching  was  from  the  first  the  riistinctive 
employment  of  the  s-xjiety;  and  as  their 
success  and  popularity  increased,  the  need 
of  greater  stability  than  was  furnished  by 
the  ori^rinal  rule  would  naturally  be  felt. 
A  unif  >rm  costume,  with  a  leathern 
girdle,  was  introduced  soon  after  the 
appearance  of  the  Papal  bull.  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  brought  the  Ursulines  to  >filan 
in  lo*W.  and  favoured  them  in  everyway, 
advising  all  his  suffragan  bishops  to  intro- 
duce them  in  all  the  larse  towns  in  the 
North  of  Italy  In  the  Milanese  alone 
there  were  eighteen  Ursuliiie  houses  at 
the  death  of  St.  Charles.  The  excellent 
C^sar  de  Bus  assisted  a  lady  of  Avignon, 
Franfoise  de  Bermont,  to  establish  there 
a  colony  of  Ursulines,  on  the  original 
plan,  in  1594.  Franfoise  was  a  person 
of  great  energy ;  she  travelled  from  city 
to  city  in  the  South  of  France,  and 

{lanted  Ursulines  at  Aix.  Marseilles,  and 
iyons.    She  adhered  to  the  design  of  St. 
Angela.  iTtcept  that,  in  ob^ience  to  a 


suggestion  of  C^sar  de  Bus,  she  substi- 
tut«i  the  common  life  for  dispersion  in 
various  homes.  The  couAersion  of  the 
society  into  a  religious  order  was  chiefly 
the  work  of  a  French  ladv.  Mme  de  Ste- 
Beuve,  who  built  and  endowed  a  monas- 
tery for  Ursulines  in  the  Rue  St.  Jacques 
at  iParis  in  1610,  and  obtained  from  Paul 
v.,  two  years  later,  a  bull,  by  which  her 
foundation  was  subjected  to  the  rule  of 
St.  Austin,  under  the  invocation  of  St. 
Ursula  :  the  nuns  were  to  be  strictly 
enclosed :  they  were  to  take  solemn  vows  ; 
and  were  to  add  a  fourth,  that  of  instruct- 
ing the  young.  This  was  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Ursuline  congregation  of 
Paris,  which  soon  numbered  forty-five 
houses.  The  followers  of  St.  Angela  who 
preferred  still  to  abide  by  her  original 
plan  were  called  "congregated  "  Ursu- 
lines—  Urtulinti  congregee* ;  but  the 
"  religious  "  Ursulines,  who  observed 
enclosure  and  took  solemn  vows,  appear 
to  have  better  suited  the  prevalent  mode 
of  thought  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  they  were  multiplied  in  every  direc- 
tion. 

Several  distinct  congregations,  each 
numbering  many  convents,  were  formed. 
Of  the  congregation  of  Paris  we  have 
spoken:  that  of  Bordeaux  was  founded 
in  1606  by  the  Cardinal-Archbishop  de 
Sourdi-,  with  the  aid  of  Mother  Madeleine 
de  la  Croix,  and  approved  by  the  Holy 
See  in  1618:  before  long  it  had  eighty- 
nine  affiliated  houses.  The  coogregation 
of  Dijon  (1619)  owed  its  existence  to  the 
zeal  of  Francoise  de  Xaintonge :  the  vows 
in  it  were  simple  not  solemn,  and  a  fourth 
vow,  of  perseverance  in  the  society,  was 
taken.  The  congregation  of  Lyons,  of 
which  the  commencement  was  the  house 
founded  by  Franjoise  de  Bermont  in 
1610  for  Urmimeg  congrfgits,  adoptefl 
enclosure  and  solemn  vows  in  1620. 
Mention  is  also  made  of  a  congregation 
of  Tulle,  and  another  of  Aries,  founded 
about  the  same  time.  The  order  was  in- 
troduced into  Canada,  through  the  zealous 
exertions  of  Mme  de  la  Peltrie,  in  16:30. 
The  site  at  Quebec  which  they  still 
occupy  was  soon  obtained  for  them,  and 
till  1850  might  be  seen  within  the  con- 
vent precinct  a  venerable  ash  tree,  sole 
relic  of  the  ancient  forest,  under  which 
the  first  Ursulines  used  to  teach  the 
catechism  to  little  Indian  children. 
Having  belonged  to  different  con^rr^ga- 
tions  in  Europe,  the  Ursulines  of  Quebec 
had  for  some  yeare  no  determinate  con- 
stitution, but  in  \&<-2  they  affiliated  them- 


912 


USURY 


USURY 


selves  to  the  congi-egation  of  Paris.  The 
services  rendered  by  this  community, 
during  the  two  centuries  and  a  half  of  its 
existence,  in  preserving  a  religious  spirit 
among  the  French  population  and  hu- 
manising and  instructing  the  Indians  and 
half  castes,  are  beyond  all  estimation.  In 
the  chapel  of  their  convent  may  be  seen 
the  tomb  of  the  brave  Marquis  de  Mont- 
calm, slain  in  the  unequal  combat  on  the 
heights  of  Abraham  (1759),  which  de- 
cided the  fate  of  Canada. 

The  Irish  Ursulines  owe  their  estab- 
lishment at  Cork  in  1771  to  Miss  Nano 
Nagle,  the  foundress  of  the  Presentation 
Order  (see  that  article).  They  regard 
themselves  as  a  filiation  of  the  convent 
St.  Jacques  at  Paris,  because  all  but  one 
of  those  who  founded  the  house  at  Cork 
were  trained  there;  that  one  was  Mrs. 
Kelly,  a  professed  nun  of  the  Ursulinc 
convent  of  Dieppe,  who,  accompanying 
her  countrywomen  to  Cork,  governed  the 
new  monastery  for  four  years,  establish- 
ing regular  discipline  with  prudence  and 
gentleness,  and  then  returned  to  her  own 
monastery. 

The  Ursulines  do  not  now  increase  so 
rapidly  as  in  former  times ;  congregations 
taking  simple  vows,  like  the  Faithful 
Companions  and  the  Sisters  of  Provi- 
dence, or  of  Mercy,  appear  to  be  more 
answerable  to  "modern  wants.  There  are 
four  houses  in  Ireland — at  Cork  (Black- 
rock),  Thurles,  Waterford,  and  Sligo; 
and  seven  in  England— at  Upton  (in  Es- 
sex), "Wimbledon,  Greenwich,  Berwick- 
on-Tweed,  Wincanton  (Somerset),  and 
Swansea  (2).    (H^lyot,  and  Contin.) 

TTSITRT.  Usury,  in  its  wider  signifi- 
cation, means  all  gain  made  Ly  lending. 
This  is  a  sense  which  usury  often  has  in 
the  classics,  and  so  understood  usury 
occurs  whenever  a  man  lends  capital  at 
interest.  Now,  however,  usury  signifies 
unjust  gain  on  a  loan,  unjust  because  not 
justified  by  the  loss,  risk,  &c.,  of  the 
lender  or  the  advantage  to  the  borrower,' 
or  because  the  amount  of  gain  is  exorbi- 
tant. In  this  latter  case  usury  is  for- 
bidden lioth  by  the  natural  law  and  by 
the  Bible.  It  is  always  unjust,  and  its 
wickedness  is  aggravated  when  advantage 
is  taken  of  the  needs  of  the  poor  to  secure 
usurious  interest.  But  we  shall  see  pre- 
sently that  both  in  the  Old  Testament  and 
for  a  long  time  in  Christian  legislation 

1  I.e.  the  ordinary  worth  which  money  has 
to  the  borrower  ;  for  it  is,  of  course,  unjust  to 
take  advanta^^e  of  the  borrower's  necessity  in 
order  to  exact  exceptional  interest. 


I  little  distinction  was  made  between  the 
I  two  kinds  of  interest.  The  laws  of  the 
Old  Testament  on  the  suhject  had  a  most 
important  influence  on  Christian  feeling, 
so  that  something  must  be  said  about  the 
former  here. 

(1)  Uswy  in  the  Bible. — Public  loana 
and  the  humane  spirit  of  the  law  in 
Christian  nations  have  taught  us  to  draw 
a  clear  line  between  lawful  and  usurious 
interest ;  but  in  the  ancient  world,  as  it  is 
in  the  East  at  this  day,  interest  was 
always  usurious.  The  Egyptian  law  con- 
tented itself  with  prohibiting  interest 
which  was  more  than  cent,  per  cent. 
(Diodor.  Sic.  i.  79) ;  the  laws  of  Menu 
permitted  an  interest  of  18  or  even  24 
per  cent,  (see  the  reference  in  Smith's 
Bible  Dictionary,  article  Usury),  and  1^ 
per  cent,  is,  or  was  till  quite  lately,  a 
minimum  rate  in  the  East.  Partly,  no 
doubt,  for  this  reason,  partly  because 
in  an  agricultural  nation  like  Israel 
loans  were  only  asked  by  those  whose 
need  put  them  at  the  creditor's  mercy, 
partly  to  encourage  kindness  towards  the 
poor,  the  Mosaic  law  prohibits  lending  at 
interest.  The  most  ancient  code  (Exod. 
xxi.-xxxiii.)  prohibits  lending  at  inter- 
fst  (TC'^)  to  poor  Hebrews.  Deut.  xxiii. 
■M   forbids  interest   to  be   taken  from 

j  Hebrews  generally ;  Levit.  xxv.  35-37 
repeats  the  precept  of  Exodus,  forbidding 
also  interest  in  kind  (n'?")?,  also  JTa"!!?). 
Lending  at  interest  generally  is  repro- 
bated in  the  strongest  terms  in  Ps.  xv. 
5,  Prov.  xxviii.  8.  Nehemias,  after  the 
exile,  restored  the  observance  of  the  law 
against  taking  interest  from  Hebrews,, 
and  made  the  usurers  restore  the  "hun- 
dredth part  "  of  the  money  {i.e.  "  cen- 
tesiraiB  usurse,"  1  per  cent,  a  month  =  12 
per  cent,  a  year;  2  Esdr.  v.  II).  The 
New  Testament  gives  no  definite  rule  on 
the  subject,  though  of  course  the  spirit  of 
Christ's  words,  "  Give  to  him  that  asketh 
thee"  (Matt.  v.  42)  excludes  lending  at 
interest. 

(2)  Usury  in  the  Church. — The  money- 
lender's trade  presented  much  the  same 
aspect  in  the  Roman  State  as  in  the  old 
Eastern  world.  Loans  were  still  usually 
made  to  the  needy  who  could  not  protect 
themselves.  The  "  usura  centesima  "(12 
per  cent.)  was  under  the  later  Republic 

i  and  the  Empire  the  legal  rate  of  interest^ 
which  was  due  every  mouth  {i.e.  1  per 
cent,  a  month),  so  that  Ovid  very  naturally 
calls  the  Calends  "swift,"  and  Horace 

I  "  sad."    This  accounts  for  the  feehng  of 


USURY 


USURY 


the  Church  on  the  matter  doTvn  to  modem 
times. 

(n)  The  Fathers  are  unanimous  in  re- 
garding all  interest  as  usury,  and,  tliere- 
fore,  as  a  species  of  robbery.  Their 
general  opinion  was  that  tlie  prohiliitioiis 
in  the  Old  Testament  bound  Christ  iuiis, 
and  that  in  a  more  stringent  form,  siiid' 
the  taking-  of  interest  from  strangers  liad 
only  been  tolerated  among  the  Jews  for 
the' hardness  of  their  hearts.  Tertulliaii 
("Adv.  Marc."  iv.  24,  25),  Cyprian 
("Testiraon."  iii.  48),  Ambrose  ("De 
Tobiii  ■■  throughout,  see  especially  14  and 
15),  Basil  (in  Ps.  xiv),  .Jerome  (in  caji. 
xviii.  I'^zech.),  Chrvsostoni  (in  Matt. 
Hom.  Ivi.  al.  Ivii)",  Augustine  ("Do 
Bapt.  contr.  Donat."  iv.  9,  in  Ps.  xxxvi.), 
Theodoret  (in  Ps.  xiv.  5),  in  their  con- 
demnation of  interest  appeal,  or  at  least 
add  a  reference,  to  the  Old  Testament.' 
Other  Fathers,  probably  from  mere 
accident  and  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  omit 
anv  such  appeal — e.g.  ApoUonius  (apnd 
Euseb.  "H.  E."  v.  18),  Commodian 
("Adv.  Gent.  Deos,"  65),  Lactantius 
("Inst."  vi.  18),  Epiphanius  (in  the 
"Exposit.  Fid."  at  the  end  of  the  "  Hjer." 
n.  24),  Augustine  (Ep.  153).  These 
passages  are  all  explicit.  TertuUian,  e.g. 
("fceneris  sc.  rediuidantiam  quod  est 
usura  ■'),  Ambrose  ("  quodcunque  sorti 
accidit"),  Jerome  ("usuram  appellari  et 
superabundantiam  quicquid  illud  est,  si 
ab  eo  quod  dederit,  plus  acceperint "), 
define  usiury  as  taking  interest ;  the  word 
Epiphanius  employs  is  tokoX^iI^uj,  "  taking 
interest ; "  "  it  is  unjust,"  saj-s  Lactantius, 
"  to  take  more  than  one  gave." 

(3)  Concilinr  and  Papal  Laws. — From 
early  times  the  clergy  were  forbidden, 
under  penalty,  to  take  interest.  So  Canon. 
Apost.  44,  Council  of  Aries  a.d.  314  (c. 
12),  of  Nicaea  (c.  17),  Laodicea  (c.  4), 
Leo  I.  (Ep.  5,  "  Ad  Episc.  Campan."), 
Council  in  Trullo  (c.  10).  Not  that  taking 
interest  was  considi'red  by  these  authori- 
ties permissible  in  laymen;  such  a  thing, 
says  Leo,  is  Lamentable  in  the  case  of 
any  Christian,  and  so  of  course  specially 
reprehensible  in  clergymen.  The  mediaeval 
canon  law  extended  the  penalties  to  lay- 
men. Thus  the  Second  Lateran  Council, 
A.D.  1139  (c.  13,  lib.  V.  Decret.  tit.  19, 
c.  3,  cf.  c.  7),  condemns  usurers  to  ex- 
communication and  deprives  them  of 

'  Clem.  Al.  (ii.  18  p.  473)  explains  the 
word  '•  brother,"  from  whom  interest  may  not 
1)8  taken,  as  meiining  not  only  one  of  the  same 
kin.  but  any  one  who  "shares  in  the  same  doc- 
trine." 


Christian  burial.  Clement  V.  in  the 
Council  of  Vienne  (Clem.  lib.  v.  tit.  5, 
Ue  Usuris,  c.  Ex  gravi)  declares  it  heresy 
to  maintain  pertinaciously  that  usury  is 
no  sin.  It  is  plain  from  St.  Thomas 
(2a  .2ce_  q„  ixxviii.)  that  all  taking  of 
interest  was  still  regarded  as  usury. 
Further,  Alexander  III.  (lib.  v.  Decret. 
tit.  lit,  c.  K)  decides  a  case  proposed  by 
tin  r.i-linp  of  Genoa.  The  merchants  of 
that  eity  used  to  sell  spice  above  the 
market  value,  agreeing  to  wait  a  stated 
j  time  for  payinciu.  The  Pope  replies  that 
j  such  a  contract,  unless  there  was  some 
doubt  wliether  the  market  price  might  not 
ri.-i  or  in  the  meantime,  though  not 
strictly  spi'aking  usurious,'  was  sinful. 

(y)  The  Miidn-n  Vieir. — It  became 
more  and  more  evident  that  commerce 
could  not  exist  without  a  rate  of  interest, 
and  reflection  showed  many  just  grounds 
on  which  a  moderate  rate  could  be 
exacted.  Such  are  the  risk  to  the  lender, 
the  loss  to  which  he  is  put  by  the  want 
of  capital  with  which  he  miglit  trade,  the 
fruit  which  the  money  yields,  &c.  The 
law  can  remove  many  of  the  dangers  of 
usury  liy  fixing  a  legal  rate,  and  the  poor 
are  now  just  the  persons  wlio  would  sutler 
most,  were  all  interest  prohibited.  It  was 
long,  however,  before  opinion  adapted 
itself  to  new  circumstances.  Luther  con- 
sistently, and  Melanchthon  with  some 
hesitation,  stood  where  the  lathers  and 
canonists  had  stood  before  them.  (See 
the  quotations  in  Herzog,  art.  Wucher.) 
]?ossuet  represents  Calvin  as  the  first 
theologian  who  propounded  the  modern 
distinction  between  interest  and  usiuy, 
and  this  seems  to  be  true,  so  far  at  least 
as  writing  goes,  though,  according  to 
Funk  ("Zins  und  Wucher,"  p.  104),  Eck 
and  Iloogstraten  had  defended  the  same 
distinction  at  Bologna.  Bossuet  himself 
maintains  the  old  doctrine  as  of  faith 
("  Traits  de  I'Usure"  in  vol.  xxxi.  of  the 
last  edition  of  his  works),  and  this  though 
he  was  fully  aware  of  the  arguments  on 
the  other  side.  He  rejects  as  sinful  the 
charge  of  interest  on  the  general  ground 
that  the  lender  could  have  used  the 
capital  he  lends  in  trade,  though,  very 
inconsistently,  he  allows  interest  to  be 
charged  if  the  lender  has  foregone  a 
particular  and  definite  gain,**  which  he 
'  Because  there  \v;is  no  formal  loan. 
Tliv  oilier  theoloLfians — e.g.  St  Thomas  (at 
least,  in  his  work,  ••  De  Malo  ")  and  Sootus — 
wcnild  not  admit  even  this  excuse  for  interest, 
if  the  loan  was  voluntary  and  repaid  at  the 
time  agreed  upon.  (See  Ballerini's  Gurv,  2nd 
ed.  vol.  i.  p.  598.) 

8» 


«14  USURY 


VALDENSES 


had  in  prospect.  Benedict  XIV.  in  his 
encyclical  to  the  Italian  bishops,  "  Vix 
pervenit,"  A.D.  1745,  condemned  the  doc- 
trine that  interest  might  be  taken,  merely 
on  the  grouud  of  loan,  ho-n-ever  low  the 
rate  of  interest,  and  although  the  borrower 
mifrht  be  ever  so  rich  and  have  profited  by 
using  the  money  in  trade,  though  he 
leaves  the  questions  about  the  accidental 
or  extrinsic  reasons  for  taking  interest, 
the  risk,  loss  of  profit,  &c.,  quite  un- 
settled. Further,  this  Pope,  according  to 
Ballerini  (loc.  cit.  p.  015),  allowed  books 
defending  the  modern  view  to  be  dedicated 
to  him.  Keen  controversy  on  the  point 
among  Catholics  had  arisen  during  that 
century,  and  the  work  of  the  famous 
Scipio  Maff'ei  (1675-1755)  on  the  laxer 
side  ("deir  impiego  del  danaro")  had 
attracted  great  attention.  In  18-30  the 
Congregatii  'n  of  the  Holy  Office,  with  the 
approval  of  Pius  VIII. ,  decided  that  those 
who  regarded  the  fact  that  the  law  fixed 
a  certain  rate  of  interest  as  in  itself  a  suffi- 
cient reason  for  taking  it,  were  "  not  to  be 
disturbed."  This  principle  is  now  accepted 
throughout  the  Church,  though  the  Holy 
See  has  given  no  positive  decision  on  the 
matter.  Even  the  laws  restraining  the 
clergy  from  taking  interest  are  entirely 
obsolete.  Gury  accepts  the  position  toler- 
ated in  the  decree  of  the  Sacred  Congrega- 
tion, and  argues  that  the  State  has  power 
in  certain  cases  to  transfer  the  property  of 
one  subject  to  another.  No  doubt.  But 
where  is  there  the  faintest  proof  that  the 
State  means  to  exercise  this  power  in  the 
case,  and  to  transfer  the  interest  from  the 
pocket  of  the  boiTower  to  that  of  the 


I  lender  ?  We  may  add  that  the  Fathers, 
I  in  the  places  quoted  above,  expressly  deny 
!  that  the  State-law  makes  usury  lawful, 
Ballerini,  rejecting  Gurys  explanation, 
argues  that  the  words  "loan"  {mu- 
ti'iim),  &c.,  imply  spontaneous  liber- 
ality, but  that  interest  may  be  taken  if 
there  has  been  a  previous  contract  to  that 
effect.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  answer 
that  the  Fathers  and  Schoolmen  meant 
much  more  than  a  truism  like  thi? — viz. 
that  a  man  must  not  require  interest  if  he 
professes  to  lend  without  it.  Later  on, 
Gury  (ii.  p.  611)  seems  to  give  the  true 
reason.  The  ancient  world  believed  that 
1  money  was  barren,  and  the  Schoolmen 
inherited  this  principle  from  Aristotle. 
Experience  proves  that  money,  far  from 
being  barren,  "  produces  fruit  and  multi- 
plies of  itself"  ("  fructum  producit  et 
multiplicatur  per  se,'"  Gury,  loc.  cit.),  and 
a  man  may  justly  take  5  per  cent,  for 
money  which  is  well  worth  that  to  the 
merchant,  bank,  railway  company,  &c., 
who  receive  the  loan. 

(Herzog,  "  Encycl.  fiir  Prot.  Theol." 
art.   Wucher,  gives  useful  citations  from 
the  Heformers.    Smith  and  Cheetham, 
Funk's  work  "  Zins  und  Wucher,"  Hefele, 
"  Beitrage  "  and  "  Concil."  vol.  i.,  have  also 
been  used.    But  for  exhaustive  learning 
and  clear  statements  of  the  points  at 
issue  we  have  seen  nothing  comparable  to 
Bossuet's  "  Traits  de  I'Usure.") 
,      UTRAQUXSTS.    A  section  of  the 
'  Hussites  who  were   so   called  because 
they  demanded  the  Holy  Communion 
j  under  both  kinds  {mb  utvaque  specie), 
I  [See  Hussites  ;  Coiiiiuiaoir  (6).] 


VAZiDSUSES,  or  VAITDOXS.  It 

does  not  fall  within  the  plan  of  the 
])resent  work  to  give  even  an  outline  of 
the  long  and  varied  history  of  this  sect ; 
but  since  it  exists  now,  and  has  been 
undoubtedly  in  being  since  the  twelfth 
century — since,  moreover,  it  now  professes 
Protestant  doctrine,  and  is  regarded  with 
the  strongest  favour  and  interest  by 
English  Protestants,  who  commonly  be- 
lieve that  it  can  trace  its  origin  to 
primitive  if  not  even  to  Apostolic  times — 
it  is  necessary  to  examine  with  some 
minuteness  the  nature  of  the  evidence 
bearing  on  two  questions,  (I)  when  did  it 


arise?  (2)  what  kind  of  tenets  did  it 
originally  profess  P 

(a)  At  the  Council  of  Verona,  held  in 
1184,  Lucius  III.  condemned  those  who 
falsely  called  themselves  the  "  humbled  " 
or  the  "poor  men  of  Lyons,"  with  several 
other  heretical  sects.  The  first  on  the  list 
of  errors  attributed  to  the  condemned,  or 
some  of  them,  was  that  they  presumed 
to  preach  in  public  without  mission  or 
authority  from  Pope  or  Bishop. 

Writing  to  the  Archbishop  of  Aix  and 
his  suft'ragans  in  1198  (Migne,  "Patrol." 
vol.  214),  Innocent  IH.  requests  him  and 
them  to  assist  Rainier,  the  commissioner 


VALDEXSES 


V.ALDEX3ES 


915 


whom  he  is  sending  to  Provence,  in  his 
eflbrts  to  put  down  the  heretics  in  those 

5 arts,  "qui  Yaldenses  Catari  et  Paterini 
icuntur,"  and  by  other  names.  This 
seems  to  be  the  earliest  occurrence  of  the 
name  in  ecclesiastical  history.  The  com- 
mon characteristic  of  all  these  sects  is 
stated  to  be,  that  they  "  reject  the 
authority  of  the  Eoman  Church." 

Bernard,  abbot  of  Font-Cauld,  wrote 
a  special  treatise,  apparently  about  12()0, 
"  against  the  sect  of  the  Yaldenses."  He 
says  nothing  as  to  their  founder,  but 
playing  upon  their  name  derives  it  "a 
valie  densa,"  from  the  thicket  of  errors 
in  which  they  were  entangled.  Dis- 
obedience to  ecclesiastical  authority  is  the 
first  and  principal  fault  imputed  to  them, 
but  they  are  ako  charged  with  allowing 
women  to  preach,  with  a  .systematic 
desertion  of  the  churches,  and  with  re- 
jecting prayers  and  other  ministrations 
for  the  dead.  (See  this  tract  in  Migne, 
vol.  210.) 

Alanus  de  Insulis,  a  celebrated  theo- 
logian, in  a  work  which  must  have  been 
written  before  1 202,  '  attacks  heretics 
generally,  the  Yaldenses,  the  Jews,  and 
the  "  Pagans  or  Mahometans."  In  the 
book  devoted  to  the  Yaldenses  he  says 
that  they  are  so  called  "  from  their  heresi- 
arch,  who  was  named  Waldus,  who,  led 
by  his  own  spirit,  not  sent  by  God,  in- 
vented a  new  sect,  so  that  he  presumed 
to  preach  without  the  authority  of  any 
prelate,  without  divine  inspiration,  with- 
out science, and  without  learning."  "They 
assert,'"  he  says,  "  that  no  one  is  bound  to 
obey  anyone  but  God." 

Conrad,  elected  abbot  of  Ursperg  in 
1215,  when  about  to  describe  in  his 
Chronicle  the  rise  of  the  Franciscans  and 
Dominicans,  contrasts  with  these  orders 
the  "  Poor  Men  of  Lyons  "  and  the 
•'  Humiliati."  Both  these  sects,  he  says, 
arose  in  Italy.  He  thinks  ("ut  puto") 
that  the  founder  of  the  Pov)r  Men  was 
one  Rernhard,  whom,  attended  by  his 
followers,  he  had  himself  seen  soliciting 
approbation  for  his  institute  at  the  Papal 
court.  Bemhard  alleged  that  they  imi- 
tated the  life  of  the  Apostles,  having  no 
property  or  fixed  abodes,  and  that  all 
their  peculiar  practices,  among  others 
that  of  men  and  women  travelling  about 
in  company,  had  "  descended  from  the 
Apostles."  But  the  Pope,  apprehending 
that  some  of  their  customs  were  super- 

'  See  the  "Xotitia'"  prefixed  to  Migne'a 
reprint  of  the  works  of  Alanus  (Patrol.  yoL 
204). 


stitious,  and  others  inexpedient,  refused 
,  to  confirm  them.    Such  is  Conrad's  ac- 
I  count.    It  seems  likely  that  his  memory 
'  misled   him,  and  that   he  confounded 
Bernard,  the  archbishop  of  Narbonne,  an 
active  opponent  of  the  Yaiidois  in  the 
last  years  of  the  twelfth  century,  with 
J  the  real  founder  of  the  sect.' 

It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  "Pauperes 
de  Eugduno  "  of  Conrad  of  Ursperg  and 
the  Council  of  Yerona  are  identical  with. 
1  the  "  Yaldenses  of  Innocent  III..  Alanus, 
I  and  Bernard.  Tliis  identity  is  exi^ressly 
I  stated  by  Rainier  Sacho,  a  somewhat 
later  authority,  and  it  became  the  general 
belief.  Thus  in  a  tract  by  an  uiikno^\"n 
Carthusian  monk  (printed  "by  Martene  -), 
written  about  1440,  with  the  title  "  De 
Religionum  Origiue,"  this  sect  is  called 
"Yaldensium  hseresis  seu  pauperum  de 
Lugduno."  The  early  evidence  all  points 
to  the  rise  of  the  sect  as  having  taken 
place  about  thirty  years  before  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  century.  Their  claim  to  great 
antiquity  is  indeed  noticed  by  Courad, 
but  it  seems  easy  of  explanation.  K  the 
living  authority  of  the  Church  was  to  be 
resisted,  it  could  only  be  done  by  inducing 
the  belief  that  their  tenets  were  apostolic, 
"  ab  apostolis  descendisse."  The  pa.ssages 
Acts  ii.  44  and  1  Cor.  iv.  11  and  ix.  5 
probably  led  to  conscious  imitation  on  the 
part  of  the  Yaldenses,  and  from  such  imi- 
tation to  the  assertion  that  their  customs 
had  come  down  from  the  Apostles  the 
step  was  not  great. 

(b)  Rainier  Sacho,  a  Dominican,  who 
died  in  1260,  and  in  his  capacity  of  in- 
quisitor must  have  had  great  opportunities 
for  obtaining  exact  information,  gives 
the  following  account  of  the  origin  of  the 
Yaudois."  Peter  Yaldo,  a  rich  merchant 
of  Lyons,  about  1160,  shocked  and  stunned 
by  the  sudden  death  of  a  friend,  resolved 
to  strip  himself  of  his  wealth,  and  both 
practise  and  preach  an  Apostolical  poverty. 
Followers  soon  gathered  round  him,  and 
they  were  variously  named  "  Yaldenses,'* 
!  "  Pauperes  de  Lugduno,"  "Leonists '' (from 
the  city),  and  "  Insabatati "  (from  the  sabots 
j  or  wooden  sandals  which  they  wore). 
Yaldo  caused  portions  of  the  Bible  to  be 
translated  into  the  vulgar  tongue ;  these 
he  used  himself  in  preaching,  and  caused 
others  to  use  ;  and  when  the  clergy-  re- 
•  From  some  similar  confusion.  Philippe  de 
Coniine.*.  describing'  the  visit  of  St.  Francis  de 
Paule  to  the  court  cf  Louis  XL,  nniformlr 
CJdls  the  ^aint  "  Robert." 

'  Amp/is).  Coll.  vol.  vi.  p.  56. 
s  We  take  his  narrative  as  excerpted  by 
Dupin,  Auleurs  Eccles.  stec.  xiii.  ch.  9. 

o  S2 


916  YALDENSES 


VALDENSES 


monstrated  te  paid  uo  heed  to  their 
admonitions.  A  rapid  development  of 
sectarian  tenets  was  the  natural  conse- 
quence of  this  first  resistance.  Rainier 
divides  the  errors  of  the  Valdenses  into 
three  classes — against  the  Church  and  the 
clerg-}-,  against  the  sacraments,  against 
sacramentals.  Under  the  first  head  they 
taught  that  the  Church  of  Rome  was  not 
the  Church  of  Christ,  but,  rather,  the 
harlot  mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse ;  tliat 
it  had  become  corrupt  in  the  time  of  Pope 
Sylvester,  when  the  poison  of  temporalities 
first  infected  it ; '  that  scarce  any  but  them- 
selves held  the  true  Gospel  doctrine ;  that 
the  Pope  is  the  author  of  all  errors ;  that 
tithes  ought  not  to  be  paid,  and  the  Church 
should  not  possess  property  ;  and  that  all 
members  of  the  Church  are  equal.  Under 
the  second  head,  they  found  fault  witli 
all  the  sacraments  of  the  Church  ;  as  to 
Baptism,  they  said  that  the  washing  of 
infants  was  of  no  avail  to  them,  and  they 
rejected  many  of  the  ceremonies  proper  to 
the  rite.  Confirmation  they  set  aside ;  as 
to  the  Eucharist,  they  held  that  priests  in 
mortal  sin  could  not  consecrate,  and  fell 
into  a  variety  of  other  errors  which  we  have 
not  space  to  enumerate.  As  to  Penance, 
they  said  that  a  bad  priest  could  not  ab- 
solve, but  that  a  good  layman  could.  With 
regard  to  Marriage,  they  set  at  nought  the 
impediments  established  by  the  Church, 
and  acknowledged  no  spiritual  affinity  as 
resulting  from  the  sacrament.  They  dis- 
approved of  the  sacrament  of  Extreme 
Unction,  because  it  was  only  given  to  the 
rich.  AVIiat  respect  they  would  have  for 
the  sacrament  of  Holy  Orders  is  apparent 
from  what  has  been  already  said.  All 
laymen,  they  held,  were  entitled  to  preach, 
and  women  also."  Whatever  was  not  in  the 
Scriptures  they  held  to  be  fabulous.  They 
believed  in  no  saints  but  the  Apostles. 
With  regard  to  the  third  head,  that  of 
Sacramentals,  they  made  a  clean  sweep  of 
all  the  beautiful  and  touching  ceremonies 
— all  the  salutary  institutes — with  which 
the  Church  had  surrounded  the  life  of 
Christians  here  below.  No  festivals,  no 
fast-days,  no  holy-water,  uo  lights,  no 
ornaments,  no  incense,  no  images,  no 
chanting ;  to  hear  a  Valdensian  ranter  at 

'  The  Vaudois  evidently  believed  the  fig- 
nieut  i)f  the  Donation  of  "Constantine.  (See 
States  of  the  Church.) 

-  From  this  account  it  would  appear  that 
^lilm.in's  statement,  that  "they  rejected  the 
sevi  II  snrrament^,  except  Baptism  and  the  Eu- 
chiirist."  which,  it  true,  would  assimil.ate  them 
closely  to  the  Anglic.iiis.  is  not  very  accurate 
(^Lalin  Christianity,  v.  39..i). 


uncertain  times  seems  to  have  appeared 
to  these  poor  sectaries  the  sum  of  all  the 
support  and  delectation  that  the  soul 
could  possibly  require.  They  held  that  it 
was  unlawful  to  swear.  "They  condemn 
all  princes  and  judges,  being  persuaded 
that  it  is  not  lawful  to  punish  malefactors. 
Lastly,  they  condemn  the  ecclesiastical 
judgments." 

Severe  measures  of  repression  were 
used  against  the  Vaudois  from  time  to 
time,  but  failed  to  extirpate  them.  A 
letter  from  a  Franciscan  inquisitor  to  the 
Council  of  Basle,'  dated  in  1432,  statt^s 
that  although  the  writer  had  "  made 
great  executions  on  many  heretics  "' 
within  the  past  two  years,  the  sect  stiU 
flourished  on  both  side  of  the  Alps,  that 
he  had  several  relapsed  heretics  in  prison, 
both  at  Yverdun  and  at  Brian^on,  and 
that  these  had  revealed  to  him  the  exist- 
ence of  more  than  five  hundred  others. 
At  the  Reformation  some  of  the  Pro- 
testant leaders,  who  perceived  the  use 
that  might  be  made  in  controversy  of 
the  alleged  existence  of  a  sect  which  had 
maintained  a  "  pure  "religiou  and  resisted 
the  authority  of  Rome  for  many  cen- 
turies, made  overtures  to  the  Yaudois, 
and  in  1530  their  deputies,  Masson  and 
Morel,  met  Qlcolampadius  and  Bucer  at 
Basle.  According  to  Dupin,  these  last 
engaged  the  deputies  to  renounce  some 
of  the  more  extravagant  of  their  tei.ets — 
e.ff.  that  a  Christian  might  not  lawfully 
swear,  that  ministers  might  not  hold 
property,  and  that  the  ministrations  of 
wicked  pastors  were  invalid ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  hold  with  the  Protestants, 
that  the  Body  of  Christ  was  not  in  the 
Eucharist,  and  that  confession  of  sins 
was  unnecessary.  But  the  complete 
adoption  by  the  Yaudois  of  Protestant 
doctrine  is  said  not  to  have  taken  place 
till  about  1630. 

Such  is  the  view  which  authentic 
history  presents  of  the  rise  of  the  Yaudois 
and  of  their  original  doctrines.  The 
modern  popular  view,  which  represents 
them  as  a  race  of  primitive  manners  and 
simple  piety,  dwelling  in  remote  Alpine 
valleys,  and  cUnging  to  a  Scriptm'al  and 
Protestant  religion,  handed  down  from 
the  first  ages,  in  the  teeth  of  continual 
persecution,  appears  to  be  founded  in 
great  part  on  a  falsification.  Soon  after 
the  Reformation  broke  out,  "  their  whole 
history,  and  a  part  of  their  written  docu- 
ments, were  subjected  to  a  process  of 
re-casting — just  as  already  some  older 
'  Slartene,  Ampliss.  Coll.  viii.  162. 


V'ANXE,  ST. 


\ATICAX  mUNCIL 


pi  7 


writings  had  been  re-fashioned  in  a 
Hussite  sense,  owing  to  contact  with  the 
circle  of  Hussite  sects."  '  For  particulars 
of  this  falsification  {"  Fal^c/mn;^").  we 
must  refer  the  render  to  the  Protectant 
writer  just  quoted,  who  states  tliaf  no 
€xistinff  ^'audois  MS.  is  of  date  failicr 
than  the  fifteenth  century,  althoiigh  uiauy 
were  made  to  appear  to  have  been  written 
in  the  twelfth. 

In  1655  the  Duke  of  Savoy  sent  troops 
against  the  Vaudois  of  Angrogna  and  the 
neighbouring  valleys,  who  were  said  to 
have  spread  themselves  outside  the  limits 
to  which  they  were  confined  by  treaty. 
Great  excesses  were  reported,  and  were 
denounced  by  the  indignant  ]Muse  of 
Milton  in  the  well-kiunvu  snmict  begin- 
ning, "Avenge,  O  Lord,  thy  slniightrred 
saints."  Cromwell  interposed  vigoroir-ly, 
and  the  Duke  was  obliged  to  grant  the 
Vaudois  favnural)le  terms.  At  the  jiresent 
dav,  thevare  said  to  number  about  2U,()(  10; 
a  large  place  of  worship  was  built  for  them 
at  Turin,  chietiv  bv  English  money,  in 
1853. 

(Fleury ;  Innocent  HI.  "  Epist."  in 
Migne,  vol.  214  ;  Alanus  do  Iiisulis.  in 
Migne,  vol.  204  ;  Bernardus  Abbas 
Fontis  Calidi,  in  Migne,  vol.  210  ; 
"  Chronicon  Urspergense  "  ;  Rainerius, 
"  Summa  de  Catharis  et  Leonistis  "  ; 
^lartene,  "  Aniplissiina  CoUertio":  Dupin, 
"Auteurs  Eccl^siastiques";  TL'rzog,  "Die 
ronianischen  Waldenser,"  J  '^o.S;  .lane  L. 
Williams,  "  Short  History  of  the  Walden- 
•sian  Church,"  with  preface  bv  Dr.  Gilbv, 
1855;  Milmau,  "Lutin  Christianity,"  v. ; 
Mohler,  "  Kircln  iig —r  hk  hte,  '  ii.  (527.) 

VATTITE,  ST.,  COITCRECATXOIir 

OP.  [See  Bexedictines  :  Maitrists.] 
This  congregation,  of  which  the  famous 
commentatorCalmetwas  the  chief  literary 
ornament,  was  in  a  flourishing  state  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution.  Its 
houses  were  then  suppressed,  and  it  has 
not  since  been  revived. 

VATICAW  coTrNCZX..  This  coun- 
cil met  on  December  S,  1869,  and  is  not 
yet  concluded.  No  general  council  had 
been  held  for  throe  lumdred  years,  and 
the  author  of  the  article  on  Trent  in 
rierzog's  "  Encyclopedia,"  writing  only 
about  seven  years  before  the  bishops  met 
in  the  Aula  of  the  Vatican,  speaks  of 
another  general  council  as  a  moral  im- 
possibility. Yet  it  is  easy  enough  to  see 
that  the  events  of  half  a  cent  my  had 
been  preparing  the  wav  for  the  General 
Council  of  1869.  Tlie  interference  of 
>  Herzog,  p.  398. 


statesmen  with  the  freedom  of  the  Church 
had  turned  the  law  (Concil.  IVid.  sess. 
xxiv.  "  De  Reform."  c.  2)  which  requires 
provincial  synods  to  be  held  every  three 
years  into  a  dead  letter.  The  ."same  cause 
would  also  have  proved  an  obstacle,  and 
])robably  an  insuperable  one,  to  great 
assemblies  of  the  bishops  at  Rome.  But 
the  revolution  which  slri]>]i(Ml  the  C!iui-cii 
of  her  wealth  certainly  U'lt  h^r  tVt'er  in 
action.  The  first  rrovincuil  SvikhI  whicii 
had  been  known  for  long,  as^'nihliMl  ;it 
Tuam  in  1817,  and  its  decn-i^s  were  eon- 
firmed  at  Rome.  It  was  followed  by 
the  >.'ational  Synod  of  Hungary,  held  at 
Pressbiiru'-  in  1x22.  But  it  was  from 
the  Unitt'd  Stiitps  that  the  revival  of 
Provincial  Councils  really  came.  There 
were  Provincial  Svnods  of  Baltimore  in 
1820,  18.13,  1837, '1840,  1843,  1846,  and 
]849.  Pius  IX.  early  in  his  Pontificate 
urged  the  observance  of  the  Church's  law 
upon  the  bishops.  Soon,  no  fewer  than 
twenty  provincial  councils  bad  assembled 
in  France;  Austria  au'l  lliin::ary  i'^illowed 
the  example  in  18")>i  (Smioi1<  of  \"ii-nna 
and  Gran"),  Holland  in'  1805  (Synod  of 
Utrecht),  and  numerous  synods  were  held 
in  (lermany,  in  Englaml,  just  after  the 
hierarchy  had  been  restored,  in  Ireland, 
in  Australia,  and  in  South  America  (Quito 
and  Xew  Granada).  Even  the  Catholics 
of  the  ( triental  rites  were  atfected  bv  the 
nio\enieut.  Syrians,  Maronites,  Arme- 
nians,  met  in  council,  and  the  last  Coun- 
cil of  the  Armenians  at  Constantinople 
in  INOO  deserves  special  notice.  In  Italy, 
on  the  other  hand, ])olitical  troubles  made 
the  number  of  provincial  councils  very 
small.  Nor  was  this  revival  of  synodical 
action  the  only  preparation  for  a  general 
council.  Piux  IX.  had  three  times  seen 
a  vast  number  of  bishops  gathered  round 
him — viz.  at  the  definition  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception,  at  the  canonisation 
of  the.Iapanese  martyrs,  on  the  eiehteenth 
centenary  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul.  Since  the  Second  Lateran 
Council  of  1139,  Rome  had  never  wit- 
nessed such  an  assembly  of  bishops  as 
this  last  one.  Nor  was  it  simply  the 
fact  of  these  unions  which  led  the  way 
to  the  General  Couni'il  in  the  Vatican. 
It  is  evident  now  that  the  chief  definition 
of  this  Council — viz.  that  of  the  Papal 
Infallibility,  came  as  the  result  of  forces 
which  had  been  long  at  work.  The 
French  universities  had  disappeared  in 
the  storms  of  the  Revolution,  and  Gal- 
ilean principles  were  dying  out  in  France 
itself.    In  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal, 


913      VATICAN  COUNCIL 

■where,  owing  to  the  infliieuce  of  the 
GoTernments,  Gnllicanism  had  found, 
even  late  in  the  last  century,  such  repre- 
gt-ntatives  as  Tambiirini,  Bishop  Solavi, 
Foutani,  Palmieri,  Degola,  Bishop  Cle- 
ment of  Barcelona,  &c.,  it  was  now  wholly 
extinct.  Many  of  the  provincial  councils 
and  the  bishops  in  their  assemblies  at 
Rome  had  held  language  which  showed 
that  a  proposal  to  define  the  Pope's  in- 
fallibility would  meet  with  no  opposition 
among'  the  majority.  With  the  German 
Catholics  it  was  otherwise.  There  many 
of  the  clergy  were  still  educated  at 
•'mixed"  universities — many  of  the  Ca- 
tholic pro'essors  had  already  manifested 
their  distrust  of  the  "  Roman  "  theology, 
and  some  of  them  had  come  into  collision 
with  the  Roman  Congregations.  They 
clung,  in  the  supposed  interests  of  science, 
to  methods  different  from  those  which 
prevailed  at  Rome.  And  even  in  France, 
there  was  a  party,  small  in  numbers,  but 
strong  in  talent  and  character,  which 
was  attached  to  liberal  principles  in 
politics  and  distrustful  of  Roman  inter- 
ference in  such  matters.  They  had 
fought  the  Church's  battle  for  freedom 
of  instruction,  and  they  were  unwilling 
to  admit  that  the  appeal  they  had  made 
to  the  principles  of  freedom  and  tolera- 
tion was  after  all  only  an  uryinnenhim 
(id  hominem.  Ultramontanism  then  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  Church,  but  it 
was  opposed  by  a  small  band  of  Catholic 
"liberals"  in  France,  and  by  a  number 
of  learned  men  in  Germany.  The  former 
advocated  the  interests  of  freedom,  as 
they  understood  it  ;  the  latter,  those  of 
philosophy,  history,  and  theology,  as  they 
understood  them  There  were,  besides. 
Catholic  statesmen  in  both  countries  who 
saw  danger  to  the  State  in  a  definition  of 
Papal  infallibility. 

Pius  IX.  first  imparted  his  idea  of 
convoking  a  General  Council  to  the  car- 
dinals of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  in 
December  1864;  and  shortly  afterwards 
he  Consulted  all  the  cardinals  who  re- 
sided in  Rome  on  the  matter.  They  were 
requested  to  submit  to  the  Pope  their 
opinions,  in  writing,  on  the  opportuneness 
of  such  a  convocation,  and  the  subjects 
which,  supposing  the  Council  ojjportune, 
ought  to  be  discussed.  Nineteen  ndvised 
the  convocation,  two  were  aL:;iirist  it, 
one  was  doubtful.  In  March  l.-^iio,  five 
cardinals  (Patrizi,  Reisach,  Panebianco, 
Bizarri,  Caterini)  were  appointed  to  con- 
sider the  votes  sent  in,  and  these,  with 
the  addition  of  some  other  cardinals  and 


VATICAN  COUNCIL 

of  eonsultors,  were  formed  into  a  Congre- 
gation of  Direction  (Cecconi,  "Storia  del 
Concil.  Vatic.''  lib.  i.  cap.  1).  In  April 
and  May  a  circular  was  addressed  to 
thirty-six  bishops,  begging  their  opinion 
on  tiie  subjects  to  be  treated  {ib.  Doc. 
iii  ),  and  letters  were  also  addressed  to 
the  Nuncios  at  the  various  Courts,  asking 
them  to  find  theologians  fit  to  act  as  con- 
suitors  in  the  preliminary  congregations 
{ib.  P/oc.  iv.).  Next  year,  in  February 
and  March,  certain  Oriental  bishops  and 
bishops  of  the  Greek  rite  in  the  Austrian 
Empire,  were  also  consulted  {ih.  Doc. 
vi.  and  vii.).  All  these  consultations 
were  made  in  the  strictest  confidence.  On 
June  4.  l  S(i7,'  Cardinal  Caterini  wrote  to 
all  tile  bishops  present  for  the  centenary  of 
the  martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul, 
lie  added  a  list  of  seventeen  questions 
on  points  of  discipline,  and  invited  sug- 
gestions on  other  matters  {ib.  Doc.  ix.). 

At  last,  in  the  same  month,  the  Pope 
annoimced  in  a  public  Consistory  of  some 
500  bishops  his  intention  of  convoking 
the  Council  {ih.  Doc.  x.),  and  bv  a  bull 
of  June  29,  1860  {ib.  Doc.  xxxVi.),  the 
Council  was  summoned  to  meet  at  Rome 
on  Decembers,  186!*.  Meantime,  in  Sep- 
tember of  the  previous  year,  "  all  bishops 
of  the  churches  of  Oriental  rite  not  in 
communion  with  the  Apostolic  See"  {ib. 
Doc.  xxxvii.),  and  all  "Protestants  and 
non-Catholics "  {ib.  Doc.  xxxviil.),  were 
invited  to  attend.  There  was  some 
thought  of  addressing  a  similar  invitation 
to  the  Jansenist  bishops  in  Holland,  but 
it  was  resolved  not  to  do  so  {ib.  vol.  i. 
p.  119  seq.).  It  was  intended  that  these 
(hiental  bishops  should  be  allowed  no 
part  in  the  Council  till  they  professed  the 
Catholic  Roman  faith  whole  and  entire ; 
and  it  was  explained  in  a  letter  to  Arch- 
bishop, afterwards  Cardinal,  Manning  that 
the  Protestants  were  only  invited  to  attend 
that  they  might  be  referred  to  "expe- 
rienced men,"  and  have  their  difficulties 
solved.  No  eff'ect  followed  from  these 
letters  to  Orientals  and  Protestants,  ex- 
cept a  fewprotests  (Friedrich,  "Geschichte 
des  Vatikan-Concils,"  i.  p.  723  seq.). 
Besides  the  Commission  of  General  Direc- 
tion, mentioned  already,  the  Pope  nomi- 
nated six  special  commissions — for  Cere- 
monial, the  Relations  of  Church  and  State, 
the  Churches  and  Missions  of  the  East, 
the  Religious  Orders,  Dogmatic  Theology, 
and  Disciphne.    Each  consisted  of  a  car- 

'  So  Schneemann,  Kanonen  und  Beschlijsse 
ties  VatiJtan.  Concils,  Einleit.  p.  xv.  Tlie  dtite 
in  Cecconi— viz.  .June  6,  186G— must  be  a  slip. 


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dinal  president,  and  of  consultors  from  all 
parts  of  the  world.  Vercellone,  Theiner, 
Tarquini,  Franzelin,  Schrader,  Perrone, 
Gibert,  Freppel,  Hcfele,  Ilaneberg,  Her- 
•renrother,  Alzog,  Molitor,  Moiifang,  Het- 
tinger, Feijje,  were  among  the  consultors. 
Dr.  (afterwards  Cardinal)  Newman  was 
asked  to  be  a  consultor,  but  declined  on 
account  of  bad  health.  It  was  the  duty 
of  these  special  congregations  to  prepare 
"  schemata  " — i.e.  draughts  of  canons  and 
decrees  for  the  consideration  of  the 
Fathers.  Their  members  were  bound  to 
absolute  secrecy. 

Till  the  Council  met  nothing  was  said 
by  anyone  in  authority  of  any  intention 
to  define  Papal  infallibility.  But  atten- 
tion was  roused  by  statements  in  the 
French  correspondence  of  the  "  Civilta," 
February  6,  I860  (reprinted  in  Cecconi, 
Doc.  cxl").  In  this  Jesuit  organ,  published 
at  Rome,  and  believed  by  many  to  possess 
very  high  authority  in  the  Roman  Court, 
it  was  stated  that  the  Council  would 
probably  set  its  seal  to  the  condemnations 
of  the  Syllabus ;  that  the  bishops  would 
define  the  Pope's  infallibility  by  acclama- 
tion, and  that  the  corporal  assumption  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  into  heaven  would  be 
made  an  article  of  faith.  This  was  the 
occasion  soon  'after  of  the  famous  articles 
in  the  Augsburg  "Allgemeine  Zeitung," 
which  aftei-wards  appeared  in  the  form  of 
a  book  entitled  "  Janus."'  It  professed  to 
be  written  from  a  Catholic  point  of  view, 
but  was  in  reality  a  bitter  attack  on  the 
Papacy.  In  ApriH869  Prince  Hohenlohe, 
Foreign  Minister  in  Bavaria,  sent  a  circular 
to  the  European  Governments  warning 
them  of  the  political  dangers  which  the 
Council  might  cause  (Friedrich,  ib.  i. 
p.  774),  and  in  September  a  large  majority 
of  the  German  bishops  assembled  at 
Fnlda  laid  l^efore  Pius  IX.  their  fears  as 
to  the  consequences  in  Germany  should 
Papal  infallibility  be  defined.  This  docu- 
ment was  undoubtedly  despatched  to  the 
Pope,  but  Cecconi,  after  laborious  search, 
could  not  find  it  in  the  Roman  archives 
(Cecconi,  part  i.  vol.  ii.  sect.  i.  p.  479). 

The  time  of  convocation  was  drawing 
near,  and  Pius  IX.  in  a  brief"  Multiplices 
inter,"'  November  27,  1S69  {ib.  Doc.  Hi.), 
arranged  the  order  of  business  at  the 
Council.  The  preparatory  commissions 
had  done  their  work,  and  were  to  be  re- 
placed by  new  ones.  The  Pope  appointed 
five  cardinal-presidents ;  viz.  Rcisach 
(who  died  shortly  afterwards  and  was  re- 
placed by  De  Angelis),  De  Luca,  Bizzari, 
Bilio,  Capalti,  a  secretary — viz.  Bishop 


I  Fessler  of  St.  Polten — and  a  deputation  of 
members  of  the  Council,  who  were  to 

I  examine  proposals  made  by  the  bishops. 
Four  other  deputations  for  Dogma,  Disci- 

I  pline,  Religious  Orders  and  di  iontal  Rites, 

I  were  to  be  chosen  by  the  Fathers  of  the 
Council,  but  each  was  to  be  placed  under 
a  cardinal-president  nominated  by  the 
Pope  himself.  The  schemata  drawn  up 
by  the  preparatory  commissions  were  to 
be  printed  and  distributed  to  the  Fathers. 
The  bishops  might  send  proposals  to  be 
examined  by  the  directive  dej)utatioii. 
Tiiese  new  schemata  or  proposals,  if  ap- 
proved by  it,  were  also  to  be  printed  and 
circulated  among  the  bishops  some  days 
before  the  discr.ssion  on  them  began. 
Bishops  who  wished  to  speak  on  any 
subject  must  notify  their  intention  at 
least  a  day  before.  They  were  to  do  so 
in  order  of  rank,  and,  after  they  had 
ended,  others  might  obtain  leave  to  speak 
from  the  presidents.  If  there  was  no 
prospect  of  agreement,  schemata,  accord- 
ing to  their  subject-matter,  were  to  be 
refen-ed  to  the  special  commissions  for 
revisal,  and  then  voted  upon  in  general 
congregation.  Finally,  the  canon  or  decree 
was  to  be  read  in  the  Pope's  name  iu 
solemn  session,  the  Fathers  were  to 
answer  "  Placet  "  or  "  Non  placet ;  "  the 
Pope  was  to  announce  the  result,  and,  in 
case  of  acceptance  by  the  Council,  to  con- 
firm its  decision  by  Apostolic  autliority. 
The  Council  opened  on  Decembers,  1869. 
There  were  719  members  present,  and  by 
March  of  the  following  year  as  many  as 
764.  Of  these  12t)  were  archbishops  or 
bishops  iu  partibus  itijidelium,  now  called 
titular  prelates,  and  52  were  abbots, 
generals  of  orders,  &c.  (From  the  lists 
in  Schneemann.) 

Much  time  was  spent  iu  discussions 
on  discipline,  the  preparation  of  a  Short 
Catechism,  &c.,  which  have  issued  as  yet 
in  no  definite  result.  The  work  actually 
finished  consists  of  two  Constitutions — 
one,  "De  Fide  Catholica,"  made  up  of 
chapters  and  canons  on  the  primary  truth.* 
of  natural  religion,  on  revelation,  on  faith, 
and  the  connection  between  faith  and 
reason  ;  the  other  "  De  Ecclesia  Christi," 
treating  chiefly  of  the  primacy  of  the 

j  Roman  See,  and  defining  the  Pope's  imme- 

i  diate  authority  over  all  Christians.  The 
former  constitution  passed  with  compara- 

;  tivelyhttle  dirticulty.  It  was  unanimously 
accepted  by  the  6(i7  Fathers  present,  and 
confirmed  by  the  Pope  in  the  third  public 
session,  April  24,  1870. 

Very  difi'erent  was  the  fate  of  the 


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second  constitutiou.  We  haxe  seen  that 
nothing  had  been  said,  at  least  publicly 
and  bv  authority,  before  the  Council  met, 
of  any  intention  to  define  the  Pope's 
infallibility,  and  Cecconi  (lib.  i.  cap.  i.) 
assures  us  that  of  the  cardinals  first  con- 
sulted by  the  P.  pe — i.e.  in  ]  864 — two  only 
even  mentioned  the  subject.  Scarcely, 
however,  had  the  Council  met  when  a 
"  postulatum '' representing  the  views  of 
the  great  majority  nf  the  Fathers  begged 
that  the  question  should  be  proposed  for 
decision.  On  the  other  hand,  in  January 
1870,  forty-five  German  and  Austrian 
bishops, thirty-two  French,  joined  by  three 
Portuguese  and  four  Orientals,  twenty- 
seven  from  nations  of  Fuglish  speech, 
seventeen  Orientals,  seven  Italians,  begged 
the  Pope  to  prevent  the  discussion. 
(Original  texts  in  Friedrich,  "  Docunienta 
ad  Illustrandum  Concil.  Vatic."  Aljth.  ;. 
pp.  250,  251,  254,  256.)  At  the  same 
time,  outside  the  Council,  a  protest  was 
made  by  Br.  Ddllinger  as  well  as  by  ttie 
French  Minister  Daru  and  the  Austrian 
von  Reust,  supported  by  the  liavarian, 
Portuguese,  Prussian  and  Fuglish  Cabi- 
nets. Archbishops  Dt  scliamps  of  Maliiies, 
IManning  of  "V^'ostminster,  Spalding  of 
TSaltiniore,  and  Eislinp  Martin  of  Pader- 
borii,  were  ])rominent  on  tlie  side  of  tlie 
luajority  ;  while  the  learned  Hefele,  who 
was  promoted  to  tlie  bishopric  of  Rotten- 
Inirg  in  November  1869,  Strossmayer, 
bishop  of  Diakovar  in  Slavonia,  Cardinal 
Pau^cher,  arclibisliop  of  Vienna,  Darboy, 
archbishop  of  Paris,  r'u])anloup,  bishop 
of  (Orleans.  ]\laret,  bi.-liop  iii  partibiix, 
Keiiricl;.  arcliliishop  of  St.  Louis  in  the 
I'nited  States,  Clifford,  bi.shop  of  Clifton, 
were  strenuous  supporters  of  the  opposi- 
tion. 

New  complications  arose  fi'om  a  docu- 
ment issued  by  the  cardinal-presidents  at 
the  wish  of  the  Pope  on  February  20, 
1870.  Complaints  were  made  of  the  way 
in  which  the  discussions  were  protracted, 
and  accordingly  new  arrangements  were 
devised.  Inthediscussion  on  any  amended 
scliema  no  one  was  to  tnl<e  part  without 
giving  notice  ))eforehand  ol'that  particulnr 
]]ortion  of  the  said  schema  on  which  he 
meant  to  address  tln^  Council.  Further, 
dt  the  request  of  any  ten  Fathers,  the 
presidents  might  ask  the  Council  if  tlu'y 
desired  the  discussion  to  proceed,  and  if  a 
majority  said  no,  they  miglit  close  it 
there  and  then.  This  led  more  than  a 
hundi'ed  jirelatesto  ]irot(>st,  in  a  document 
addressed  to  the  presidents,  that  by  these 
regulations  "  the  freedom  of  the  Council 


might  seem  in  several  respects  to  be  im- 
paired, nay,  destroyed"  ("miniii  imo 
toUi  posse  videatur").  They  implored 
that  nothing  should  be  defined  except 
with  the  moral  unanimity  of  the  Fathers, 
and  ajipealed  to  the  example  of  Pius  IV. 
at  the  Council  of  Trent.  Otherwise  they 
feared  that  "  the  character  of  the  Oecu- 
menical Courcil  might  be  exposed  to 
doubt"  ("  wcumenici  concilii  character  in 
dubium  vocari  possit."  Te.xt  in  Friedrich, 
Abth.  i,  p.  258  seq.)  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  the  whole  discussion 
was  extended  over  seven  weeks.  The 
points  at  issue  must  have  l)een  perfectly 
familiar  to  those  with  whom  the  decision 
lay,  and  the  majority  could  not  be  ex- 
pected to  tolerate  a  protracted  discussion 
whicli  had  no  real  influence  on  opinion, 
and  only  served  to  impede  definition. 

Fariy  in  31ay  the  schema  '•  Di-  Ec- 
clesia,"  with  the  added  clauses  on  Papal 
infallibility,  was  laid  before  the  Council, 
and  the  conciliar  discussion  upon  it  liegan. 
On  July  13,  it  was  voted  upon  in  general 
congregation:  of  the  Fathers  present  451 
said  "Placet,"  sixty-two  "Placet  juxta 
modum'' — I'e.  they  were  ready  to  accejit 
the  Constitution  with  modifications,  but 
not  as  it  stood  ;  eighty-eight  said  "  Non- 
placet,"  seventy  did  not  vote  at  all.  In 
the  last  general  congregation  the  Fathers 
protested  against  tlie  calumnies  of  the 
press,  especially  against  the  report  that 
the  (~'ouncil  was  not  free.  In  a  letter  to 
the  Pojie  fifty-five  bishops  declared  that 
their  niin<l  was  unaltered,  but  that  they 
meant  to  absent  themselves  from  the  public 
session.  This  was  held  on  July  18.  The 
bull  "Pastor  ^-Eternus,"  containing  the 
Constitution  "De  Fcclesia"  and  the  defi- 
nition of  Papal  infallibiiity,  was  read. 
Thereupon  535  answered  "  Plact^t,"  the 
two  others — viz.  Bishop  Kiccio  of  Ajaccio 
and  Bishop  Fitzgerald  of  Little  Rock — 
"  Non  placet."  The  Pope  then  confirmed 
the  decree  by  Apostolic  authority.  On 
that  same  day  Napoleon  III.  declared  war 
against  Prussia.  On  September  20  the 
Italians  possessed  themselves  of  Rome, 
and  by  a  brief  of  October  20  the  Pope 
prorogued  the  Council.  It  has  never 
been  reassembled. 

In  the  articles  on  Faith  and  on  the 
Pope,  we  have  said  sometJiing  on  the 
meaning  of  the  Vatican  decrees,  and  in 
that  on  Old  Cathoiics  we  have  spoken 
of  the  opposition  made  to  them.  No 
single  bishop  refused  assent,  and  for  that 
and  other  reasons  a  schism  of  any  con- 
siderable magnitude  was  impossible. 


VEIL 


VEIL 


921 


(The  histories  of  the  Council  byCecconi 
and  Friedrich  resemble  in  more  points 
than  one  those  of  the  Tridentim^  roimcil 
bv  Pallavicino  and  Sarjii.  with  this  iiotnhli' 
ditl'ereiicp  that  S:ir]ii  wrote  before  Palla- 
vicino, whil-'  Frii  'lrifli  tal(es  care  to  write 
.after  Ceccoiii.  aiiil  \<>  use  his  materials. 
Neither  historian  has  ri-ached  the  actual 
assembly  of  the  Council.  Cecconi  has 
-access  to  the  Vatican  archives,  so  that 
his -work  ''first  part  pnliIish(Hl  ]f<7-V  will 
always  be  indi.spensable.  P>nt  ir  has 
already  exceeded  3,000  pafii^~  \;irui-  oit  avo; 
it  is  filled  with  much  irrfl.  vaiit  iiiattrr, 
is  badly  written  and  hailly  arranged. 
Friedrich's  first  volume  '  ]S77]  is  well 
arranged  and  interestiup-,  and  does  not, 
so  far  as  we  can  trst  it.  alter  the  facts; 
but  it  is  disfip-ured  by  a  vrlu'mcTit  iiivi'c- 
■tive  against  the  Roman  Court  and  Cltra- 
montanism  in  gi'iieral.  Foi'  the  actual 
bistory  of  the  Council  Friedrich's  collec- 
tion of  documents  ri>i71'1  ^yas  useful  but 
incomplete,  and  has  been  replaced  by  the 
fuller  collections  of  Bishop  Martin  [1873] 
and  the  Protestant  Friedberg  flR711. 
The  Jesuit  Father  Schneemann  '^1  n71  ^  has 
prefixed  a  short  history  of  the  Council  to 
his  edition  of  its  decrees,  and  there  is 
another  brief  histor\  by  the  learned 
Protestant  Frommann  1872^.  The  latest 
addition  to  the  literature  of  the  subject  is 
"Acta  et  Decretn  S.  (Ecumenici  Concilii 
A'aticani  et  permulta  alia  documenta  ad 
Concilium  ejusqiie  historiam  spectantia," 
the  last  volume  of  the  Collectio  Lacensis 

[isno]. 

VEZl  {velum,  a  covering).  Pagan 
customs  in  regard  to  the  use  of  the  veil 
cannot  here  be  considered,  but  we  shall 
endeavour  to  give  some  account  of  the 
various  kinds  of  veil  recognised  in  the 
Catholic  ritual  for  covering  either  thinps 
or  persons.  Three  Eucharistic  v(>ils  were 
in  use  in  the  ancient  Eastern  Church,  the 
paten  veil  for  covering  the  bread  before 
consecration,  the  chalice  veil,  and  a  very 
thin  transparent  veil  for  covering  both 
paten  and  chalice.  The  offertory  veil 
(offfrforhnn)  was  used,  according  to  the 
ritual  of  the  Church  of  Sarum,'  in  various 
parts  of  the  ceremonial  of  High  Mass, 
It  seems  to  be  the  same  as  the  super- 
liumeral  veil  with  which  the  subdeacon 
now  covers  the  chalice  at  High  Mass,  and 
■which  is  alsc  used  at  Benediction  [Bene- 
diction OF   THE   BlESSEP  SaORAMENtI. 

Magri  (quoted  in  Morone),  says  that  in 

'  See  the  Onsuctudiuary  of  Sarum,  recently 
edited  in  the  Rolls  series  with  a  translation,  in 
the  Register  of  St.  Osmund,  vol.  i.  p.  150  seq. 


Spanish  churches  from  the  first  day  of 
Lent  a  veil  is  drawn  before  the  high 
altar  while  the  hours  are  recited,  and 
during  Mass  on  ferias;  it  is  withdrawn  at 
the  (iosjiel  and  the  elevation  of  the  host. 
On  AN'ednesday  in  TToly  Week,  when  in 
the  "  Pa.-.-mn ''  the  w..ril-  occur  "et 
velum  templi  scissuni  est."  the  veil  is 
withdrawn  and  no  more  u>ed. 

The  nu])tial  veil  or  faimneum,  as 
is  well  known,  was  in  use  among  the 
lioTuans.  St.  Ambrose  speaks  of  a  veil 
( pallium)  stretched  over  the  heads  of  the 
bride  and  bridep-i-oom  during  the  cele- 
bration of  marriage,  with  a  mystical 
,sig7iificance.'  Thf>  priest  otficiates  with 
veil(>d  head  in  several  (Jriental  rites — 
Co])tic,  of  St,  Anthony,  Abyssinian, 
Maronite. 

In  Maskell's  "Monumenta  Ritualia  " 
is  printed  a  form  ^  for  the  "  Order  of 
Consecration  of  Nuns''  according  to  the 
use  of  Sarum,  from  whicli  we  shall 
extract  what  relates  to  the  ritual  of  the 
veil.  f)n  the  day  of  profession,  the 
novices,  clad  in  white,  each  bearing  on 
the  riplit  arm  the  "  iiabite  that  the  re- 
lygyoti  and  profesyon  reijuireth,  wyth  the 
\eyle,  ryng,  and  scroll  of  hir  profesyon 
attached  upon  the  sayd  habite,  and  in 
hir  left  hande  t)eryna-  a  taper  wythoute 
lyght,''  go  in  procession  from  the  place 
where  they  were  arrayed  towards  the 
western  door  of  the  clioir,  with  looks 
bent  on  the  ground,  singing  the  respond 
"  Audivi  vocem,"  kc.  Passing  through 
the  choir  and  going  up  to  the  altar,  they 
lay  their  veils,  rings,  and  scrolls  on  the 
j  right  end  of  it.  Thev  then  make  the 
,  ^•ow  of  chastity,  and  after  receiving  the 
habit  from  the  bishop  n^turn  whence 
thc\v  came.  After  the  Credo  the  virgins 
return  to  the  \\  estern  door  of  the  choir, 
beai'ing lighted  tapers  in  theirright  hands. 
The  rite  proceeds;  after  the  Litanies  each 
makes  her  prof.'ssion  before  the  bishop 
and  abbess,  and  signs  her  scroll  of  pro- 
fession with  a  cross.  After  the  psalm 
"Domine,  quis  halntabit,"  during  which 
the  virgins  prostrate  themselves,  they 
rise  and  go  with  the  bisliop  to  the  right 
end  of  the  altar,  and  taking  their  veils 
therefrom,  hold  them  in  their  hands,  with 
their  faces  turned  towards  the  bishop, 
lie,  standing  in  his  place,  blesses  the  veils 
in  the  virgins'  hands,  "with  orysons." 
The  first  of  these  prayers  is,  "  We  sup- 
pliantly  beseech  Thee,  O  Lord,  that  in 
Thy  clemency  a  blessing  may  come  downi 
upon  these  veils  which  are  about  to  be 
1  Morone.  ^  Vol.  ii.  p.  308. 


922 


VENERABLE 


VESTMENTS 


placed  on  the  beads  of  Thy  handmaidens, 
so  that  they  may  be  blessed,  and  conse- 
crated, and  spotless,  and  holy  for  these 
Thy  handmaidens.  Through."  The 
second,  "  0  God,  Creator  of  things  visible 
and  invisible,  be  mercifully  present  with 
us,  and  vouchsafe  to  bless  and  sanctify 
-R-ith  the  streams  of  Thy  grace  these  veils 
■which  are  the  type  of  holiness  and  the 
sign  of  humility ;  may  Thy  servants 
deserve  through  Thy  gift  to  take  and  hal- 
In-u-  them  in  heart  and  body.  Through." 
Every  virgin,  before  the  bishop  puts  the 
veil  upon  her  head,  kisses  his  hand. 
Being  veiled,  she  sings,  "  The  Lord  hath 
clothed  me  with  a  garment'  woven  of 
gold,  and  with  immense  jewels  hath  he 
adorned  me."  The  ritual  of  the  ring 
.-uccfeds,  fdllowed  by  the  "long  bene- 
diction," during  which  the  vii'gins  lie 
prostrate.  Before  their  "  houselling  " 
the  bishop  draws  down  their  veils  over 
their  eyes.  After  their  communion  each 
gives  up  her  taper  to  the  bishop,  after 
kissing  his  hand,  and  he  gives  to  them 
all  his  benediction.  Then  the  abbess 
pulls  their  veils  down  beneath  their 
chins,  and  so  they  remain  for  three  days, 
On  the  third  day,  after  they  have  com- 
municated, the  abbess  lifts  up  their  veils, 
and  from  that  time  "  they  shall  were  and 
goo  and  cumme  as  other  of  the  convent 
doth."  (Morone,"Dizion.Eccl.'';  Maskell, 
"  Monum.  Ritualia,"  1846 ;  Smith  and 
Cheetham.) 

vsn-ERABXE.     [See  Canonisa- 

TIOX." 

VEJTi,  CREATOR.    [See  Hymns.] 
VESrZ,  SAXrCTE  SPZRXTVS.  [See 
Htmxs  :  also  SKCit'EXCE.] 

VENXAI.  SIN-.    [See  Sin.] 
VERONICA..  [See Christ,  Peesonal 

AprEAEANCE  OF.] 

VESPERS.    [See  Beeviaet.] 
VESSEX.S,  SACRED.    [See  Cha- 
iiCE;  rATr:x;  Pyx,  &c.] 

VESTlvrElUTS.  (1)  Their  Distinc- 
tive Character. — It  was  the  common  be- 
lief in  the  middle  ages  that  the  vestments 
used  by  the  Church  at  Mass  and  other 
services  were  derived  from  the  Jewish 
temple,  though  Walafrid  Strabo  had  a 
better  notion  of  the  historical  aspect  of 
the  question,  and  affirmed  ("  De  Reb. 
Eccles."  c.  24)  that  Christian  priests  in 
the  early  ages  officiated  in  the  common 
dress  of  daily  life.   Strabo's  view  (with  a 

1  Cyclade.  Cydas  is  "a  kind  of  garment, 
named  from  its  roundness,  drawn  in  above  and 
full  below."  (See  Diicange,  who  cites  "  circuni- 
textura  roseo  velamen  acantho,"  jSn.  i.  649.) 


modification  to  be  mentioned  presently)^ 
is  confirmed,  to  use  the  wo  rds  of  Dr. 
Rock,  "  by  the  concurrent  testimony  ot 
writers  who  have  best  owed  much  laborious 
research  upon  the  investigation  of  this 
subject  "  ("  Hierurgia,"  p.  414).  No 
quotation  can  be  adduced  from  any  author 
of  the  first  five  centuries  which  so  much 
as  alludes  to  any  difference  in  form  be- 
tween the  dress  of  priests  at  the  altar 
and  of  laymen  in  common  life.  True,  St. 
John  (Polvcrat.  apud  Euseb.  "  H.  E." 
iii.  31,  V.  24;  Hieron.  "  Vir  Illustr."  45) 
and  St.  James  (Epiphan.  "  Hfer."  Ixxviii. 
14)  are  said  to  have  worn  the  "shining 
plate "  niraKov,  lamina  =  |>iv)  of  the 
Jewish  high  priest  ;  but  even  were  we 
prepared  to  accept  these  testimonies  as 
literal  statements  of  fact,  they  would  not 
atlect  the  question,  for  no  such  ornament 
has  ever  found  a  place  in  the  Church, 
and  the  mitre,  which  comes  nearest  to 
this  "  plate,"  was  unknown,  as  has  been 
already  proved,  for  centuries  after  the 
Apostolic  age.  But  the  strongest  proof 
will  be  found  in  the  articles  on  the  par- 
ticular vestments.  There  it  has  been 
shown  that  the  ecclesia  stical  vestments  had 
their  origin  in  the  ordinary  dress  of  the 
Roman  empire.'  It  was  after  the  fall  of 
the  empire  that  the  fashion  in  ordinary 
attire  underwent  a  revolution,  and  the 
garb  once  common  to  all  became  peculiar 
to  the  servants  of  the  altar,  till  at  last 
the  very  memory  of  its  original  use  was 
obscured.  This  obscuration  was,  as  we 
should  expect,  gradual.  Walafrid  Strabo, 
as  we  have  said,  in  the  ninth  century 
understood  the  true  state  of  the  case, 
and  another  writer  of  the  same  age — viz. 
Auastasius  ("In  Vit.  S.  Stephani,"  cf. 
Baron.  "Annal."  ad.  ann.  260,  u.  6) — 
was  not  wholly  ignorant  of  it,  for  he  says 
of  Pope  Stephen  :  "  He  ordained  that 
priests  and  Levites  should  not  use  the 
consecrated  vestments  in  common  life, 
but  only  in  the  church." 

Long,  however,  before  the  ecclesiastical 
vestments  were  distinguished  by  their 
form  from  those  in  common  use  certain 
garments  w-ere  reserved  for  the  officiating 
clergy,  and,  though  these  were  identical 
in  form  with  the  ordinary  garb,  they  were 

'  The  alb  and  giralc,  which  are  really  most 
like  Jewish  ve-stiiicnts,  had  a  purely  secul.ir 
origin  ;  and  the  alb  is  first  marked  as  a  church 
dress  by  enactments  which  forbid  clerics  to  use 
the  same  alb  in  common  life  and  in  chun  b. 
Jerome  (Ep.  64)  gives  Fabiola  an  elaboriue 
account  of  the  Jewish  vestments,  but  never 
alludes  to  the  use  of  analogous  vestments  in. 
church. 


VESTMENTS 


VESTMENTS  023 


■often  no  doubt  of  costlier  material.  The 
Apostolic  Constitutions  (viii.  12)  describe 
the  bishop  as  clothed  in  a  "  shining  vest- 
ment'' {KanTrpav  e<T6r)Ta  utrevdvs),  and  we 
may  perhaps  take  this  as  evidence  for  the 
practice  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  or  begin- 
ning of  the  fifth  century.  A  little  earlier 
Jerome  ("In  Ezecb."  xlW.  17),  speaking 
•of  the  vestments  of  the  Jewish  priests, 
adds  :  "  Thence  we  learn  that  we  should 
not  enter  the  holy  of  holies  with  common 
attire  or  in  any  sort  of  dirty  dress,  such  as 
v\  ill  do  for  daily  life,  but  that  we  should 
■with  clean  con.science  and  in  clean  attire 
handle  the  mysteries  of  the  Lord."  It  is 
not  easy  to  decide  how  far  this  passage  is 
to  be  taken  literally.'  Anvhow,  we  lenrn 
from  Theodoret  ("  H.  E"."  ii.  23)  tliat 
■Constantine  gave  ^Macarius,  bishop  nf 
Jerusalem,  "  a  sacred  dress  "  (Upup 
a-ToXfjv)  "of  gold  thread" — i.e.  a  dress  uf 
the  common  form  but  nt  very  costly 
material  and  intended  exclusively  tor  use 
in  church.  It  is  very  uncertain  when  the 
blessing  of  ecclesiastical  vestments  was 
introduced,  but  we  find  a  form  for  that 
purpose,  very  like  the  one  now  used,  in 
the  Gregorian  Sacramentary.  (See  the 
reprint  in  Migne,  "  Patrol."  Ixxviii.  p. 
157.)  The  Council  of  Poitiers,  a.d.  1100, 
can.  4  (Mansi,  xx.  1123)  forbids  anyone 
not  a  bishop  to  give  this  blessing,  and 
Innocent  III.  ("  Altar  Myst."  i.  9)  lays 
down  the  same  rule.  It  is  still  in  force, 
though  bishops  constantly  delegate  the 
power  to  simple  priests. 

At  first  the  vestments  were  of  one 
colour — viz.  white.  Thus,  when  Pelagius 
alleged  that  all  splendour  in  dress  was 
irreligious,  Jerome  ("  Adv.  Pelag."  i.  n. 
29)  charges  him  with  exaggeration,  and 
asks  what  harm  there  was  in  wearing  "  a 
tunic  particularly  clean "  {tunicarn  mun- 
diorem),  what  objection  could  be  made, 
"  if  bishop,  priest,  and  deacon,  and  the 
rest  of  the  clergy  appeared  at  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  sacrifice  in  white  array  " 
{randida  vexte  proce!'.<'ci'if).  So  Gregory 
of  Tours  ("  De  Gloria  Conf "  c.  20)  de- 
scribes the  band  of  "priests  and  Levites 
in  white  vestments."  Black  was  some- 
times used  in  sign  of  mourning  (Theodore 
Lector,  lib.  1,  excerpt  quoted  by  Hefele). 
Even  Pseudo-Alcuin,  in  the  tenth  or 
eleventh  century,  knows  only  of  white 
vestments,  except  that  he  speaks  of  the 
scarlet  stripes  on  the  deacon's  dalmatic 

'  It  is  clear,  however,  from  the  passage 
quoted  further  on  in  this  article,  that  Jerome 
■was  familiar  with  the  use  of  special  vestments 
by  the  clergy  in  church. 


("  Pivin.  Offic."  c.  40),  and  of  the  use  of 
black  vestments  during  the  litany  and 
procession  on  the  Feast  of  the  Purifica- 
tion (c.  7).  Innocent  III.  is  the  first  to 
mention  four  colours — viz.  white,  which 
the  Roman  Church  employs  on  feasts  of 
confessors,  virgins,  and  on  joyful  solemni- 
ties generally ;  red,  used  on  the  feasts  of 
martyrs,  of  the  cross  (though  then  perha])S 
wliitf  is  to  be  preferred),  and  on  Whit- 
sunday, Ijy  some  also  on  All  Saints,  but 
not  by  the  Curia  Romana,  in  which  white 
is  the  colour  :  black,  used  in  penitential 
seasons  and  Masses  for  the  dead;  green, 
used  on  coiimion  days,  because  "midway 
betwern  blacli  and  white."  He  regards 
violet,  whifli  is  now  the  penitential 
eoloiii',  as  a  iiifre  variety  of  black,  and 
say-  th.^  ronii.T  was  used  on  Holy  Inno- 
r.  nt>  and  I.ai'tare  Snndav.  So  scarlet 
an.l  sitlroii-yrllow  (mcnapvs  et  vmr^-us) 
an-  varii'iii's  ot'  rnl  an-,]  green.  l!'"ise- 
coloureil  x  i'stnients.  he  says,  were  .some- 
times Used  on  feasts  of  martyrs,  and  yellow 
ones  on  feasts  of  confessors  ("  Altar. 
Myst."  i.  05).  At  present  yellow  counts 
as  white,  and  i-ose-cnloured  vestments  are 
onlv  used  at  >ol,'nin  31ass  on  tlie  third 
Sunday  in  Advent  and  fourth  in  Lent. 

Bisliojis,  w  lieii  they  celebrate  ponti- 
fically,  talce  tli>-ir  vestments  from  the 
altar,  simjile  jn-iests  put  them  on  in  the 
sacristy.  But  this  distinction  is  probably 
not  verj-  ancient,  for  even  in  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries  it  was  the 
common  custom  for  priests,  at  least  in 
England,  to  vest  in  the  sanctuary. 
(Maskell,  "Ancient  Liturgy  of  the  Church 
of  England,"  p.  219).  The  present  law  on 
the  use  of  vestments  at  Ma.ss  is  very 
strict,  and  manv  theologians  (see  Benedict 
XIV.  "  De  Miss."  iii  7,  1)  believe  that 
no  cause  whatever  will  excuse  a  priest 
from  observing  it.  (The  chief  recent 
authorities  are  Bock,  "  Gesch.  der  Liturg. 
Gewiinder":  Hefele,  in  his  "  Beitriige."' 
ii.  p.  150  seq.  ;  Wliarton  Marriott, 
"  Vestiarium  Christianum.") 

VESTMEM-TS,  GREEK  AlffS 
ORZEM'TAXi.  Something  has  been  said 
on  this  subject  already  in  the  account 
given  of  the  various  vestments  used  in 
the  Latin  Church,  but  it  may  be  con- 
venient to  give  a  separate  article  on  the 
vestments  of  the  Greeks  and  Orientals. 

1.  Vestincnts  worn  by  the  Deacon. — 
In  prejjaring  to  offic/ate  at  Mass,  the 
first  ve-stment  which  he  puts  on  is  the 
(TToixapiov  or  nTi)^di}iov.  It  answers  to 
our  alb,  except  that  it  is  not  bound  by  a 
girdle.  It  used  to  be  of  linen  and  always 


924 


VIATICUM 


VIATICUM 


-white,  but  now  it  is  often  made  of  silk. 
It  takes  its  name  from  the  stripes  {a-rtxoi) 
-with  -which  it  is  adorned.  In  Lent,  except 
on  the  Annunciation  and  Holy  Saturday, 
it  is  of  purple  colour.  It  is  used  by  all  the 
Orientals.  The  Syrians  call  it  Kutino 
(li^ioo  =  X""^")  again  is  really 

a  Semitic  -word,  cf.  Dj'np),  and  the  Oopts, 
according  to  Daniel,  labat  or  touniak.  It 
is  also  worn  by  readers  and  subdeacons. 
In  form  it  has  come  to  resemble  our  dal- 
matic, though  worn,  like  the  alb,  imme- 
diately over  the  cassock.  Next  comes 
the  wpapiov  or  stole  (see  under  that  word), 
the  distinctive  badge  of  deacons,  and 
lastly  the  emuavUia,  a  barbarous  com- 
pound of  em  and  manus.  They  stretch 
from  the  wrist  to  the  elbow,  leaving  the 
hand  free.  They  are  first  mentioned  by 
Balsamon  in  the  twelfth  century,  and 
have  apparently  been  adopted  by  the 
Syrians. 

2.  Priesfs  vestments. — The  priest  puts 
on  the  a-Toi)(apiov,  then  the  inLTpa-xriKLov, 
which  is  a  stole  broader  than  the  deacon's 
and  joined  in  front,  next  the  C^vrj  or 
girdle,  the  (TripxtviKta,  the  VTroyovdriov  or 
imyovaTwv,  a  Square  piece  of  cloth  which 
hangs  from  the  girdle  and  is  really  proper 
to  bisliops,  archimandrites  and  other  dig- 
nitaries, such  as  protosyncelli,  proto- 
popes,  &c.,  but  is  in  matter  of  fact 
worn  by  very  many  priests.  Over  all 
he  puts  the  chasuble  {<^€\a>viov,  (pe'Koovrji, 
(f>nit'6\iov)  in  shape  much  like  one  of  our 
Gothic  chasubles.* 

3.  Bis/iop's  Vestments. — Bishops  also 
use  the  above  vestments.  But  their 
(TTntxdpiov  is  marked  with  white  and  red 
stripes,  and  they  have  a  picture  of  Christ 
on  their  (Triyovdriov  and  inipav'iKia.  Their 
chasuble  is  marked  with  many  crosses 
and  called  Tvo\vaT(ivpiov.  The  craKKot, 
which  has  sleeves,  and,  to  judge  from  the 
woodcut  in  Daniel,  resembles  a  dalmatic 
in  shape,  was  at  first  worn  by  metro- 
politans only  instead  of  the  chasuble,  and 
by  them  never  except  on  the  three  great 
festivals.  From  the  time  of  Alexius 
Comnenus  it  became  the  habitual  sub- 
stitute for  the  chasuble  with  metropohtans, 
and  now  it  is  worn  in  Russia  by  aU 
bishops.  Lastly,  the  bishop  takes  the 
aifiocpopiov,  a  sort  of  pallium  made  of  wool, 

'  The  Greeks  have  no  change  of  colours  for 
the  fp.nsts.  The  ip^Kdiviov  of  the  priest  and  the 
(TToixaptof  of  the  deacon  are  black  at  Masses  of 
die  Dead,  and  purple,  as  -we  have  seen,  is  used 
in  Lent.  Great  feasts  are  marked  by  the  splen- 
dour of  the  vestments. 


which  is  hung  on  the  shoulders  and  falls 
over  the  backT  At  some  of  the  functions, 
but  not  at  Mass,  bishops  wear  a  monastic 
cloak  called  pavhvas.  The  word,  which  is 
said  by  Hesychius  and  Eustathius  to  be  of 
Persian  origin,  occurs  in  the  LXX  {e.ff. 
Judges  iii.  16),  and  a  MS.  Greek  lexicon 
quoted  by  Schleusner  explains  it  as  a 
"  sort  of  uj)per  garment  and  the  cloak  of 
monks  "  (eiSoj  Ipariov  Koi  ro  twv  pova\wv 
ndWiov).  The  mitre  (xiSapif)  is  never 
worn  in  the  sanctuary  except  by  the 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria.  Greek  bishops 
have  no  ring,  but  they  wear  a  pectoral 
cross  (ro  TTcivdytnv)  and  use  a  pastoral 
staff  {rraTfprjrrcrav),  which,  however,  is 
much  shorter  than  those  customary  in 
the  West  and  much  less  ornate. 

(Chiefly  from  Daniel,  "  Cod.  Liturg." 
tom.  iv.  p.  .375  seq.) 

VIATICUM.  Holy  Communion 
given  to  those  in  danger  of  death.  Such 
persons  are  allowed  to  receive  the  Com- 
munion, even  if  they  are  not  fasting,  and 
they  may  do  so  again  and  again  in  the 
same  ilbiess,  if  circumstances  render  it 
expedient.  Viaticum  is  given  by  the 
parish  priest,  or  by  another  priest  deputed 
by  him.  The  priest,  wearing  surplice  and 
stole,  carries  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in 
procession  ;  lights  are  borne  in  front, 
and  a  bell  is  rung  to  excite  the  devotion 
of  the  faithful.  In  England  it  is,  of 
course,  impossible  to  carry  out  all  this 
ceremonial.  A  special  form  is  used  in 
administering  the  Sacrament — viz.  "  Re- 
ceive, brother  [or  sister],  the  viaticum  of 
the  Body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  May 
He  guard  from  the  malignant  foe,  and 
lead  thee  to  eternal  life !  "  Afterwards, 
the  priest  cleanses  his  fingers  in  a  little 
water,  which  the  sick  man  drinks. 

(1)  The  Oriyin  of  the  .V«we.— The 
word  "  viaticum  "  came  into  Church  use 
as  a  translation  of  the  Greek  €(f)6bwv. 
This  latter  word  means  provision  for  a 
journey ;  then,  metaphorically,  provision 
for  the  journey  of  life  (Clem.  Rom.  Ep.  i. 
2;  Dionys.  Corinth,  apud  Euseb.  "H.  E." 
iv.  23).  Next  the  metaphor  was  extended 
to  the  provision  for  the  last  journey — viz. 
from  this  world  to  the  next — and  so  it 
occurs  as  an  epithet  of  the  Holy  Com- 
munion given  to  the  dying  in  the  Council 
of  Nicsea  (can.  13).  There  the  Eucharist 
is  said  to  be  the  "last  and  most  necessary 
viaticum "  (rov  TfXevralov  Koi  dvayKaioTUTov 
e'(f)o8wv).  Innocent  I.  ("  Ad  Exsuper."  ; 
Mansi,  "Concil."  iii.  1039)  employs  the 
Latin  word  "  viaticum  "  in  the  same 
sense,  and  so  does  the  First  Council  of 


VIATICUM 


VIATICUM 


925 


Oranfre,  a.b.  441  (can.  3 ;  Mansi,  vi.  437), 
with  an  evident  allusion  to  the  canon  of 
Nica^a.  Thus  it  became  a  technical  term 
for  Communion  griven  to  the  dving.  (So 
Council  of  Agde,  a.D.  506,"  can.  15  ; 
Mansi,  viii.  327  ;  Bede,  "  H.  E."  iv.  14  ; 
Amalar.  "  Eccl.  Offic."  iii.  35.)  Rut  even 
late  in  the  middle  ages  the  tcord  had  not 
acquired  its  present  tixi'd  and  exclusive 
sense.  The  Council  ot  Vaison,  .^.D.  442 
(can.  2;  Mansi,  vi.  453),  speaks  of  the 
viaticum,  meaningr,  probably,  the  absolu- 
tion and  communion  of  the  dying  ;  and 
in  the  Council  of  Gerunda,  a.d.  517 
(can.  n  ;  Mansi,  vii.  550),  it  certainly 
includes  absolution.  Aubespine,  indeed, 
in  his  note  {ad  loc.  554),  takes  it  to 
mean  simply  reconciliation  and  absolu- 
ti(in  granted  to  dying  penitent.s — the 
"  benedictio  beatifica."  as  the  Council  of 
Barcelona,  a.d.  541  (can.  9:  Mansi,  ix. 
110),  calls  it.  Hence  the  so-called  Fourth 
Council  of  Carthage  (can.  78  :  Mansi,  iii. 
it.57)  has  the  expression  "Viaticum  Eu- 
charistiae,"  to  distinguish  it  from  "  viati- 
cum ''  in  the  other  sense.  The  term  -was 
also  applied  to  the  Eucharist  generally,  as 
our  support  in  our  earthly  pilgrimage  ; 
and  we  tind  it  so  employed  not  only  in 
the  liturgy  of  St.  Mark  (((()68iov,  Ham- 
mond, p.  191),  but  even  in  a  synod  of 
Durham  earlv  in  the  thirteenth  centurv 
(Wilkins,  "  Concil."  i.  p.  578.) 

(2)  yiaticmn  in  One  or  Two  Kinds. — 
In  the  thii'd  and  fourth  centuries  we  have 
clear  instances  of  viaticum  given  under 
the  form  of  bread  only  (Dionys.  Alex, 
apud  Enseb.  "  H.  E."  vi.  44 ;  the  contem- 
porary Life  of  St.  Ambrose,  by  Paulinas, 
n.  47.)  There  can  be  no  reasonable 
doubt  about  these  cases,  and  Bossuet 
("Communion  sous  lesdeux  especes."  P.  1, 
n.  2)  seems  to  be  quite  right  in  taking 
can.  76  of  the  Fourth  Council  of  Car- 
thage as  evidence  that  Communion  was 
given  to  dying  persons  who  were  unable 
to  swallow  the  Host  in  the  form  of  wine 
("infundatur  ori  ejus  Eucharistia,''  Mansi, 
iii.  t>57),  Still,  C'hardon  ("H.  des  Sacr." 
torn.  ii.  Euchar.  cli.  v.  a.  2)  considers, 
and  with  reason,  that  the  rule  was  to  give 
viaticum  under  both  kinds,  so  long  as 
those  in  health  received  Communion  in 
this  way.  Chrysostom's  letter  to  Innocent 
(Mansi,'iii.  1089)  shows  that  the  Eucharist 
under  the  form  of  wine  was  reserved  for 
the  sick.  He  comjilains  that  the  soldiers 
spilt  the  precious  blood  on  Holy  Saturday, 
and  this  cannot  have  been  in  the  chalice  at 
Mass  ;  for  women,  he  says,  were  waiting 
lor  baptism,  which  preceded  the  Mass  of 


I  Holy  Saturday.  The  Eleventh  Council  of 
Toledo,  A.D.  675  (capit.  11),  the  direction 
iu  the  Gregorian  Sacramentarj-  ("  oratio 
ad  visitandum  infirmum  ''),  and  throe 
forms  for  administering  viaticum  given 
from  ancient  MSS.  by  Menard  in  his  notes 
on  this  Sicramentary,  all  assume  that 
the  dying  man  will  receive  both  kinds. 
The  same  thinjr  follows  from  Rede's  "  Life 
of  St.  Cuthbort  "  (cap.  39.) 

(3)  The  Mi»i.<ter  of  Viaticum.— la  the 
early  days  of  pei-secution  it  was  some- 
times carried  to  the  sick  bv  lavmeii 
(Euseb.  "  H.  E."  vi.  44).  The  practice 
apparently  continued  long  after,  when  it 
had  became  a  mere  abuse.  For  Ler  \Y. 
(847-55)  strictly  forbids  priests  to  send  it 
by  laymen  or  women  (Mansi,  xiv.  891). 
About  the  same  time,  we  find  Hincnuir 
of  Rheiius  requiring  his  deans  to  ask 
whether  the  priests  gave  Communion  to 
the  sick  with  their  ovm  hands,  and  not 
through  anyone  they  could  get  to  do  it 
for  them  ("  per  se,  non  per  quemlibet,'' 
llincmar,  0pp.  ed.  Sirmond,  p.  716  :  in 
Migne's  reprint,  p.  779).  The  Council  of 
An-a,  n<  nr  Lyons,  a.d.  990  (Mansi,  xix. 
101)  permits  no  one  except  priests  to 
give  Tiatieuni.  Deacons,  however — at 
le:ist,  in  some  places — continued  to  do  so. 
This  is  proved,  according  to  Chardon,  by 
the  old  statutes  of  the  Carthusians;  and 
a  Council  of  Westminster,  A.D.  1138 
(can.  2  ;  Wilkins,  i.  p.  415),  puts  priests 
and  deacons  precisely  on  the  same  level 
in  this  respect  ("  per  sacerdotem  aut  dia- 

!  conum  aut  necessitate  instante  per  quem- 
I  Hbef). 

(4)  Fifes  and  Ceremonies,  ^c. — Xo 
special  legislation,  so  far  as  we  Imow, 
exempted  the  dying  from   the  rule  of 

I  fasting  before  Communion.    But  history 
witnesses  to  the  anxiety  of  the  Clmrch  in 
all  ages  that  the  dying  sliould  communi- 
cate, and  we  may  fairly  assume  that  the 
present  rule  was  in  force  from  the  be- 
ginning.   The  ceremonies,  much  as  wn 
have  them  now — e.r/.  the  wearing  of  the 
stole,  the  cross  and  lights  in  the  proces- 
j  sion,  the  carrying  of  tlie  pyx,  the  bell — 
'  are  prescribed  in  the  Constitutions  of  St. 
j  Edmund  of  Canterbury,  A.D.  1236;  in  the 
I  Council  of  Durham,  to  which  we  have 
already  refen-ed  ;  and  in  a  provincial 
council  of  Scotland  in  the  time  of  the 
Scotch   King    .Alexander   II.  (Wilkins, 
I  "  Concil."  i.  pp.  579,  615,  637).    On  the 
j  other  hand,  we  doubt  if  the  special  form 
in  which  viaticum  is  now   given  was 
usual  in  the  middle  ages — "Accipe,frater, 
1  Viaticum,"  &c.    The  Gregorian  Sacra- 


926  TICAR-APOSTOLIC 


VICAR-GENERAL 


mentary  simply  says:  "Then  let  him  [the 
priest]  give  Communion  ■with  the  body 
and  blood  of  the  Lord ; "  and  the  Salis- 
burs-  Manual — i.e.  Ritual — of  1543  (re- 
printed in  Maskell,  "  Monument.  Rit." 
vol.  i.)  has  merely  a  Rubric  to  the  same 
effect.  The  three  forms  given  by  ^lenard 
from  old  MSS.,  and  also  a  fourth  from  a 
Soissons  Manual  printed  only  eighty  years 
before  his  time,  would  be  suitable  for 
ordinary  Communion.  Hov\-evt'r,  a 
TBangor  Pontifical  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury contains  the  form  as  we  now  use 
it—"  Accipe,  frater,  Viaticum  corporis 
Domini  nostri  Jesu  Christi,"  &c.  (Masl;ell, 
loc.  cit.  p.  Si.)  Viaticum,  in  the  modern 
Church,  is  given  before  Extreme  Unction. 
In  the  middle  ages  the  reverse  order  ob- 
tained, as  Menard  {loc.  cit.  p.  536)  proves 
by  a  multitude  of  authorities,  and  such 
was  the  order  followed  in  the  English 
use  till  Queen  Mary's  time.  The  im- 
])ortance  of  receiving  the  Communion 
while  the  mind  is  still  clear  and  calm  is 
the  reason  given  by  theologians  (Juenin, 
"  De  Sacram."  p.  588)  for  the  order  now 
laid  down  in  the  Roman  Ritual. 

VICAR-APOSTOI.IC.  By  this  w.as 
formerly  meant  either  ii  bishop  or  arch- 
bishop, generally  of  some  remote  see,  to 
whom  the  Roman  Pontiff  delegated  a 
portion  of  his  jurisdiction  ;  or  an  eccle- 
siastic, not  necessarily  a  bishop,  who, 
acting  under  a  Papal  brief,  or  In  virtue 
of  instructions  received  from  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars, 
was  commissioned  to  exercise  the  episco- 
pal jurisdiction  (except  in  certain  special 
cases)  in  a  diocese  where  the  ordinary, 
from  whatever  cause,  was  incapacitated 
from  its  full  and  efficient  discharge.  At 
the  present  diiy,  vicars-apostolic  are  nearly 
always  titular  bishops  [.-ee  that  article], 
and  are  stationed  either  in  countries 
where  episcopal  sees  have  not  yet  been 
established,  or  in  those  where  the  succes- 
sion has  been  intemipted.  On  the  vicars- 
apostolic  sent  to  England  by  the  Holy 
See  for  this  latter  cause,  see  English 
Chukch.  The  Catholic  Directory  for 
18!>2  specifies  one  hundred  and  fifteen 
apostolic  vicariates  now  in  being.  Of 
these,  ten  are  in  Europe;  iifty-four  (out 
of  which  forty-six  are  In  China  and  the 
adjacent  countries)  in  Asia :  twenty- 
five  in  Africa;  thirteen  in  America;  and 
thirteen  in  Oceania. 

VICAR  FORAITE  {foraneus  =  qui 
foris  est;  one  exercising  authority  at  a 
distance  from  the  place  where  the  bishop 
resides).    A  vicar  forane  is  either  a  dig- 


nitary or,  at  least,  if  possible,  a  parish 
priest,  who  is  appointed  by  the  bishop  to 
exercise  a  limited  jurisdiction  in  a  par- 
ticular town  or  district  of  his  diocese. 
An  appeal  lies  from  his  decision  to  the 
bishop,  who  can  also  remove  him  at 
pleasure.  "  The  chief  part  of  the  office 
of  a  vicar  forane  is  to  report  to  the 
bishop  on  the  lives  of  the  clergy  within 
his  district,  and  to  inquire  into  any  charges 
brought  against  them  ;  to  promote  the 
observance  of  the  synodal  constitutions 
and  the  decrees  of  the  bishop  ;  to  preside 
at  local  conferences,  in  which  moral  or 
liturgical  questions  are  treated  of;  and  to 
give  notice  to  the  bishop  of  anything 
contrary  to  faith  and  good  morals,  or 
tending  to  impair  the  Divine  worship,  the 
reverence  due  to  churches,  the  ob.servance 
of  holidays,  and  the  maintenance  of  eccle- 
siastical discipline,  which  may  occur 
within  his  district ;  finally,  to  decide 
civil  causes  of  slight  importance  "  (Soglia, 
"Instit.  Canon."  ii.  §  71).  The  four- 
teenth decree  of  the  first  Council  of 
Westminster,  on  Vicars  Forane,  is  in 
general  agreement  with  the  above,  but 
adds  that  it  is  their  duty  to  "  take 
care  of  sick  priests,  to  watch  over  the 
administration  of  Church  property,  and 
to  see  that  sacred  buildings  be  kept  in 
repair."  The  council  treats  the  title 
"  "\'icar  Forane"  as  equivalent  to  "  Rural 
Dean."  There  are  vicais  forane  ia 
many  Irish  dioceses,  but  almost  their 
sole  function  is  to  grant  (>j)lscopal  dis- 
pensations for  the  non-publication  of 
banns.    (Ferraris,  Vicarius  Foraneu-^.) 

VXCAR-GENZRAXi.  This  official 
has  succeeded  to  much  of  the  power 
formerly  exercised  in  a  diocese  by  the 
archdeacon  [Arciideacox].  In  the  canou 
law  he  is  styled  indifferently  "  officialis  " 
and  "  vicarius  generalis  "  and  the  common 
use  of  the  term  in  Italy  is  conformable  to 
this  state  of  the  law.  In  Transalpine 
countries  the  name  of  "  official  "  is  com- 
monly given  to  the  ecclesiastic  adminis- 
tering the  contentious  jurisdiction  of  the 
bi«hop,  and  that  of  "  vicar-general to 
him  who  e.xercises  his  voluntary  juris- 
diction [.ItTKISDICTIOX]. 

The  origin  of  the  office  is  supposed  to 
be  traceable  in  a  Papal  Constitution, 
promulgated  in  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council,  by  which  Innocent  III.  author- 
ised the  appointment  by  any  bishop  who 
was  overburdened  by  the  weight  of  his 
episcopal  duties  of  an  ecclesiastic  to 
assist  him  in  performing  them.  Yet 
since  no  allusion  to  such  an  office  occurs 


VICE-CnAXCELLOR 


VIENNE 


927 


in  the  Decretals,  compiled  some  years  I 
later  under  Gregory  IX.,  it  would 
seem  that  the  permission  granted  at  the 
Lateran  Council  was  not  for  some  time 
much  acted  upon.  However,  before  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  century  vicars- 
geueral  had  become  common,  and  the 
"  Sext "  of  Boniface  YIII.  minutely  regu- 
lates their  functions. 

A  bishop  is  not  obliged  to  appoint  a 
vicar-general  if  the  circumstances  of  the 
diocese  are  such  that  he  is  able  to  dis- 
charge all  his  episcopal  duties  without 
a?.s;stance ;  and  this  is  in  fact  the  case  in 
several  English  and  Scottish  dioceses  at 
the  present  time.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
bishop  may.  if  he  pleases,  appoint  two  or 
more  vicars-general,  either  assigning  to 
each  jurisdiction  over  a  certain  district, 
or  giving  to  one  the  contentious,  to  an- 
other the  voluntary  jurisdiction,  or, 
thirdly,  making  over  to  them  joint  and 
full  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  diocese 
in  solidum.  The  person  appointed  must 
be  a  clerk,  not  a  layman,  but  the  law 
does  not  require  that  he  should  be  in 
holy  orders ;  the  modern  practice  of  the 
Curia,  however,  obliges  him  to  have  a 
doctor "s  or  some  other  degree  in  canou 
law.  No  one  having  cure  of  souls,  nor 
any  regular  belonging  to  a  mendicant 
order,  can  be  appointed  to  the  office.  A 
regular  canon  or  a  monk  may  be  a  vicar- 
general,  if  certain  conditions  be  fulfilled. 
It  is  held  to  be  desirable  that,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  office  should  be  committed 
to  an  ecclesiastic  belonging  to  another 
diocese. 

In  matters  of  jurisdiction  the  vicar  is 
regarded  as  the  ordinary,  and  his  tribunal 
is  identical  with  that  of  the  bishop,  so 
that  there  is  no  appeal  from  the  one  to 
the  other.  But  he  is  bound  to  keep  care- 
fully within  the  limits  of  his  commission ; 
thus  he  may  not  do  any  of  those  things 
which  come  under  the  definition  of 
"  Pontificalia,"  and  belong  to  the  epi- 
scopal order,  such  as  making  the  holy 
oils,  consecrating  churches,  altars,  cha- 
lices, &c.  Nor  may  he  decide  anything 
without  a  special  mandate,  which  it  may 
be  reasonably  presumed  the  bishop  could  j 
not  have  intended  to  entrust  to  him  by  ] 
his  general  commission.  For  instance, 
although  his  commission  warrants  him  to 
do  all  formal  actn  required  in  the  insti- 
tution of  ecclesia.stics  to  benefices,  offices, 
or  digTiities,  it  does  not  authorise  him  to 
confer  any  of  these ;  to  do  so  lawfully  he  i 
must  have  a  special  mandate.  He  can- 
not summon  a  synod,  nor  convoke  the  I 


chapter,  nor  visit  the  diocese;  "and 
generally,  in  business  of  an  arduous  and 
weighty  nature,  he  cannot  act  without 
consulting  the  bishop."  '  The  powers  of 
a  vicar-general  cease  and  determine — (1) 
when  his  commission  is  cancelled  by  the 
bishop:  (2)  upon  his  death  or  resignation: 
(3)  when,  from  whatever  cause,  the 
bishop's  own  jurisdiction  in  the  diocese 
ceases.  (Soglia,  "Instit.  Canon."  ii.  §§  69, 
70.) 

vzcE-CH.&ia'CEX.x.OB.  [SeeCiiKiA 
Rom  AX  A." 

VXEWN-E.  The  fifteenth  General 
Council  was  opened  by  Clement  V.  at 
Yienne,  in  the  Dauphin^,  on  October  16, 
1311.  Great  uncertainty  prevails  as  to 
the  number  of  members  present,  and  the 
number  of  bishops  and  mitred  abbots 
present  is  variously  estimated  at  114  and 
300.  The  Pope  in  his  address  at  the 
opening  gives  three  reasons  for  the  assem- 
bling of  the  Council — viz.  the  ail'air  of  the 
Templars,  the  rescue  of  the  Holy  Land, 
the  reform  of  abuses  in  the  Church. 

The  investigation  of  the  charges 
against  the  Templars  took  a  long  time, 
and  nearly  six  months  passed  between  the 
first  and  second  sessions.  The  order,  as 
has  been  already  said  in  a  previous 
article,  was  suppressed  by  a  Papal  bull, 
but  no  definite  judgment  was  passed  on 
the  crimes  laid  to  tlie  charge  of  its 
members.  The  French  king.  Philip  the 
Fair,  did  not  succeed  in  obtaining  the 
condemnation  of  Pope  Boniface  VIII., 
but  a  decree  of  Clement  in  1307  had 
annulled  the  excommunications,  inter- 
dicts, &c.,  issued  by  Boniface  again>t 
Philip  and  his  supporters,  and  secured 
them  from  any  prejudice  in  the  future. 

The  rest  of  the  decrees  of  the  Council 
were  partly  dogmatic,  partly  disciplinary, 
.lohn  Peter  de  Oliva,  a  Franciscan  (born 
in  Provence  1247,  died  1297),  belonged 
to  the  "  Spiritual "  party  in  his  order, 
was  an  admirer  of  the  abbot  .loachim, 
the  author  of  the  "Eternal  Gospel,"  and 
himself  wrote  a  fant<istical  commentary  on 
the  Apocalypse.  It  was  with  reference 
to  him  that  the  Pope  in  Council  con- 
demned the  opinions  that  the  soul  is  not 
"in  itself  and  essentially  the  form  of  the 
human  body,"  and  that  Clirist  was  still 
living  when  His  body  was  pierced  with 
the  lance,  and  declared  it  the  more  pro- 
bable view  that  sanctifying  grace  and 
the  virtues  are  infused  into  the  souls  of 
children  at  baptism.  The  immoral 
Quietism  of  the  Beguards  and  Beguinea 
»  Soglia. 


928  VIENNE 

was  also  reprobated,  particularly  their 
doctrine  that  man  may  become  absolutely 
perfect,  and  attain  perfect  beatitude  in 
this  life ;  that  a  perfect  man  is  free  from 
subjection  to  the  ecclesiastical  or  civil 
law,  and  may  commit  the  grossest  offences 
against  the  moral  law  without  sin. 

The  following  were  the  chief  disci- 
plinary decrees.'  Tlie  "  black  "  monks 
and  the  nuns  were  forbidden  to  indulge 
in  luxurious  and  worldly  habits  {e.g. 
hunting,  attending  the  courts  of  princes, 
wearing  silk  or  jewellerj-,  being  present 
at  balls,  An  attempt,  not  altogether 

successful,  was  made  to  heal  the  schism 
in  tlie  Fnuieiscan  order  caused  by  the 
"  Spirituals."  The  clerics,  who  were 
rectors  of  hospitals,  were  reproved  for 
neglecting  the  poor  and  enriching  them- 
selves from  the  funds  entrusted  to  then;. 
For  the  future  such  institutions  were  ^ 
to  be  placed  under  good  ami  prudent  [ 
men,  who  were  to  submit  their  accounts 
to  the  ordinary.  This,  says  Fleury,  was 
the  origin  of  the  lay  administrators  of 
hospitals,  established  "  to  the  shame  of 
the  clergy."  Many  secular  prelates  were 
anxious  that  the  exemptions  granted  to 
religious  orders  should  be  withdrawn. 
This  was  not  done,  but  religious  were 
forbidden  under  pain  of  excommunication 
to  give  Extreme  Unction,  Holy  Commu- 
nion, or  the  nuptial  benediction  without 
express  leave  from  the  parish  priest. 
They  were  also  forbidden  to  beguile  lay 
people  from  attending  the  services  in  the 
parish  church.  Regulations  were  made 
on  clerical  decorum,  and  on  the  age  for 
orders.  A  subdeacon  must  be  at  least 
in  his  eighteenth,  a  deacon  in  his  twen- 
tieth, a  priest  in  his  twenty-fifth  year. 
The  bull  of  Urban  IV.  instituting  the 
feast  of  Corpus  Christi  was  repeated  and 
confirmed.  Steps  were  taken  to  promote 
the  study  of  the  Oriental  languages,  a 
measure  which  Raymond  Lully  had 
desired  long  before.  Chairs  of  Hebrew, 
Chaldee,  and  Arabic  were  to  be  estab- 
lished in  the  Roman  Court  and  in  the 
Universities  of  Paris,  Oxford,  Bologna, 
and  Salamanca.  Lastly,  a  crusade  was 
proclaimed  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy 

'  A  memoir,  drawn  up  at  the  Pope's  re- 
quest by  Willinm  Durand,  bishop  of  Mende, 
-ives  an  appalling  jiicture  of  the  state  of  the 
Church.  He  mentions  particularly  the  want 
of  all  observance  in  mon.Tstic  orders,  the  im- 
moralitv  of  the  monks  and  clergy,  the  venality 
of  the  I?onian  Court,  the  way  in  which  henetices 
were  kept  vacant,  &c.  He  pleads  for  rel'orni  in 
the  Curia  and  among  the  clergy,  and  proposes 
that  priests  should  be  allowed  to'  marry. 


VIGTLS 

Land ;  the  Kings  of  England,  France, 
and  Navarre  promised  to  take  part  in  it, 
and  a  tithe  was  to  be  levied  for  six  years 
to  defray  the  expense.  The  third  and 
last  session  ended  on  May  6,  1312. 
(Fleury,  "H.  E."  livr.  xci. ;  Hefele, 
"  Concil."  vol.  vi.) 

VZCXX.XVS.  [See  Three  Chapters.] 
VZCIIiS.  Originally  the  watch  kept 
on  the  night  before  a  feast,  and  then, 
from  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century 
(Probst,  "Brevier  und  Brevier-Gebet," 
p.  176),  the  day  and  the  night  preceding 
a  feast. 

(1)  Till' yiractipe  of  spending  the  night 
in  public  ]iiaM  r  i-  iii(il)ablv  older  than 
Christianity,  tor  Kii>obius  ("B.  E."  ii. 
17)  attributes  it  to  the  Therapeutse  or 
Alexandrian  Essenes.  In  Acts  xx.  7  we 
Iiavp  an  instance  of  devotional  exercises 
continued  at  least  till  midnight.  Vigils 
are  mentioned  by  Tcrttillian  ("Ad  Uxor." 
lib.  ii.  5),'  and  the  vigil  maintained  till 
"cock-crow"  on  Holy  Saturday  is  pre- 
scribed in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (v. 
19).  Chrysostom  speaks  of  the  obser- 
vance of  vigils  as  a  proof  of  piety  (Horn, 
iv.  in  ilhid  "  Vidi  Dominum,"  tom.  vi.  p. 
120  in  Migne:  i8e  nei/rjTas  ck  jxecrovvKTioiv 
H^XP^  '"^^  lyjuf'pa?  napafifvovras,  ^XeVe 
TTuvvvxl^as) ;  and  Socrates  ("  H.  E."  vi. 
8)  refers  to  the  nocturnal  hymns  and 
vigils  of  Catholics  and  Arians  at  Con- 
stantinople in  the  saint's  time.  We 
learn  from  Basil  (in  Ps.  cxiv.)  that  vigil' 
were  held  before  the  feasts  of  martyrs, 
and  it  appears  from  Theodoret  ("  H.  E." 
ii.  10)  and  Socrates  that  such  vigils  were 
the  usual  preludes  to  Mass  on  Saturday 
and  on  Sunday,  or  other  feasts.  Jerome 
(Ep.  cix.  and  "  Adv.  Vigilant."  n.  9  ;  of. 
Ep.  cxlvii.)  defends  the  custom  against 
Vigilantius,  admitting,  however,  the 
grave  immorality  by  which  they  were 
sometimes  accompanied.  It  was  probably 
these  and  other  abuses  which  led  to  the 
discontinuance  of  the  devotion.  Gautier, 
bishop  of  Poitiers,  prohibited  vigils  withire 
his  diocese  in  1280,  and  it  seems  from 
the  language  of  the  Papal  legates  at  the 
Council  of  Valladolid  in  1322  that  the 
old  use  was  dying  out.  St.  Charles  for- 
bade the  keeping  of  any  vigil  except  that 
before  ChrLstmas,  and  at  present  the 
Matins  and  Lauds  and  the  midnight 
Mass  before  that  feast  are  the  only  relics 
of  the  old  custom.    (See  Thomass'in.) 

(2)  T/ie  Fast  on   the  Viffils.— The 

•  There  is,  however,  no  reason  to  suppose 
'  that  he  is  alluding  to  vigils  in  the  strict  sens* 
I  — to  public  prayer  at  night. 


VIGILS 


VINCENT  OF  PAUL,  ST.  929 


statement  in  Smith  and  Cheetham  that 
'•the  observance  of  a  vigil  by  fasting 
came  to  be  usual  not  later  than  the  ninth 
century "  is  inaccurate,  or  at  least  mis- 
leading. Holy  Saturday  was  kept  as  a 
fast  from  very  early  times  (see  "  Const. 
Apost."  V.  18 ;  also  Holy  Week  and 
Lent)  ;  and  Augustine  (Ep.  Ixv.)  con- 
sidered it  a  crime  to  break  the  fast  on 
the  vigil  of  Christmas  in  those  cliurches 
where  it  was  observed.  But  it  was  in 
the  middle  ages  tlint  the  nliliiration  of 
fasting  was  extended  to  vigils  nviierallv. 
Peter  Damian  (t)piisc.  \\\  "  De  Viiril." 
al.  Ep.  lib.  vi.  :^o)  insist  that  the  vigils 
of  the  birth  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  St. 
Philip  and  St.  James,  St.  James  the 
Greater,  St.  Bartholomew,  of  Christmas, 
Easter,  Pentecost,  and  the  Assumption, 
are  fasting  days.  Nay,  he  even  contends 
that  the  law  of  fasting  binds  on  the  vigil 
of  the  Epiphany,  because  there  is  a  Mass 
for  the  vigil  in  the  Gregorian  Sacramen- 
tary.  Lanfranc,  on  the  other  hand, 
excepts  this  last  vigil  ("Decret.  pro  Ord. 
S.  Benedict";  Migne,  "Patrol"  cl.  p. 
451),  and  this  is  the  rule  which  has 
actuallj'  prevailed.  Innocent  III.,  writ- 
ing to  the  Archbishop  of  Braga,  says  the 
Roman  Church  fasted  on  the  vigils  of  all 
the  Apostles,  except  on  that  of  St.  John 
the  Evangelist  (excepted  because  of 
Christmas),  and  St.  Philip  and  St.  James, 
excepted  because  of  Easter.  This  letter 
has  been  incorporated  in  the  canon  law 
("  Decret."  lib.  v.  tit.  xlvi.  cap.  2,  "  Con- 
silium nostrum").  Such  is  the  present 
law  of  tlie  Church,  apart  from  indult  or 
dispensation,  with  regard  to  the  vigils  of 
the  Apostles.  On  March  9,  1777,  Pius 
V^L  exempted  English  Catholicsfrom  the 
obligation  of  fasting  on  all  vigils  except 
those  of  the  Assumption,  SS.  Peter  and 
Paul  and  All  Saints,  substituting  the  fast 
on  the  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  of 
Advent.  (See  the  new  edition  of  the 
Priivincial  Councils  of  Westminster,  p. 
109.)  Fasting  is  also  obligatory  by  the 
Church  law  on  the  vigils  of  Christmas 
and  the  Assumption,  and  by  custom  which 
has  the  force  of  law  on  the  vigils  of  Pen- 
tecost, the  Nativity  of  St.  John  the  Bap- 
tist, St.  Lawrence,  and  All  Saints. 
(Meratus,  s.  ?>,  c.  7,  n.  1.) 

(3)  The  Mass  and  Office  of  Vigils: 
their  Translation,  i^-c. — The  OflBce  used 
t  )  be  identical  with  that  of  the  Feria  till 
Pius  V.  introduced  the  Gospel  from  the 
Mass  of  the  Vigil  with  a  homily  ap- 
pended. (Gavant.  s.  3,  c.  7,  n.  5.)  Pro- 
bably Corpus  Christi  has  no  vigil  because 


I  introduced  after  vigils  in  the  original 
sense  had  fallen  into  disuse.  Greater 
vigils — i.e.  those  of  Christmas,  Epiphany, 
and  Pentecost — are  celebrated  with  semi- 
double,  that  of  Christmas  from  Lauds 
onwards  with  double,  rite.  If  a  feast 
with  a  vigil  falls  on  Monday,  the  vigil 
and  fast  are  kept  on  Saturday.'  This 
rule  is  laid  down  by  Innocent  HI.  {loc. 
rit.),  but  wa-s  evidently  not  yet  estab- 
lished shiirtlv  before  under  Alexander 
III.  ("  rtecret."  lib.  V.  tit.  xl.  cap.  14, 
"  Qiiiesivit  a  noliis").  (From  various 
sources,  chieflv  TlKiniassiu,  "Traits  des 
Jeiuies,"  P.  I.  ch.  xviii. ;  P.  II.  ch.  xiv.) 
VIJrCETTT       or      PAVIi,  ST., 

!  SOCiETir  or.  This  society,  which 
exists  for  the  purpose  of  helping  the 
poor,  was  founded  at  Paris  in  18:13. 
At  that  time  a  number  of  Catholic 
students,  attending  lectures  in  Paris, 
were  brought  into  contact  with  students 
of  various  waysof  thinking — Materialists, 
Deists,  St.-Simonians,  Fourierists,  &c. — 
with  whom  they  discussed  subjects 
of  common  interest  in  a  "  Conference 
d'Histoire,"  or  historical  club.  One  of 
these  Catholic  students  was  the  well- 
known  writer  Frederic  Ozanani.  The 
free-thinlvers  were  wont  to  allow  that 
Christianity  had  certainly  accomplished 
great  things,  but  they  maintained  that  its 
ancient  spirit  had  fled,  and  that  great 
practical  enterprises  could  no  longer  owe 
to  it  either  tlieir  inspiration  or  their 
vitality.  "What  do  you  rfo  ? "  they 
asUed  of  the  Catholics  ;  "  you  are  full  of 
talk  and  theory,  but  there  it  ends."  The 
taunt  sank  into  the  mind  of  Ozanam  and 
others ;  they  meditated,  prayed,  ex- 
changed ideas;  at  last,  at  a  meeting 
attended  by  five  or  six  friends,  after  much 
had  been  said  as  to  the  benefit  which 
works  of  charity  would  confer  both  on 
themselves  and  on  the  poor,  some  one  (it 
was  never  ascertained  who)  cried  out, 
"  Let  us  found  a  Conference  of  Charity." 
This  was  in  the  spring  of  1833.  But  the 
particular  mode  of  commencing  their 
operations  was  a  matter  of  difficulty.  It 
was  decided  to  go  to  Sister  Rosalie,  who 
at  that  time  was  superior  of  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Vincent  of  Paul,  and  obtain  from 
her  the  addresses  of  some  poor  families, 
whom  the  members  of  the  new  conference 
could  visit.  This  was  done,  and  M. 
Bailly,  an  excellent  layman,  who  was  in 
intimate  relations  with  many  of  the  Paris 
clergy,  was  asked  to  be  their  president. 

1  This  does  not  apply  to  the  Mass  and  OflSce 
for  the  vigils  of  Christmas  and  Kpiphany. 

3o 


930    VINCENT  OF  PAUL,  ST. 


VIRTUE 


He  accei>ted  tlie  post,  and  provided  the 
confert'iict'  with  rooms  to  meet  in.  Eiyht 
vouiip  sliuU-iits — Ozanam,  Letaillandier, 
Devaux,  Lamache,  Lallier,  Clav6,  and 
two  otliers — held  the  first  conference  in 
.May  IS.'I.";.  The  orders  for  relief  to  lie 
given  to  the  poor  who  were  visited  were 
in  the  first  ])lace  purchased  by  the 
members  from  Sister  Rosalie.  The  con- 
ference chose  St.  Vincent  of  Paul  for  its 
patron.  Bailly  was  a  parishioner  of  the 
cur6  of  St.  l']tienne  du  Mont,  M.  Fandet, 
wlio  sanc-tiiiued  and  favoured  the  new 
worlc  among-  the  ])nor  of  the  parish. 
Afti-r  a  time  rules  for  the  conduct  of 
lueetinas  and  the  administration  of  relief, 
witli  .-ipjjropriate  "considerations"  at- 
tached to  them,  were  drawn  up  bj'  M. 
Bailly  and  adopted.  The  oljjects  of  the 
new  institute  were  stated  to  be — "  (1)  to 
encourafre  its  members,  by  e.xample  and 
counsel,  in  the  practice  of  a  Christian 
life  ;  (2)  to  visit  the  poor  and  assist  them 
■\vben  in  distress,  as  far  as  our  means  will 
permit,  atl'ording  them  also  religious  con- 
solations .  .  .;  (3)  to  apply  ourselves, 
according  to  our  abilities  and  the  time 
which  we  can  spare,  to  the  elementai'v 
uid  Christian  instruction  of  poor  childivn, 
whether  free  or  impriscjiied  .  .  .  ;  (4)  to 
distribute  moral  and  religious  boolis ; 
(5)  to  be  willing  to  undi  rtahe  any  other 
sort  of  charitalile  worlc  to  wliicli  our  re- 
sources may  be  ailr(ni;ite,  and  which  will 
not  oppose  tlip  chii'f  md  of  the  society." 

In  1835,  th.-  eoiil'.  rence  having  been 
joined  by  ni my  mw  nii'inljers,  the  ques- 
tion of  dividuiu'  it  into  sections,  which 
should  srrvB  as  nr\v  ci-nties  whence  the 
work  nf  charity  aiiiDUg  tlie  swarming  ]K)or 
of  Paris  might  Ije  carried  on  more  eilectu- 
ally  llian  bclVire,  came  on  for  discussion. 
The  di\i.-ioii  was  wainily  opposed  by 
many;  at  last,  liowmer,  it  was  i'i\sol\rd 
upon,  and  thus  a  ste])  was  taken  wliicli 
facilitated  and  fon'showi'd  the  ultimate 
e.xtension  of  the  lalioiiis  of  \]if  soi  icty  to 
Other  cities  and  other  lainU.  Tin-  iH'W 
sections    tinni-.'lv.-  after    a  liinr 

calh-d  "Conf.avncr.,-  and  tin-  aggivgalf 
of  the  coufci-eiices  fiianed  the  "Society 
of  St,  Yiiu'ont  of  Paul.'' 

The  i7iov('iiirnt  oi'iginated  among  lay- 
men, and  till'  aiiminisliation  of  the  society 
has  always  Inen  in  lay  hands,  l)Ut  in 
union  witli  and  sidionlination  to  tln^ 
clergy.  Its  lay  character  is  said  to  liave 
much  finoured  its  extension  at  tlie  parti- 
cular time  wlien  it  arose,  when  it  was 
enougli  for  a  society  or  enterprise  of  any 
kind  to  have  an  ecclesiastic  at  its  head,  to 


be  denounced  in  the  press  and  the  salons 
as  an  "  oeuvre  jesuiti(pie." 

The  members  devote  themselves  to 
visiting  and  relieving  the  poor,  and  in 
order  to  do  this  eflectually,  many  special 
works  of  charity  have  bci-n  organised  by 
it.  Among  these  are  libraries,  clothing 
depots,  credits, boarding  out  with  farmers, 
visits  to  prisons  and  hospitals,  and  finding 
work  for  laboun  rs  and  women  out  of 
employ.  On  urgent  occasions  the  society 
will  grant  extiaordlnary  help;  thus  it 
sent  money  for  tlio  relief  of  the  terrible 
Irish  distress  in  ls47  and  1848. 

Soon  after  the  division  of  the  first 
conference,  the  presidents  of  the  different 
conferences  began  the  practice  of  meeting 
in  council  from  time  to  time ;  thus  was 
formed  the  "  council-general."  Other 
councils — c.  centrau.r,  c.  superievrs—arnse 
as  they  were  required.  In  185.3  the 
members  of  the  Paris  conferences  were 
2,000  in  number,  having  .5,000  famili.-s 
inscrilied  on  their  \isiting  lists.  Tlie 
society  had  even  at  that  time  sjiread  to 
England,  Ireland,  Spain,  Belgium,  .\me- 
rica,  aud  Palestine.  Indulgences  were 
eraiited  to  it  in  very  ample  terms  bv 
Popes  Gregory  XVI.  and  Pius  IX.  The 
last  named  Pope,  in  1853,  gave  to  the 
society  Card.  Fomari  as  its  Cardinal 
Protector. 

Under  the  Second  Empire,  the  Count 
de  Persigny,  in  a  circular  letter  to  the 
prefects,  brought  charges  against  the 
administration  of  the  society,  the  drift  of 
which  was  that  under  the  jiretence  of 
charity,  its  organisation  was  being  nsi-d 
to  promote  political  objects.  1'lie  <io\f  rn- 
ment  required  that  the  society  should 
accejit  Cardinal  ^Morh't  as  the  official 
head  of  the  General  Council :  otlierwise 
it  was  to  be  suppressed.  The  societv 
declined  to  accede  to  this  proposal,  and 
the  fJeneral  Council  was  consequently 
susjieii'led  :  the.  local  conferences  carried 
on  ihi'ii  ojiejatiiins  as  usual. 

In  ls7(;  the  number  of  conferences, 
e~laMisheil  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  was 
neatly  In  1877  more  than  seven 

millions  of  francs  were  e\]ien<led  bv  it  in 
the  relief  ,,f  distress.  ("  Vie  de  Fr6d(?ric 
Ozanam,"  l  s7n  ;  "  Manual  of  the  Society 
of  St,  Vincent  of  Paul,"  1867.) 

VIRTUE.  The  common  scholastic 
definition  of  virtue,  drawn  from  various 
passages  of  St.  .\ugustine's  writings, 
runs  thus  :  "A  good  quality  of  the  mind 
whereby  a  man  lives  rightly  and  which 
no  one  uses  wrongly,  wliich  God  works 
in  us  without  our  aid,"    The  last  clause. 


VISIT  TO  THE  B.  SACEAMEXT 


VISITATION,  EPISCOPAL  031 


however,  as  St.  Thomas  observes,  dots 
not  belong  to  virtue  generally,  but  serves 
to  distinguish  infused  from  acquired 
virtue.  A  shorter  definition  would  be, 
"A  habit  of  right  conduct."  Virtue  is  a 
habit.  A  man  who  restrains  himself 
upon  a  particular  occasion  does  imt 
necessarily  possess  the  virtue  of  temper- 
ance ;  a  temperate  man  is  one  who  has 
the  permanent  disposition  of  being- 
moderate.  Virtue  may,  like  a  habit,  be 
acquired  by  repeated  acts,  or  may  be 
straightway  infused  by  God.  Super- 
natural virtues  can,  of  course,  be  only 
infused.  St.  Thomas  divides  the  virtues 
into  three  great  classes:  intellectual, 
moral,  and  theological.  The  first  class, 
which  includes  wisdom,  science,  and 
understanding,  need  not  detain  us  here. 
The  moral  virtues  are  called  "  principal  " 
or  "  cardinal  "  on  account  of  their  gener- 
ality and  importance.  These  two  classes 
embrace  all  the  natural  virtues.  The 
theological  virtues  are  supernatural,  and 
are  so  styled  because  tliey  relate  im- 
mediately to  God.  [See  Cakdinal 
ViETUEs";  Theological  Virtves.]  (St. 
Thomas,  1"  2%  qq.  Iv.-lxvii.) 

VISIT  TO  THE  BX.ESSSZ> 
SACRAMENT.  The  daily  visit  to  a 
church  in  order  to  engage  in  silent  prayer 
before  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  is  a  prac- 
tice common  in  all  religious  houses,  and 
ascetical  writers  recommend  the  custom 
to  persons  living  in  the  world.  This 
devotion,  natural  as  it  is  on  Catholic 
principles,  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
familiar  to  Christians  in  the  early  or  even 
the  middle  ages.  Fr.  Bridgett,  in  his 
learned  work  on  the  "  History  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  in  Great  Britain " 
(vol.  ii.  p.  239),  does  produce  instances — 
e.g.  from  the  earlier  part  of  the  middle 
ages — of  prayer  made  before  the  altar  at 
a  time  when,  evidently,  no  service  was 
going  on ;  but  there  is  no  express  refer- 
ence to  the  Holy  Eucharist. 

visiT.a.Tib  i.inxiN'Trivi  APOSTO- 
KORtTM.  That  it  was  a  duty  incumbent 
on  a  Catholic  bislu)p  to  visit  from  time  to 
time  the  tombs  of  the  Apostles  Peter  aiul 
Paul  at  Rome,  in  order  to  honour  the 
institution  of  Christ  in  the  person  of  bis 
Vicar,  to  strengthen  his  own  communion 
and  that  of  his  tlock  with  the  living  centre 
of  Christianity,  and  to  report  the  state  of 
his  diocese  to  the  Supreme  Pastor  and 
Euler,  was  a  conviction  which  had  been 
growing  in  force  for  centuries,  and  had 
found  continuous  practical  expression  in 
those  innumerable  visits  of  bishops  to 


Rome  which  the  annals  of  the  Church 
record.  Leo  III.  (Ep.  i.)  ordained  that 
bishops  should  visit  the  limina  Apoxto- 
lorum,  but  without  prescribing  anything 
as  to  the  time.  In  the  si.\teeut!i  century 
the  practice  assumed  the  form  of  a  posi- 
tive law.  Sixtns  V.  by  the  Constitution 
'■Itoiniimw  I'oiitifex"  (1585)  ordained 
that  the  bishops  of  Italy,  tlie  islands  in 
the  Adriatic,  and  the  neighbouring  parts 
of  Greece,  sliould  be  bound  to  visit  the 
Ihid/ia  J jir,.ffii/or//!n  once  in  thrte  years; 
tlie  bi.^hops  of  France,  Spain,  England, 
tTerinany,  and  otlier  countries  within  the 
North  and  Baltic  Seas,  as  also  of  the 
islands  in  the  ]\[editerranean,  once  in  four 
}ear,-;  all  other  bisliops  in  Europe  and 
tho^e  of  Africa,  once  in  five  years;  and 
all  Asiatic  and  American  bishops,  once  in 
ten  years.  The  visit  was  to  be  made 
either  in  person,  or,  if  a  legitimate  hin- 
drance intervened,  by  a  suitable  proctor 
or  representative. 

What  was  a  visit  of  duty  for  a  bishop 
was  a  pious  pilgi-image  for  a  clerk  or 
layman,  and  so  good  a  work,  that  by  the 
sound  Catholic  feeling  of  ancient  times  it 
was  almost  raised  to  tlie  le\'el  of  a  duty. 
Benedict  Tii-cop,  the  fomider  of  the 
monasteries  of  Wearmoutli  and  .Jarrow 
in  the  seventh  century,  visited  Rome  six 
difl'erent  times.  Ordericus  Vitalis  (t  about 
1142),  after  describing  the  uuirtyrdoms  of 
SS.  Peter  and  Paul  under  Nero,  says: 
"  Rome,  the  capital  of  the  world,  glories 
in  having  for  her  patrons  such  exalted 
saints,  to  whose  temples  the  faithful 
resort  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  in 
order  that  by  the  assistance  of  these 
powerful  advocates  they  may  be  protected 
from  all  their  adversaries  and  all  hostile 
influences."'  (Ferraris,  "  Lim.  Ap."; 
Soglia,  ii.  §  63.) 

VISITATION-,  EPISCOPAX..  To 

visit  his  diocese,  and  ascertain  the  state 
and  progress  of  religion  in  every  part  of 
it,  is  of  course  one  of  the  main  portions 
of  that  "  oversight  "  which  belongs  to  the 
bishop's  office.  The  Council  of  Trent - 
prescribed  that  all  bishops,  either  in 
person  or  by  their  vicar-generals  or 
\  i>irors,  sliould,  if  the  size  of  the  diocese 
i-endered  tlie  annual  visitation  of  the 
whole  of  it  inipo>>ihle,  at  least  visit  every 
part  at  intern  als  not  exceeding  two  years. 
The  aim  of  snch  \isitations  is  described 
as  comprehi'uding  the  maintenance  of 
sound  iloetrine,  the  expulsion  of  hei'esy, 
the  rel'orination    of  morals,   the  right 

»  Ei-cl.  Hht.  c.l.  Bel.n.  iK.ok  ii.  ch.  3. 

2  Sess.  xxiv.  c.  3,  D  ■  Kef. 

3o2 


932  VISITATION,  ORDER  OF  THE 


V^OCATION 


arrangement  of  whatever  relates  both  to 
persons  and  things  ecclesiastical,  and  the 
encouragement  of  the  faithful,  by  preach- 
ing and  other  means,  to  lead  religious 
and  peaceful  lives.  The  visitor,  whether 
the  bishop  or  his  deputy,  is  counselled  to 
eschew  vain  pomp  and  show,  and  to 
accept  no  fees  or  gratifications  for  any 
service  connected  with  the  visitation 
except  such  as  are  expressly  authorised 
by  law.  All  that  the  visitor  can  claim 
is  board  and  lodging,  or  (if  such  be  the 
local  custom)  the  equivalent  thereof  in 
money.  But  if  it  be  the  custom  of  the 
place  or  province  to  give  nothing  at  all, 
not  even  board,  to  visitors,  that  custom 
must  be  respected. 

Bishops  may  in  their  own  right,  and 
also  as  delegates  of  the  Apostolic  See, 
visit  the  chapters  of  cathedral  and  col- 
legiate churches  within  their  dioceses, 
and  correct  what  may  be  found  amiss  in 
them.*  In  the  decree  on  seminaries  (sess. 
xxiii.  c.  18,  De  Ref.)  it  is  assumed  that 
these  institutions  will  be  frequently 
visited  by  the  bishops.  Benefices  with 
cure  of  souls,  which  are  annexed  to 
churches,  monasteries,  &c.,  as  part  of 
their  endowment,  should  be  annually 
visited  by  the  bishop,  who  should  take 
care  that  the  vicars  administering  them 
be  reasonably  remunerated  out  of  the 
revenues.'^  When  the  members  of  a 
regular  community  (except  the  monastery 
of  CI  any  and  the  houses  in  which  the 
heads  of  orders  have  their  ordinary  prin- 
cipal residence)  have  the  care  of  the 
souls  of  secular  persons,  other  than  their 
own  servants  and  dependents,  they  are 
subject  to  the  visitation  and  control  of 
the  bishop  of  the  diocese.'  As  delegates 
of  the  Apostolic  See,  bishops  are  em- 
powered to  visit — (1)  monasteries  and 
benefices  held  in  eommendam,  (2)  hos- 
pitals, colleges,  confraternities,  schools, 
monts-de-pieti,  and  "  pia  loca  "  in  gene- 
ral, (.3)  churches  in  nullius  diocesi,  or 
"peculiar,"  provided  that  the  cathedral 
of  tlie  bishop  so  visiting  be  the  nearest  to 
the  place  ;  if  that  is  a  doubtful  point,  the 
right  of  visit  belongs  to  the  bishop  who 
has  been  elected  to  it  by  the  prelate  of 
the  peculiar  in  a  provincial  council. 
The  results  of  an  episcopal  visitation  are 
to  be  reported  to  the  Sacred  Congregation 
of  the  Council.  (Soglia,  lib.  ii.  §  63; 
Ferraris,  Visitatio.) 

VZSZTATZOir,  ORBER  OF  TBE. 

»  Sess.  vi.  c.  4,  De  Ref. 
»  Sess.  c.  7,  De  Ref. 
»  Sess.  XXV.  c.  11,  De  Reg.  et  Hon. 


This  order  was  founded  at  Annecy  in 
1610  by  the  holy  widow  Jane  Frances, 
Mme.  de  Chantal  (who  was  canonised  in 
1767),  under  the  direction  of  St.  Francis 
de  Sales,  then  bishop  of  Geneva.  It  was 
designed  by  the  bishop  to  be  open  to 
widows  and  ladies  of  weak  health  as  well 
as  to  the  young  and  robust;  hence  but 
few  corporal  austerities  were  required  by 
the  rule,  and  at  first  there  was  no  enclo- 
sure, so  that  the  religious  could  freely 
visit  the  sick  and  needy  in  their  own 
homes.  On  the  other  hand,  the  employ- 
ment of  time  and  the  regulation  of  the 
thoughts  were  provided  for  in  the  rule 
with  great  minuteness.  St.  Francis  did 
not  wish  the  religious  to  be  exempt  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops,  and  there- 
fore he  would  not  consent  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  superior  for  the  whole  order. 
The  rule  of  enclosure  was  adopted  in 
1618.  Many  houses  of  "  Visitandines" 
—so  these  nuns  are  called  in  France — 
soon  arose,  and  have  ever  been  conspicu- 
ous for  the  order,  harmony,  and  piety 
which  reigned  in  them.  Some  few  of 
their  convents — e.g.  Blois  and  Troyes, 
resisted  the  bull  "  Unigenitus  "  TJansek- 
Ism],  but  the  great  majority  showed  an 
excellent  spirit.  About  1863  the  order 
"  still  numbered  a  hundred  houses,  divided 
between  Italy,  France,  Switzerland, 
Austria,  Poland,  SjTia,  and  North  Ame- 
rica, with  about  3,000  members."  ■  The 
Ven.  Marie  Marguerite  d'Alacoque,  so 
well  known  in  connection  with  the  de- 
votion to  the  Sacred  Heart,  belonged 
to  this  order.  There  are  two  convents 
in  England,  at  Westbury-on-Trym,  and 
Walmer. 

vocATZOSr.  In  its  more  restricted 
and  special  sense  vocation  is  taken  for 
that  "  disposition  of  Divine  Providence  " 
whereby  persons  are  invited  to  serve  God 
in  some  special  state — e.g.  as  ecclesiastics 
or  religious.  The  ecclesiastical  vocation 
is  manifested  by  the  pious  desires  of  the 
heart,  by  innocence  of  life,  by  the  sincere 
love  of  Christ,  by  pure  zeal  for  God's 
glory  and  the  salvation  of  souls.  That 
to  the  religious  state,  or  the  perfect  prac- 
tice of  the  evangehcal  counsels,  comes  to 
souls  with  a  certain  pressing  invitation, 
with  a  strong  desire  of  self-sacrifice  and 
a  clear  perception  of  worldly  vanity,  with 
a  certain  attractiveness  for  intimacy  with 
Christ  and  for  the  exaltation  of  His  holy 
Name.  But  it  is  given  difl^erently  to 
difierent  persons,  and  prepares  them 
"powerfully "  though  "sweetly"  for  the 
1  Herzog,  Raod-Encyhlopiidie. 


VOTIVE  MASS 


VOWS 


933 


ractice  of  solid  virtue.  "  If  thou  wouldst 
e  pei-fect,"  said  our  Lord,  "  go  sell  what 
thou  hast  and  give  to  the  poor,  .... 
and  come,  follow  Me." 

VOTIVE  MASS.  [See  Mass.] 
vows.  A  \o\y  is  a  deliberate  pro- 
mise made  to  God  in  regard  to  something 
possessing  superior  goodness.  To  be  valid 
it  must  proceed  from  the  free,  deliberate 
will  of  one  who  by  age  and  social  position 
is  capable  of  contracting  a  solemn  oljliga- 
tion.  It  is  to  God  alone  that  a  vow  is 
taken,  and  because,  in  a  special  manner, 
it  belongs  immediately  to  God's  service,  it 
is  an  act  of  religion,  or  of  divine  worship. 
To  vow  to  a  saint  means,  in  the  mind  of 
Catholics,  to  vow  to  God  in  honour  of  a 
saint ;  just  as  to  dedicate  a  church  to  a 
saint  simply  implies  to  dedicate  it  to  God 
in  the  saint's  honour.  "^Miat  is  illicit  or 
altogether  indifferent,  or  imperfect,  or  im- 
possible cannot  be  the  subject-matter  of 
a  vow ;  in  the  circumstances  in  which  it 
is  taken  it  must  always  turn  on  "  the 
greater  good  " — "  de  bono  meliori."  The 
vow  gives  to  the  actions  which  it  covers  a 
special  merit — a  merit  which  St.  Thomas 
derives  from  a  threefold  source.  First, 
since  a  vow  appertains  to  religion,  or  the 
order  of  divine  worship,  it  communicates 
its  character  to  acts  of  other  virtues  prac- 
tised under  its  control,  or  elevates  them 
to  the  rank,  as  it  were,  of  sacrifice.  To 
obey  duly  is  a  virtuous  act,  but  to  obey 
in  virtue  of  a  vow  is  to  perform  an  act 
which  is  invested  with  the  character  of 
worship.  Secondly,  because  the  offering 
made  to  God  by  the  performance  of  vir- 
tuous actions  under  the  obligation  of  a 
vow  is  a  much  greater  offering  than  the 
performance  of  the  same  without  that 
obligation.  In  the  latter  case  the  bare 
action  is  offered ;  in  the  former  not  only 
the  action  but  the  faculty  from  which  it 
proceeds ;  or,  to  use  the  comparison  given 
by  St.  Anselm,  in  one  instance  you  offer 
the  fruit,  in  the  other  not  only  the  fruit 
but  the  tree  also.  Thirdly,  because  by 
a  TOW  the  will  is  bound  to  a  virtuous  line 
of  action,  receiving  stability  therein  not 
only  for  the  present  but  for  the  future. 
Thus,  by  being  immovably  allied  to  the 
good  by  the  force  of  a  vow,  tlio  will  is 
strengthened  to  tend  to  the  perfection  of 
virtue.  One  ran,  however,  through  per- 
versity, break  through  the  obligation  of 
his  vow :  but  l)y  the  requirements  of  the 
same  he  mai/  not  do  so — that  is,  he  has 
the  physical  but  not  the  moral  power  of 
violating  the  law  which  he  has  imposed 
on  himself.    But  it  must  never  ))e  for- 


gotten that  an  action  done  without  the 
obligation  may  be  and  constantly  is  more 
holy  and  pleasing  to  God  than  a  corre- 
sponding action  done  under  vow,  because 
the  former  may  proceed  from  a  more 
intense  love  of  God.  It  is  on  this  that 
the  intrinsic  perfection  of  our  deeds  de- 
pends. And  nn  action  which  is  vowed  is 
more  perfect  than  one  not  so  vowed,  only 
if  other  things  are  equal. 

It  is  true  that  by  vows  the  will  is 
limited  in  its  sphere  of  action;  by  its 
promise  to  God  its  scope  is  bounded  by  a 
certain  special  law.  Still,  for  all  that,  it 
is  none  the  less  free,  since  true  freedo:a 
exists  onlj'  within  the  range  of  the 
virtuous.  "  The  Blessed "  are  free, 
though  irrevocably  confirmed  in  glory; 
God,  who  by  his  nature  is  infinitely 
just,  is  free  ;  and  man  under  vows  is  free 
"  by  the  freedom  with  which  Christ  has 
made  us  free."  Vows  certainly  do  not 
exempt  those  who  take  them  from  sinning 
against  them;  but  to  say  that  on  that 
account  they  ought  not  to  take  them  is 
equivalent  to  saying  that,  as  a  rule,  one 
ought  not  to  undertake  what  is  good  in 
itself,  lest  through  his  own  fault  he  should 
violate  his  purpose ;  or,  for  instance,  that 
he  ought  not  to  go  to  Mass  on  Sunday, 
lest  some  accident  might  befall  him  ij 
the  way. 

From  the  earliest  times  vows  have 
been  taken.  Under  the  old  law  they  are 
spoken  of,  among  other  passages,  in 
Genesis  xxviii.,  Leviticus  xxvii.,  and 
Deuteronomy  xxiii.  Christ  could  not 
have  bound  Himself  by  vow,  according 
to  St.  Thomas,  because  He  was  God,  and 
because  His  human  will  was  confirmed 
in  goodness.  The  Apostles  are  supposed 
by  many  to  have  vowed  whatever  belongs 
to  the  state  of  perfection  when,  after 
having  left  all,  they  followed  Christ.  It 
is  also  said  of  St.  Paul  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  that  he  had  a  vow ;  and,  again, 
that  the  four  men  whom  he  took  into  the 
temple  to  be  purified  "had  a  vow  on 
them."  As  to  the  special  vows  of  religious 
life,  or  "  the  evangelical  counsels,"  as  they 
are  called,  tlieir  substance  or  subject- 
matter  was  marked  out  by  our  Lord  Him- 
self. These  have  been  observed,  at  least 
partially,  by  individuals  or  communities 
since  the  Apostolic  age,  and  form  the  basis 
and  substance  of  the  religious  state.  Vows 
are  of  divine  institution,  but  the  forms 
under  which  they  are  to  be  taken  in 
different  religious  bodies  are  determined 
by  the  legislation  of  the  Church.  She 
admits  vows,  temporal  or  perpetual,  con- 


934 


VOWS 


VULGATE 


ditional  or  absolute,  simple  or  solemn. 
Vows  are  solemn  because  they  have  been 
instituted  as  such  and  have  been  accepted 
as  such  by  the  Church.'  Their  obli- 
gations are  more  strincent  and  their 
privileges  greater  than  those  of  simple 
vows  and  form  one  of  the  special  charac- 
teristics of  a  religious  order.  According 
to  the  law  enacted  by  Pope  Pius  IX.  in 
18-57,  only  simple  vmvs  are  to  be  taken 
after  the  noviceship  in  all  religious  orders, 
and  that  for  the  term  of  at  least  three 
years ;  after  which  time,  if  superiors 
should  sanction  it,  tlieir  subjects  are 
entitled  to  take  solemn  vows.  In  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  according  to  its  consti- 
tutions, the  noviceship  being  ended,  simple 
vows,  with  the  approbation  of  superiors, 
are  taken  by  its  memljers,  and  after  trials 
of  many  years,  either  three  public  but 
slnijile  TOWS  or  four  solemn  vows  are  to 
be  taken  by  the  same  members  as  their 
superiors  shall  decide.  In  a  few  convents 
of  the  Visitation  order  in  the  United  States, 
nun^,  after  having  lived  duly  under  simple 
vows  during  tive  years,  are  admitted  to 
the  profession  of  solemn  vows.  The 
members  of  all  other  religious  communi- 
tie.s  in  the  United  States  take  only  simple 
vows.  When  the  subject-matter  of  vows, 
or  the  reason  for  whicli  they  were  taken, 
or  the  possibility  of  fulfilling  them  ceases 
to  exist,  they  cease  to  be  binding.  Their 
obligation  also  is  cancelled  by  a  dispen- 
sation of  the  Cluuch.  To  her  has  been 
granted  by  Christ  the  powerof  binding  and 
lof)sing  by  the  words,  "  "Whatsoever  you 
shall  bind  upon  earth  .shall  be  bound 
also  in  heaven,  and  whatever  you  shall 
loose  upon  earth  shall  be  loosed  also  in 
heaven."  To  the  Pope,  therefore,  as  vicar 
of  Christ,  belongs  the  supreme  authority 
through  the  whole  Church  of  dispensing 
from  vows  for  legitimate  reasons;  and 
under  him  bishops  and  religious  superiors 
having  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction  have 
the  power  of  dispensing,  on  just  grounds, 

1  Theologians  are  much  divided  on  the 
essential  nature  of  the  distinction  between 
solemn  and  simple  vows.  It  liiis,  of  course, 
notliinfr  to  do  with  the  public  or  private 
manner  in  which  the  vow  is  made,  or  the  cere- 
monies wliich  accotniianv  the  niakiiiEC  of  it.  A 
solemn  vow  implies  .m  absnlute  ;uid  irrevocable 
surrender,  and  tlie  acceptanee  of  it  by  lawful 
authority.  Whereas  a  simple  vow  makes 
marriage  unlawful  and  deprives  the  person  who 
has  made  it  of  the  right  to  use  his  property,  a 
solemn  vow  mnki's  marria'^e  invalid  and  takes 
away  all  domuiion  over  property.  The  vows 
which  Jesuits  make  at  the  end  of  the  novitiate 
annul  marriage,  but  are  not  irrevocably  accepted 
by  the  superiors,  and  therefore  are  not  solenan. 


from  Ihe  vows  of  those  who  are  under 
their  spiritual  care.  What  has  been  said 
of  the  dispensation  of  vows  may,  accord- 
ing to  due  measure,  be  said  also  of  the 
commutation  of  them.  For  dispensations 
from  solemn  vows  recourse  is  to  be  had  to 
the  Pope ;  for  disi)ensations  from  simple 
vows,  in  religious  congregations  whose 
rule  has  received  Papal  sanction — from 
vows  of  chastity,  vows  of  entering  re- 
ligion, and  vows  of  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  the  liinina  Apos/olorum, 
or  St.  James  of  Compost ella — application 
is  likewise  to  be  made  to  the  Holy  See  or 
to  a  superior  specially  delegated  by  it  for 
that  purpose.  Vows  taken  in  religious 
associations  which  have  received  only 
episcopal  approbation  may  be  dispensed 
from  by  episcopal  authority. 

VlTXiGATE.  The  name  is  now  com- 
monly given  to  the  Latin  version  of  the 
Bible,  authorised  by  the  Catholic  Church. 
In  this  version  all  the  books  found  in  the 
Hebrew  Bible  were  translated  by  Jerome 
from  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  originals, 
except  the  Psalter,  which  belongs  to  an 
Old  Latin  version  revised  by  Jerome. 
Judith  and  Tobias  were  freely  translated 
by  Jerome  from  the  Chaldee  (this  Chaldee, 
however,  being  merely  the  version  of 
Hebrew  originals  now  lost :  see  Xeubauer, 
"  Book  of  Tobias,"  p.  xvi.).  In  the  rest  of 
the  Old  Testament  books,  and  in  the 
deuterocanonical  portions  of  Esther  and 
Daniel,  we  have  the  Old  Latin  translation 
unaltered;  the  New  Testament  consists  of 
the  Old  Latin  text  revised  by  Jerome  from 
tlie  Greek.  It  was  only  very  slowly  that 
this  composite  work  supplanted  the  Old 
Latin  which  had  preceded  it,  and  became 
liiiownas  the  Vulgate  or  connnon  edition. 
It  was  the  Old  Latin  which,  till  the 

I  seventh  centuiy,  was  recognised  as  the 
Vulgate;  and  not  till  the  thirteenth, 
according  to  Kaulen  ("  Geschichte  der 
Vulgata,"  p.  22),  was  the  present  use 
of  the  word  firmly  fixed.'  Jerome  him- 
self employs  the  ""term  (1)  of  the  LXX 
in  contrast  with  the  Hebrew  (Ilieron.  "In 
ls."lxv.  20,  XXX.  22;  Osee  vii.  13);  (2) 
of  the  LXX  in  the  Koivf]  eK^nais — i.e.  the 
corrupt  and  current  text,  as  opposed  to 
the  critical  text  in  Origen's  "  Hexapla  " 
(Hieron.  Ep.  cvi.  §  2);  sometimes  (3)  of 

I  the  Old  Latin  version  as  made  directly 
from  the  LXX  (Hieron.  "In  Is."  xiv.  29) ; 

'  Kaulen  is  no  doubt  right.  Roger  Bacn 
(d.  12?<4)  uses  "Vulgata"  for  the  Old  Latin. 
(See  the  long  extract  from  a  MS.  of  Roger 
Hacon  in  Hody,  De  Bibl.  Text.  lib.  iii.  P.'  ii. 
ch.  11.) 


vXLGATE 


VULGATE 


935 


(4)  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  Old 
Latin  (Hieron.  "In  Matt."  xiii.  35). 

(I.)  The  Old  Latin  Version, or  Versions, 
the  Itala,  i\-c. — This  part  of  the  subject  is 
involved  in  no  little  obscurity,  and  the 
very  fact  that  the  most  eminent  scholars 
differ  on  essential  points  proves  that  as 
yet  no  certainty  has  been  reached.  The 
critics  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  believed  that  several  translations 
of  the  LXX  and  New  Testament  into 
Latin  were  made  in  very  early  times, 
and  that  one  of  these  was  known  as  the 
"Vulgata"  or  "Communis,"  because 
generally  received,  and  again  as  the 
Italian  version  or  Itala,  from  the  place 
of  its  orisin.  (So  Simon,  "  Hist.  Crit. 
V.  T."  livr.  ii.  eh.  11,  a.d.  1680:  Hody, 
"De  Biblionim  textibus  originalibus, 
versionibus  Grjecis  et  Latina  Vulgata," 
p.  342,  A.D.  1705 ;  Mill,  "  Prolegom.  in 
N.T."p.xli.  A.D.  1707.)  An  epoch  was  made 
in  the  criticism  of  the  history  by  "Wise- 
man. ("Two  Letters  on  some  Parts  of  the 
Controversy  concerning  1  John  v.  7.")* 
He  mainta'ined  that  the  Latin  Church 
before  Jerome  had  only  one  translation 
of  the  Bible :  that  this  version  arose  not 
in  Rome  or  Italy,  but  in  North  Africa ; 
that  it  underwent  many  recensions  or 
revisions,  of  which  the  best  and  most 
famous  was  called  by  St.  Augustine  from 
the  place  where  it  was  made,  "  Itala ;  " 
that  the  saint  became  acquainted  with  it 
at  Milan  and  used  it  in  his  works.  Every 
part  of  this  theory  was  received  with 
extraordinary  favour.  It  was  adopted  by 
Lachmann,  Tischendort",  Tregelles,  and 
many  others.  Westcott  (article  Vulr/ate 
in  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible  ') 
considered  its  truth  demonstrated,  and 
Reinkens  ("Hilarius  von  Poitiers,"  a.d. 
1864)  thought  some  courage  was  necessary 
to  oppose  such  a  strong  consent  of  scholars. 
We  shall  see,  however,  that  the  number 
of  dissentient  voices  has  increased  of  late, 
and  some  of  those  who  are  be-t  qualilied 
to  judge  reject  the  whole  of  Wiseman's 
arguments  and  conclusions.  We  will  take 
the  points  one  by  one. 

(a)  Were  there  several  Old  Latin 
Versiom  of  the  ichole  Bible  current  in  the 
early  Church?  We  say  of  the  whole 
Bible,  for  it  is,  we  believe,  admitted  that 
there  was  more  than  one  version  of  Tobias, 
Maccabees  1  and  'J,  and  of  Baruch.  The 
most  recent    authority — viz.  Fritzsche 

1  The  edition  before  us  is  that  of  Rome, 
1835.  But  the  letters  h.iit  appeared  previouslv 
In  the  Catho'ic  Mayizine.  They  are  reprinted 
in  the  Cardinal's  Essays. 


I  (Plitt  und  Herzog,  "Encvcl.  fiir  Prot. 
I  Theol."  art.  Latein.  Bib-liihersetz.)—M- 
I  lows    Wiseman    and    Westcott,'  and 
answers  in  the  negative.    Reinkens  (<>p. 
\  cit.  p.  343)  believes  in  several  indepen- 
dent versions ;  so  does  a  very  eminent 
j  authority — viz.    Ziegler    ("  Lateinische 
Bibeliibersetzungen   von    Hieron."  a.d. 
1870,  pp.  4-1 S) ;  so  do  Ronsch  ("Itala 
und  Vulgata "  ad  init.  a.d.  1875)  and 
Kaulen  ("Einleit.  in  die  H.  Schrift,"  a.d. 
1876"),  while  the  tone  in  Westcott  and 
Hort's  New  Testament  ("Introd."  p.  79, 
A.D.  1881)  is  much  less  confident  than  that 
of  Dr.  Westcott  in  Smith's  Dictionary. 

This   divergence  of  opinion  among 
scholars  is  quite  intelligible  considering 
the  uncertainty  of  the  tradition.  Tertul- 
lian  ("  Monog."  5)  mentions  and  censures 
a  rendering  of  1  Cor.  vii.  39,  "si  dormierit 
vir  ejus,"'  as  cuiTent  in  his  time  ("  in 
usum  exiit ""),  and  again  he  rejects  ("  Adv. 
Prax."  5)  the  customary  translation  ( "  in 
usu  est  nostrorum  ")  of  the  Greek \6yos  by 
"  Sermo."  for  which  he  substitutes  "  ratio." 
Thisseems  to  show  that  the  African  Church 
about  '200  A.D.  had  one  received  text, 
!  though  the  possible  existence  of  several 
j  translations  is  not  excluded.    He  speaks 
I  ("Adv.  Marc."  ii.  9)  of  a  translation  of 
I  the  word  tti-oiji/  (Gen.  ii.)  as  given  by  some 
■  ("quidamenim  de  Gra?co interpretantes " : 
cf.  V.  4,  "dufB  ostensiones,  sicut  invenimus 
interpretatum  ") ;  but  this  need  not  carry 
^  us  further  than  the  fact  that  one  Latin 
'  version  was  in  various  places  emended 
from  the  Greek,  which  is  admitted  on  all 
hands.    Jerome  clearly  believed  in  many 
t\-pes  of  text,  many  revisions  of  the  same 
version  ("  tot  exemplaria  quot  codices." 
I  Prsef.  in  Jos.  and  so  Prjef.  in  iv.  Evang. 
I  ad  Damas.),  but  not  in  many  independent 
versions.    His  commentary  on  Jonas  ii. 
5  is  decisive  on  this  point  ("Hoc  quod 
'  in  Graeco  dicitur  npa  et  habet  vulgata 
edirio  putas,  interpretari  potest  igitur"), 
considering  that  nothin?  can  be  produced 
from  him  on  the  other  side.^  Cassiodorus 
("De  Inst.  Div.  Lit."  14)  is  explicit. 
"This  text  [of  the   New  Testament], 
varied  by  the  translation  of  many  .... 
was  left  emended  and  arranged  by  the 
dUigent   care  of  the   Father  Jerome." 

'  Add  VerciUone  {DisserUuioni  Accade- 
miihe,  p.  19,  Roma,  18tU),  who  at  least  be- 
lieves in  one  version,  "^ice^*uta  e  sanzionata 
per  V  uso  piihblico  della  Chiesa"  "nei  primi 
tempi  della  Chiesa." 

-  We  say  tliis  advisedly,  after  careful  con- 
sideration nf  Zie:;ler's  references  and  ar^'iinients 
to  establish  Jerome's  belief  in  a  multiplicity  of 
versions. 


936  ^^JLGATE 


VULGATE 


This  can  only  mean  tliat  there  was  one 
text  which  appeared  in  many  recensions, 
because  so  many  tried  their  hand  at  re- 
translating particular  passages  ft-om  the 
Greek,  while  they  left  the  version,  as  a 
whole,  in  its  original  state.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  seems  to  be  no  reasonable 
doubt  that  St.  Augustine  attributed  the 
variety  of  texts  to  the  effect  of  indepen- 
dent translations.  Thus,  he  says  ("Doctr. 
Christ."  ii.  11):  "Those  who  turned  the 
Bible  from  Hebrew  into  Greek  can  be 
counted,  but  the  Latin  translators  are 
innumerable,  for  in  the  earliest  days  of 
the  faith  every  one  who  got  a  Greek  MS. 
into  his  hands,  and  thought  he  had  some 
little  acquaintance  with  each  tongue, 
ventured  to  translate."  The  force  of  this 
testimony  is  brolcen  if  we  accept  Wise- 
man's explanation  of  "  interpretari,"  "in- 
terpres,"  as  meaning  "  revise,"  "  reviser," 
of  the  same  version.  But  the  contrast  be- 
tween the  Greek  translators  nud  the  Latin 
"  intei-pretes  "  is  fatal  to  AViseman's  view. 
Besides,  Augustine  ("Doct.  Christ."  ii. 
14,  15)  expressly  distinguishes  between 
translation  and  mere  emendation.  "  The 
skill  of  those  who  desire  to  know  the 
divine  Scriptures  must  be  on  the  watch, 
that  MSS.  not  emended  may  give  place 
to  such  as  are  emended,  provided  they 
come  from  one  class  of  translation" 
("emendatis  non  emendati  cedant,  ex 
lino  duntaxat  interpretationis  genere 
venientes ;  "  so  "  Retract."  i.  7,  2  and  3 : 
"ejusdem  interpretationis  alii  codices," 
"  codices  ejusdem  interpretationis'*).  For 
a  more  complete  discussion  we  must  refer 
to  Ziegler  (p.  6). 

In  ancif^nt  then,  as  in  modern  times, 
we  find  authority  ranged  against  authority, 
and  the  proper  appeal  is  to  the  MSS.  of 
the  Old  Latin.  Here  it  is  only  .specialists 
versed  in  the  examination  of  MSS.  and 
their  texts  who  can  claim  to  be  heard. 
But  probably  Fritzsche,  with  whom 
AVestcott  and  Hort  are  in  accord,  is  right 
in  the  account  he  gives.  In  spite,  he  says, 
of  differences  which  can  only  be  explained 
by  independent  translation  of  single  verses, 
nay,  of  "  smaller  and  greater  sections," 
still  the  fact  that  the  most  discordant 
MSS.  fall  back  again  into  unity  justifies 
the  belief  in  one  single  "  Vetus  Latina," 
which  is  the  common  basis  of  all  the 
recensions.  The  differences  he  noticed 
may  well  have  led  Augustine,  who  was 
no  critic,  to  think  there  had  been  many 
independent  versions;  and,  in  fact,  the 
instances  of  difference  which  he  gives  are 
mere  variants  quite  consistent  with  funda- 


mental unity.  (See  August.  "Doctr. 
Christ."  ii.  12 ;  "  Quaest.  in  Heptateuch." 
iii.  25.) 

(/3)  Where  did  the  Old  Latin  Version 
(supposing  that  there  was  one  only  or  one 
commonly  received)  arise?  Here,  too, 
no  certain  answer  can  be  given.  Wise- 
man tried  to  establish  a  theory  suggested 
by  Eichhorn  ("  Einleit.  N.  T."  vol.  iv. 
p.  355  seg.) — viz.  that  the  "Vetus  Latina  " 
arose  in  North  Africa.  Westcott  and 
Hort  (ii.  p.  78),  Ronsch  ("Itala  u. 
Vulgat."  ad  init.),  Fritzsche  still  main- 
tain this  position,  but  it  has  been  aban- 
doned by  Gams  ("  Kirchengeschichte 
von  Spanien,"  i.  p.  86  seg.),  Reiukens, 
("  Hilarius  von  Poitiers,"  3.35),  Kaulen, 
("  Geschichte  der  Vulgat."  109  seq.). 
Greek  no  doubt  was  the  official  language 
of  the  early  Roman  Church.  Clemen', 
Caius  (eirc.  210),  Hippolytus,  wrote  iii 
that  tongue ;  and  Pope  Victor  and  tbe 
Senator  ApoUonius  are  the  only  Latin 
authors  prior  to  Tertullian  whom"  Jerome 
("Vir.  Illustr."  53)  names.  This  sui)plie> 
a  probable  argument  for  African  origin, 
since  in  Africa  Greek  certainly  had  not 
the  same  currency  as  in  Rome.  But  it 
is  quite  another  question  whether  Greek, 
even  at  Rome,  was  the  popular  language, 
and  whether  the  poor  to  whom  the 
Gospel  was  preached  would  not  require  a 
Latin  version  as  much  as  the  Christians 
at  Carthage.  The  inscriptions  even  at 
Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  are  almost 
without  exception  in  Latin,  and  De 
Rossi's  collection  of  Christian  inscriptions 
in  the  Lateran  Museum  leads  to  the  same  , 
conclusion  (Ziegler,  p.  23).  AViseman 
tried  to  show  that  the  Old  Latin  and  the 
Vulgate  of  the  New  Testament — i.e.  the 
Old  Latin  or  an  Old  Latin  version  revised 
by  Jerome — is  full  of  "  Africanisms,"  and 
this,  if  true,  would  settle  the  question. 
But  Gams  (p.  86-100)  has  simply  annihi- 
lated this  argument.  He  has  shown  that 
every  supposed  Africanism  can  be  met 
with  parallels  from  Christian  and  heathen 
writers  who  had  nothing  to  do  with 
Africa.  To  accept  Wiseman's  instances, 
we  must  suppose  that  the  Latin  version 
of  Irenseus,  the  Muratorian  fragment,  the 
Latin  version  of  Hermas,  were  made  in 
^^.frica ;  and  even  this  gratuitous  assump- 
tion would  not  suffice.  The  linguistic 
peculiarities  of  the  Old  Latin  and  Vulgate 
belong  partly  to  the  decadence  of  Latin, 
partly  to  the  "  lingua  rustica,"  or  vulgar 
language.  Even  Ronsch,  who  still  appeals 
to  this  theory  of  Africanisms,  admits 
that  these  "  Africanisms  "  were  common 


VULGATE 


VULGATE 


937 


to  the  language  of  South  Italy,  and  this 
amounts  to  a  surrender  of  the  argument. 

(y)  As  to  the  date  and  authors/tip  of 
the  earliest  Latin  version,  we  can  only 
say  that  most  of  the  New  Testament 
books  must  have  existed  at  the  close  of 
the  second  century,  and  that  the  version 
•came  from  many  authors.  The  latter 
point  was  established  long  ago  by  Mill 
("  Proleg."  2  seq.). 

(S)  What  IS  meant  by  the  Italaf— 
The  word  as  a  technical  term  occurs  once 
only  in  Patristic  literature — viz.  in 
August.  "Doctr.  Christ."  ii.  14,  15. 
•"  Among  translations  let  the  Italian  be 
preferred  to  the  rest,  for  it  sticks  closer 
to  the  words  and  gives  a  clear  sense." 
St.  Augustine  must  mean  some  version 
of  Italian  origin,  for  we  cannot  tliiuk  Ott's 
suggestion  that  "  Itala "  means  simply 
the  Latin  version  in  the  use  of  the 
African  Church,  or  that  of  Ronsch — viz. 
it  was  written  in  "  the  popular  provincial 
dialect  of  Italy:  therefore  the  name 
'  Itala  ' " — even  plausible.  "  Itala  "  then 
must  mean  either  a  translation  or  the 
revision  of  a  translation  made  in  North 
Italy,  and  most  likely  St.  Augustine 
made  acquaintance  with  it  at  Milan, 
brought  It  to  Africa,  and  used  it  in  his 
works.  Scholars  believe  it  a  translation 
or  a  recension,  according  to  the  views  they 
take  on  the  previous  questions.  Fritz-sche 
and  (with  some  hi^sitation)  Westcott  and 
Hort  hold  it  to  have  been  a  recension  of 
the  original  African  work.  The  last  two, 
indeed,  regard  it  as  a  revision  of  a  revi- 
sion, for  they  distinguish  between  the 
Old  Latin  of  African  origin,  a  revi.sion  of 
this  current  in  Europe,  and  a  revision  of 
this  European  text  made  from  Greek 
MSS.  and  also  with  a  desire  to  improve 
the  style.  This  last,  current  from  about 
350,  they  call  the  Itala.  They  think  it 
survives  in  /  (Cod.  Brixian.,  vi.  Ssec, 
■Gospels)  and  g  (Cod.  Mouacens.,  Ssec.  vi., 
Frsgments  of  Gos]>i  ls),  and  in  St.  Augus- 
tine's quotations.  Ziegler,  on  the  other 
hand,  distinguishes  between  the  version 
of  Tertullian  (for  the  divergence  of  this 
author  from  all  known  authorities  see 
Hilgenfeld,  "  Einleit.  Nov.  Test."  p.  79S), 
that  of  most  African  writers — viz.  Cy- 
prian, Lactantius  (educated  in  Africa), 
Commodian,  Firmicus,  Maternus,  Prima- 
sius,  that  represented  by  Augustine,  the 
Italian  Fathers  and  the  Friesingen  Frag- 
ments of  the  Pauline  Epistles. 

(II.)  The  Vulgate  in  the  Modern  >Sense. 
— 1.  Jerome's  Labours:  (a)  In  Revising 
the  Old  Latin. — Pope  Damasus  requested 


Jerome  to  revise  the  Latin  version  of  the 
New  Testament,  then  in  terrible  confu- 
sion, and  in  a.d.  383  the  Gospels,  so  re- 
vised, made  their  apjH'arance.  He  tells 
us  ("  Prsef.  ad  Dam.")  that  he  corrected 
the  errors  of  scribes,  false  emendations 
and  false  translations;  that  he  used  for 
this  purpose  Old  Greek  MSS.,  but  left 
the  faults  of  the  old  version  untouched  if 
they  did  not  affect  the  sense.  To  the 
rest  of  his  revision  of  the  New  Testament 
he  has  left  no  preface,  probably  because 
so  much  revision  was  not  needed  (see 
Westcott  in  Smith).  In  the  same  year 
he  made  a  cursory  revision  of  the  Psalter 
from  the  LXX.  This  revision  is  known 
as  the  Roman  Psalter,  because  used  in 
the  Roman  Church  till  the  time  of  St. 
Pius  V.  It  is  still  retained  at  St.  Peter's, 
and  in  the  Ambrosian  rite,  in  the  invita- 
tory  Psalm  at  matins  in  our  own  Bre- 
viary, and  in  some  portions  of  the  Missal 
(e.g.  in  the  tract  for  first  Sunday  in  Lent ; 
Knulen,  <'  Vulg."  p.  160).'  Soon  after, 
retiring  to  Bethlehem  in  387,  Jerome 
made  a  more  careful  revision  of  the 
Psalter  from  the  Hexaplar  text  (the  Ro- 
man had  been  made  from  the  koivt).  See 
Jerome's"  Prsef  in  Psalm."  with  Vallarsi's 
note).  This  revision  is  the  one  in  present 
use.  It  is  known  as  the  Gallican  Psalter, 
because,  as  it  is  said,  introduced  into 
Gaul  bv  Gregory  of  Tours  (Walafr. 
Strabo,  De  Reb.  Eccles."  i.  25).  He 
then  proceeded  to  revise  all  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  which  he  recognised 
as  canonical  {i.e.  all  except  the  deutero- 
canonical  ones.  See  "Prsef  ad  Salom. 
Libr.").  It  is  certain  that  this  revision 
was  completed  (Hieron.  in  Tit.  ii.  Ep. 
Ixxi.  5,  clii.  19,  "Adv.  Ruf."  ii.  25).  but 
great  part  of  it  seems  to  have  been  lost 
in  Jerome's  own  time  (Ep.  cxxxiv.  2), 
and  besides  the  two  revisions  of  the 
Psalter  the  book  of  Job  alone  is  extant. 
But  we  have  also  the  prefaces  to  Job, 
Prov.,  Cant.,  Paralip.,  Eccles.  (Kaulen, 
p.  163),  and  much  may  be  restored  from 
.Terome's  commentaries  on  the  Prophets, 
;  particularly  on  the  Minor  Prophets  and 

on  Ecclesiastes  (Hody,  p.  .354  seq.). 
i       (j3)  Translntinn  from  the  Hebrew. — 
.Terome  began  to  learn  H  ebrew  when  forty- 
five,  under  a  converted  Jew,  as  a  remedy 
against  sensual  temptation  (Ep.  cxxv. 
12).   He  speaks  ("Praef.  ad  Job,"  and  "In 
Hahac."  ii.  15)  of  a  Jew  of  Lydda  whom 
!  he  hired  at  great  cost,  and  (Ep.  Ixxxiv. 
1  3)  of  a  certain  Baraninas  who  came  to 
!       >  It  was  u.<ed  till  1808  nt  Venice  in  the 
I  chapel  of  the  Doge  (Kaulen,  Vuty.  loc.  cit.). 


938 


VULGATE 


VULGATE 


him  hv  night  for  fear  of  his  brother  Je-ws. 
It  is  this  Baraninas  who  in  the  silly  joke 
of  Rufiuus  ("Apol."  ii.  12)  appears  as 
Barabhas.  Thus  prepared,  Jerome  began 
to  translate  from  the  Hebrew.  The  four 
books  of  Kings  were  published  first. 
Then  followed  the  book  of  Job,  the 
Prophets,  and  the  version  of  the  Psalter 
from  the  "  Hebrew  truth.'"  This  last,  of 
which  the  best  edition  is  the  recent  one 
by  Lagarde,  has  never,  been  admitted  to 
public  use.  Hlness  interrupted  Jerome's 
labour,  but  in  393  he  resumed  it  again, 
and  translated  the  three  books  of  Solomon. 
Esdras,  Paralipom.  and  Genesis  appeared 
between  304  and  396 :  early  in  404  the  rest 
of  the  Pentateuch  had  been  published  ; 
in  404  and  405  Josue,  Judges,  Ruth, 
Esther,  with  the  deuterocanonical  por- 
tions of  Daniel  and  Esther,  and  the 
books  of  Tobias  and  Judith.'  Xo  attempt 
was  made  to  translate  or  even  to  revise 
Wisdom,  Ecclesiasticus  or  Maccabees 
(Kaulen,  p.  IfiS  seq.:  but  see  also  West- 
cott  in  the  "Bible  Dictionaiy "). 

2.  Reception  of  the  Vulgate  in  the 
Church. — Jerome  at  first  met  with  little 
gratitude.  He  had  his  own  reward,  for 
he  had  lived  "  to  pluck  sweet  fruit  from 
the  bitter  root "  of  Hebrew  study,  which 
he  again  and  again  had  given  up  in 
despair  and  begun  afresh  "  in  eagerness 
to  learn"'  (Ep.  cxxv.  12).  But  that  for 
a  time  was  all.  He  was  attacked  by 
those  who  mistake  ignorance  for  piety — 
nay,  a  letter  was  forged  in  his  name  to 
the  effect  that  he  had  been  induced  to 
pervert  the  Scriptures  by  the  Jews 
("Adv.  R  .fin."  ii.  25).  Even  Augus- 
tine objected  to  Jerome's  translating  from 
the  Hebrew,  bec>iuse  it  was  impossible 
to  improve  on  the  LXX  (August.  Ep. 
xxviii.  2),  and  because  of  the  discord  a 
new  translation  would  cause  (Ep.  Ixxi.). 
He  admits  that  the  Jews  (who  were  the 
only  persons  capable  of  judging)  testified 
to  "Jerome's  accuracy,  but  adds  that  he 
himself  keeps  to  the  prevailing  belief  in 
the  inspiration  of  the  LXX  ("De  Civ. 
Dei,"  xviii.  43).  But  gradually  scholar- 
ship prevailed  against  prejudice.  Cassian 
("Collat."  xxiii.  9)  quotes  the  Vulgate 
of  Job  as  the  "emendatior  translatio,"' 
and  in  the  fifth  century  it  was  adopted 
by  Eucherius  of  Lyons,  Vincent  of  Lerins, 
Sedulius,  Claudianus  Mamertus,  and 
Faustus  Rhegensis  (Hody,  p.  397  seq.), 
though  the  did  Latin  held  its  ground  in 

'  We  take  these  conjectural  dates  from 
Westcott,  with  whom,  however,  neither  Kaulen 
nor  Fritzsche  entirely  agrees. 


I  Africa  and  Britain  (Hody,  ib.).  In  the 
sixth  century  the  Vidgate  was  coming 
into  general  use.  Cassiodorus  (''Inst. 
Div.  Lit."  12)  strongly  prefers  it  to  the 
old  version,  though  at  a  later  date  St. 
Gregory  the  Great  ("  Prsef.  ad  Job,''  5) 
speaks  of  "  the  Apostolic  see  "  as  usin<r 
both.  In  the  seventh  centurv  St.  Isidore 
of  Seville  ("  Eccles.  Offic."  i.  IT)  says  "all 
I  the  churches "'  used  the  Vulgate,  which 
must  have  been  true  at  least  of  Spain, 
i  Early  in  the  ninth  century  Rabanus 
;  Maurus  ("Cler.  Inst."  ii.  54)  says  the 
j  same  thing,  almost  in  the  words  of  Isidore; 

and   Walafrid    Strabo,  the  disciple  of 
I  Rabanus,  writes  (■'  Praef,  in  Gloss,  or- 
i  dinar. "'),  "the  whole  Roman  Church  now 
i  everywhere  uses  this  translation "'  (i.e. 
Jerome's).    The  Council  of  Trent  in  a 
decree  which  we  shall  have  to  examine 
further  on,  declared  the  Vulgate  to  be  the 
authentic  version  of  the  Church,  and  in 
doing  so  appealed  with  good  right  to  the 
long  use  of  ages. 

3.  History  of  the  Te.xt.—1he  text  of 
this  composite  work  which  we  call  the 
Vulgate  was  exposed  to  special  danger  of 
corruption.    Side  by  side  with  it  stood 
the  Old  Latin  used  for  a  long  time  after 
j  Jerome's  death  in  many  churches,  familiar 
I  to  the  scribes,  and  standing  in  the  most 
curious  relations  to  our  Vulgate — in  some 
'  books  identical  with  it:  in  others  differ- 
ing to  a  slight  extent ;  in  others  offering 
I  an    independent    translation.  Heuce 
I  "mixed  texts"  arosein  which  the  Vulgate 
j  and  Old  Latin  were  confused,  when  they 
[  should  have  been  kept  distinct.    In  802 
I  Alcuin  revised  the  text   with  marked 
i  success  from  ancient  Vulgate  M.SS.,  but 
!  -w-ithout  consulting  the  Greek  (Porson  to 
Travis,  p,  145).     Subsequent  revisions 
were  ma  de  bv  Theodulf  of  Orleans  (7S7- 
821);   Lanfranc,  afterwards  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  (d.  1089);  the  Cistercian 
abbot  Stephen  II.  (1109),  and  Cardinal 
Xicolaus  (1150).    After  that,  different 
corporations    issued    "  Correctoria,"  in 
which  various  readings  were  mentioned 
and  discussed.   Such  were  the  "  Correcto- 
rium  Parisiense"  (also  called  "Senonense," 
!  because  approved  by  the  .Archbishop  of 
Sens),  the  CoiTectorium  of  the  Domini- 
cans drawn  up  by  Hugo  a  S.  Caro  about 
]  1240,  and  shortly  after  replaced  by  an- 
other, and  that  of  the  Franciscans. 

The  first  printed  book  was  a  copy  of 
the  Vulgate  (^layence,  about  1450),  and 
after  1470  a  number  of  editions  appeared, 
professing  to  be  emended  from  the  oris-i- 
nal  texts  (Kaulen,  p.  .311).    In  1516 


VULGATE 


VULGATE 


939 


Erasmus  revised  the  Vulgate  New  Testa-  j 
nient,  wbich  he  altered  partly  to  bring 
the  text  iuto  harmony  with  his  own 
Greek  text,  which  was  of  little  value, 
and  partly  from  a  desire  to  improve  the 
style.  The  really  critical  work  of  giving 
a  purer  Vulgate  text  from  old  MSS.  was 
undertaken  by  Gumelli  (Paris  1504),  the  | 
Dominican  Castellaer  (Venice,  1511),  | 
Laridius  (Cologne,  1530).  None  of  these 
editions  are  of  much  account,  but  valuable 
contributions  to  the  restoration  of  a  criti- 
cal text  were  made  by  Cardinal  Ximenes  in 
the  Comphitensian  Polyglott(1502-1517), 
and  by  K.  Stephens  (1528,  many  subse- 
quent editions).  The  Theological  Faculty  ! 
of  Louvain  entrusted  the  task  of  a  new 
critical  re\dsion  to  Henten,  of  Malines, 
and  his  first  edition,  based  on  that  of 
Stephens  in  1540  and  a  collation  of 
Latin  MSS.,  was  published  in  1547. 
After  Henten's  death,  in  156G,  the  Lou- 
vain theologians  resolved  to  issue  a 
correct  edition  of  the  Vulgate,  answering 
to  the  requirements  of  the  Council  of 
Trent  ("Vulgata  editio  quam  emenda- 
tissima  imprimatur").  ^Vith  the  help  of 
the  Antwerp  printer  Plantinus,  and  under 
the  guidance  of  one  of  their  own  mem- 
bers, Lucas  Brugensis  {i.e.  of  Bruges),  a 
great  quantity  of  MSS.  were  collated; 
but  their  text  of  1574  is  identical  with 
that  of  Henten  (1547),  except  that  they 
had  added  to  the  number  of  marginal 
readings.  We  must  also  mention  a 
Lyons  Vulgate  of  1545,  which  gives 
valuable  and  ancient  readings,  though 
without  naming  the  sources. 

Meantime,  commissions  had  set  to 
work  in  Rome  at  the  preparation  of  an 
official  text,  and  in  1590  Sixtus  V.  issued 
an  edition,  prefixing  to  it  the  constitu- 
tion "  ^ternus  ille,"  in  which  he  ordered 
it  to  be  used  in  all  discussions  public  and 
private,  and  to  be  received  as  "  true, 
lawful,  authentic  and  unquestioned." 
Unfortunati'ly,  the  Pope  revised  the 
work  of  the  coniniis-ioii  with  his  own 
hand,  and  on  ]>rincij>les  diflerent  from 
theirs;  he  calleil  needlfss  attention  to 
typogra]ihical  (>rrors,  by  ])asting  them 
over  with  pieces  of  paper;  and  nobody 
was  satisfied  with  the  result.'  In  1502 
the  detinitive  edition  known  as  the 
Clementine  saw  the  light.  The  printer's 
work  in  the  first  editiuu  of  the  Cienientine 
was  worse  done  than  in  the  Sixtine  Bible, 

I  Sixtus  was  himself  a  .sclml.ir,  -.ind  a  more  ' 
favourablejuclgment  of  his  edition  will  be  found 
ill  a  masterly  treatise  by  Mr.  Law,  prefixed  to 
the  last  edition  of  Haydock's  Bible.  | 


but  it  bad  this  merit,  that  it  returned  to 
the  text  fixed  by  the  Boman  commissions 
(Kaulen,  "  Einleit."  p.  li'(i).  It  was  not 
a  perfect  text  of  the  \'ulg.-ite.  The 
preface  disclaims  any  such  exaggerated 
praise — nay,  admits  that  imperfeclious 
had  been  left  "of  set  purpose,"  lest 
offence  should  be  given  to  the  people,  as 
well  as  for  other  reasons.  But  the  Cle- 
mentine editors  rightly  claim  to  have 
supplied  a  purer  text  than  any  hitherto 
known,  and  Vercellone  ("  Dissertaz."  iv.) 
has  shown  that  it  is  the  fruit  of  long  and 
well-directed  toil  and  of  great  oppor- 
tunities. The  work  of  correction  was 
continued  for  about  forty  years  with  few 
interruptions.  The  most  eminent  men 
from  all  countries  were  summoned  to 
take  part  in  the  revision  :  among  them 
Sirlet,  Carafi'a,  Bellarmin,  Morinus  (a 
Clitic  who  has  had  few  equals),  Allen, 
Turrianus,  Toletus,  Sa  (the  famous  Por- 
tuguese commentator),  Agellius,  whose 
commentary  on  the  Psalms  is  still  e.s- 
teemed,  especially  for  its  critical  remarks 
on  the  Alexandrine  and  Vulgate  texts. 
They  used  the  Codex  Amiatinus  (A) 
written  about  541 ;  the  Codex  Paulliiius 
(C),  a  ninth-century  copy  of  Alcuin's 
recension ;  the  Vallicellianus  (D),  a  MS. 
of  the  same  type  but  rather  older;  the 
Ottobonianus  (E,  Sa;c.  viii.,  imperfect 
at  the  beginning,  and  ending  with  Judges 
xiii.  20)  ;  besides  a  number  of  Vatican 
JISS.  Further,  they  had  collations  of 
the  Toletanus  (B,  S;ec.  viii.  according 
to  Westcott,  later  according  to  Ver- 
cellone) and  of  another  Spanish  MS. 
from  Leon.  They  had  the  benefit  of 
French  readings  in  the  Ste})hanic  edition 
of  1540  and  collations  of  sixty  Belgian 
MSS.  made  by  Plantinus ;  and  they  un- 
der.stood  the  weight  due  to  ancient  au- 
thorities. Vercellone  tells  us  they  "pre- 
ferred to  every  codex''  that  liuown  as 
file  "  .Vmiatinus,"  till.  (^)ureii  of  Vulgate 
]\ISS.'  Still  there  were  i.ieeiou-  MSS., 
like  the  Fuldensis  of  the  Xrw  Testament 
(A.n.  546),  unknown  to  them  ;  and  textual 
criticism  has  advanced  a  long  way  since 
their  time.  Valuable  contributions  to  the 
formation  of  a  better  text  have  been  made 
by  Vercellone  ("  Vari;e  Lectiones "), 
and  a  distinguished  scholar,  the  liev. 
John  V\^ordsworth,  has  put  forth  the 

1  Mr.  Law  draws  attention  to  the  verdict 
of  Kankc  (C„<l,,r  Fubh  ns.  p.  .-,i;-2),  one  of  the 
liif^host  autlioriues  o;,  i  hr  LiUni  liil,]..,  ni„l  hini- 
scll  a  l>rnte>l/int.  KankL-  ivjo.-l..  a>  undnuliledlv 
erroneous  tlie  opinion  of  lliose  who  tliiuU  tlie 
authorised  revision  of  the  Vulicate  uncritical. 


940 


VULGATE 


VULGATE 


prospectus  of  a  new  critical  edition  of 
the  Vulgate  New  Testament. 

4._  The  Critical  Valve  of  the  Vulgate 
and  its  Merits  as  a  Translation. — The 
latter  point  is  of  course  quite  distinct 
from  the  former.  The  LXX  is  a  very 
imperfect  translation,  but  its  critical  value 
is  very  great.  We  have  no  Hebrew  MSS. 
older  than  the  ninth  century,  and  those 
we  have  represent  one  single  type  of  text, 
fixed  by  the  3Iasorets  or  "holders  of  tra- 
dition," who  did  not  finish  their  work  till 
eiglit  centuries  after  Christ,  and  preserved 
with  superstitious  care  ever  since.  Again, 
the  earlier  Hebrew  writing  simply  gave 
the  consonantsof  each  word,  and  the  vowel 
points  are  an  invention  uot  completed  till 
the  seventh  century  of  our  era.  We  have, 
indeed,  a  collection  of  various  readings  iu 
our  Hebrew  Bibles,  but  as  a  rule  they  are 
of  little  interest,  and  the  diligent  labours 
of  Kennicott  and  De  Rossi  at  the  end  of 
the  last  and  the  beginning  of  this  century 
prove  how  scanty  is  the  harvest  which  can 
be  reaped  from  the  most  exhaustive  colla- 
tion of  existing  Hebrew  MSS.  Most 
welcome,  then,  is  the  light  which  comes  to 
us  from  times  far  before  the  fixing  of  the 
Masoretic  text.  We  find  important  varia- 
tions in  that  Hebrew  Pentateuch  which 
the  Samaritans  received  from  the  Jews 
about  430,  while  the  Book  of  Jubilees,  a 
Helivew  work  written  shortly  before  the 
final  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  agrees  in 
some  of  the  numbers  assigned  to  the  age 
of  the  Patriarchs,  and  in  other  readings 
with  the  Samaritan  edition  of  the  Penta- 
teuch. But  the  LXX  oflfers  the  fullest 
and  most  valuable  evidence  now  accessible 
on  the  early  state  of  the  Hebrew  text. 
The  Pentateuch  was  translated  about  280, 
and  the  rest  of  the  version  some  time  be- 
fore 133  B.C.,  and  we  find  ourselves  carried 
back  at  once  to  a  text  differing  in  im- 
portant respects  from  that  of  our  Hebrew 
Bibles.  It  is  not  only  that  we  meet  with 
various  readings,  often  strongly  com- 
mended by  internal  evidence,  but  we  find 
certain  sections  present  in  the  Greek  and 
wanting  in  the  Hebrew,  or  vice  versa. 
These  difl^erences  are  most  striking  in  the 
books  of  Samuel  and  Kings,  in  Proverbs 
and  in  Jeremias,  in  the  last  of  which  no 
less  than  2,700  words  of  the  Hebrew  have 
nothing  answering  to  them  in  the  Greek. 
The  Vulgate  of  the  Old  Testament,  so  far 
as  it  is  Jerome's  work,  possesses  no  such 
interest  as  this.  His  text  is  far  nearer 
that  of  the  Masoretic,  and  many  scholars 
have  denied  it  any  independent  value.  It 
is  as  close  to  the  Masoretic  text,  says 


Eichhorn,  as  any  Spanish  MS.  from  a 
modern  synagogue ;  and  Wellhausen,  in 
his  edition  of  Bleek's  Introduction,  says 
much  the  same  thing,  in  a  more  guarded 
way.  The  true  state  of  the  case  seems 
to  be  put  by  Nowack  ("  Bedeutung  des 
Hieron.  fiir  die  A.  T.  Critik,"  1875),  and 
the  following  is  a  summary  of  his  judg- 
ment. Jerome  had  before  him  a  text 
with  the  words  divided  much  as  in  our 
modern  Hebrew  Bibles ;  it  was,  however,, 
destitute  of  vowel  points  or  diacritic 
marks.  His  vocalisation,  compared  with 
that  of  other  versions,  was  the  nearest  of 
all  to  the  Masoretic,  and  his  consonant 
text  very  near  to  it  on  the  whole ;  for  it 
presents  no  great  omis.sions  or  additions 
like  those  of  the  LXX.  Still,  many  of 
his  readings  are  "indispensable  for  a  cor- 
rect understanding  of  the  text,"  especially 
those  which  are  peculiar  to  him,  or  only 
common  to  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac  ver- 
sions. The  case  stands  very  differently 
with  the  Vulgate  text  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Here  we  have  to  deal  with  two 
distinct  elements :  the  Old  Latin,  which 
forms  the  substratum,  and  the  corrections 
due  to  Jerome.  The  latter  carry  us  back 
to  the  fourth  century,  when  Jerome  lived, 
and  beyond  that,  since  he  consulted  MSS. 
which  were  old  even  then.'  Hence,  as 
we  have  no  MS.  of  the  New  Testament 
prior  to  the  foui  th  century,  and  only  two 
at  most  which  belong  to  it,  the  value  of 
the  Vulgate  for  critical  purposes  may  be 
easily  seen.  "It  represents,"  says  Dr. 
"Westcott,  "the  received  Greek  text  of  the 
fourth  century,  and  so  far  claims  a  re- 
spect (speaking  roughly)  due  to  a  first- 
class  Greek  MS."  Jerome  supplements 
"the  original  testimony  of  Greek  MSS. 
by  an  independent  witness."  When 
identical  with  the  Old  Latin,  the  Vul- 
gate, says  the  same  scholar,  has  "a  more 
venerable  authority,"  for  this  translation 
was  "fixed  and  current  more  than  a 
century  before  the  transcription  of  the 
oldest  Greek  MS.  Thus  it  is  a  witness  to 
a  text  more  ancient  and  ceteris  paribus 
more  valuable  than  is  represented  by  any 
other  authority,  unless  the  Peshito  in  its 
present  form  be  excepted."  This  value  is 
much  increased  by  the  fact  that  the  ex- 
tremely literal  character  of  the  Old  Latin 
enables  us  as  a  rule  to  restore  with  con- 
fidence the  Greek  text  which  the  trans- 
lators read,  and  though  the  Old  Latin  was 

I  It  has  been  often  said  that  Jerome  con- 
sulted by  preference  Greek  MSS.  with  a  text 
resembling  that  of  the  Old  Latin.  Mr.  Law 
has  shown  that  this  statement  is  groundless. 


VULGATE 


VULGATE 


941 


marred  by  interpolations,  the  corruptions 
proceeded  according  to  a  different  law 
Irom  those  of  Greek  MSS.,  so  that  "the 
two  authorities  mutually  correct  each 
other." 

We  turn  next  to  the  merits  of  the 
Vulgate  as  a  translation.  It  is  admitted 
on  all  hands  that  Jerome's  version  from  the 
Hebrew  is  a  masterly  work,  and  that  there 
is  nothing  like  it  or  near  it  in  antiquity. 
A  perfect  work  it  coiild  not  be,  and  this 
for  the  very  reasons  which  may  well 
increase  admiration  of  the  measure  of 
success  which  Jerome  actually  reaehed. 
Few  advantages  were  open  to  him  which 
are  denied  to  modern  scholars.  Hebrew 
had  ceased  for  centuries  to  be  a  living 
tongue,  and  Jerome,  moreover,  had  to  learn 
it  orally :  there  was  no  such  thing  as  a 
Hebrew  Grammar,  or  a  dictionary,  or  a 
conooidance.  The  comparative  philology 
of  the  Semitic  languages,  often  the  only 
key  to  the  meaning  of  Hebrew  words,  is 
the  creation  of  modern  times ;  and  Jerome 
knew  no  other  Semitic  language  except 
Chaldee,  and  that  very  imperfectly 
("  Praef.  ad  Job  ").  He  made  many  mis- 
takes now  impossible  to  a  tyro  of  average 
intelligence  who  has  learnt  the  elements 
in  a  good  grammar.  For  instance,  he 
believed  Hebrew  to  be  the  mother  of  all 
languages  (Hieron.  Ep.  xviii.),  wliereas 
it  is  generally  agreed  that  Arabic  on  the 
whole  comes  nearer  the  primitive  form 
even  of  the  Semitic  tongues ;  that  the 
guttural  y  was  a  vowel  (in  Osee  ii. 
16,  17) ;  that  the  noun  pTV  was  an  ad- 
jective meaning  "just"  (in  Is.  i.  21) ;  he 
confuses  "dust,"  with  najjt,  "ashes" 
("Quaest.  in  Gen."' ^.  14);  3"in,  a  "sword," 
with  any  a  "raven"  (in  Zeph.  ii.  14). 
His  version  tells  the  same  tale  as  his 
commentaries.  He  had  no  idea  of  the 
elementary  rules  on  the  construct  state 
(Jer.  xxxiii.  4;  Ez.  xl.  14;  Osee  x.  4, 
xiv.  3;  Ezech.  xxi.  77);  he  makesaplur. 
masc.  agree  with  asing.  fem.  (Jer.  xi.  15), 
breaks  other  simple  laws  of  concord  and 
construction  (Ez.  xlviii.  10;  Is.  xli.  7; 
Zach.  iv.  12;  Zeph.  i.  2);  misunderstands 
the  force  of  tenses  (Jer.  xliv.  2o ;  Ez.  xi. 
16;  Joel  iv.  4);  shows  his  igndianoe  of 
s}-ntax  (Jud.  viii.  5;  Eccles.  ii.  o).  As  a 
natural  consequence  of  all  this,  he  very 
often  misses  the  sense  in  difficult  places. 
We  have  no  room  for  instances,  which 
would  need  explanation  to  those  who 
have  no  acquaintance  with  Hebrew ;  while 
those  who  ar-j  Hebrew  scholars  will  tind 
them  easily  tiv  ough  if  they  turn,  e.gi.,  to 


Job  or  the  harder  parts  of  the  Prophets. 
We  can  only  explain  the  excellence  of  the 
Vulgate  from  the  fidelity  of  Jewish 
exegetical  tradition,  and  the  honest  in- 
dustry with  which  Jerome  used  it.  No 
admiration  can  be  too  great  for  Jerome's 
courage  and  independence,  his  thirst  for 
learning,  his  outspoken  candour,  his  con- 
tempt  for  the  ignorant  bigotry  which  he 
fouglit  and  conquered ;  but  they  know  little 
of  his  spirit  who,  blind  to  the  progress  of 
Hebrew  learning,  use  the  very  argument.s 
against  modern  philology  wliich  were 
employed  against  Jerome  by  the  advocates 
of  the"  LXX.  Little  need' be  said  on  the 
translation  of  the  New  Testament.  It  is 
close  and  literal,  and  executed  when 
Greek  was  a  living  tongue  ;  and  even  its 
faults  arise  "  most  commonly  from  a 
servile  adherence  to  the  exact  words  of 
the  original"  (Westcott). 

5.  The  Authority  of  the  Vulgate  in  the 
Church. — The  Council  of  Trent,  "con- 
sidering that  no  small  profit  would  accrue 
to  the  (T^hurch  of  God  if  it  be  made 
known  which  of  all  the  Latin  editions  of 
the  sacred  books  in  actual  circulation  is 
to  be  esteemed  authentic,  ordains  and 
declares  that  the  same  [hcec  ipm)  old  and 
Vulgate  edition  which  has  been  a])proved 
by  the  long  use  of  so  many  ages  in  the 
Cluirch  itself,  is  to  be  lirkl  for  authentic 
in  public  readings,  discourses  and  dis- 
putes, and  tliat  nobody  may  dare  or  pre- 
sume to  reject  it  on  any  pretence."  A 
little  earlier  it  had  anathematised  those 
who  knowingly  refuse  to  accept  the 
canonical  books  "with  all  their  parts,  as 
they  liave  been  accustomed  to  be  read  in 
the  Catliolic  Church,  and  are  contained  in 
the  old  Latin  Vulgate"  (Concil.  Trid. 
Sess.  iv.,  Decret.  de  Canon.  Script.,  De- 
cret.  de  Edit,  et  Us.  Sacr.  Libr.).  We 
shall  begin  by  explaining  what  the  coun- 
cil does  not  mean,  and  we  shall  dis- 
tinguish points  in  our  interpretation  now 
at  least  universally  admitted  from  those 
on  which  there  is  still  difference  of 
opinion. 

First,  then,  no  particular  edition  of  the 
Vulgate  is  declared  to  be  authentic ;  and 
as  a  matter  of  fact  neither  the  Sixtine  nor 
Clementine,  nor  any  other  authoritative 
edition,  existed  at  the  time  of  the  decree. 
The  Sixtine  edition  hx  implication, and  the 
Clementine  expressly,  admit  that  they  are 
rot  perfect;  and  if,  says  Cardinal  Franze- 
lin  ("De  Traditione  et  Scriptura,"  p. 
470),  we  can  show  that  a  text  of  what- 
ever kind,  though  found  in  the  Clemen- 
tine edition,  is  no  part  of  the  old  Vul- 


042  WLGATE 


WLGATE 


gate,  that  text  is  not  declared  authentic 
by  the  council.  Hence  a  Catholic  is 
perfectly  free  to  reject  the  text  of  the 
"three  witnesses"  (1  John  v.  7)  on  this 
amonir  other  grounds,  that  it  formed  no 
part  of  the  primitive  Vulgate.  "  In 
lact,"  says  Kauleu,  an  author  of  unques- 
tioned orthodoxy,  "the  passage  occurs 
neither  in  the  oldest  MSS.  of  the  original, 
nor  in  the  old  versions,  nor  in  the  Fathers 
before  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  and  is 
only  to  be  i-egarded  as  commentary  on  v. 
8,  venerable  on  account  of  its  difi'usion  in 
the  Church"  ("  Einleit."  p  36).  Vercel- 
lone,  as  Ave  shall  see  presently,  goes  uuieh 
further  than  Kaulen.  Franzelin  ("De 
DeoTrino,"Thes.  iv.  1  and  Scheeben  ("  Dog- 
matik,"  p.  757)  insist  on  tlie  necessity  of 
accepting  the  text,  because  in  any  case  it 
is  part  of  the  Vulgate  as  received  for 
many  centuries  in  the  Church.  We  reply 
that  the  council  does  not  require  us  to 
iicknowledge  as  authentic  any  text  simply 
because  received  for  many  centuries.  The 
Fathers  of  Trent  only  bid  iis  receive  the 
Vulgate  version  which  in  matter  of  fact, 
and  with  substantial  identity  of  form,  has 
been  approved  by  the  long  use  of  the 
Church.'  Besides,  Pallavicino  ("  Istoria 
del  Concil.  di  Trento,'"  vi.  17,  n.  5)  takes 
the  "long  use  of  ages"  to  mean  from  St. 
Gregory's  time;  and  we  have  good  ground 
for  thinking  that  the  text  in  question  was 
no  part  of  the  Vulgate  even  then,  for 
it  is  wanting  in  the  two  oldest  MSS. 
(Amiatiniis  and  Fuldensis),  written 
about  04.-),  and  in  Alculn's  re])uted  copies 
at  Piome  ( prima  manii),  and  at  London 
(Scrivener,  p.  o()L'). 

Next,  no  comparison  is  made  ))etween 
the  Vulgate  and  A-ersions  in  other  langua- 
ges— ('//.  the  Pesliilo — much  less  between 
tlie  Vulgate  and  1  he  m  iiiinals.  The  coun- 
cil comparer  tlie  A'nlgate  with  other  Latin 
versions,  and  pronounces  the  former  au- 
thentic. 

Thirdly,  the  Vulgate  even  in  its  purest 
form  is  not  declared  to  ))e  jierfect.  Such 
perfertidii  was,  indeed,  atti-il.iiled  ti)  It  by 
some  I'ost-Tridi'Utine  theolegian-,  but  w  as 
utterly  denied  by  many  Cathtdic  scholars 
at  tlie  time  (Ilody,  p.  oOil  seq.),  and  now 
probably  would  be  affirmed  by  nobody. 

1  The  couiK-il  rpunriied  the  version  as  tlif 
species  of  wliiuh  p.irticular  copies  were  the 
individuals,  .-irid  approved  tlie  (onner  enlv 
(Letter  of  file  Cardinal  di  S.  ('Lx-e.  apiid  Ver- 
eellonn,  p.  8.'));  and  desired  tliat  t\>r  X'uluaie 
should  be  corrected  from  the  iiiusi  .•iinieiit 
texts  (16.  p.  80).  This  settles  the  question  of 
1  John  V.  7. 


Frauzelin  sets  this  exaggerated  view- 
aside  as  little  better  than  fanatical.' 

Fourthly,  Franzelin  admits  the  law- 
fulness of  holding  that  texts  directly- 
intended  to  teach  dogmatic  truth  may 
have  been  omitted  in  the  Vulgate ;  and 
again  that  even  when  such  texts  are  given, 
considerable  alterations  may  have  been 
made  in  their  form.  For  example,  he 
grants  that  we  are  at  liberty  in  Gen.  iii. 
15  to  reject  the  Vulgate  (or  supposed 
Vulgate)  reading,  "  she  shall  crush  thy 
head,"  as  an  error,  for  "  he  shall  crush 
thy  head";  and  similarly,  that  we  may 
deny  the  cmrectness  of  the  rendering 
"  ante  luciferum"  (Ps.  cix.  3),  "fundetur" 
(I„uke  xxii.  20),  "in  quo  onines  peccave- 
runt"'(Rom.  v.  12),  "omnes  quidem  re- 
surgemus"  (1  Cor.  xv.  21). 

Here,  however,  Franzelin  (as  also 
Scheeben  and  others)  makes  two  reserva- 
tions, He  argues  that  the  decree  of 
Trent  requires  us  to  believe  that  the  Vul- 
gate is  accurate  substantially  (quoad  sub- 
staiitiinn)  in  texts  "which  are  in  them- 
selves ((>.  directly  and  in  their  primary 
intention)  testimonies  couceniiug  matters 
of  faith  and  morals."  "SVe  confess  that 
we  are  quite  unable  to  see  any  sufficient 
ground  for  this  part  of  his  thesis.  No 
such  distinction  is  made  by  the  council. 
:  It  is  not  even  hinted  at  in  the  important 
!  correspondence  on  the  sense  of  the  decree 
between  the  Papal  legates  and  the  Cou- 
j  gregation  at  Rome,  printed  by  Vercellone 
('•' Dissertaz."  p.  79  «<•(/.).  "We  can  find  no 
trace  of  it  in  the  elaborate  collection  of 
Catholic  theological  opinions  in  Ilody  :  ' 
while  Vercellones  opinion  is  supported  by 
Vega  and  Didacus,  both  of  whom  were  at 
1  he  council,  as  well  as  by  Ruggerius  and 
Natalis  Alexander  (Ilody,  pp.  511,520, 
522.  545).  The  distinction  which  allows 
us  to  reject  such  a  reading  as,  e.g.,  "  She 
shall  bruise  thy  head,"  and  binds  us 
to  accept  such  a  verse  as,  e.g.  "  This 
kind  geeth  not  forth  save  by  prayer  and 
fasting"  (Mark  ix.  2!'),  is  surely  a  very 
sulitle  one.  To  determine  what  texts  are 
directly  and  primarily  dogmatic,  and  then 

1  lie  show..  (De  Tnulit.  tt  Scri/j*.  p.  :  01) 
thai  a  decree  of  the  Ceii^'re-ation  of  tli-  Coun- 
cil (.Ian.  17,  l.")7ii'),  Avhicli  misled  many  theo- 
Iduians.  is  of  no  authi-rity. 

-  J  r.  none  of  the  theolot;i;ins  make  Fran- 
zi'lin's  di-tinction  bet-\veen  the  sulistance  of  a 
do-matie  text  and  the  moile  of  its  jirestntation. 
llddy  divi.les  Cath.)lic  theolooians  into  two 
cla-scs  :  (1)  those  whn  "  contend  for  the  trans- 
lation auainst  tlic  oriuiu.-il"  ;  (■>)  those  who 
liiiM  that  the  A'nl;iate  -was  declared  authentic 
"(piia  uulluni  eimtinet  iu  tide  et  nioiiUus  per- 
liiuiosuui  enorem    Qip.  510,  511). 


VULGATE 
what  changes  will  affect  onlv  the  mode  in 


■nhicli  the  doctrine 


ireseuted,  leaves 


immense   scope   for   pnvate  judgment. 
Had  the  council  meant  to  limit  criticism,  ; 
it  would  surely  have  expressed  itself  more  ; 
clearly.    Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  certain  ! 
that  the  question  is  an  open  one.    Vercel-  ' 
lone,  who  was  probably  the  greatest  of  ' 
all  authorities  on  the  Vulgate,  published  I 
his  treatise  "On  the  Autlienticitv  of  the 
Single  Parts  of  the  Vuk'ate  Bible  "('•Sulla 
Autenticita  delle  Singole  Parti  della  Bib-  | 
tia  Volgata")  at  Rome  in  18ii6.  This 
dissertation  appeared  with  the  imprimatur  j 
of  the  Master  of  the  Sacied  Palace,  and  ; 
in  no  way  lessened  the  high  reputation  of  I 
its  author.     He  holds  that  there  may  be  ' 
an  error  of  translation  even  in  passages 
■which  the  Fathers  and  the  Church  hei-self  ; 
have  regarded  as  dogmatic,  and  he  rejects 
by  anticipation  the  whole  of  Franzelins 
distinction.    Besides  the  reasons  given, 
he  urges  that  it  would  need  a  series  of 
miracles  to  preserve  a  text  pure  in  the 
hai  ds  of  copyists  from  all  ermr  in  dog- 
matic texts,  and  the  very  same  reasons 
■which  plead  for  an  immaculate  translation 
also  plead  for  a  perfect  preservation  of  the 
text :  he  points  out  that  we  have  no 
right  to  expect  such  a  miracle,  since  the 
rersions   received  for  centuries   in  the 
East  and  West  contain  many  variations 
in  passages  considered  to  be  dogmatic,  with 
80me  faults  of  omission  and  addition ; 
while  all  theologians  admit  that  councils 
may  err  in  the  texts  they  allege  in  proof 
of  their  definitions,  although  the  defini- 
tions themselves  are  exempt  from  error. 

Franzelin's  second  reservation  concerns  | 
sections  like  Mark  xvi  9-20;  John  vii. 
6.S-viii.  11 ;  John  v.  4.    Many  Protestant 
critics  have  rejected  them  as  interpola- 
tions, but  Franzelin  is  of*  opinion  that 
they  must  be  accepted  by  Catholics  on 
the  authority  of  the  council  which  sets 
its  seal  to  the  books  of  the  Bible,  as  con- 
tained in  tlie  Vulgate,  "witli  all  their 
parts."    The  judgment  of  Vercellone  is 
diametrically  opposite.    He  believes  that 
the  ■words  "  cum  omnibus  suis  partibus  "  ! 
refer  simply  "to  those  deuterocanonical  | 
portions  which  were  disputed  by  tlae  j 
heretics  of  that  age,  such  as  the  additions  , 
to   Daniel  and   Esther."      If  criticism 
Bho^wed  such  sections  as  Mark  xvi.  9-20 
&c.,  to  be  apocryphal  he  "  would  have  no 
difficulty  in  accepting  its  conclusions,"  and 
"would  not  believe  them  contrary  to  the 
decree  of  Trent  "(p.  46). 

"What,  then,  is  the  meaning  of  the 
council?     It  teaches  that  the  Vulgate 


VrLGATE  !i4S 

contains  nothing  contrary  to  true  faith 
and  sound  morals.  This  was  the  great 
point  present  to  the  mind  of  the  Fathers. 
They  were  unvrilling,  the  legates  write, 
to  abstain  from  a  formal  approval  of  the 
Vulgate,  "  which  was  never  suspected  of 
heresy,  that  being  the  chief  thing  in  the 
.sac-red  books''  (Vercellone,  loc.  cit.  p.  16). 
But  this  is  not  all.  The  Vulgate  is 
'•authentic":  in  other  words,  the  council 
assures  us  that  the  books  in  that  version 
"  are  in  substance  entire  and  incorrupt, 
and  therefore  to  be  received  by  us  as 
divine "  {ih.  p.  37).  We  may  admit 
in  the  Vuloate  all  defects  which  may 
exist  "  in  any  book  whatever  without 
destroying  its  substantial  integrity "  (p. 
3G).  To  be  more  precise:  the  Church 
has  never  in  any  age  or  in  any  place  mis- 
taken a  counterfeit  for  the  written  Word 
of  God.  "  Therefore,  all  those  innu- 
merable variations  which  occur  between 
the  modern  Latin  Vulgate  and  th»  old 
Latin  version  lawfully  employed  for  so 
many  centuries  in  the  Western  Church 
do  not  destroy  the  substantial  integrity 
of  the  Bible.  Xor  is  this  integrity  de- 
stroyed by  all  those  variations  which  are 
found  if  we  confront  our  copies  of  the 
modern  Vulgate  with  the  ancient  copie* 
of  the  Greek  Church,  or  with  those  of 
the  Syrians.  Anuenians.  Copts,  or  other 
Catholics  in  any  part  of  the  Church.  .  .  . 
From  a  theolosieal  point  of  vi^w  (dnfi- 
maticammte),SL\\  the  versions  employed  by 
lawful  authority  in  the  Church  are  equal  " 
(p.  -S.'^").  If  we  take  the  decree  in  this,  as 
we  believe,  its  true  sense,  no  defence  of  it 
is  .«o  much  as  needed.  A  Catholic  is  not 
at  liberty  to  say  with  Caldn  (Hody,  p. 
.^.51)  that  there  are  scarcely  three  verses 
in  the  Vulgate  without  some  striking 
blunder,  but  a  statement  of  this  kind  is 
contrary  to  sober  criticism  as  well  as  to 
the  Tridentine  decree.  •'  An  authorised 
edition,"  says  Westcott  (p.  170-5),  "be- 
came a  necessity  for  the  Roman  Church, 
and  however  gravely  later  theologians 
may  have  erred  in  explaining  the  policy 
or  intentions  of  the  Tridentine  Fathers  on 
this  point,  tliere  can  be  no  doubt  that  .  .  . 
the  principle  of  their  decision — the  prefer- 
ence, tliat  is.  of  the  oldest  Latin  text  to 
any  later  I^at  in  version — was  substantially 
right."    (See  also  .-^crivener,  p.  311.) 

Little  need  be  said  on  the  public  use 
of  the  Vulgate,  which  is  of  course  a  mere 
matter  of  discipline.  Catholic  scholars 
may,  and  ort»'n  do,  translate  from  the 
original,  and  Vercellonehasmade  valuable 
collections  of  various  readiness  in  the  \'ul- 


944  VULGATE 


WAR 


gate  text.  But  it  is  not  lawi'ul  to  use  any 
except  the  Clementine  edition  in  church, 
or  to  print  any  other  text  of  the  Vulgate, 
or  even  to  insert  various  readings  in  the 
margin  (Preface  to  the  Clementine  edition, 
ad  Jin.) :  though  there  is  no  objection  to 
placing  them  at  the  foot  of  the  page. 
(The  chief  authorities  have  been  named 


in  the  course  of  the  article,  except  Vaa 
Ess,  "  Pragmatisch-kritische  Geschichte 
der  Vulgata,"  Tiibingen,  1824 ;  Brunati^ 
"  De  Xomine,  Auctore,  Emendatoribus 
et  Autbentia  Vulgatae,"  Vienna,  1837. 
General  readers  will  find  the  best  account 
of  the  Vulgate  in  Mr.  Law's  treatise  quoted 
above.) 


w 


WAR.    The  resort  to  force  on  the 

part  of  two  or  more  nations  which  cannot 
s<>ttle  their  difference  by  peaceful  methods. 
The  word  "  nation "  implies  that  war 
must  be  carried  on  by  the  people  of  a 
country  regarded  as  a  whole,  and  repre- 
sented by  its  Government,  not  by  any 
sprtion  of  the  population  acting  for  itself. 
'J  liat  c mcentrated  and  organised  force  of 
political  society  which  is  behind  the 
tribunal  of  the  magistrate,  and  executes 
the  sentence  of  the  j  udjre,  in  war  is  turned 
outward,  and  applied  to  the  overcoming 
of  the  corresponding  force  exerted  by  the 
hostile  nation. 

There  have  been  sects,  notably  the 
Quakers,  which  have  denied  altogether 
the  lawfulness  of  war,  partly  because  they 
believed  it  to  be  prohibited  by  Christ 
(Matt.  V.  .39,  &c.),  partly  on  humanitarian 
grounds.  On  the  Scriptural  ground  they 
are  easily  refuted  ;  the  case  of  the  soldiers 
instructed  in  their  duties  by  St.  John  the 
Baptist,  and  that  of  the  military  men 
whom  Christ  and  his  Apostles  loved  and 
familiarly  cnnver.sed  with,  without  a  word 
to  imply  that  their  calling  was  unlawful, 
suttic  itMitly  prove  the  point.  They  are  on 
strnnger  uTOund  when  they  point  to  the 
frightful  evils  of  every  kind  which  war 
unchains  upon  a  community,  and  the  more 
so  in  proportion  to  its  civilisation ;  and 
when  they  urge  that  war  should  be  put 
an  end  to  by  a  general  agreement  among 
nations  to  resort  to  arbitration,  it  is  im- 
possible not  to  go  a  long  way  with  them. 
There  have  been,  however,  and  there 
probably  will  be  again,  many  disputes 
between  nations  which  they  would  under 
no  circumstances  submit  to  arbitration ; 
and  in  these  cases,  if  negotiation  has 
failed,  and  there  be,  on  one  side  or  on 
both,  great  exasperation,  war  must  in- 
evitably ensue.  But  the  voice  of  morality, 
enlightened  by  religion,  is  not  thereby 
silenced ;  it  claims  to  define,  both  what 


wars  may  be  justly  undertaken,  and  how 

they  should  be  conducted.  On  these  sub- 
jects there  is  a  tolerably  general  consensus 
of  opinion  as  to  a  number  of  important 
points  among  theologians,  canonists,  and. 
publicists. 

(d)  The  question  what  wars  are  just 
resolves  itself  into  two  inquiries — what  is- 
just  for  the  State,  and  what  is  just  for 
the  individual.  A  State  may  justly 
declare  war  in  order  to  recover  territory 
of  which  it  has  been  unjustly  deprived, 
or  to  reassert  its  authority  over  subjects- 
who  have  declared  themselves  inde- 
pendent, or  to  punish  gross  and  wanton 
insults  to  its  citizens  while  invested  with 
a  public  capacity,  and  for  several  other 
causes.  The  canonists  hold  that  a  State 
may  lawfully  make  war  upon  a  heretic- 
people,  which  is  actively  spreading  heresy, 
and  stirring  up  dissension  and  rebellion 
within  its  own  subject  provinces ;  or  upon 
a  pagan  people,  which  prevents  the- 
preaching  of  the  Gospel,  and  refuses  free 
passage  to  missioners  who  desire  to  carry 
the  liirht  of  faith  to  countries  beyond. 
When  the  justice  of  a  war  is  doubtful, 
Grotius  ("  De  Jure  Belli  et  Pacis,"  c.  23,. 
cited  in  Ferraris)  urges  that,  considering 
the  evils  which  war  entails,  particularly 
upon  innocent  persons,  Governments- 
ought  to  prefer  to  remain  at  peace ;  and 
this  is  probably  now  the  general  opinion. 
It  is  no  just  cause  of  war  that  a  State 
desires  to  rule  over  its  neighbour,  or  to 
enlarge  its  dominions,  or  add  to  its  wealth 
or  power,  or  to  preserve  a  certain  balance 
of  force  and  prevent  another  nation  from 
becoming  dangerously  powerful,  unless  the 
aggrandisement  feared  tend  manifestly 
and  indisputably  to  the  subjugation  of 
other  nations. 

The  subjects  and  citizens  of  a  Govern- 
ment declaring  war  are  safe  in  obeying  it,, 
and  taking  up  arms  in  its  behalf,  unless 
they  are  certain  that  its  cause  is  unjust- 


"^ASHTXG  OF  FEET 


945 


"In  doubtful  matters  we  ought  alwap  I 
to  obey,  .  .  .  because,  though  the  rider  ' 
mav  sin  in  commanding,  the  subject  does  | 
not  sin  in  obeyir,;.' "  (Glossa  on  St.  | 
Augustine,  quoted  by  Ferraris).    But  a  ! 
foreign  auxiliary,  enlistinar  himself  volun- 
tarily in  the  service  of  a  ration  at  war,  is 
bound  to  -atisfy  himself  beforehand  that 
its  cause  is  just.    If  a  soldier  is  c*^rtain 
that  the  cause  in  which  his  Government 
is  fighting  is  unjust,  he  ought  to  obtain 
his  discharcre  as  soon  as  he  can,  and  in 
the  meantime  to  abstain,  so  far  as  possible, 
£rom  acts  of  hostilitv. 

(3)  As  to  the  f72/77i 72/*r  of  conducting 
war,  opinion  formerly  tended  to  harsher 
conclusions  than  those  now  commonly 
received.  All  movable  property  used  to 
"be  looked  upon  as  the  lawful  spoil  of  the 
soldiers  of  an  invading  force.  "  Quae  ab 
hostibus  capimus,  jure  gentium  statim 
nostra  Sunt  " — "  The  thimrs  which  we 
take  from  our  enemies,  by  the  law  of 
nations  immediately  become  our  own"  j 
(Ferraris,  art.  iii.  §  34).  Animals  used 
for  ploughing,  and  seed  com,  were  ex-  ! 
cepted  from  this  right  of  spoil  enjoyed  by 
conquerors.  At  the  present  day,  among 
civilised  nations,  private  property  on  land 
is  held  to  be  exempt  from  spoliation  in 
time  of  war.  The  invading  general  ; 
requisitions  the  authorities  of  the  towns 
and  villages  which  he  '-'ccupies  for  such 
supplies  as  he  may  require,  with  or  with- 
out payment :  and ,  if  these  requisitions 
be  complied  with,  it  is  held  to  be  his  duty 
to  restrain  hLs  soldiers  from  every  species 
of  plunder.  Private  priperty  at  sea  is 
still  subject  to  be  seized,  and  converted 
to  the  use  of  the  captors.  [ 

The  duties  of  a  soldier  in  war  towards  | 
the  State  which  he  serves  and  the  general 
who  commands  him  comprehend  faithful  [ 
service,  courage,  and  prompt  obedience,  i 
Hence  desertion,  cowaitiice,  and  breaches  j 
of  discipline,  are  in  a  soldier  grievous  sins. 

Ambush,  stratagem,  and  deceit  are  ! 
lawful  in  time  of  war,  for  those  whose 
lives  are  in  continual  peril  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  abstain  from  any  practice  against  I 
their  enemies  which  mL'-ht  tend  to  lessen  i 
that  peril.   In  practice,  the  resort  to  such  : 
means  is  limited  in  some  degree  by  the 
code  of  military  honour.    The  use  of 
poisoned  weapons  and  explosive  bullets  is  I 
^neraily  condemned,  as  causing  a  great 
increase  of  suffering  to  those  wounded  by 
them,  without  any  corrt? pjnding  mDitary 
advantage.    CFerraris.  Be/lum.) 

WA.SHXI7G  or  FEET.    'See  HoLT 


WASHIN-C  OF  HAirOS  BEFORE 

AFTER  MASS.  A  rubric  of  the 
Roman  Missal  directs  the  celebrating 
priest  to  wash  his  hands  in  the  -.icristy 
before  he  puts  on  his  vestments.  The 
Jewish  priests  used  to  wash  their  hands 
and  feet  before  thev  otEeiated  at  the  altar 
(Ex.  XXX.  18-21:  •}  Paralip.  iv.  2,  6"),  and 
in  such  passages  as  Ps.  xxvi.  6,  and  Lsxiii. 
13,  there  is  an  allusion  to  the  ethical 
meaning  of  this  rite.  The  early  Christians 
adopted  a  similar  usage ;  only  with  them 
the  preliminary  lustration  before  prayer 
was  common  to  all  the  laity.  Many  of 
the  Fathers  testify  to  the  prevalence  of 
this  custom.  (See,  e.g  ,  Eu>eb  "  H.E.'' 
X.  4  ;  Chrysost.  Hom.  iii.  "  In  Epl~t.  ad 
Ephes.":  and  Cfesar.  Serm.  51,  numbered 
229  in  Appendix  iv.  to  St.  Augustine.) 
In  later  times  this  preliminary  ablution 
was  prescribed  for  priests  only.  It  is  also 
usual  for  priests  to  wash  their  fingers  in 
the  sacristy  after  Mass  when  they  have 
j  taken  off  their  vestments. 

Quite  distinct  from  either  of  these 
!  washings  is  the  washing  of  the  priest's 
hands  after  the  offertory,  and  again  after 
Communion.     (For  these  see  Lavabo  ; 

ABLmOy;  PuTirETCATIOJr.) 

wazTE    FRZARS.     [See  Cas- 

WHITE  CARMSis'T.   [See  Bap- 

nSM.  a:.d  Low  SorDAT._ 

WHiT-STrwDAT.'   The  common 

'  name  in  Eni-Iand  for  Pentecost.  Mr. 
Skeat  ("  Etymological  Dictionary,"  fub 
roc.)  shows  that  the  derivation  is  plain 
and  certain.  It  descends  from  the  Anglo- 
.Saxon  "hwita  Sunnandaeg,"  and  means 
[  "  White  Sunday."  It  is  more  difficult  to 
I  say  why  the  name  was  given,  but  probably 
the  author  just  quoted  is  right  in  his 
suirgestion  that  it  refers  to  the  white  robe 
of  baptism.  Easter  and  Pentecost  were 
for  many  ages  the  times  at  which  baptism 
was  administered,  and  in  cold  climates, 
like  our  own,  Pentec':'st  would  be  pre- 
ferred to  Easter  for  the  reception  of  bap- 
tism, which,  in  those  days,  was  given  by 
immer.-i)n.  If  this  explanation  is  correct, 
our  name  for  Pentecost  would  resemble 
the  Latin  title  for  Low  Sunday,  viz. 
"Dominica  in  Albis." 

WZJiX.  The  ancient  definition  of  a 
will  or  testament  by  the  Roman  jurists 
was  "  the  lawfid  sentence  of  our  will  con- 
cerning that  which  a  person  wishes  to  be 
done  after  his  death."  Many  writers  hold 
that  the  wurds  •'  with  the  institution  ot 
an  heir"  should  be  added  to  tlie  definition, 
because  such  institution  is  "of  thf  essence 
S  r 


946 


WILL 


WILL 


of  the  testament"  (Ferraris).  The  business 
of  will-making,  in  England  at  least,  is 
now  regulated  in  all  its  parts  by  the 
statute-law  ;  and  those  desiring  informa- 
tion respecting  it  can  tiud  what  they  seek 
in  the  ordinary  law-books,  or,  which  is 
the  safer  course,  obtain  it  from  their 
lawyer.  All  that  will  be  here  attempted 
is  (1)  to  point  out  some  special  circum- 
stances about  the  wills  of  Christians 
which  the  history  of  primitive  times 
brings  to  our  knowledge  ;  (2)  to  advert 
generally  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
subject  was  regarded  in  the  middle  ages  ; 
(3)  to  specify  some  of  the  principal 
features  of  the  modern  canon  law  in 
regard  to  testamentary  disposition. 

(1)  After  the  conversion  of  Constan- 
tine  the  imperial  law  (Ood.  Theod.  16, 
2,  4)  sanctioned  and  facilitated  the  be- 
quest of  property  of  all  kinds  to  the 
Church.  Such  property  became  the  patri- 
mony of  the  Church  and  the  poor,  and 
could  not  thereafter  be  the  subject  of  a 
will,  except  so  far  as  a  man  might  desire, 
and  be  entitled,  to  point  out  its  future 
dispensers.'  Clerics,  therefore,  of  all 
gnides,  could  not  dispose  by  will  of  any 
property,  movable  or  immovable,  which 
they  had  become  possessed  of  in  virtue 
of  tlieii-  office.  Justinian,  in  the  Code, 
allmved  bishops  to  bequeath  property 
which  they  pos.ses.sed  before,  or  which 
they  had  inherited  since,  their  con,secra- 
tion ;  everything  else  they  could  only 
leave  to  the  Church.  This  law  was  en- 
forced by  Gregory  the  Great  in  several 
remarkable  instances.  Justinian,  also, 
while  allowing  .secular  priests  to  make 
wills  (Xov.  70,  1),  withheld  the  right 
altngotlier  from  monks.  The  power  of 
testuinentary  disposition  was  frequently 
talcen  from  and  lestored  to  heretics  in 
the  imperial  legislation.  A  constitution 
of  Valentiiiian  (370)  forbade  women  to 
bequeath  property  to  ecclesiastical  persons. 

A  remarkable  anecdote  is  told  by 
Possidius  of  St.  Augustine.  A  certain 
Jauuarius,  who  had  joined  the  congrega- 
tion of  clerks  which  the  saint  had  insti- 
tuted in  his  house  at  Hippo,  bequeathed 
his  money  to  the  Churcli,  disinheriting 
his  two  cliildren.  St.  Augustine  refused 
the  bi'cjnest  :  tirst,  because  his  religious 
bad  t  i  iiiJunciMl  the  power  of  willing  when 
they  joiiH  il  tlie  congregation;  secondly, 
because  of  f  he  wrong  done  to  the  children. 
He  sent  for  the  heirs,  and  arranged  for 
the  division  of  the  money  between  them. 
Satyrus  left  all  his  property  to  his  brother, 

'  Thomassin,  Vet.  et  Nova  Disc.  in.  2,  38. 


St  Ambrose,  with  a  verbal  request  that 
he  would  give  to  the  poor  as  much  of  it 
as  he  thought  right.  St.  Ambrose  gave  it 
all  to  the  poor.  The  saint  made  no  will, 
having  stripped  himself  of  everything  at 
the  time  of  his  ordination,  when  he  made 
over  his  lauds  to  the  Church,  reserving 
the  usufruct,  or  annual  profits  of  them, 
to  his  sister  for  her  life. 

(2)  During  the  middle  ages,  the  prac- 
tice of  devising  land  and  other  property 
for  religious  purposes  {ad  pias  causas) 
was  still  largely  resorted  to.  In  countries 
where  the  society  was  feudal,  the  kings 
and  superior  lords,  finding  that  the  accu- 
mulation of  lauds  held  by  the  Church 
deprived  them  of  various  incidental  ad- 
vantages (such  as  reliefs,  wardships,  and 
escheats)  which  they  derived  from  the 
same  lands  while  in  lay  tenure,  com- 
menced to  legislate  against  such  accumu- 
lation, whether  effected  by  grant  or  will. 
Hence  arose  the  laws  of  Mortmain,  for- 
bidding any  further  convej^ance  of  lands 
to  the  Church.  These  laws,  however,  in 
England,  could  be  evaded  by  means  of  a 
Licence  in  Mortmain  granted  by  the 
Crown.  A  practice  also  arose  of  be- 
queathing lands  to  certain  persons  as  the 
legal  owners,  to  the  use  of  certain  othtn- 
persons — a  religious  community',  for  in- 
stance ;  and,  in  these  cases,  the  Court  of 
Chancery  regarded  the  beneficial  owner- 
ship as  belonging  to  those  to  whom  the 
use  was  devised.  This  practice — long 
before  uses  were  turned  into  possession — 
was  prevented  from  being  of  any  benefit 
to  the  Church  by  the  statute  of  1392, 
which  enacted  that  uses  should  be  subject 
to  the  statutes  of  Mortmain,  and  liable 
to  be  forfeited  on  any  infringement 
thereof,  equally  with  the  lands  them- 
I  selves.'  Licences  in  Mortmain  ceased  to 
'  be  given  after  the  Reformation,  and  the 
statute  of  23  Henry  VIII.  (1532)  de- 
clared that  all  grants  of  lands,  on  trust 
for  parish  churches  or  other  institutions 
"  erected  and  made  of  devotion,"  if  for 
more  than  twenty  years,  should  be 
deemed  null  and  void.  This  statute  was 
held  to  cut  off  grants  to  sujierstHious 
uses  ;  those  to  charitable  uses  were  still 
valid.  But  the  Mortmain  Act  of  17;i6 
(9  George  II.  c.  36)  enacted  that  any 
grant  to  a  charitable  use  should  be  by  a 
deed  executed  at  least  twelve  months 
before  the  donor's  death,  enrolled  in  the 
Court  of  Chancery  within  six  liionths 
after  execution,  and  taking  effect  imme- 
diately upon  enrolment. 

•  Stephen's  Commentaries,  Purt  I.  ch.  xv. 


WITCHCTAFT,  WITCH  047 


(3)  With  regard  to  wills  in  moclom 
times,  the  general  rale  has  heen  (Ferniris, 
Test^  art.  i.  §  40)  to  follow  the  pre- 
scriptions of  the  civil  law,  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal no  less  than  in  secular  courts,  in  all 
countries  belonging  to  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire;  in  countries  subject  to  the  Roman 
Pontiff,  the  canon  law  was  followed.  The 
civil  law  requires  that  a  will  be  attested 
by  seVen  witnesses,  all  males.  If  the 
testator  is  unable  to  sign  it,  an  eighth 
witness  is  required,  who  signs  in  his  name. 
The  canon  law  only  requires  attestation 
by  two  good  witnesses  {idonei  testes)  and 
the  parish  priest.  In  the  absence  of  the 
parish  priest,  there  must  be  four  witnesses. 
According  to  the  rigour  of  the  law,  clerks 
without  the  consent  of  the  bishops,  and 
religious  without  the  consent  of  their 
superior,  cannot  witness  wills.  But  cus- 
tom has  sanctioned  their  acting  without 
consent,  and  they  frequently  do  so. 

If  execvited  without  the  required  form- 
alities, and  not  afterwards  validated  in 
one  of  the  ways  pointed  out  by  the  im- 
perial legislation,  a  will  ad  causas  pro- 
fanas,  according  both  to  the  civil  and  the 
canon  law,  is  null ;  and  a  celebrated 
question  has  arisen,  whether,  if  the  in- 
tention of  the  testator  be  clear,  the  nullity 
of  the  will  for  want  of  form  should  be 
extended  to  the  forum  conscientim  &&  well 
as  the  foru7n  e.rternum.  Much  has  been 
written  on  both  sides  ;  an  abstract  of  the 
argimientsmay  be  seen  in  Fei-raris  (art.  i. 
44-57). 

Privileged  wills  (testamenta  privile- 
giata)  are  those  which  are  held  in  canon 
law  to  be  valid  although  the  forms  re- 
quired by  the  civil  law  have  not  been 
complied  with.  Such  are  those  ad  pias 
causas,  those  of  soldiers  made  on  a  cam- 
paign, those  of  peasants,  &c.  A  testament 
turn  ad  pias  causas  is  a  will  in  which  a 
religious  purpose  or  destination  is  sub- 
stituted for  the  heir — such  as  the  support 
of  a  church  or  convent,  an  a-mshouse,  a 
school,  &c.  This  is  held  to  be  valid,  even 
without  witnesses,  if  written  and  signed 
in  the  known  hand  of  the  testator ;  other- 
wise, it  requires  two  witnesses. 

Anyone  can  make  a  will  who  is  not 
prohibited  by  natural  or  positive  law. 
Persons  so  disqualified,  are — infants  under 
seven  years,  madmen  (although  a  will 
made  in  a  lucid  interval  is  valid),  idiots, 
spendthrifts  interdicted  by  the  courts, 
slaves,  captives,  convicts,  suicides,  &c. 
This  is  merely  a  general  statement ;  ex- 
ceptional circumstances  occur  in  the  case 
of  most  of  the  classes  enumerated  above, 


I  under  which  a  will  can  be  validly  made. 

I  Professed  regulars  cannot  make  a  will, 

!  because  they  cannot,  as  individuals,  own 
property  [Pkofession,  Rel.]  ;  neverthe- 
less they  can  interpret  and  declare  a 
testamentary  disposition  made  previously 
to  profession.  Secular  clerks  of  all  grades 
can  devise  their  patrimonial  and  quasi- 
patrimonial,  or  individual,  property,  as 
freely  as  laymen.* 

All  regulars  (except  Franciscans)  can, 
with  the  licence  of  their  superior,  act  as 
testamentary  executors.  Even  if  they 
have  not  such  licence,  their  executorial 
acts,  though  not  licit,  are  valid.  They 
are  bound  to  render  an  account  of  their 
administration   to   the   bishop   of  th& 

I  diocese. 

i  A  wiU  is  said  to  be  "  ambulatory," 
and  can  at  any  time  be  revoked  or 
changed  down  to  the  last  day  of  Hfe. 

(Ferraris,  Testa mentum;  Soglia,  lib. 
iii.  §50;  Smith  and  Cheetham;  Stephen's 
"Commentaries,"  18H8.) 

"WITCHCRAFT,  WITCH  (Anglo- 
Saxon,  wiccancraft ,  tcicce ;  probably  con- 
nected with  Old  High  German  icihan, 
German  weihen).  Witchcraft  has  been 
defined  (Bergier,  "  Diet.  Th6ol.")  as  "  the 
art  of  doing  things  wonderful,  and  ap- 
parently supernatural,  without  the  inter- 
vention of  God."  Perhaps  a  more  exact 
definition  would  be  "  a  power,  real  or 
supposed,  of  producing,  in  concert  with 
an  evil  spirit,  eflects  beyond  the  reach  of 
natural  means  and  operations." 

Those  who  deny  the  existence  of  evil 
spirits,  and  maintain  that  all  the  cases  of 
demoniacal  possession  mentioned  in  the 
Bible  and  recorded  elsewhere  are  merely 
cases  of  disease,  are  of  course  still  less 
inclined  to  admit  the  reality  of  witch- 
craft. Imagination,  morbid  fancy,  terror 
of  the  unknown,  private  spite,  Iniavery,. 
credulity,  and  hallucination,  sufficiently 
account,  in  their  eyes,  for  all  of  which 
witches  have  ever  been  accused,  or  have 
accused  themselves.  The  former  opinion 
— namely,  that  any  commerce  between 
human  beings  and  evil  spirits  is  imaginary 
and  impossible — is  repugnant  to  Scripture 
and  the,  at  least  implicit,  teaching  of  the 
Church,  and  cannot  be  held  by  Catholics. 
But  it  does  not  follow  that  because  we 
believe  that  obsession  is  a  fact,  and  that 
human  beings  can  and  do  come  under  the 
influence  of  evil  spirits,  we  should  there- 
I  fore  admit  the  reality  of  any  such  leagues 
j  or  compacts  with  the  devil  as  the  records 
of  witchcraft  assume.  Perrone,  indeed,, 
1  Ferraris,  art.  iii.  20. 

3p2 


943    WITCHCRAPT,  ^TTCH 


WirCHCRAFT,  WITCH 


describes  as  "rash"  the  denial  of  the 
common  opinion  that  dealings  and  com- 
pacts with  the  devil  actually  take  place.' 
But  other  Catholic  theologians  (see  the 
article  Mngie  in  Wetzer  and  Welte)  take 
a  difi'erent  view,  and  argue  that,  just  as 
the  belief  in  the  Sabbaths  or  nightly 
meetings  of  the  witches,  though  once 
universally  held,  has  been  so  dissipated 
by  reflection  and  experience  that  Perrone 
himself  does  not  admit  it,  so  the  tendency 
•of  sound  opinion  is  to  the  extirpation  of 
the  view  that  the  phenomena  of  witch- 
craft imply,  or  ever  implied,  an  actual 
diabolic  compact. 

AVithout  troubling  ourselves  with  the 
eaga  and  lamieB  of  Roman  antiquity,  let 
us  consider  the  popular  notions  about 
witches  and  their  power  which  prevailed 
in  Europe  till  quite  recent  times,  and  still 
areharboured  in  many  weak  and  ill-taught 
minds.  It  used  to  be  believed  that  witches 
were  of  three  kinds — black,  white,  and 
grey :  the  first  could  only  hurt ;  the 
second  only  help ;  the  third  could  both 
help  and  hurt.  Their  power  came  to 
them  in  virtue  of  a  compact  with  the 
devil,  by  which  they  bartered  their  souls 
for  some  earthly  object  of  desire.  The 
witch  was  thought  to  be  usually  "  a  de- 
crepit, superannuated  old  woman,  who  is 
tempted  by  a  man  in  black  to  sign  a  con- 
tract to  become  his,  both  soul  and  body." 
He  gives  her  a  piece  of  money,  and  she 
delivers  to  him  a  slip  of  parchment,  on 
which  her  name  is  signed  with  her  blood. 
An  imp  or  familiar,  often  La  the  form  of 
a  cat,  is  given  to  her,  and  the  bargain  is 
concluded.  From  this  time  the  witch 
bore  the  devil's  mark  on  some  part  of  her 
body.^  Whether  the  witch  were  the 
devil's  instrument,  or  the  devil  hers,  was 
a  point  not  quite  settled ;  but  in  either 
case  she  deserved  tu  be  burned. 

Reginald  Scot,  who  lived  at  a  time 
when  there  were  as  many  as  seventeen  or 
eighteen  reputed  witches  in  many  an 
English  village,  da'scribes  the  way  in 
which  the  chsiracter  of  witch  came  to  be 
assigned  to  a  woman.  A  morose  old 
woman,  who  has  lost  her  children  and 
friends,  lives  alone  in  a  hut ;  she  begs 
»  Prmlectiones,  iv.  60. 

*  Margaret  Flower,  executed  at  Lincoln  in 
1618  for  bewitching  Lord  Rosse,  son  of  the  Earl 
of  Rutland,  and  other  persons,  confessed  that 
she  had  two  familiar  spirits  sucking  on  her — the 
one  white,  the  other  black  spotted.  When  she 
first  entertained  them  she  promised  them  her 
soul,  and  they  covenanted  to  do  all  things 
which  she  commanded  them  (Brand,  Popular 
Antiquities,  ii.  387). 


food  and  other  things  of  her  neighbours ; 
sometimes  she  meets  with  a  refusal,  re- 
senting which  she  uses  bad  language,  and 
wishes  some  harm  may  come  to  the 
refuser.  After  a  time,  some  altercation 
of  this  kind  has  taken  place  between  her 
and  many  families  in  the  parish.  To 
some  members  of  these,  mishaps  are  sure 
to  happen — sudden  seizures  of  illness, 
murrain  among  the  cattle,  failure  of 
crops,  &c.  The  cause  is  uninown;  one 
must  therefore  be  invented;  the  curses 
of  the  old  woman  are  remembered,  and 
the  whole  thing  is  clear — she  has  be- 
J  witched  them.  Even  the  doctors,  says 
j  Scot,  if  they  find  a  case  defy  their  art, 
often  encourage  the  superstitious  belief, 
I  for  insdticB  pallium  venefi<-ium  et  incan- 
tatio  {"  witchcraft  and  enchantment  are 
the  cloak  of  ignorance  "). 

True  religion  supports  the  mind  under 
misfortune,  ascribing  every  event  to  the 
will  or  the  permission  of  God,  who  does 
nothing  except  in  love.  But  when  the 
Christianity  professed  is  but  skin  deep, 
and  temporal  gain  or  loss  is  the  engrossing 
object  of  our  hope  or  fear,  an  ignorant 
age  resorts  to  witchcraft,  whether  to 
explain  ill-luck,  or  to  find  a  short  cut  to 
prosperity.  "If  any  adversitie,  greefe, 
sicknesse,  losse  of  children,  come,  catteU, 
or  libertie,  happen  unto  them,  by  and  by 
they  exclaime  upon  witches."  So  writes 
Reginald  Scot,  and  illustrates  what  he 
says  by  relating  what  had  happened 
within  his  own  knowledge.  The  Rev.  J. 
FerraU,  vicar  of  Brenchley  in  Kent, 
charged  Margaret  Symons,  one  of  his 
parishioners,  with  having  bewitched  his 
son,  and  caused  him  to  fall  seriously  ill. 
The  woman's  dog  had  barked  at  the  boy 
as  he  was  passing  her  house  ;  about  this  a 
quarrel  had  arisen,  and  angry  words  been 
exchanged.  When  his  son,  soon  after- 
wards, fell  iU,  the  reverend  gentleman, 
confirmed  in  hit  opinion  by  the  other  icitches 
living  in  the  village,  thought  Margaret 
Symons  must  have  cast  a  spell  upon  him. 
The  words  printed  in  italics  illustrate  a 
fact  which  witch-trials  abundantly  teach 
— viz.  that  the  belief  in  witchcraft  tends 
to  establish  and  extend  itself  in  proportion 
to  the  number  of  the  reputed  vntches. 
The  boy  was  said  to  have  been  cured  of 
his  illness  by  another  Brenchley  witch ! 
and  Margaret  Symons,  we  may  hope, 
escaped. 

As  by  degrees  the  theory  of  witch- 
craft, arranging  itself  round  two  principal 
points — the  league  with  the  devil  and  the 
nightly  meetings  or  Sabbaths — became 


WITCHCRAFT,  WITCH 

more  definite,  the  catalogue  of  mischiefs, 
rogueries,  and  portentous  events  of  all 
kinds,  which  the  witches  were  believed 
capable  of  causing,  was  continually  on 
the  increase.  If  a  German  jurisconsult, 
in  a  "  dissertatio  juridica,"  were  at  the 
present  day  to  write  as  the  learned  Wal- 
burger  of  Anhalt  wrote  in  1670,  he 
would  be  set  down  as  insane.  But,  at  the 
time,  Walburger  was  considered  to  write 
on  the  conservative,  safe,  and  orthodox 
side.  In  his  belief,  witches  can  and  do 
cause  disease  (p.  30) ;  and  lay  snares  to 
kill  imbaptised  infants  (p.  35)  for  the 
gratification  of  their  master  the  devil; 
they  kill  their  own  children,  and  offer 
them  to  the  devil  in  sacrifice  (p.  36) ;  [ 
cause  wet-nurses  and  nursir.g-mothers  to  | 
lose  their  milk  (i6.) ;  and  kill  great  num- 
bers of  children,  after  bringing  them  into 
the  world  as  midwives,  by  running  long 
needles  into  their  heads.  In  the  previous 
century  a  German  count  had  "  dedicated 
to  the  flames "'  {Vulcnno  consecravit)  eight 
witches,  who  had  killed,  between  them, 
one  hundred  and  forty  inlants.  Two 
witches  were  detected,  one  summer  night, 
boiling  an  infant  in  a  cauldron  ;  had  they 
not  b^n  interrupted,  they  said,  a  strong 
frost  would  have  been  "caused  by  the 
mighty  speU  they  were  brewing,  which 
would  have  destroyed  all  the  crops.  One 
of  the  abominations  of  which,  in  Wal- 
burger's  opinion,  witches  were  most  fre- 
quently guilty,  was  that  of  "  nodatio  "  ; 
the  coarse  and  grotesque  details  Ln  con- 
nection with  this  charge  may  be  seen  in 
Ghirlaudus,  Bodiu,  and  Delrio,  as  well 
as  in  the  present  tract.  Witches  are  in 
the  habit  of  killing  animals,  usually  by 
poison ;  of  drying  up  cows,  causing  abor- 
tion, ]preventing  butter  from  coming  and 
beer  from  working,  and  diverting,  witli 
the  aid  of  the  devU,  the  milk  from  cows 
belonging  to  other  women  into  their  own 
milk-pails.  The  Satanic  Sabbaths,  Wal- 
burger  tells  us,  are  organised  by  the  devil 
with  peculiar  care.  The  judge  Remigius, 
he  says,  condemned  800  persons  to  death 
in  Lorraine  for  the  crime  of  attending 
these  meetings,  all  of  whom  testified  that 
they  really  took  place.  The  witches  ride 
to  them  on  broomsticks,  reeds,  goats, 
bulls,  horses,  or  dogs — the  transporting 
power  being  supplied  by  the  devil.  In 
Germany  the  Blocksberg  is  a  favourite 
place  of  meeting. 

Great  though  the  power  of  the  witch 
was  believed  to  l)e,  the  p  opular  imagina- 
tion imposed  hmits  upon  it,  and  invented 
antidotes  against  their  spells.    At  Christ- 


WITCHCRAFT,  WITCH  949 

mastide  the  Babe  of  Bethlehem  restrained 
the  powers  of  hell : — 

"then  no  planet  strikes, 
Ko  fairy  takes,  nor  witch  hath  power  to  charm. 
So  hallow'd  and  so  gracious  is  the  time." 

{Hamlet,  Act.  I.) 

If  one  could  succeed   in  drawing  the 
witch's  blood,  her  spells  were  defeated 
(Brand,  ii.  378).   Herb  Paris  was  thought 
an  excellent  preservative;  vervain  and 
dill  were  also  recommended  ;  people  used 
to  hang  up  these  things  at  their  doors. 
It  was  also  believed  that  there  were  in- 
fallible  means   of  proving  witchcmft 
against  a  witch  who  declared  herself 
innocent.    Of  tliese  the  one  first  resorted 
to  was  to  search  for  the  devil's  mark  ;  this 
being  found,  according  to  Scot,'  the  judge 
might  sentence  her  to  death  at  once.  A 
mole,  or  wart,  or  birth-mark,  found  on 
the  unhappy  woman  must  often  have 
sealed  her  doom.    Another  method  was 
to  weigh  the  witch  against  the  church 
Bible ;  if  the  larter  were  the  heavier, 
she  was  guilty.    Another  was  to  make 
her  say  the  Lord's  Prayer,  it  being  be- 
I  lieved  that  no  witch  could  repeat  it  to  the 
end  without  a  mistake.    Another  was  to 
i  cross-tie  her  (right  thumb  to  left  toe,  left 
,  thumb  to  right  toe),  and  throw  her  into 
I  a  pond  or  river  :  if  guilty  she  could  not 
j  sink :  if  she  did  sink,  ttis  proof  of  her 
innocence  unluckily  came  too  late.  A 
I  notorious  witch-finder  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  Matthew  Hopkins,  was  famous 
I  for  applying  all  these  tests;  he  "hanged, 
i  in  one  year,  no  less  than  sixty  reputed 
I  witches  in  his  own  county  of  Essex.'"  - 

Whut  are  we  to  say  to  all  this  ?  That 
I  confessions  of  being  in  league  with  the 
devil,  and  of  attendance  at  the  Sabbaths, 
were  sometimes  extorted  by  torture  is 
undoubted ;  and  such  confessions  few 
persons  would  now  hesitate  to  pronoimce 
worthless.  But  it  is  no  less  certain  that  in 
numberless  instances  the  witches  volun- 
'  tarily  accused  themselves  of  the  greatest 
monstrosities  and  crimes  imaginable.  Shall 
we  believe,  on  their  own  word,  that  they 
went  where  they  said  tbey  went,  made 
the  covenants  which  they  said  they  made, 
saw  what  they  said  they  saw  P  To  resist 
belief  in  their  asseverations  must  have 
been  for  a  long  time  extremely  difiicult, 
especially  when  judges  and  advocates 
came  to  the  investigation  with  a  fixed 
conviction  that  witchcraft  was  a  real 
crime.  But  experience  must  have  kept 
continually  adding  to  the  mass  of  dis- 
proved assertions  and  detectedimpostures: 
'  Quoted  in  Brand,  ii.  381.      '  Brand,  ii.  3So. 


950    WITCHCRAFT,  ^TCH 


WITCHCRAFT,  WITCH 


so  that  at  last  it  seemed  more  reasonable 
to  trace  the  enormities  with  which  these 
miserable  creatures  charged  themselves 
to  their  own  crazy  and  turbid  imagination 
than  to  suppose  them  to  have  an  objective 
existence.  To  say  this  is  not  to  deny  that 
the  evil  spirit  has  anything  to  do  with 
witchcraft.  Many  recorded  cases  are 
apparently  inexplicable,  uiilesswe  suppose 
a  demoniacal  agency  to  have  been  at  work. 
The  fact  of  obsession,  and  the  remedy 
of  exorcism,  remain  unshaken ;  but  the 
crime  of  witchcraft,  consisting  in  a  dis- 
tinct and  conscious  bargain  with  the 
evil  one  in  order  to  obtain  unlawful 
power,  would  appear  to  rest  on  no  secure 
foundation.' 

The  history  of  juridical  and  theologi- 
cal opinion  is  very  curious,  and  was 
admirably  traced  by  Tartarotti  in  the  last 
century.  From  the  introduction  to  his 
work,  "Del  Congresso  Notturno,''mostof 
the  details  in  the  following  sketch  are 
taken.  The  first  among  mediaeval  writers 
to  notice  the  witches'  Sabbath  was 
Regino,  abbot  of  Prume,  atthe  beginning 
of  the  tenth  century ;  he  speaks  of 
"wicked  women,"  who  say  that  they 
attend  great  meetings  by  night  "  with 
Diana,  the  goddess  of  the  pagans,"  and 
do  her  bidding.  Diana  (Hecate,  Trivia) 
was  the  goddess  of  the  ways  {viarum  den), 
and  therefore  supposed  to  preside  at  a 
meeting  of  her  votaries  gathered  from 
every  quarter.'  A  century  later.  Bur- 
chard,  bishop  of  Worms,  speaks  of  women 
who  believed  themselves  to  ride  to  the 
meetings  on  different  beasts.  A  Council 
of  Treves  (1310)  forbade  any  woman  to 
pretend  that  she  rode  by  night  with 
Diana  or  with  Herodiana — "base  enim 
djemoniaca  illusio  est."  By  Herodiana 
was  meant  the  daughter  of  Herodias, 
whose  skill  in  dancing  was  supposed  to 
be  displayed  at  these  Satanical  assemblies. 
Prom  the  fifteenth  century  date  the 
systematic  severities  of  the  Inquisition 
for  witchcraft  {processus  decrimineMagia, 
Hexenprocesse).  Dominican  writers  of 
that  age — Nider,  .Jaquerio,  Sprenger, 
Institor,  &c. — defended  the  process,  and 
asserted  the  reality  of  what  the  witches 
confessed ;  but  the  Franciscans  Cassini 
and  Spina  took  the  opposite  view.  Cassini 
wrote  a  treatise  to  prove  that  the  witches 

1  Scot  wrote  of  the  supposed  covenant,  three 
centuries  ago  :  "  Let  any  wise  or  honest  man 
tell  me  that  either  he  hath  beene  a  partie  or  a 
witnesse,  and  I  will  believe  him "'  {Disc,  of 
Witchcraft,  p.  45). 

-  Hecate  is  introduced  by  Shakspere  in  the 
Fourth  Act  of  Macleth. 


did  not  really  ride  to  the  Sabbata,  but  in 
ecstasy  believed  that  they  did  so.  Sprenger 
and  Institor  were  the  joint  authors  of  the 
celebrated  work  "  Malleus  Maleficarum," 
which  is  full  of  the  most  startling  and 
horrible  stories.  After  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century  the  number  of  those 
who  opposed  the  popular  belief  grew 
rapidly.  The  work  of  Wierus,  a  Cleves 
physician,  on  the  "  Pseudomonarchia  Dae- 
monum,"  which  appeared  about  that  time, 
made  a  great  sensation.  Against  Wierus 
— besides  several  Catholic  writers,  as 
Tanner  and  Lavman — the  Protestants 
Daneus,  Hemming,  T.  Erastus,  and  Bodin 
appeared.  Bodin,  author  of  "Demono- 
mania,"  was  a  French  jurisconsult. 
Wierus  declared  that  the  Protestants 
believed  in  the  Sabbata  more  firmly  than 
the  Catholics  themselves.  Reginald  Scot, 
evidently  a  humane  and  enlightened  man, 
published  his  "  Discoverie  of  Witclicraft," 
in  which  he  takes  the  same  line  as 
Wierus,  in  1-584  ;  but,  being  in  English, 
the  work  appears  to  have  been  unknown 
on  the  Continent.  Nicholas  Remigio,  the 
Lorraine  judge  mentioned  above,  published 
his  "  Daemonolatria  "  in  1595.  Towards 
1000  appeared  the  ponderous  work  of 
Martin  Delrio,  a  Jesuit,  "  Disquisitiones 
Magicae,"  in  which  the  revelations  of  the 
witches  are  still  treated  seriously.  This 
became  everywhere  a  work  of  authority 
in  the  courts,  so  that  Thomasius  says  that 
Protestant  jurisconsults  "all  but  copy 
him  out  word  for  word."  James  I.,  in 
his  "  Demonology,"  took  the  same  side. 
The  first  great  shock  to  the  received 
system  came  through  the  publication  of  a 
work  by  the  Jesuit,  Frederic  Spee, "  Cautio 
Criminalis  circa  Processus  contra  Sagas," 
1031.  Father  Spee  had  attended  the 
execution  of  many  persons  condemned 
for  witchcraft  in  the  dioceses  of  Wiirzburg 
and  Bamberg,  and  had  come  to  the  con- 
clusion that  many  of  them  were  entirely 
innocent.  Yet,  so  strong  at  that  time 
was  the  general  opinion  on  the  other  side, 
that  Father  Spee  did  not  attach  his  name 
to  his  work,  nor  did  he  express  disbelief 
in  the  Sabbata  or  midnight  meetings, 
nor  propose  to  abandon  the  process ;  he 
simply  pleaded  for  more  caution  and  cir- 
cumspection.^ Leibnitz'  tells  us  that 
this  work  produced  a  strong  impression  on 

1  He  mentions  an  accusation  brought  by 
several  witches  a^rainst  a  certain  regular  of 
havint;  been  present  at  their  meeting  at  a  particu- 
lar hour ;  but  at  that  hour  the  regular  wa-^  Id 
choir  ^^inging  the  divine  office,  as  all  his  brother 
monks  attested. 

2  Themlicen.  \  739,  p.  724. 


WOKSHIP 


WYCLIFFITES  951 


the  miud  of  Schonborn,  afterwards  Elec- 
tor of  Mayence,and  through  him  on  other 
German  princes. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  Father  Spee,  a  crowd 
of  writers  all  through  the  seventeenth 
century,  both  Protestants  and  Catholics, 
defended  the  process,  and  the  assumptions 
on  which  it  rested.  Among  these  were 
Cai-pzovius,  Crusius,  Ghirlandus,  Meric 
Casaubon,  and  Glanvile.  The  Lutheran 
Thomasius  published'an  able  tract  (1701), 
"  Theses  de  Crimine  Magire,"  on  the  other 
side.  In  the  eighteenth  century  the  mis- 
trust of  the  process  grew  stronger  and 
stronger.  In  England  the  Act  9  Geo.  11. 
(1736)  abolished  all  prosecutions  for 
witchcraft  and  sorcery ;  pretensions  of 
the  kind  were  from  that  time  treated  as 
charlatanerie  and  imposture,  and,  if  at- 
tended by  attempts  to  gain  money,  were 
punished.  Maria  Theresa  abolished  witch- 
trials  in  Austria  in  1766.  The  last  execu- 
tion of  witches  in  Great  Britain  appears 
to  have  been  in  Scotland  in  1 727,  when  a 
woman  was  burnt  on  the  charge  of  having 
ridden  her  own  daughter  to  the  meet- 
ings, the  said  daughter  having  been  trans- 
formed into  a  pony  and  shod  by  the  devil ! ' 
At  Tring  in  Hertfordshire,  in  1751,  an 
old  man  and  his  wife,  being  suspected 
of  witchcraft,  were  beaten,  ducked,  and 
otherwise  ill-used  by  a  mob  until  they 
expired.  The  latest  instances  of  witch- 
burning  in  Europe  appear  to  have  been 
at  Glarus  in  1782,  and  Posen  in  1793. 

(Scot,  "  Discoverie  of  Witchcraft," 
1584  ;  Chambers'  Encyclop.  vol.  x. ; 
Brand,  "  On  Popular  Antiquities,"  1813  ; 
Bergier,  "  Diet.  Th(5ol."  (Migne);  Hergen- 
rother,  "  Kirchengeschichte  " ;  Perrone, 
"  De  Deo  Creatore  ; "  Tartarotti,  "  Del 
Congresso  Nottumo  delle  Lamie,"  1749 ; 
Thomasius,  "  De  Crimine  Magise,"  1701 ; 
Walburger,  "  De  Lamiis,"  1670.) 

WORSHIP.  [See  Lateia  ;  DtniA ; 
Images,  &c.] 

-WREATH.    [See  Maeriagb.] 

WYClirriTES.  John  Wyclif,  or 
Wyclifi'e,  a  native  of  Yorkshire,  born 
about  1324,  studied  in  the  University  of 
Oxford,  where  he  was  for  a  long  time  a 
fellow  of  Merton  College,  then  a  great 
seminary  of  learned  men,  and  afterwards 
became  master  of  Balliol  College  and 
■warden  of  Canterbury  Hall.  He  was  a 
proficient  in  the  scholastic  divinity  of  his 
day,  and  also  betook  himself  zealously  to 
the  study  of  the  Scriptures.  The  Domini- 
cans, Franciscans,  Carmelites,  and  Augus- 
tinians,  all  had  at  this  time  flourishing 
»  Chambers'  Dom.  Ann.  of  Scotland,  in.  541. 


houses  at  Oxford,  and  were  the  object  of 
considerable  ill-will  to  a  large  body  of 
masters  and  doctors  belonging  to  the 
secular  clergy,  chiefly  because  they  were 
said  to  attract  promising  students  from 
the  colleges,  and  induce  them  by  various 
means  to  enter  one  of  their  convents. 
The  Franciscans  were  accustomed  to  lec- 
ture on  the  excellence  of  poverty,  and  to 
dwell  in  their  sermons  on  the  fact  that 
Christ  and  His  Apostles  lived  chiefly  by 
alms.  Fitzralph,  archbishop  of  Armagh, 
maintained  that  the  poverty  of  Christ 
was  not,  like  that  of  the  friars,  voluntary. 
On  all  the  controverted  matters  he  took  a 
decided  part  against  the  friars,  and  Wyclif 
and  others  joined  him.  In  1366  Wyclif 
wrote  a  tract  to  justify  the  king  (Edward 
111.)  in  refusing  to  pay,  on  the  demand 
of  Urban  V.,  the  arrears  of  the  tribute 
granted  by  King  John  to  the  Holy  See. 
Some  years  after  this,  being  made  doctor 
in  theology,  he  began  pertinaciously  to 
attack  the  friars,  declaring  that  their  mul- 
tiplication impoverished  the  realm,  that 
their  letters  of  fraternity  were  a  delusion, 
that  they  introduced  many  superstitious 
practices,  estranged  the  \a.itj  from  their 
parochial  clergy,  were  avaricious,  abetted 
wars,  &c. ;  also  that  they  taught  novel 
doctrines  on  the  sacrament  of  the  Altar. 
Wyclif  developed  about  the  same  time 
opinions  similar  to  those  which  had  been 
put  forward  earlier  in  the  century  by 
Marsilius  of  Padua,  to  the  effect  that  the 
clei-gy  ought  to  have  no  coercive  jurisdic- 
tion, and  that  no  temporal  penalty  of  any 
kind  ought  to  be  inflicted  except  with 
the  sanction  of  the  civil  power.  To 
these  he  added,  that  lay  lords  had  full 
power  to  take  away  temporal  possessions 
from  the  clergy  if  they  judged  that  a  bad 
use  was  made  of  them,  and  that  no  one 
was  bound  to  pay  tithes  or  off^erings  to 
parish  priests  whose  Uves  were  not  edi- 
fying. The  Pope  (Gregory  XI.)  heard 
of  this  teaching,  and  addressed  letters 
(1376)  to  Edward  III.,  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  the  Bishop  of  London,  and 
the  University  of  Oxford,  urging  that 
Wychf  should  be  arrested  and  put  on  his 
trial.  Some  cause  of  delay  arose,  and  it 
was  not  till  February  1378  that  Wyclif 
appeared  to  answer  for  his  doctrine  before 
Bishop  Courtenay  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 
An  immense  crowd  thronged  the  cathedral 
and  its  approaches.  The  Duke  of  Lancas- 
ter, who  was  present,  was  at  this  time 
rather  favourably  inclined  towards  Wyclif;. 
high  words  passed  between  him  and  the 
bishop;  the  people,  imagining  that  aa 


952  WYCLIFFITES 


WYCLIFFITES 


outrage  was  being  oti'ered  to  their  bishop 
in  his  own  cathedral,  became  angiy  and 
clamorous;  and  the  assoinljly  was  broken 
up  in  confusion.  Soon  afi  ri  warJs  another 
assembly  was  held  at  J^maheih  liffore  the 
archbi.~liop,  to  whiuli  ^^■y(■lit■  was  cited. 
He  handed  in  a  papt-r  in  Latin,  explain- 
ing his  teacliin>r  on  the  ciukh'ci  i<in  be- 
tween dominion  (or  ownership )  and  grace, 
on  the  jurisdiction  in  tenqiorals  claimed 
for  the  Church,  on  the  ellects  of  ex- 
communication, and  similar  questions.' 
This  paper  is  full  of  scholastic  subtleties 
and  distinctions,  so  that  it  is  dillieult  in 
m&nj  places  to  catch  WycUf's  real  mean- 
ing. The  judges  decided  that  it  was  not 
satisfactory,  and  the  archbisliop  inhibited 
him  from  lecturing  or  publishing  any  more 
on  the  subjects  in  dispute.  W'vclil'  then 
(April  1878)  presented  a  pajx'r  in  Eng- 
lish— or  a  paper  was  presented  lor  him — 
to  the  Parliament,  which  is  palpably 
more  anti-Papal  and  insurgent  iu  tone 
than  the  statement  presented  to  the  arch- 
bishop, though  it  follows  generally  the 
same  line.  About  this  time  Gregory  XI. 
died,  and  the  proceedings  against  Wyclif 
were  dropped. 

In  1.178-9  Wyclif  appears  to  have 
been  actively  engaged  on  the  translation 
of  the  Vulgate  Bible  into  English.  It  is 
not  knowu  what  proportion  of  either  of 
the  two  versions  which  have  been  printed 
(O.xford  Uui\-er,^atv  Press,  1S.50)  actually 
cami;  from  his  ])i-n,  but  there  seems  no 
reason  to  douljt  that  the  hr.st  impidse 
came  from  him,  and  that  he  had  an 
i-^iportant  share  in  the  actual  execu- 
tion. * 

in  1381  Wyclif  lectured  on  the 
Eucharist,  and  was  led  on  by  his  bitter 
antagonism  to  the  theologians  of  the 
mendicant  orders  to  the  i  iuinciation  of 
views  which  scandalised  the  Church  and 
the  university,  and  were  i'ornially  con- 
demned by  both.  In  brief,  he  propounded 
the  tenet  of  consubstantiation.  "Right 
as  hit  is  heresye,"  he  said,  "to  trowe 
that  Crist  is  a  spiryt  and  no  body,  so  hit 
is  heresye  to  trowe  that  this  sacrament  is 
God's  body  and  no  bred ;  for  hit  is  bothe 
togedir.'"-  S(  i  a  L'"ain,  in  the  "  Trialogus,"^ 
written  ]iri'l]al/ly  in  13>3,  to  quote  one 
among  many  similar  passages,  he  says 
that  the  whole  Church  militant,  "  since 
the  time  of  the  promulgation  of  the 
Gospel,  has  rightly  believed  that  this 

'  This  tract  bft;ins   "Protestor  publice." 
<;See  Lewis's  L,f,:  of  Wyclif,  p.  69.) 
2  Select  Enqusk  Works,  iii.  502. 
s  Book  IV. 'c.  27,  ed.  Lechler. 


sacrament  or  consecrated  host  is  natur- 
ally real  bread"  {veins  pants),  "and 
sacramentally  the  body  of  Christ."  The 
chancellor,  William  de  Berton,  convened 
a  court  of  twelve  doctors  in  the  .schools 
of  the  .-Vugustinian  convent,  who  adopted 
a  definition  in  which,  Wyclif  not  being 
named,  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation  is  formally  asserted. 
Wyclif,  who  was  present,  put  in  a 
document  known  as  his  "Confession,"' 
in  which,  under  cover  of  a  cloud  of  words 
and  copious  extracts  from  the  Fathers, 
he  tried  to  vindicate  the  soundness  of 
his  Eucharistic  teaching.  Soon  after 
this,  the  terrible  rising  of  the  Commons 
(in  the  summer  of  1381)  turned  away 
men's  thoughts  for  a  time  from  every 
other  sLiliject.  Sudbury,  the  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  was  murdered.  The  new 
arrhbishop  (Courtenay)  lost  no  time  in 
foUowing  up  the  proceedings  against 
Wyclif.  He  convened  a  council  at  the 
Black  Friars  in  London,  which  met  iu 
May  l.i82,  and  condemned  twenty-four 
propositions  extracted  from  the  reformer's 
writings.  Of  these  ten  were  declared  to 
be  heretical,  and  fourteen  erroneous.  The 
first  of  the  ten  was,  "  That  the  substance 
of  material  bread  and  wine  remains  after 
consecration  in  the  sacrament  of  the 
Altar."  The  fourteen  erroneous  conclu- 
sions belonged  either  to  the  peculiar 
politico-ecclesiastical  system  which  Wy- 
clif, following  the  Vaudois,  had  built  up 
in  various  treatises,  or  were  strong 
opinions  suggested  by  his  animosity  to- 
wards the  friars.  The  Pope's  confirma- 
tion of  thQ  proceedings  of  the  council 
was  soon  obtained,  and  the  archbishop 
then  took  very  energetic  steps  to  repress 
the  teaching  of  the  condemned  opinions 
l)oth  in  the  university  and  the  country. 
Wyclif  was  obliged  to  leave  Oxford  and 
retire  to  his  living  of  Lutterworth  ;  that 
no  other  severity  was  used  towards  him 
seems  to  have  been  owing  to  the  state  of 
his  health,  for  about  the  end  of  1382  he 
was  stricken  with  paralysis.  During  the 
two  remaining  yeai  s  ot  his  hfe  his  lite- 
rary activity  must  have  been  prodigious ; 
the  great  bulk  of  his  English  works  (of 
which  the  three  volumes  printed  by  the 
Clarendon  Press,  with  the  supplementary 
volume  edited  by  Mr.  Matthew,  are  far 
from  exhausting  the  list)  were  produced 
in  this  period.  According  to  Gascoyne 
(Lewis,  p.  33(i),  he  had  another  paralytic 


■Ssepe  confessus  sum,"  and  niav 
fe,  p.  32 

p.  115  ;  and  Vaughan's  Life,  ii.  245. 


•  It  begins  ■•?88pe  ct 
be  read  in  Lewis's  Life,  p.  323  :  Fagcic.  Zizaii. 


WYCLIFFITES 


XAVERIAN  BROTHERS  953 


etroke  on  December  28,  1384,  and  died 
on  the  last  day  of  the  year. 

It  is  not  known  in  what  part  of  his 
career  Wyclif  founded  the  institution  of 
the  "Poor  Priests,"  whom  he  sent  to 
various  parts  of  the  country  to  propagate 
■nhat  he  conceived  to  be  the  Gospel,  raid 
dechum  against  ecclesiastical  abu.^es. 
AmoEg  these  men,  Herford,  Repyngdon, 
Patriugton,  Swinderby,  and  Purvey,  were 
conspicuous.  They  and  their  followers 
were  called  Lollards,  and  that  they  were 
numerous  might  be  inferred,  even  if  there 
were  not  abundant  direct  evidence,  from 
the  chance  allusion  to  them  in  Chaucer's 
"  Canterbury  Tales." '  To  Courtenay 
Arundel  succeeded,  and  to  Arundel 
Chicheley ;  and  all  three — but  especially 
Chicheley,  who  established  in  1416  a 
regular  inquisition  of  heresy  for  the  pur- 
pose of  exteiminatiug  the  sect — used 
strenuous  measures  of  repression  against 
the  Wycliffites.    In  this  the  princes  of 


the  House  of  Lancaster,  the  weakness  of 
whose  title  to  the  crown  disposed  thein 
to  court  the  good  will  of  the  hierarchy, 
zealously  aided  them.  In  1396  twelve 
delegates  appointed  by  the  university 
])ieked  out  two  hundred  and  ninety-eight 
pn "positions  from  Wyclif's  works  as 
deserving  of  censure.  In  1411  a  council 
held  at  London  by  Archbishop  Arundel, 
attended  by  thirteen  bishops  and  thirty 
doctors,  condemned  forty-five  Wycliffite 
errors.  The  Council  of  Constance,  among 
the  theologians  attending  which  was  the 
great  Carmelite  Thomas  of  Walden, 
enumerated  the  forty-five  propositions 
just  mentioned,  and  declared  that  many 
of  them  were  notoriously  heretical,  others 
erroneous,  others  scandalous  and  blasphe- 
mous, some  oHiinsive  to  pious  ears,  and 
some  rash  and  seditious.  At  the  same 
time  Wyclif  s " Dialogus "and  "Trialowus  " 
were  condemned  by  name ;  others  of  his 
writings  were  reprobated  in  general  terms. 


X 


XAVERIAN  BRGTRSRS.  This 
teaching  institute  was  commenced  at 
Bruges  in  1839,  and  definitely  established 
in  1846,  by  Theodore  James  Ryken,  a 
native  of  Elshout,  in  the  CathoHc  pro- 
vince of  North  Brabant,  HoUand.  His 
object  was  "to  found  a  congregation  of 
men  who  would  sacrifice  their  lives  to 
the  Christian  education  of  youth  "  The 
fir-t  professions  were  those  of  himself  and 
twelve  young  brothers,  made  on  October 
22,  1846.  Ryken  took  the  name  of 
Brother  Francis  Xa\'ier,  after  the  Apostle 
of  the  Indies,  who  was  chosen  patron  of 
the  congregation.  Soon  afterwards  he 
opened  St.  Francis  Xavier's  College  at 
Bi'Ufres  for  day  scholars  ai.d  boarders : 
tliis  is  said  to  have  become  "the  most 
nourishing  school  in  the  city."  The 
Brothers  came  to  England  iu  1848;  they 
appear  to  have  at  pre.sent  (189:^)  five 
establishments  in  this  country,  at  Ham- 
mersmith (this  is  their  training  schooij, 
Battersea,  Manchester,  Mayfield  in  Sus- 


sex, and  Preston  in  Lancashire.  The  late 
admirable  Archbishop  Spalding  intro- 
duced them  into  the  United  States  in 
ls54.  Although  vocations  among  the 
youth  of  America  have  been  hitherto 
rare,  the  bishops  and  the  Catholic  com- 
munities of  the  States  and  Canada  have 
engerly  welcomed  the  new  institute,  and 
desired  to  entrust  to  it  the  education  of 
children.  Seventy-one  episcopal  appro- 
bations, from  all  the  bishops  of  the  Eng- 
lish and  French  speaking  portions  of 
North  America,  have  been  given  to  the 
circular  of  the  Brothers  announcing 
(1876)  the  opening  of  their  novitiate  at 
Carrollton  near  Baltimore.  The  brother- 
hood in  America  had  been  formed  the 
year  before  into  a  province,  with  its  seat 
of  government  in  Alaryland.  "  They  have 
applications  from  nearly  every  Ktate  in 
the  Union,  which  for  the  present  cannot 
be  [complied  with]  for  want  of  members  " 
(Sketch  of  the  Congr.  of  the  Xav.  Bro., 
1882). 


>  "*I  smell  a  loUer  in  the  wind,' quoth  he"  (Prol.  to  Shipmaii's  Tale), 


pi 


LIST  OF  AETICLES. 


FAUE 

PAGE 

PAGE 

ABB*<v«ITE9   .    .  . 

.  .  1 

Altar  ..«.•*. 

21 

ApostoJic  ratners    .  • 

•  *' 

Altar-breads   .   «   •  • 

23 

Apostolic  1  Constitutions 

Abbt-v  

.  .  1 

Altar-cnrds  

23 

Aiio.stolici  

• 

Abbot  

.  1 

Altar-clotbs  .... 

23 

Altar,  Stripping  of    .  . 

23 

Abjural inn  of  Heresy  . 

.  4 

Ambrosian  Chant  .  . 

24 

„         Liturgy  ,  . 

24 

■  f *®  :.   

.  ,  4 

Amen  ....... 

■\'!"|'^'^"  J 

• 

6 

a'^Usi 

50 

7 

> 

24 

61 

Abv.ssiiiian  or  Ethiopian 

Analogical  •    •   .   .  • 

A  •  1       P  If*** 

52 

Anaphora  ..... 

o- 

ArcliTm  d^'^t 

52 

AnatbomH    •    •    •   .  • 

o 

Archiv  -  A    b'  '  t '  ' 

62 

Anchorite    •    •   •   .  • 

0- 

Arcbpriest    *^      st  .  . 

52 

Accommodated  Sense  • 

.  8 

o- 

\  I'istolle 

52 

Acepliali  

.  .  8 

AngeU,  hvil  .... 

.1- 
'•>'- 

Aries,  Ctmnciis  of 

62 

,.      rea>t  01  ... 

f' 

66 

Angel  u uiiruians .   •   .  • 

'.  66 

■>7 

Article  of  Faith 

'.  59 

Acts  of  the  Martyrs  . 

.  .  9 

Angelus  ...... 

^' 

59 

Anglican  Orders    .    .    .  . 

2/ 

of  Christ 

59 

Angln-i>axon  Church,  His- 

28 

^scetical  Tlieui  "-y  '  ' 

• 

Adoptinn  .    .    .   •  . 

.  .  11 

Analo  -  Saxon  Church, 

Ash  Wednesday  .    .  . 

."  60 

Faith  and  Discipline  of. 

28 

Adoration  of  the  Cross 

.  .  12 

Anim  .Is,  Lower  .    .    .  . 

32 

Aspersion  

.  61 

12 

33 

Advent,  Season  of .  . 

.  .  13 

Anniversary  

33 

of  Christ    .  . 

.  14 

Annunciation  of  the  Bl&isec 

Advocatus  Dei.  Diaboli 

.  .  14 

33 

Athaiiasian  Creed    .  . 

.  62 

„       Ecclesia;  .  . 

.  14 

Anoiii(i;:ins  

34 

34 

Attributes  of  God    .  . 

.  G2 

AeMus,  Aetians    .   .  . 

.  14 

Anthem  

34 

AnihoMv.  St.,  Order  of  .  . 

34 

African  Church   .    ,  . 

'At 

Aniliropoinorphites  .    ,  . 

35 

Auditor  of  Rota    .    .  . 

.  63 

„      Councils  .  . 

.  .  IG 

Antichri.--t  

35 

Augustinian  Canons 

.  63 

Antidicuinaiianites  .    .  . 

36 

Hermits  . 

.  (54 

Age,  Canonical .    .  . 

.  .  17 

Antio.h  

36 

Aureole  

.  65 

38 

Autocophali  

,  6G 

Antipliouar}-  

38 

Auto  da  Fe'  .... 

.  GR 

18 

Antipope  

38 

.Vuxiliary  Bishop  •    .  . 

.  GG 

18 

AntiMcs  

42 

Ave  Maria  ..... 

.  6r. 

Alexandria,  Church  of. 

.  19 

Apocrisiarius  

42 

Ave  Hegina  

.  66 

.,         Schuol  of 

.  19 

Apocrypha  

42 

Allegorical  Sense .    .  . 

.  20 

.Apollinarianism  .   ,   ,  . 

43 

44 

All  Saints  

.  20 

44 

IJACCANARISTa  .... 

.  66 

45 

Aposths'  Creed    .    .   .  . 

46 

Apostles,  Feasts  of .    .  .. 

46 

Apostolic  Canons.   .   .  . 

46 

956 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES. 


PA6F. 

PAGE 

Baptism  

.  68 

108 

,,       of  Ships .    .  . 
Baptismal  Name    .   .  . 

• 

Calvarians  

.  108 

.  72 

Calvin,  Calvinism  ,  . 

.  108 

W,-iler.    .  . 

.  72 

Camaldoli  

.  109 

Baptisteiv  

Camera  

.  110 

Barefooted  Friars    .  . 

'.  73 

.  110 

Ba-ilians  

.  73 

Basilica  

.  74 

Canon    (member  of 

a 

111 

Basle.  Council  of .    .  . 

.  75 

„     of  the  Mass  .  . 

.  115 

Beatific  Visim.    .    .  . 

„     .,  Scripture .  . 

.  116 

HeatUiraiion  

„     Penitentiary  .  . 

.  122 

„    Theologian  .  . 

.  122 

BeatitutUs.  'riic  Ei^it  . 

.,     Privilege  of  the 

.  122 

Bp'miines.  BL-haiiK  .  . 

('anon<  <jf  the  Apostles 

.  122 

Bells  

Canouess  

.  122 

Bene'licamus  Domino  . 

.  79 

Canonisation  .... 

.  122 

Caiitate  Sunday  .    .  . 

.  126 

Benediction  of  the  Blessed 

126 

,  126 

Benediction  le 

84 

Capital  Punishment  . 

.  126 

Benefice              '  * 

Sins    .    .    .  . 

.  127 

Benefit  of  Clerj^y  •   •  • 

.  Hi 

Capitulary  .... 

.  127 

8.'i 

Cappa  Ma,i;na  .    .    .  . 

.  128 

B^r^^'t^'"'"^    *    '   *  * 

80 

Capuchins  

.  128 

Bethlehem'ites  '   *    *  * 

86 

Cardinal  

.  129 

'  8fi 

„      Legate    .  . 

.  131 

,.      Protector  .  . 

.  131 

Biblia  Pauperum  .    .  . 

.  89 

(/ardinal  Virtues    .  . 

.  131 

Carmelile-s  

.  132 

Carnival  

.,     Auxiliary.    .  . 

.  9.T 

.,     Ci^adiutoV    .    .  . 

.  95 

Cassock  

.  136 

„      in  Farlil.iis    .  . 

.  95 

Casuistry    .    .    .    ,  , 

.  136 

,.     SutlVa-an    -    .  . 

.  96 

Casus  

,  136 

.,      1  ii  ular  .... 

.  96 

,,     Reservati  ,    .  . 

.  136 

Black  Triars  

.  96 

Blas|.h..,ny  

.  96 

Catafalque  

.  140 

Blessin-  

.  96 

Catechism  ..... 

.  140 

Blood.  

.  97 

Cate<-hist  

.  141 

Bohemian  lircthren   .  . 

.  97 

Bollnndists  

.  98 

Cathari  

.  141 

Bolsena,  Mass  or  Mira<  le 

>f  99 

Cathedra,  Ex    .   .  . 

.  141 

Boni  Homines.    .    .  . 

.  99 

Cathedral  

.  142 

Bowinj;  

.  99 

„        schools  .  , 

.  142 

Brasses  

.  99 

Cathedralicum     .    .  . 

.  142 

Breviary  

IdO 

Catholic  

.  143 

Bridal  Wreath.    ,    ,  . 

102 

Catholicus  

.  143 

102 

Celebrant  

.  144 

103 

Celcstinian  Hermits .  . 

.  144 

British  Chuich,  Ancient 

lli.S 

Celestinians  .... 

144 

101 

Celibacy  

.  144 

Bull  

104 

,.    In  CcEna  Domini  . 

105 

Cemetery  

.  14t. 

Bullariuni  

105 

Censure.    .    .   .   ,  . 

.  147 

Burial  

105 

105 

148 

Bv  the  Grace  of  God  and 

Cessatio  a  Divinis    .  . 

.  148 

105 

Chalcedon,  Council  of. 

.  148 

CatREMONIALE  EpisC.  . 

105 

164 

Ceeremoniarius.  .    .  . 

105 

106 

Cliancellor,  Episcopal  . 

.  154 

106 

Chancery  ,, 

.  155 

106 

,.    "  Papal  .    .  . 

.  1.55 

Calendar,  Ecclefia.stical  . 

107 

„       Julian  -  Grego- 

rian   

108, 

155 

Chapter,  Cathedral  .    .  .  156 
„       Conventual  .    .  157 
Chapter-house     .    .    .  .  157 
Chapters,  Tlie  Three  .    .  157 

Character  157 

Charity  158 

.,   "  Fathers  of   .    .  .  159 
,.     Sisters  .if   .    .    .  159 
„     Works  of    .    .  .  159 
Charto|ihvla.x     ....  161 

Chartreuk  162 

Chasuble  162 

Cherubim  163 

Child  of  Mary    ....  163 

Chiliasm  163 

Chinese  Rites    ....  163 

Chivalry  166 

Choir   "  IHH 

Choral  Vicars  168 

Choraules  168 

Chorepiscopus  168 

Chorister  169 

Chrism  169 

Christ  169 

„     Personal  Appear- 
ance of  173 

Christian  Brothers  .    .  .176 
Irish  .  177 
„        Doctrine    .    .  175 
,,        Name  ....  178 

Christians  175 

Christmas  Day    .    .    .  .  178 
Church  Books    ....  179 
Church  History  .    .    .  .  179 
„     of  Christ;  Catho- 
lic Church  184 

Church  (a  building)  .  .  .  195 
Church  Property  .  .  .198 
Churching  of  Women  .  .  201 

Churchy.-ird  201 

Ciboriuni  201 

Circunicelliones  ....  202 
Circumcision,  Feast  of  .  .  202 

Cistercians  203 

Civil  Law  205 

„   Marriage    ....  200 

Clandestine  206 

Clares  206 

Classics  206 

Clausura  209 

Clergy  209 

Clerici  Vagantes    ...  210 

Clerk  210 

rierks,  i;e,i;u!ar  ....  212 
Clinical  li.i,,iisin  ....  212 

Cloister  212 

Cluny  213 

Coadjutor  213 

Coat,  the  Holy  .  .  .  .  213 
Codex  Canonum  (2)    .    .  214 

Cccnobite  214 

Cotiiuate  214 

Collation  (2)  215 

Collect  215 

College  215 

„     English  .    .    .  .215 

„     Irish    .    .    .   ...  215 

„     Roman   ....  215 

.,     Scotch  215 

Collegiate  Church  .  .  .  215 
Columbanus,  St..  Rule  of.  216 
Comb  216 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES. 


957 


PAOK 

Coinmanitments  of  God  . 

„  of  the  Church  I'lfS 
Comnieiiioriiti»ns .  .  .  .  lilti 
Commemoration    in  the 

Mass   

Coninienda  

CommeiHl.itioii  .... 
Ci)nimeiiJatory  Letters 

Coninii-sarj'  

Common  

CominiMi  Life,  Urotlicr.s  <;r 

the  

Comraun.  Idiom  .... 
Communion  

„        (Liturgical)  . 

„        of  Saints   .  . 

Compline  

Concelehration  .... 

Coiuiption  

Coiiclave  

Concomitance  

Concor'lat  

Concupi.scence  

Coneursus  

Conferences  

Confes.^ion  

„     (Martyr's  tomb) 

Confe.s.sicmal  'I'J'.' 

Conf,...sor  (-2)  JL'l' 

Confirmation  -JJH 

Contiteor,  tlie  25- 

CoiilV.uernity     ....  L'.l-J 
Con.:,'ioi;.  de  Auxiliis    .  .  L'.;  ; 
Congregations,  i;eli_;ious.  J  - 
„  Ki  inan     .  J 

,.  (Councils 

Congruism  _ 

Consanguinity     ....  -'b 

Conscience  201) 

Consecration  2.B7 

„        of  Altars  , 

„  Bishops  .  208 
„        „  Chalice  & 

Paten  2:i8 

Consei-ration  of  Churches  2:18 

Consistory  2:;8 

Constance,  Council  uf.  .  2,ls 
ConslanlinopIe,Councilso['  2 : 1 

„  See  of    .  .  J : 

Con-;iluliMni.l  Clergy.  . 
ConMil.Mantial  .  .  . 
CoHMilistaiitiation  .    .    .  J 

Conreirplation  2  1. 

Contrition  21.i 

Convent  2I() 

Conventuals  24'. 

Couverbiou  2itl 

Convocation  210 

Cope  217 

Copts  217 

Cordeliers  21.'-: 

Coronation  (2)  .    .    .    .  2t.S 

Corjjoral  2  '  s 

Corpus  Christi    .    .   .  . 

,,    Juris  - 

Cotta  L 

Council  2 


Cowl  . 
Creation  . 
Credence 
Creed  .  . 
('rcinati'>n  , 


PAOE 

Domicile  29* 

iKmiiiie,  non  sum  dig- 

nus  .299 

Dominical  Letter ....  299 

""•oinir:,,,^  299 

V  'liH  um   .    .  .  SOU 
I'ons'.'intine  .  3".^ 

 303 

■  303 

 305 

 30.5 

 30.5 

ii'-.'.iu<  3UG 

Duel  SMG 

Uulia    ......  oo7 

Dying,  Prayers  for  .   .  .  3i  '7 


1  Jiulish  Cliurch   .  . 
,.      rolU.ge.  . 


Delegation    .   .  , 
Demon  .... 
Denunciation     .  . 
D  loosing  Power  . 
Deposition     .  . 

Bull  of 
Descent  into  Hell  . 
Des.;crati>.n .    .  . 


:.f  the  B.  \ 
ijut.  Church 


lis 


Dionysius  

Diptyehs   

Direotorium  .... 

I'i.fee   

Discali'cd  

Discipline  

of  the  Secret 

l''-M  nvitiou     .     .     .  . 


in  of 
Ira  . 


:on  (2) 
i-iication 


'    I'  ftoi-  Angelicus     .    .  .  2','L     i  :  i  ii  . 

.'-  I      „     l'".ccle>iae  ....  2',' J    i   .  i 

.52  I  Dogm.-i  I'll,     .  •.,  I      IV  . 

.■>:(  I  Dogmatic  Theologv  .  .  2;i  i  I  i  , .  .' 
:..■!  l)olui;rs  of  the  B,  M.  .  2118  ICxorci.MU  . 
»^  I  Dom   299  1  Expectiitive 


958 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES. 


PAGE 

Exposirion  of  the  Blessed 

Sacrament  362 

Extravagants  ....  363 
Extreme  Unction    •    .  .  oOo 


Fabric  

Fa.  ultv  .  ... 

Faub  ■  

Faithhil,  The  .   .  . 

Kaldstoul  

False  Decretals    .  . 

Familiar  

Fan  

Fa.-t  

Father,  Title  of  .  . 
Fathers  of  the  Church 
Fear  of  God    .    .  . 

Feas;s  

Febronianism    .    .  . 


Golden  Rose  .  .  , 
Good  Friday  .  .  . 
Good  Works    .    .  . 

<i"spel   

Gothic  Liturgies  .  . 

Goths  

Gottschalk  .... 

Grace  

Grace  at  Meals  .  . 
Gradual  .... 
Gradual  Psalms  .  . 
Gratiifi  Expectativse 
I  Greater  Tithes  421 


PAGE 

.  412 
.  413 ! 
.  413  i 
.  413  I 
.  414 
.  414 
.  414 
.  414 
.  419 
.  419 
.  419 
.  421 


Feria  378 

Feudum  .  3<b 

Feuillaiits  379 

Filioqiie  379 

Final  Perseverance  .  .  379 
Finding- of  Cross  ....  379 

Fir^t  Fruits  379 

Fistula  379 

Flagellants  379 

Fleciamus  Genua  .  .  .  oisO 
Florence,  Council  of   .    .  380 

For'itude  382 

F..rty  Hours  382 

Forum  Ecclesiasticum  .  .  3s.' 

Foundation  380 

France,  Church  of    .    .  .  385 

Franciscans  38G 

Frankfort,  Council  of  .  .  389 

Franks  oi'H 

Fraternal  Correction     .  .  3.-ii 

Fraticelli  3t>;i 

Free  Will  390 

Freemasonry  .....  S9i' 

Friar  393 

Frontal  393 

Funera  393 


Greek  Church  .  .  .  . 
Gregoriau  Music  .    .    .  . 

„  Sacramentary 
Gremiale  

Guardian  

Gunpowder  Plot    .    .  . 


Gai.ii.eo  

Galliean  Liturgies  .  . 
Gal:i.'ani-m.  .  .  . 
Gaugra,  Council  of .  . 
GaU'  ete  Sunday  .    .  . 

Gehenna   

General  (of  an  Order")  . 
General  Confession  .  . 
Genuflexion        .    .  . 

Ghost  

.,  I  he  Holy  .  .  . 
Gilljertines  .... 

Gilds  

Girdle  

Glel.e  

Gh.ria  (2)  


Halo  

Heart  of  Jesus  

„    of  Mary   .   .   .  . 

Heaven  

Hell  

Henoticon  

Heresy  

Hermesimism  

Hermits  

Hesv.  hasts  

Hiei-archy  

Holidays  

Huhu.ss   

Holv  Familv  

HolV  Ghost,"Congr.  of  the. 

and  of  the  I.H.  of  Marv 
Holv  Places     .    .    .  .'. 

„  Waier  

„  Week  

Homiiide  

Homily  •. 

Homooiision  

Honorary  Canons  .  .  . 
Honorius,  Pope  .   .   .  . 

Hope  

Hospital  

Host.itallers  

Host  

Housel  

Hozanna  

Hu-ucu  ts 

Humeral  Veil    .   .   .  . 

Hu-sites  

Hymn   . 

Hypostatic  Union        .  . 


Iconoclasts . 
Ic  nostasis  . 
Idolatrv     .  . 


Glossator 
Gloves  . 


Gnosticism  .  .  .  . 
Goanese  Scl>ism  .  . 

God  

Godfather,  Godmother 
Golden  -Vumber  .    .  . 


■(  God  . 

Lilate  Concei 


Immovable  Feasts  . 

Immunity  

Impediments  of  Marriage 


PAOB 

Imposition  of  Hands     .  .  478 

Incarnation  479 

Incense  479 

Inclusi  480 

Index  (books)  480 

Indiction  48'- 

Indulgence  482 

Indult  487 

Infallibility  487 

intidel  487 

Innocents,  Holy  .    .    .  .  487 

Inquisition  488 

,,  Spanish  .  .  .  489 
Inspiration  of  Scripture  .  490 

Installation  492 

Institute  of  the  B.  V.  U.  493 
Intercalary  Year  ....  495 

Intercession  495 

Interdict  495 

Interstices  49fi 

Introit  496 

Investiture    .....  497 

Invitatorium  498 

Irish  Church  498 

„    College  505 

Irregularity  506 

Itala.  Vetus  508 

Ite,  Missa  est  ....  508 
Itinerary  508 


.Jacobins  .....  508 
.Jacohite  Christians .    .  .608 

Jansenism  509 

.,       in  Holland  .    .  515 

Januarius.  St  517 

Jeronymites  517 

Jerusalem  (patriarch  ite)  518 

Jesnats  519 

Jesuitesses  519 

Jesuits  520 

Jesus  528 

Jews,  Church  Laws  re- 
specting  529 

John  of  God.  St.,  Order  of  530 
John,  St..  Order  of .   .    .  530 

Joseph,  St  630 

„       „  Orders  of  .  .531 

Jul.ilee  632 

Judgment,  General .    .    .  533 
Particular  .  .  535 

Judica  Psalm  536 

Judioatum  536 

Judices  Synodales  .  .  .  536 
Judicium'Dei  .    .       .  .  536 

Jurisdiction  537 

Jus  Spolii  538 

Jii-tice  539 

Jusiitication  539 


Kings,  Ac,  Pravers  for  .  511 
Kiss  ...  ■  ....  542 
Kvrie  Eleison        .    .    .  544 


Lab A RUM 
Lacticinia  . 
Lady-day  . 
LiEtare  .Sunda 
Lammas  Day 
Lamps  .  . 


.  544 
.  544 
.  .MS 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES. 

959 

PAGE 

PAGE 

PAGE 

546 

Martyr  

.  601 

Language  of  the  Church  . 

64t; 

Martyrology    .  . 

.  601 

None  *  . 

.  660 

Lapsed  

648 

Mary  

.  602 

Nurbertines  .... 

.  660 

648 

„     Feasts  of  . 

.  608 

549 

„     Name  of  .  , 

.  609 

Novice  

.  661 

Lateran  Church  and  Coon- 

549 

Mass  

.  610 

650 

660 

.  615 

Latroc'iniuni  .   .  •  •  . 

661 

Matriculn    .    .  . 

.  615 

Matriculation.    .  . 

.  615 

Lauds 

551 

Maundy,  Thursday 

.  615 

Laura  

651 

Maurists    .    .    .  . 

.  615 

Laus  tibi,  Christe  .    .  . 

551 

May  

.  616 

Meohitarists  .    ,  , 

.  616 

Octavarium  

.  666 

5ol 

Mediator     .    .  , 

.  617 

552 

.  618 

Lay  Brothers .    .  .   .  . 

552 

Melchites    .    .  . 

.  618 

„    Communion  .    .   .  . 

652 

Meletian  Schism  . 

.  619 

La^vman  

653 

Memento    .    .  . 

.  620 

Old  Catholics.   .   .  . 

.  667 

653 

League  of  the  Cross    .  , 

654 

Menology    .    .  . 

.  620 

554 

Mental  Prayer  .  . 

.  618 

Opus  operatum  ... 

.  670 

Lection  

554 

„  Reservation 

.  620 

Orarium  

.  670 

Lectiunary  ...... 

655 

Mercy  

.  621 

Orare,  fratres  .... 

.  670 

Lector 

555 

Merer,  Sisters  of  . 

.  845 

Oratory  (building).  . 

.  670 

656 

Merit  

.  621 

Oratory,  French  .    .  . 

.  670 

Legend,  Golden  .   .   .  . 

566 

of  St.  Philip  Ner 

i  671 

Legitimation  

557 

Military  Orders  .  . 

.  625 

Ordeal  

672 

558 

Order,  Holv  .... 

.  672 

Lesson,  see  Lection 

,  627 

Orders,  Religious.    .  . 

.  877 

Libellatici  

5(i0 

Minister  .... 

.  629 

Ordinary,  The   .    .  . 

.  679 

5iiO 

Ministers  of  the  Sick 

.  629 

Liber  (6)   

560 

Minorities  .    .  . 

.  629 

Ordo  Komanua  .  .  . 

.  680 

Libera  nos  (2)    .   .   •  . 

560 

Organ   

.  680 

561 

Miracles  .... 

.  629 

Libraries  

56:; 

Missal  

.  6o.S 

Orthodox  Church     .  . 

.  684 

Light  of  Glorv    .  .   .  . 

561 

Mission  (3)     .  . 

.  633 

Orthodoxy,  Feast  of  . 

.  684 

564 

Missions,  Popular  . 

.  634 

Limb<>  

564 

to  the  Heathen  635 

565 

566 

Mi.xed  Marriages  . 

.  645 

Little  Office  of  theB.V.M.  o6(i 

Pa LEA   

.  685 

566 

Loci  Theologici    .   .  . 

575 

Monastery  (2)  . 

.  646 

675 

Lollards  

676 

Monophysites  .  . 

.  647 

Parabolani    .   .   •  . 

.  687 

Loretto  Nuns  

580 

M(instran>e.    .  . 

.  619 

Paradise  

.  687 

Low  Sunday   

580 

.Montan.sts     .    .  . 

.  649 

Lunette  .  "  

580 

Moral  Theology  . 

.  6.30 

Parish  

.  688 

Luther,  Lutheranism  .  . 

58(1 

.Mortal  Sin     .    .  . 

.  654 

Lyons,  Councils  of  .   .  . 

585 

JMoitniain   .    .  . 

.  654 

Muzzetia  .    .    .  . 

.  654 

„      Controversy.  . 

.  6>9 

„      Precept .   .  . 

.  6!<9 

Macabees,  Feast  of    .  . 

687 

Mystical  Sense  .  . 

.  655 

Passion  Sunday  .   .  . 

.  6.^9 

Macedonians  .    .    .    . .  . 

587 

„  Theology 

.  655 

687 

687 

Major  Orders  

087 

Pater  Noster  .... 

.  691 

Manichees  

687 

Narthe.x  .... 

.  656 

Paterines  

.  0!11 

588 

Patriarch  

.  6;)i 

National  Synod  . 

.  656 

Patrimony  of  St.  Peter 

,  692 

Maiitelletta  

6K9 

Nativity  of  the  B.  V 

M. 

.  656 

Patripassians  .... 

.  692 

.  657 

Patron,  Patronage  .  . 

.  692 

689 

Necrology  .... 

.  657 

Patrons  of  Churches  . 

.  693 

Marist  Brothers .    .   .  . 

689 

Neophyte    .   .  . 

.  657 

Paul  of  Samosata  .  . 

.  69.B 

„     Fathers       .   .  . 

689 

Nesiorians.    .    .  . 

.  657 

Paulicians  

.  69.=! 

„     Nuns  ... 

591 

Nicene  Councils  . 

.  659 

„  Sisters   

5!il 

Nimbus  

.  660 

Maronites  

691 

Nocturn  .... 

.  660 

692 

LIST  OF  ARTICLES, 


Peculium  Clerici  .  . 
Pelairinnism    .    .  . 

Penance   

Penitential  Discipline 
Ppnitential  Psalms 

Peiisii.ns  

Pentecost  


rerjiirv  

Perpetual    Adoiatinn  o 
tlie  lUussud  Sacrament 
Persecutions    .    .  . 

Person  

I'eter's  Chains .  .  . 
Peter's  Pence  .  . 
Petrobrusiiins  .  .  . 
Philosophy  ... 

Photinus  

Photius  

Piarists  

Picpti>,  Congr.  of  . 

Pil>;-iim  

Pisa,  Council  of  .  . 

Piscina  

Pistoia,  Sj'iiod  of .  . 
Placet  Roiriuni  .  . 
Plain  Chant  .  ,  , 
Pluralities.  .  .  . 
Pol\  i;amy  .... 
Pontifical  .... 
Poor  Clares.  .  .  . 
Poor  Men  of  Lyons 

Pope  

Porteforium  .  .  . 
Portiuncula .... 
Purt  Royal  .  .  . 
Possession  .... 
Post  Communion  . 

Postil  

Poverty  .... 
Power  of  Keys  .  . 
Pragmatic  Sanction 

Prayer  

„  Apostleship  of 
Preachers  (Friars)  . 
Preaching  .... 
Preadamites  .  .  . 
Prebend  .... 
Precentor  .... 
Precious  Blood  .  . 
Precouise  .... 
Predilla  .... 
Predestination.   .  . 

Preface  

Prelate  

Premonstratensians 
Premunire  .... 
Presbytera  .  .  . 
Presbyterians,  Scottish 
Presbytery  .  . 
Prescription  .  .  . 
Presemation  oftheB.V, 
Presentation  (Order) 
Priests,  Christian  .  , 

Primate  

Prime  .... 
Primicerius .  .  . 
Prior  .... 
I'riscilliaiiists  .  . 
Private  Masses  . 

Kcvelation 
I'rivation  .    .  . 
Privilege    .    .  . 


Privileged  Altar  . 
Probabilism  .  .  . 
Processions  .  .  . 
Profession  ot  the  Holy 


Procurator  .  .  .  .  , 
Profession  of  Faith  .    .  . 

Religious  . 
Promotion  per  S.iltum  . 
Promulgatiou  .  .  . 
Propaganda  .... 

Property  

Prophecy  

Propositions,  Condemned 

Protestant  

Protoiiotary  .... 
Protopresbyter  .  .  . 
Province    .    .    .    •  . 

Provincial  

Provision  

Provost  

Prudence   

Pryiuer  

P.-eudo-Isidore   .    .  . 

Pulpit  

Purgatory  

Purification  

„  Feast  of  the 
Purilier  

Pyx  


PAOB 

.  793 
.  793 
.  794 
.  794 
.  795 


Rituale  .... 
Rochet  .... 
Rogation  Days  . 
Ron^an  College  . 
Rome  .... 
Rood-beam  ......  795 

Kosary  79o 

Kosminians  79t> 

Uora  Romana    ....  797 

Rubrics  797 

Rule  797 

Rural  Deans  798 

Russian  Church  .  .  .  .  798 
Rutheninn  Catholics  .    .  802 


SABAOXn   

Sabbath   

S:il>elliar.ism  

Sacrauioiitals  

Sacraments  of  Nature .  . 

„  of  the  Gospel 

Sacr^  Cceur  (Order)     .  . 

Sacred  Heart  

Sacrifice  

Sacrilege  

Sacristv  

Saints,  Intercession  and 
Inv..c:ition  of .    .    .  . 


QtJADRAGESIJIA   .  . 

Quaistores  .... 

.    .  772 

.  .  772 

(iuaier  Tenses    .  . 

.   .  772 

Reason  and  Faith  . 
Reception  into  the  Chu 

Recluse  

Recollects  .... 
Reconciliation    .  . 

Rector  

Redemption  .    .    .  , 
Redemptorists .    .  . 
Refectory  .... 
Reformation,  Tlie.  . 
Kefreshiiient  Sunday 

Regalia  

Regeneration  .  .  . 
RegmaCceli  .  .  . 
Regionarius  ,    .    .  , 

R-'gulars  

lielics  

Religion,  Religious  . 
Re-ordination.    .  . 
Requiem  .... 
Reservation  (2)     .  . 
Reserved  Cases    .  . 
Residence  .... 
Resignation.   .    .  . 
Responsories  ... 
Restitution  .... 
Resurrection  .    .    .  , 
„        of  Christ 

Retreat  

Keveiation  .... 

Rigorism  

Ring  


Saiictus  

Sandals  .... 
Sardica,  Council  of. 


Satisfaction. 
Saturday  . 
Scapular  .  . 
Schism  .  . 
Scbulasticus 


820 
820 
»20 
820 
820 
822 
822 
823 


Scientia  Media  . 
Scotch  College    .  . 


788 
790 
793 

793  i 
793  1 


Scottish  Catholics  .    .  . 

Scrutiny  

Seal  of  Altar  

„  ,,  Confession    .   .  . 

Secret  

Secular  Clergy  .  .  .  . 
Secularisati<in     .    .    ,  . 

Semiarians  

Seniidouble  

Seminary  

Semipelagianism  .  .  . 
Semiiringham,  Order  of  . 

Separation  

Septuagint   

Sequence   

Seraphic  Doctor  .    .   .  . 

Servites   

Servus  Servorum  .... 
Seven  Dolours  .... 
„   Gifts  of  the  Holy 

Spirit  

Se.xa.;esima  

Sext  (2)  

Shroveiide  

Siiuonv  


LIST  OF  ARTICLES. 


961 


Simple  

Sin  

SinlcsMies'*  of  Christ  . 
Sioii,  Notre  Dame  de  . 
Sisterlioi  ds  .... 

Sliivery  

Society  (Faithf.  Corap.) 

S..d:ility  

.Somascha,  Clerks  of  . 

Sorboiine  

S^oul  

Spiritualism  .... 

Sponsors  

States  of  the  Church  . 

Stations  

„    of  the  Cross  .  . 

Stic;mata  

Stiiend  

Stole   

Stole-tVes  

Subdeicons  .... 
Subdeleirate  .... 

SullV.igan  

Suicide  

Sulpicians  

Sunday   

Superstition  .... 
Supremacy,  Royal    .  . 
Suppression  of  Monasteries  867 
Surplice 


Suspension  . 
Syllabus  . 
Synnxis  .  . 
Syncollus  . 
Svndic  .  . 
Synod    .  . 


.xaminers 


Svnod 
.Synod; 
Synt:ii;nia  Canonum 
Syrian  Catholics  .  . 


Tabeknacle 
Taborites    .    .  , 
I'antuni  Ergo 
Te  Deum     .   .  , 
Tempi  ranee  .  . 
Templars    .    .  , 
Temporal  Power 
Temptation .   .  , 
Tempus  Clausum 
TenebrsB .    .    .  , 
Teresians  .   .  . 
Tertiaries   .    .  . 
Testament .   .  , 


PAUK 

I'^OE 

812 

Teutonic  Knifjhts     .  . 

.  87r. 

Theandric  Actions  .  . 

.  87(; 

.  m 

Theiitines  

.  87(; 

.  843 

'I'liL'odore  of  ilopsuestia 

814 

Theodoret  

.  8i(; 

The' 'losrical  Virtues  . 

.  877 

8li" 

'I'he 'loijus,  Theolopal  . 

Sill 

Tliooloijv  

■S 

■|"llr.i,,:!.rhite     .     .     .  . 

.  877 

.  Christians  of  8 


Tiiuli 

Tonsure 


Bishop  . 
.if  Cliurch 


Tradition     .    .  . 
Traditionalism   .    .  . 
Tradition  of  Instrument 
Iraditores  .... 
Traducianisra     .  . 

Transept;  

Transfiguration  .  . 
Translation  of  Feasts 
Transubstantiation . 
Trappists  .... 
I  reasnre  ol'  Merits . 
Treiii,  Ciiuucil  of.  . 

Treutal  

Tricerion  .... 
Trinitarians  .  .  . 
Trinity.  Keast  of  .  . 
Trinity,  Holy  .  . 
Tri-as4ion  .... 

Trope   

Truce  of  God  .  .  . 
Trullo,  Council  in  . 

Tunic  

T;velfth  Day  .    .  . 

Type  

Typus   


P.lfiE 

llrbi  et  Orbi  910 

Ursuliiies  910 

Uses  (l.itur-ies)  .    .    .  .  574 

U~urv   .  912 

UtraquLsts  914 


Valdknses,  Vaudois 
Valine,  St.,  Coogr.  of 

V:,ti.-;rll  C.iUMcil  . 


Ubiquitarians  .  .  .  .907 
Unanimous  Consent     .  .  907 

Unigenitus  907 

Uniied  (ireeks  907 

Ui  '.versity  908 

Unleavened  Bread  .  .  .  910 
Urbanists  910 


■te  Spiritus 


Vcss<  Is.  sacred 
Vestments  . 

„    Greek  and  Oriental 

Viaticum  

Vicar  Apostolic  .    .  . 

„     Forane  .... 

„  General  .  .  , 
Vico-Cliiiticrllor  .  .  . 
Viciine,  Council  of  .  . 

ViL;ilius  

Vigils  

Vincent  of  Paul,  St.,  So. 

ciety  of  

Virtue  .  ... 
Visit  to  the  Blcssi  d  Sacra 

incnt  

Visitatio  Lim.  Apost.  . 
Visitation,  episc-ipal 


On 
Vocation  . 
Votive  Mass 
Vows  .  . 
Vulgate  .  . 


th. 


War  944 

Washing  of  Feet  ....  94.5 
.,       „  Hands     .    .  94.") 

White  Friars  945 

White  garment  ....  945 

Whit-Sunday  945 

Will  945 

Witchcraft,  Witch   .   .  .  947 

Worship  951 

Wreath  951 

Wycliffites  951 


Xaverian  Brothers  . 


3Q 


i 


I 


